Professional Documents
Culture Documents
SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
DISCUSSION OF SYLLABUS
The syllabus for this course discusses several points,
including how the course is different from an engineering
course, how it is related to engineering disciplines, why
engineering students should take the course, the course
objectives, topics to be covered, class attendance policy,
and how grades will be determined.
Keep in mind especially the following points:
(1) The course outline on page iv is only a guide. We may or
may not complete the topics listed for certain
weekProthero and Schwab, 2014omplete all topics by the
end of the course. If I travel out of town, the class will be
taught either by one of my colleagues or a graduate
teaching assistant.
(2) Students will be placed in teams and will help with
setting questions for the four exams that will comprise
60% of the course grade. I will send out the question
guidelines to be used by each team. My questions will be
added for exams, but will not be seen by students ahead
of time.
(3) One Friday afternoon, April 24, has been set aside for a
field trip to a location within the Rolla City limits. This
is a compulsory exercise. If you have to work or have
another lab on that day, please inform your supervisor or
instructor about this trip ahead of time. Every team will
write a field trip report, which will constitute 10% of the
course grade.
(4) I take class attendance very seriously. Inform me by
either e-mail if you will not be in class. I reserve the right
to drop any student who misses four class periods
without prior permission.
(5) I will use Blackboard to post messages, assignments,
question guidelines, students quiz questions, and send
out e-mails. Check Blackboard and your emails daily.
(6) I will use videotapes to complement some topics in this
course, such as deltas and reefs.
(7) I hope we will all have fun together in this course.
Email when you have questions.
Stratigraphy
Sedimentary
Petrology
Superposition
Correlation
Historical
Geology
Faunal SuccessionUniformitarianism
2
(4) Sedimentary structures.
(5) Fossil content.
(6) Sedimentary rock geometry.
For interpretative purposes, another set of questions
is tackled, which give a stratigraphic perspective of
the rocks. These include but are not limited to the
following (Table 1.2, p. 10 in the textbook):
(1) Correlation and stratigraphy.
(2) Provenance or source of sediments or fossils.
(3) Dispersal: Erosion and transportation from source.
(4) Transporting agent and depositional setting.
(5) Paleogeography and sedimentary tectonics.
(6) Diagenesis: Post-depositional changes.
We will spend two months discussing the composition of
sedimentary rocks, diagenesis, and the major categories
sedimentary environments. The course will end by focusing
on the techniques used for interpreting stratigraphy, namely
lithostratigraphy,
biostratigraphy,
geochronology,
chronostratigraphy, magnetostratigraphy, stable isotope
stratigraphy, seismic and sequence stratigraphy, and basin
analysis.
Mineralogy of Sediments
Terrigenous. Derived from pre-existing rocks, terrigenous,
detrital, clastic or siliciclastic particles are mainly composed
of quartz, potassium feldspar, plagioclase feldspar, clay
minerals, rock fragments and accessory minerals, especially
heavies. Examples include garnet, rutile. zircon, kyanite,
olivine, and pyroxene. These particles form sandstones,
conglomerates, shales, and siltstones, which can be either
extrabasinal or intrabasinal.
Chemical. These are chemically precipitated from solution.
They include evaporites, non-skeletal carbonates (intraclasts,
ooids, pellets), chert, phosphate, zeolites
(hydrous
aluminosilicates), and iron-rich sediments. Examples of
chemical rocks include some limestones, dolomite, halite,
and gypsum.
Biogenic. Biogenic sedimentary rocks are composed
of either skeletal particles (e.g., calcareous or siliceous
remains
of
foraminifera,
coccolithophores,
echinoderms, diatoms, radiolarians, green and red
algae), or plant debris (leaves twigs, pollen, spores and
tree trunks). Examples of biogenic rocks are chalk,
diatomite, radiolarite and coal.
A fourth category includes all clastic sedimentary rocks
that are produced by processes other than physical and
chemical weathering of pre-existing rocks. The major
varieties of this group are subdivided on the basis of
the mechanism by which the clasts are produced.
Principal types include pyroclastics (generated by
explosive igneous activity), meteoritics (produced by
Last to Weather
SECTION 2
WEATHERING AND SOILS
Introduction
Sediments and sedimentary rocks would not exist without
weathering. This process involves the erosion, and
subsequent transportation and redeposition of pre-existing
igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. The process
by which rocks weather depends on: (a) source composition,
(b) climate, (c) drainage, (d) topographic relief, and (e)
relative rates of physical and chemical weathering.
Physical or Mechanical weathering: This process occurs
mostly by the action of water. It is very important in
temperate regions. In freeze-thaw action, water increases in
volume by 9-10% when it freezes. This expansion exerts
great force when water freezes in cracks and pores of rocks.
This process can cause rapid mechanical breakdown of
rocks. Insolation refers to stresses generated when minerals
are exposed to changing temperatures, which result in
differential thermal expansion and contraction. This process
is common in arid environments, such as the Sahara and
Mohave Deserts. Stress release occurs when rocks buried
beneath overlying material experience high confining
pressures. If overburden is removed, pressure drops and the
rocks expand, resulting in cracks. Organic activity (e.g.,
plant roots, microscopic organisms) can promote physical
and chemical weathering. Other forms of mechanical
weathering include the abrasive action of water (and
whatever is carried by the water) and the action of glaciers.
Exfoliation and spheroidal weathering ultimately result from
a combination of physical weathering processes.
Chemical weathering: This is far more important than
physical weathering, and is enhanced by the latter. This is
because mechanical break-up of rocks at the Earth's surface
increases surface area open to chemical action.
2H +CO3
++
KAl3Si3O10(OH)2
+12H2O
orthoclase
muscovite
sericite
illite
soluble
silica
3Al2Si2O5(OH)4+2K
illite
kaolinite
First to Weather
Olivine
CaPlagioclase
Mg Pyroxene
Ca-Mg Pyroxene
Amphibole
Biotite
NaPlagioclase
KFeldspar
Muscovite
Quartz
CO2+H2O
Na smectite
soluble silica
+
Anorthite
soluble Na ions
Ca smectite
soluble silica
2+
Amphibole
soluble Ca ions
Ca smectite
Pyroxene
soluble silica
Biotite
Ca , Na , Mg ions, &
2+
2+
4
limonite
further
FeO(OH) (limonite)
weathers:2FeO(OH)
Fe2O3(hematite)+H2O
Olivine
Chlorite
Not all soils have the idealized pattern shown in Figure 2.1
and tremendous variations do occur. For example:
Pedalfer soils:
2+
Quartz
Mg ions
2Fe(OH)3
smaller quartz grains!
Pedocal soils:
Laterite soils:
Product
Clays
Sediment
Shales, siltstones, mudstones, matrix
in sandstones; also argillaceous
components in carbonates
Silica
Bedded cherts, siliceous fossils
(diatoms, radiolarians, etc.) and silica
cements
Fe(OH)3
Hematite stains (Fe2O3), iron stone,
iron formation
2+
+
Evaporites including gypsum, anhydrite
Ca & Na
and halite
Ca2+& Mg2+ Carbonates including limestones and
dolomites
Quartz
Sandstones, siltstones, silt and sand
component of other sedimentary rocks
Table 2.1. Partial list of weathering products and the sediments that
they form.
Soils
Accumulations of weathered material on the Earths surface
are referred to as soils. They can be thin or several meters
thick. Soils consist of weathered bedrock material, organic
material added by living organisms, and additional chemical
elements that move through the soil in ground water. Several
processes aid the formation of soils:
(1) Plants and animals interact with the sediment, absorbing
nutrients and leaving behind their wastes and remains.
(2) Burrowing organisms (ants, worms, rodents, etc.) churn the
soil, thereby altering it from that of freshly weathered
sediment.
(3) Rainwater percolates through the sediment and moves
chemical elements though the soil. Laterites form in tropical
soils.
Zone of leaching:
Zone of accumulation:
Paleosols
Paleosols are fossil soils that have been buried and
preserved in ancient rocks. They have been used to
reconstruct ancient climates and vegetation pattern,
especially in the absence of other proxies. They have
been used to infer the existence of organisms for
which there are no body fossils (e.g. millipedes).
Since they are surfaces of weathering and erosion,
5
they often mark unconformities. They can be
recognized in the field because of enrichment of
organic matter and also reddish iron oxides that
become more intense in color toward the top,
noticeable decrease in weathered minerals toward
the top, and disruption of bedding by organic
activity. The various paleosols identified in the
literature include platy, prismatic, columnar, angular
blocky, subangular blocky, crumb, and granular.
Read the textbook (p. 27-30) for more details.
SECTION 3
CLASTIC TRANSPORT AND FLUID
FLOWS
Figure 3.1. The forces that act upon a particle on a stream bed.
Although the force of gravity tends to hold the particles down, the
lift and drag force of the fluid tend to pull the particle up off the
streambed and downstream; C.G., center of gravity (from Prothero
and Schwab, 2014).
Entrainment of Sediments
Two main forces (Fig. 3.1) are usually involved in picking up
particles. The fluid drag force (FD) exerts a
horizontal force that is parallel to the flow on the particle and
rolls it along. The fluid lift force (FL) raises the particle
vertically into the current. The net fluid force (FF) on the
particle is therefore, a result of the horizontal fluid drag
vector (FD) and the vertical lift vector (FL).
This produces a net movement upstream or downstream.
Define Bernouillis principle below or on opposite page.
6
(air, water), size of particles and rate of shear stress.
Once the threshold of mobility is reached, particles may
be subjected to any of three continuous or interrupted
modes of transport (Fig. 3.3).
1) Traction or rolling:
2) Saltation:
3) Suspension:
(a)
(b)
(c)
Graded bedding is common. Turbidity currents may
move over long distances on surfaces with little or no
inclination.
7
Figure 4.1 Bedding patterns.
External
shear
planes
Slump
Figure 3.4. Common types of gravitational sedimentary flows.
SECTION 4
SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES
Sedimentary structures are among the most useful tools for
studying the sedimentary record, and they can be of physical,
chemical or biological origins. Sedimentary structures can
also be depositional, post-depositional or due to the effects of
erosion. Sediments are normally transported by the methods
described in the last lecture.
Bedding
Bedding is a combination of grain size, composition, shape,
orientation, packing and, occasionally, color. Bedding can
also be created in chemical precipitates and bioclastic
materials. Beds or strata or layers are >1 cm but laminae are
<1 cm. They could be plane or horizontal, inclined,
unidirectional or multidirectional (Fig. 4.1). All bedding
types are affected by flow velocity, while unconformities
result from erosion and break in sedimentation.
3
2
1
Hypothetical Horizontal
Inclined beds
Tidally-influenced
8
Note: Learn the definitions of some of the other types of
bedding, which include: interference ripples, wavy
bedding, sole marks, and flute casts.
Ball-and-pillow structures:
Flame structures:
Convolute bedding:
Mud cracks:
9
events (see Fig. 4.5 on page 9). Diagenesis does not
destroy them and they are insitu. Figure 4.6 illustrates the common trace fossils
and ichnofacies, which are commonly used for
paleoenvironmental and paleoecological analyses by
sedimentologists and paleontologists.
Note:
10
9
Figure 4.5 Relation between types of bioturbation and hydrodynamic conditions of deposition a, intensely bioturbated
argillaceous silt, trace fossils compressed and almost unrecognizable; b, fine-grained sand, intermediate stage; c,
coarser-grained sand with preserved sedimentary structures, trace fossils usually recognizable (from Chamley, 1990).
Figure 4.6. Summary diagram of the most common trace fossils and ichnofacies. Traces numbered as follows:
1 = Caulostrepsis; 2 = Entobia; 3 = unnamed echinoid borings; 4 = Trypanites; 5, 6 = Gastrochaenolites or related
ichnogenera; 7 = Diplocraterion; 8 = Psilonichnus; 9 = Skolithos; 10 = Diplocraterion; 11 = Thalasinoides; 12 =
Arenicolites; 13 = Ophiomorpha; 14 = Phycodes; 15 = Rhizocorallium; 16 = Teichichnus; 17 = Crossopodia; 18 =
Asteriacites; 19 = Zoophycos; 20 = Lorenzinia; 21 = Zoophycos; 22 = Paleodictyon; 23 = Taphrhelminthopsis; 24 =
Helminthoida; 25 = Spirorhaphe; 26 Cosmorhaphe (from Frey and Pemberton, 1984).
11
SECTION 5
SILICICLASTIC TEXTURES
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
For grains <50 m, instruments utilizing photoelectric
sensors, sedigraphs, lasers and x-ray beams are now being
used.
Because of a wide range of sediment sizes present, a
geometric or log scale is used for grain size classification.
Known as Udden-Wenthworth grain size scale (Table 5.1),
Krumbein (1934) proposed the log scale F = -log 2d where d
is diameter (mm). The log scale eliminates fractions and
simplifies statistical calculations and graphic plots.
12
Statistical Analysis of Grain Size Data
Table 5.2. Formulas and verbal scales for graphic size parameters (from Folk and Ward, 1957).
13
Grain Shape
Differences in grain shapes result from variations in a
combination of internal structure, and the origin and
history of the particles. Shape can have an incredible
bearing on the porosity of a rock. Are the clasts
equidimensional (equant)? Are they disk-like sheets or flakes?
Are they needle-like (prismatic) or elongate? Open packing
enhances higher permeability while close packing is Textural Maturity
associated with low permeability.
This is a general term that refers to the effect of the transport
Sphericity. Sphericity denotes how close a particle approaches and depositional processes on the resulting sedimentary rock.
a perfect sphere (Fig. 5.3). Equant grains (whether they be Mature sediments tend to have been in the transport and
cubes or spheres) have high sphericity; those with one or more depositional system longer than immature sediments. Note
dimensions of unequal length have low sphericity. It is more
that textural maturity can be described in terms of
strongly influenced by the origin of the particle than is
fundamental properties of the sediment or rock (Fig. 5.4;
roundness; e.g., crystallography.
Table 5.3, p. 13). Textural maturity affects porosity and
MINERALOGICAL
permeability.
Roundness (Angularity). This is an index of abrasion. Figure
chemically mature
STABLE
5.3 shows visual estimates of roundness. It is an important
Q+C
phenomenon because it also influences porosity and
hydrodynamic properties (e.g., settling velocity, erosional
susceptibility). Roundness and sphericity may not be related
chemically
immature UNSTABLE
in any given particle. For example, a hot dog is rounded but
F
RF
not spherical while a cube is angular but spherical.
clay content
Surface Textures
Surface textures are affected by physical and chemical
phenomena. They are expressed as abrasion, corrosion,
faceted surfaces, frosted surfaces, polished surfaces,
overgrowths, etc. Striations are common features of gravels
deposited by glacial activity.
T E X T U R A L
<5%
sorting
>0.5
<3.0
>3.0
SUPERMATURE
SUBMATURE
<0.5
roundness
Color
>5%
MATURE
IMMATURE
14
Figure 5.4. Mineralogical vs. textural maturity.
Immature
Poorly sorted (grain size
is not uniform).
Mature
14
15
SECTION 6
SILICICLASTIC SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS
CONGLOMERATES AND BRECCIAS
Conglomerates are lithified gravel made up of
rounded to subangular clasts whose diameters
exceed 2 mm. Breccias are lithified rubbles made up
of angular clasts coarser than 2 mm. Because these
rocks constitute 1-2% of sedimentary rocks and
generally lack fossils, they are not as extensively
treated as sandstones and carbonates in the literature.
Rock fragments are the dominant constituents of
conglomerates and breccias. Quartz is the most
abundant major mineral, while others such as
Kfeldspar, micas, and
heavies (e.g.,
zircon, amphibole, olivine, magnetite) occur as
accessory minerals. The
rocks are
classified
using framework-to-matrix
ratio,
stability of
the framework, clast
lithology, clast size, and overall fabric. Table 5.2 and
Figure 5.5 on page 76-77 in the textbook show the
schemes best suited for classifying conglomerates and
breccias. The two broad
categories
of
extraformational and intraformational varieties are
based on the provenance of the clasts.
SANDSTONES
Grain composition is used to differentiate different
types of sandstone. Components are as follow:
Grains: Including quartz grains, feldspar grains
(usually K-feldspar), and rock fragments or labile
fragments (chert, multimineralic grains, volcanic
glass, etc.).
Matrix: Silt and clay sized material deposited with the
larger grains.
(Or produced by the diagenetic
breakdown of clastic feldspar and rock fragment grains.
Cement: Authigenic mineral material that is
deposited between clastic grains during
diagenesis. May form some of the binding
material that holds the sandstone together. May
include quartz or other silica minerals such as opal
or chert, carbonates, hematite, authigenic clay
minerals (which is difficult to distinguish from
clastic clay minerals that are deposited as matrix).
Sandstone has had a rather long history of
classification styles, with inputs from Pettijohn
(1949, 1957), Krynine (1948), McBride (1963),
16
17
18
19
20
.
MUDROCKS
Terrigenous mudrocks are the most common
sedimentary rocks, making up 50-80% of Earth's total
sedimentary rocks. Their main component is clay,
followed by silt-sized particles (of mainly quartz).
They are difficult to classify because of their fine
2+
Mineralogy
Clays are phyllosilicates (minerals with tightly bonded
sheets of silicate tetrahedra) attached to octahedral sheets)
deposited in modern sedimentary basins:
Smectite weathered especially from mafic volcanic and
plutonic terrain (from weathering of plagioclase and
Fe-Mg minerals).
21
Illite-smectite (I/S) mixed layer very common,
comprises the bulk of clays deposited in modern
basins, weathered from igneous and sedimentary
terrain.
Illite "cryptocrystalline mica" micas weathered from
granitic and sedimentary terrain.
Kaolinite less common, sourced from tropical areas as
an alteration product of illite resulting from lateritic
weathering.
Chlorite Occasionally occurs as a component in mixed
layer clays.
In ancient mudrocks the clays are dominantly illite with
increasing chlorite after deep burial diagenesis (see
section 7).
Compaction
Clay-Rich mudrocks are typically ~60% water at the
time of deposition and undergo a great deal of
compaction (water is squeezed out). Quartz sandstone
us relatively uncompressible, minor compaction does
occur as sand grains reorient themselves into tighter
packing arrangements during burial. This results in
some porosity loss. Lithic fragments tend to deform
under pressure, therefore litharenites are somewhat more
compactable than quartz or feldspathic arenites.
Litharenites and wackes can be compacted to the
point where lithic grains and matrix deforms creating
interlocking relationships. This lithifies or binds the
grains together and makes the sediment into rock. In
quartz- and feldspar-rich sandstones, lithification is
largely a cementation process.
SECTION 7
Cementation
In quartz and most feldspathic sandstones grains are
held together by cement. (Mineral matter precipitated
between grains, after deposition, by ground water.)
Poorly cemented sandstones tend to be friable, in other
words they crumble easily.
Types of cement
Quartz (and other silica) usually (not always) confined to
quartz arenites.
Carbonate calcite (very common), dolomite, and ankerite
(less common) can be detected using the acid test. These
rocks should not be confused with carbonate rocks.
Hematite (sometimes magnetite) gives rock a red stain
(need only about 1% for red color).
SILICICLASTIC DIAGENESIS
Introduction
22
Pressure solution in sandstone
Recrystallization:
Replacement:
Mg
2+
Illite + Si
4+
+ Na + Ca
2+
+ Fe
2+
metallic ions
23
The water and many of the soluble cations contribute to
saline basinal brines and the organics to petroleum.
Additionally:
Si
4+
Ca
2+
2+
Fe
contributes to ankerite, ferroan dolomite, and/or
pyrite.
All of the above products may contribute to further
diagenetic alteration of shales or neighboring sedimentary
rocks.
ALLUVIAL FANS
Also called piedmont and pediment, alluvial fans are
deposited at the foot of mountain ranges. They are therefore
a tectonic association, which result from intense erosion (Fig.
8.2).
Alluvial fan
Chemical sources:
a) Allogenic: Meteoric and hydrothermal.
b) Authigenic: Connate water and interclastic fossils.
Horst
Playa lake
Graben
SECTION 8
CONTINENTAL ENVIRONMENTS
Generally, depositional systems are assemblages of processrelated sedimentary facies, which are the stratigraphic
equivalents of geomorphic units. Thus, they are natural
geographic entities in which sediments accumulate. The
concept of depositional architecture is important because
migration pathways for ores and locations of petroleum
reservoirs can be established. Depositional environments
may be nonmarine
(continental), transitional or marine (Fig. 8.1).
24
(2) Some fining-upward units do occur during the decay of
the fan.
poorly
rounded
Streams
and
transverse
bars,
which
are represented by complex festoon-type
megaripples (trough cross-bedding) or sand dunes (Fig.
8.5).
Glacial deposits.
Beach gravels.
Longitudinal
bars
Transverse
bars
25
(2) Ancient: (a) Triassic Iberian Range, Spain and (b) Prudhoe
Bayfield.
Point bar
Flood basin
site of
erosion
Natural levee
Natural Levee
A natural levee is the raised bank of a river. During
flooding, water spills out of the channel and goes through
the levee into the flood basin. The water loses its velocity
rapidly during the spillover, depositing coarse material
(usually silt-size) quickly. These deposits form a raised
bank. Modern examples can be found in the Atchafalaya
and Mississippi Rivers in Louisiana. The levee is not
usually preserved, and it is the first area that is eroded by
the channel. Very rarely, it may be preserved in an
abandoned channel.
Figure 8.7. Point bar deposition and the position of the natural levee
and flood basin.
Crevasse Splay
This localized sub-environment is formed as a fan delta,
when the river flood breaks through the levee wall into the
flood basin, lagoon or lake on the flood plain. The deposits
are characteristically coarser than those on the natural levee
26
and are mainly sand-sized. They fine outward, coarsenupward and have climbing ripple lamination. The deposition
of a crevasse splay may be a single event accumulation, but
in some cases, it may be reactivated during multiple flood
conditions.
Abandoned Channels
Channel abandonment is accompanied:
Avulsion. This results in the formation of either a totally
new channel or two channels, e.g., Atchafalaya River,
Louisiana.
Chute cut-off. Chutes are formed as trough-shaped scour
channels on the upper point bar surface, when streams try
to shorten their courses by straightening the meanders.
Neck cut-off. When a meander loop of a river is cut off, an
ox-bow lake is left behind in the abandoned channel. If
abandonment is slow, the lake will fill up with sand, silt
and clay. During an abrupt abandonment, clays and
organics will predominate. Because abandoned channels
fill up with mud and form clay plugs, they can form both
excellent and devastating permeability barriers.
PR
OT
LACUSTRINE SYSTEMS
A lake is a landlocked body of standing, nonmarine water,
which may vary greatly in size, depth and salinity. They are
circular or elongate in plan view and lenticular in cross
section. Size ranges from a few meters to 100,000 square
kilometers, and are usually thin (<200 meters). The study
of lake deposits is called limnology. Gilbert (1885) made
the first description of a delta in the Pleistocene Lake
Bonneville, Utah (the remnant of which is the present Great
Salt Lake). This gave rise to the Gilbert delta, which
represents the simplest type of a delta system.
Depth classification results in two major types of lakes (Fig.
8.9):
(1) Shallow lakes: These lakes are muddy, and they have a
Figure 8.9. A, B, Depth classification in a lake; C typical
delta plain and a Gilbert delta on the side. Ox-bow lakes,
distribution in a shallow lake.
sinkholes and tectonic lakes (basin-and-range grabens) may
be classified here.
(2) Deep lakes: These include (a) those that turn over during
spring and fall (associated with varves) and (b) those that
do not turn over.
Summary of Diagnostic Features:
Generally, the epilimnium is characteristically shallow,
warm, agitated, oxygen-rich, has low pH, and any iron and
organic deposits are oxidized. The hypolimnium is deep, * Setting
cold, still, oxygen-poor, dense, has reducing conditions, and
its organics are preserved.
A lake may have periods of turn over before and after
freezing. With a maximum density of water at 4C,
sediments settle out when freezing occurs. The overall net * Geometry
effect is the formation of laminations called varves. In a
typical lacustrine setting, the sequence coarsens upward.
Where clastic input is limited, chemical sedimentation
27
Figure 8.10. A, Deposition of dune sands; B, internal morphology
of dune sands.
* Sequence
* Sedimentology
Dune Types
* Fossils
EOLIAN SYSTEMS
Most deserts form in geographic areas of corresponding to
meteorological areas of descending air. The exceptions are
those deserts that form at the lee sides of mountain ranges.
The areas of descending air are found between latitudes 10
and 30 north and south of the equator (e.g., Sahara,
western U.S.A. and China, Atacama in Peru, southern
Africa and Australia), and the polar ice caps, which form
the world's largest deserts. Unlike ascending air, which
expand, cools and drops moisture, descending air is dry,
which is why there are very few plants in the arid desert
environment. Therefore, prevailing winds are capable of
transporting sand grains and concentrating them into wellsorted deposits called dunes (or loess if silt-size). These are
the cross-bedded sandstones that typify eolian deposition.
Their foresets dip 25 to 30. Rare vertebrate footprints,
root casts and burrows are typical of ancient deposits.
Intermittent streams may be present (forming wadis or
arroyos), and evaporite conditions can cause the
development of playa lakes, inland sabkhas and saline
lakes. One of the bestknown examples of eolian deposits is
the Navajo Sandstone in Utah and Arizona.
Thick wind deposits are controlled by the velocity of winds
and are not limited by depth, as in water. They are formed
as in Figure 8.10A and preserved as in Figure 8.10B.
Tangential
truncation
28
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
GLACIAL ENVIRONMENTS
Glaciers presently cover 10% of the earth's surface in
contrast to 30% during the maximum episode of glaciation
in the Pleistocene. Records of at least five major glacial
periods in the geologic past are preserved in the
stratigraphic record:
__
29
(1) Basal or ground moraines: Layers of variable thicknesses,
which are nonstratified, consist of boulders in a
sedimentary matrix, and show imbriccation.
(2) Lateral moraines: Developed along the sides of a glacier.
(3) Medial moraines: Confluence of individual glaciers.
(4) Terminal moraines: Those that are pushed down in the
flow direction.
SECTION 9
COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS
DELTAS
A delta is a deposit which is partly subaerial, and is built by a
river into or against a permanent body of water (Barrel,
1912). The term delta (D) was first used by the Greek
philosopher Herodotus (490 BC) to describe the sediment at
the mouth of the Nile River in Egypt. Deltas are the most
complex of all depositional systems, with dozens of
subenvironments. Ancient systems are of great economic
importance, being the primary sources of fossil fuels (coal,
oil and gas). Distribution of Deltas
__
(5) Supraglacial or summit moraines: Result from block falls
on to the top of the ice.
Ancient glacial sequences typically fine-upward, beginning
with a basal erosional surface. This surface is overlain by
the basal tillite or morainite that is contemporaneous with
the advance of the glacier. It is successively overlain by a
tillite or morainite, which in turn is overlain by the surface
moraine or periglacial deposits. These uppermost deposits
are indicative of ice retreat.
30
Waves and tides are important in classifying deltas (see
below). Waves are caused by wind and residual swell which
lead to simple oscillating currents in the open sea, without
defined transport direction of water particles. On the other
hand, tides are deformation of water masses under the
influence of gravitational pull exerted by (a) the moon on its
course around the earth, and (b) the sun on the moon and
earth on their joint passage around the center of the planetary
system.
Three types of deltaic accumulations often result:
(1) Homopycnal flow: Formed where the incoming water has
an equal density with the standing body of water (Fig.
9.1A). It forms the simplest type of deltas, called Gilbert
delta, with bottomset, foreset and topset beds.
(2) Hyperpycnal flow: Formed where water of greater density
(e.g., turbidity current) enters a less dense medium (Fig.
9.1B).
(3) Hypopycnal flow: Formed where freshwater flows into salt
water (Fig. 9.1C). It is the most common type of
accumulation.
Classification of Deltas
Classification is based on the interrelationship
betweensediment supply and the major processes operating
in the dynamic environment. The primary effects that are
normally considered are riverine processes and their
sediment load, wave energy and tidal energy influx. Four
basic delta morphologies occur (Fig. 9.2). Elongate deltas
are river-dominated and constructive with large volumes of
sediment, as in the Mississippi Delta. Lobate deltas are
intermediate to fluvially dominated. They have smooth
outlines and
a well-developed network of distributaries (e.g., Ebro)
31
26
32
Figure 9.3. Classification of deltas based on processes and morphologic response (from Galloway, 1975).
Fluvial-dominated
Wave-dominated
Tide-dominated
Geometry
Elongate to lobate
Arcuate
Estuarine to irregular
Channel type
Straight to sinuous
Distributaries
Meandering
distributaries
Flaring straight to
sinouous distributaries
Bulk composition
Muddy to mixed
Sandy
Variable
Framework facies
Framework orientation
Parallels depositional
slope
Parallels depositional
strike
Parallels depositional
slope
33
(1) Distributary channels and associated point bars and
levees: The
channels
deposits are
characteristically
fining-upward sequences,
with cross-bedded sands oriented downstream and
herringbone bedding in tide-dominated situations.
Channel abandonment causes in-filling of channels with
silts, clays and organics.
(2) Interdistributary bays and marshes: These correspond to
the lowest velocity subenvironments in the flood basin.
They are usually filled with water and experience
deposition of silts, clays, plant debris and shell debris.
Where small tidal ranges occur, large open bays with
marshes at their margins develop. If high tidal ranges
persist, broad, unvegetated tidal flats are well
developed. Lagoons are often associated with this
system. Sand can be deposited as crevasse splays or
lagoonal deltas, and flood-tidal deltas. Peat and coal can
form in the delta plain.
Delta Front. The delta front is <10 meters deep with high
wave energy, longshore current and tidal influence, and
sand deposition. The subenvironments include the beachbarrier island complex and the distributary mouth bar. The
sediments are mainly cross-bedded and often well sorted
with grain size decreasing seaward.
Prodelta. This is the most homogeneous of all the
Sub-environments in the delta system. It is dominated by
silts and clays. Marine shells may be present and the
muds may be bioturbated.
Figure 9.4. Typical cross section across the Niger Delta and adja
and distribution (from Allen, 1970).
34
VIDEO on the Mississippi Delta
(32 minutes long)
Emphasis on the following:
(1) Shapes of three the common types of deltas.
LITTORAL ENVIRONMENTS
Littoral environments extend from coastal plains as dunes
and cliffs to the sea at a depth of several tens of meters.
Deposition is controlled by the actions of waves and tides
(Fig. 9.5).
Back Barrier.
This is the vast area that is subjected
predominantly to tidal action behind barriers, and along
meso- and macrotidal coastlines. It is represented by lagoons
and tidal flats, which contain mudstones and fine-grained
sands. The lagoons are stagnant, organicrich, occasionally
forming coal and peat swamps, and their deposits are often
indistinguishable from those of tidal flats. When conditions
are hypersaline, as in arid climates, evaporites do form in the
back barrier.
Characteristics:
Beach-Barrier Complex
35
develop as a result of flooding from tidal inlets and
distributary channels respectively (see Fig. 9.5).
36
action. Washover deposits may occur when the dunes
themselves experience excessive storm action, and the
beach sands are eroded into the back barrier lagoons.
Characteristics of beach sands:
SECTION 10
CLASTIC MARINE AND PELAGIC
ENVIRONMENTS
SHELF DEPOSITION
The continental shelf is that marine region that is <200
meters deep (Fig. 10.1). Clastic sedimentation occurs where
(a)
(b)
37
Sand deposition
Sand Ribbons. Sand ribbons are linear bedforms that form
on sandy and gravely shelf bottoms, and they
Figure 10.2. Idealized distribution of various classes of
sediment on continental shelves, where sediments are in
equilibrium with their environment. White arrows-warm
water; dotted arrowsupwelling water; black arrow-cold
water (from Reineck, 1968).
(2)
(3)
may also develop on sandy bottoms with strong tidal
currents. They run parallel to the direction of tidal
flow. Sand ribbons are only of several decimeters
thickness, which locally extend to 20 km in length
and 0.2 km width. They develop well in the eastern
section of the English Channel.
Tidal Sand Ridges. These are elongate bars or banks
that are parallel to the direction of tidal current (Fig.
14.3, next page). They occur in groups up to 40 m
high, 2 km wide and 60 km long, and are spaced at
intervals of 5 km to 12 km. Tidal sand ridges are very
common in the North Sea and English Channel where
they consist of mediumgrained, well sorted sands.
Sand ribbons are smaller versions of tidal sand ridges
because both are asymmetrical in transverse profile
and show cross-stratification.
Tidal Sand Waves. Tidal sand waves are dune-shaped
bedforms that are 3 m to 15 m high and mainly
perpendicular to tidal flow (Fig. 10.3). They have
Mud Deposition
Mud deposition occurs off coasts with weak tidal and wave
processes, and is common on the outer shelf; e.g., SW Gulf
of Mexico, Bering Sea and Bay of Biscaye. The deposits
include heavily bioturbated terrigenous coastal mud to open
marine hemipelagic deposits. Differential settling of clays
occurs, with calm conditions favoring smectite deposition as
opposed to illite and kaolinite.
38
Figure 14.3. Main tidal sand ridges and sand waves in the
southern North Sea (from Galloway and Hobday, 1983).
Sedimentary Sequences
The types of sedimentary sequences formed depend on
the changes in relative sea level and hydrodynamic
processes on the shelf, i.e., storm and tidal processes (Fig.
10.4). Transgressive sequences show an upward decrease
in grain size, which is due to onlap. Regressive sequences
increase in grain size as a result of offlap. A variable
profile results from
aggradation
or
balanced accumulation. Shelf deposits are of economic
importance because (a) stratigraphic traps of
hydrocarbons are formed by sands within impermeable
shales; and (b) the shales are source rocks for
hydrocarbons.
Continental Slope
This environment is narrow and extends from between
150-200 m to 1,500-2,000 m, sloping at 4 to 6. It is
39
frequently dissected by submarine canyons which
were formed as a result of subaerial erosion by
rivers during the Plio-Pleistocene regressions; e.g.,
off the Rhne, Mississippi and Niger Deltas.
The sediments are usually under gravitational
influence and do not remain on the slope. The
characteristic features are gravity-transported (Fig.
10.5): (a) Olistoliths, which are large, exotic slide
blocks), (b) slumped and deformed shales; (c)
olistostromes, which constitute a chaotic
assemblage of exotic brecciated blocks, and (d)
turbidites.
Continental Rise
The continental rise occurs on passive margins, and is
40
turbidites that are dominated by sand, silt and clay
occur on the outer or distal fan. Consequently, the
overall fan sequence coarsens upward. Submarine
fan sequences can be very thick in deep water
tectonic basins. Episodes of fan deposition can now
be correlated with low sea level stands in some areas
(Mutti, 1985). Sedimentary structures include sole
marks (flute and groove casts), load casts and trace
fossils. Pelagic organisms such as foraminifera are
the most diagnostic fossils in the sediments. Because
turbidite sands are fairly coarse and interbedded with
shales, they can be important hydrocarbon reservoir
rocks, as in the offshore section of the Niger Delta.
The Late Cretaceous Book Cliffs, Utah also have
well-exposed outcrops of turbidites.
PELAGIC SEDIMENTATION
Upwelling:
Figure 10.6. Geometry of submarine fans and the associations of facies, according to Mutti and Ricci Lucchi
34
Deep Sea Clays. Figure 10.8 (on the next page)
illustrates the general distribution of terrigenous
clays in the deep sea. Kaolinite can be found in
abundance at low latitudes where they are deposited
at the mouths of tropical rivers. Illite is abundant in
the midlatitudes, whereas chlorite occurs mainly at
high latitudes. Montmorrilonite (or smectite) is
deposited around midoceanic ridges and near island
arcs, and is derived from the weathering of these
submarine volcanic features.
Authigenic Materials. The authigenic components in
the deep sea include zeolites, manganese oxides and
hydroxides.
*Fossils:
35
Figure 10.7. The global pattern of deep-sea sediments. Calcareous oozes are restricted to low latitudes. Most
siliceous oozes lie close to the poles, although some occur in the equatorial Pacific and Indian Oceans. The
areas of low productivity in the center of oceanic gyres have mostly pelagic clays (from Riley and Chester,
1976).
Figure 10.8. Dominant clay minerals on the ocean floor (modified from Berger, 1974).
SECTION 11
2-
Ca +2HCO3 CaCO3+H2O+CO2(seawater
pH)
2+
(3) Ca +CO3
2-
CaCO3
(b)
(c)
(d)
Frequency
Conc.
(ppm
)
(2)
CARBONATE ROCKS
(e)
(f)
(g)
These factors are met on shallow shelves between 0
and 30 north and south of the equator, where it is
warm with normal salinity, no large influx of clastics
to choke carbonate-secreting organisms. Normally, C
8.3
pH
Figure 11.1. Stability states of carbonate ions.
30% Mg
substituted for Ca
2+
45
crystals (generally <4m) of aragonite and or HMC
produced by the breakdown of larger allochems (grains)
by mechanical and especially bacterial action. In some
cases clay size crystals of calcite and aragonite may be
directly precipitated by seawater.
Cement (spar)
>0.5 mm
0.25 0.5 mm
0.125 0.25 mm
46
47
Figure 11.2. Top, Folks classification of limestones. Bottom, Textural maturity classification proposed by Folk.
Figure 11.3. Classification of limestones proposed by Dunham (1962). A, Dunhams original scheme. B, Modification
of Dunhams classification by Embry and Klovan
<5% porosity. What happens to all of the porosity?
(1972).
It is filled by cement.
Carbonate Diagenesis
Carbonate sediments begin to undergo lithification
almost instantly upon sedimentation. In contrast to
sandstones the character of carbonate rocks can
change radically during diagenesis.
Cementation and porosity reduction Holocene
and Pleistocene carbonates average about 40%
porosity. Even after burial and compaction such
limestones average 20 to 30% porosity. Ancient
carbonates usually have <10% porosity, most are
48
Figure 11.4.
Main
carbonate cementation.
environments
of
___
porosity.
Solution Seam
Stylolite
amplitude
DOLOMITIZATION
Dolomite is not believed to be the result of primary
precipitation except in rare instances in some playa
lake settings. Almost all dolomite forms as a result of
diagenetic dolomitization of limestone involving
magnesium rich groundwater. Questions of the exact
make-up of this groundwater and the timing of
dolomitization has plagued sedimentary petrologists for
years because of a lack of understanding of the kinetics
of the chemical reaction. Dolomite is in
thermodynamic equilibrium with seawater as well as
many other natural waters. Dolomite should precipitate
49
directly from seawater, but it does not. In fact no one
has been successful in synthesizing dolomite in the
laboratory using fluids of seawater composition at near
surface temperatures (60C).
The dolomitization reaction is as follows:
2CaCO3 + Mg
2+
CaMg(CO3)2 + Ca
2+
2+
to the site of
2+
2+
50
Figure 11.6. Schematic representation of various dolomite models (from Boggs, 2012).
carbonic acid
H + HCO3
51
SECTION 12
CARBONATE ENVIRONMENTS
REQUIREMENTS FOR DEPOSITION
2+
52
called zooxanthellae. Without these symbionts the
corals will die.
DEPOSITIONAL
MODEL
(CARBONATE FACTORY)
REEFS
A reef is a buildup found in the wave zone that is
characterized by a wave-resistant framework (marine
biologists' definition of a true reef). In essence, a
buildup is a carbonate rock with topographic relief
above the surrounding environment. A bioherm is an in
situ accumulation of organisms, whether or not they are
topographically high or wave-resistant. In modern reefs
the framework is mainly composed of hermatypic
scleractinian corals in living position. However, the
Figure 12.2. Hypothetical shallowing-upward sequence on a low-energy
carbonate
(from
1984). by many
presence or
absence shelf
of a reef
beltJames,
is controlled
53
factors, particularly turbidity, upwelling and steepness
of slope.
Reef Development
Four stages of reef development are recognized (Table
12.1)
Pioneer or stabilization stage. The shoal area is
composed of skeletal fragments. It is an organic bank
which experiences strong currents that prevent vertical
growth of organisms.
Colonization stage. This is the first true reef growth.
Several centers attach themselves to the stabilized base,
start to grow up and coalesce with other centers to form
a true reef.
Diversification stage. The fixed, growing reef creates a
multitude of microenvironments where all sorts of
animals flourish. The main vertical reef growth has
well-developed lateral facies, including the forereef,
backreef and lagoon (see Fig. 12.1).
Domination stage. Certain species tend to take over and
dominate the environment, with the net result that the
total number of different species diminish. This
situation arises probably when (a) the reef reaches the
sea level, and/ or (b) high-energy wave environment is
harsh.
Domination
Bindstone to framestone
High
Colonization
Bafflestone to floatstone
(bindstone) with a mudstone
to wackestone matrix
Low
Stabilization
Low
Grainstone to rudstone
(packestone to wackestone)
Stage
Species Diversity
Low to moderate
Assignment:
Circular
in Carbonates (p. 272-274 in the
54
VIDEO on Modern
Carbonate
Environments
SECTION 13
OTHER SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
CHERTS
Chert is
composed
largely or
entirely of cryptocrystalline
(or
microcrystalline) quartz. Several varieties occur,
e.g., jasper (stained red by hematite), and flint (stained
gray-black by organic matter). Volumetrically
significant cherts exist in two forms, as nodules in
carbonate rocks, and as bedded cherts. The latter are
more commonly Precambrian in age. Arguments about
their origin has centered largely around two points:
(1) Shallow water vs. deep water, and
(2) Primary chert vs. secondary chert.
Figure 13.1 shows that silica precipitates in acidic
and neutral conditions in the subsurface. Silica
dissolves above pH of 10. Its precipitation is
governed by the following equation, and it is
sourced by fresh silicates and organic siliceous tests.
2+
Bedded Cherts
Bedded (or primary) cherts occur as individual bands,
layers or laminae that range in thickness from a few
millimeters up to several meters. The thicknesses of
individual layers are often laterally or vertically
uniform (ribbon cherts), but they can vary. Internal
46
structures are rare. Two categories are recognized based
on the presence or absence of fossils.
Bedded fossiliferous cherts contain remains of
siliceous organisms such as diatoms (Triassic to
Recent age, account for 80%); radiolarians
(Cambrian to Recent, 19%), and sponge spicules
(Cambrian to Recent). Silicoflagellates and sponge
spicules together account for 1%. They are obviously
biogenic and form when siliceous oozes crystallize.
Examples occur in the Miocene Monterey Formation
and Jurassic-Cretaceous Franciscan Formation of the
California Coast Ranges.
Nodular Cherts
Nodular (also called secondary or replacement) cherts
occur as fist-shaped, spherical, subspherical, and
ovoidal masses of opal, chalcedony, and quartz
disseminated mainly in shallow water limestone and
dolomite. Nodules vary in size from a few millimeters
to a few centimeters. Individual nodules are often
Figure 13.1. Stability fields for silica. Seawater pH = 8.3, which is slightly basic.
EVAPORITES
Three general models have been proposed for the
formation of evaporites: (1) Restricted oceanic basin:
(2)
(3)
Open
ocean
(4)
Reef
Density layer
Euxinic basin
(5)
Open
ocean
Carbonate
Rock
Ocean water
Reef
Carbonate
Rock
Gypsum
Halite
Evaporation
Gypsum
Halite
Gypsum-Anhydrite Cycle
Anhydrite does not precipitate out of seawater. However,
once gypsum is formed, it can very quickly be converted
to anhydrite, especially in the subsurface. Therefore, at
depths below 2,000 feet, anhydrite is almost invariably
found rather than gypsum. Much of the gypsum
precipitated in the supratidal environment form anhydrite
nodules (see equation below), and most of the
sedimentary structures are destroyed.
CaSO4.2H2O CaSO4+2H2O
In the subsurface where there is low porosity, the expelled
SECTION 14
John Woodward.
English naturalist (1665 to 1728),
neptunist, recognized the stratified nature of terrestrial
rocks, which are divided by parallel fissures and contain
shells and other organisms.
(2) Secondary:
(3) Tertiary:
or
Williams, 1891;
coal measures,
Rate of denudation.
52
EON
Phanerozoic
Date
Author
1860 Phillips
1869 Huxley
1871 Haughton
1878 Haughton
1883 Winchell
1889 Croll
1890 de Lapparent
1892 Wallace
1892 Geikie
1893 McGee
1893 Upham
1893 Walcott
1893 Reade
1895 Sollas
1897 Sederholm
1899 Geikie
1900 Sollas
1908 Joly
1909 Sollas
ERA
PERIOD
Cenozoic
Quaternary
Rate of
Age
Max.
Deposit
Neogene
(millions
Thickness (ft)
72,000
100,000
177,000
177,200
(yrs/1 ft)
1332
1000
8616
?
6000
600Meozoic
ofPaleogene
years)
96
100
1526
200
3
72
Cretaceous
90
12,000
150,000
177,200
100,000
264,000
264,000
31,680
164,000
265,000
265,000
335,000
158
730-6800
6000
316
3000
100
Paleozoic
100
300
100
28
73-680
Jurassic
1584
100
45-70
95
Triassic
17
35-40
Permian
100
26.5
80
Pennsylvanian
80
Carboniferous
Mississippian
EPOCH
Holocene
Pleistocene
DATE
1.8
m.y.
COMMENTS
Modern man
Stone age man
Pliocene
Miocene
23
m.y.
Mammals dominate;
many flowers
1st dogs and bears
Oligocene
Eocene
Paleocene
1st elephants
65.5
m.y.
145
m.y.
200
m.y.
251
m.y.
299
m.y.
1st horses
End of ammonites & dinosaurs
First flowers
Dinosaurs on land;
ammonites in seas
1st mamals
Redbeds & evaporites
Breakup of Pangea
Rise of reptiles
1st reptiles
Coal forests
Many amphibians
318 m.y.
Devonian
359 m.y.
Silurian
Many fishes
1st land plants
1st coral reefs
416 m.y.
Ordovician
444 m.y.
Cambrian
n
ai
rb
m
a
c
e
r
P
r
o
ci
o
z
o
r
p
yr
488 m.y.
542 m.y.
700+ my
Proterozoic
1st fishes
Rise of invertebrates;
many trilobites
1st hard parts
1.5 b.y.
2.0 b.y.
2.5 b.y.
Archaean
3.1 b.y.
3.8 b.y.
Hadean
C
4.38 b.y.
4.6 b.y.
SECTION 15
LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY
FACIES
The term "facies" is generally credited to the Swiss
geologist Amanz Gressly who first proposed the
concept in 1838. A facies is a body of rock with
specified characteristics. It is defined on the basis of
color, bedding, composition, texture, fossils and
sedimentary structures. Facies are usually applied to
denote consistent characteristics in rocks. For
example, lithofacies places emphasis on physical and
chemical characteristics (i.e., lithology), whereas
biofacies refers to a situation where primary
consideration is given to the biologic or paleontologic
content. Log facies and seismic facies have now been
added to facies usage with increasing use of
subsurface data in environmental analysis. In strict
sense a facies should be a distinctive rock formed
under certain conditions of sedimentation, which
reflect a particular process or environment.
Walther's Law
The importance of facies in sedimentology and
stratigraphy was recognized by Johannes Walther,
Facies relationships
When interpreting facies sequences, stratigraphers must
look out for certain relationships that include the
following:
Contacts. Three main types of contacts exist, namely,
gradational, sharp and erosional (Fig. 15.1). In sharp
contacts where erosion cannot be demonstrated, the
facies were probably formed in depositional
environments that are widely separated in space.
FACTORS
CONTROLLING
DISTRIBUTION
Gradational
Sharp
Erosional
Cycles.
These are repeated patterns of facies or
cyclic sedimentation, which are called cyclothems or
rhythms (Fig. 15.2). Cyclic sedimentation takes place
as a result of (a) repeated subsidence, (b) uplift, (c)
changes in sea level, and (d) oscillating sediment
supply. Interpretations of cyclothems can be very
subjective.
FACIES
Cycle 2
Cycle 1
Transgression:
This
situation
(also
called
retrogression) arises when subsidence and rise in sea
level are more important than the supply of
terrigenous sediments. The environment deepens and
there is an increase in chemically and biologically
formed (intrabasinal) sediments. Erosion, reworking
and diagenesis of sediments are also common
features. Transgressive sequences have fining-upward
profiles. Why would sea level rise not be
accompanied by transgession?
Volcanism.
Volcanism
provides
local
sources of sediments and ions in solution. The
existence of volcanic hills and islands (e.g., in the ocean)
cause rapid changes in
the
environment,
especially
water depth.
UNCONFORMITIES
Rainfall indicators:
(7)
(2)
(8)
(3)
(9)
(4)
(5)
(6)
66
LITHOLOGIC CORRELATION
Lithologic correlation primarily involves the
correlation of geographically separated parts of a
single lithostratigraphic unit. Because of lateral
facies changes, most sedimentologists do not refer
to lithologic correlation as time equivalence.
(2)
(3)
STRATIGRAPHIC UNITS
Four major categories of units are used for stratigraphic
classification:
(1) Lithostratigraphy or rock units: classification on the
basis of lithologic characters.
(2) Biostratigraphy: stratigraphic distribution of fossils,
used for defining biozones.
(3) Geochronology or geologic time units: abstract concept
marked by changes in radioactive decay, fossil faunas,
etc.
(4) Chronostratigraphy or time-rock units: sum total of
rocks formed worldwide during a specified increment of
67
geologic time. Boundaries are generally established
by biostratigraphy and radiometric data.
Time!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!
Time-Rock
Rock
Rock Units
Rock units have a hierarchy but they do not have a
time connotation. The fundamental unit of
lithostratigraphy is the formation. This must have
identifiable and distinct characteristics, and must be
mappable on the earth's surface or traceable in the
subsurface. A formation is named after the geographic
feature (e.g., town, river) near which it is well
developed, and must start with an upper case letter
(e.g., Gasconade Formation, Bonneterre Dolomite).
In informal usage it should not be so, e.g., the
sandstone formations in Missouri. Formations can be
either lumped into groups or subdivided into
members.
68
Types of Fossils
(6) Location of curated
university, museum.
reference
material,
e.g.,
Three major categories of fossils occur:
(1) Body fossils: Actual remains of plants and animals,
such as bones and shells.
SECTION 16
Index Fossils
BIOSTRATIGRAPHY
Biostratigraphy is the use of fossils for dating and
stratigraphic correlation. It is the basis for
chronostratigraphy or rock-time units. The
distribution of fossils in the rock record is controlled
by the following factors:
(1) Evolution: This refers to the progressive changes in
species through time. Its use is based on the
sequential, non-repeating appearance of fossils called
irreversibility of evolution. The presence of a single
fossil can be used very accurately for dating and
correlation, unlike lithology, magnetic polarity,
isotopic composition, etc.
Not all fossils are useful for dating rocks. Only a handful
can be used to define a particular time. These are
referred to as index or guide fossils. Their characteristics
include but are not limited to the following:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
69
controlled mainly by evolution, extinction,
immigration, emigration and environment. Four
types of biozones are generally used, some of which
are illustrated in Figure 16.1.
59
Figure 16.1. Classes of interval zones. (A) Concurrent range zones, defined by the first and last appearance of two or
more taxa with overlapping ranges. (B) Taxon range zone, defined by the first and last appearance of a single taxon.
(C) Lineage zones, or phytozones, defined by the evolutionary first appearance of successive taxa in a lineage. (D)
Interval zones, defined by two successive first or last occurrences of partially overlapping ranges (from Hedberg,
1976).
70
____
Figure 16.2. Four methods of recognizing concurrent range zones in a single section. Widths of lines indicate relative
abundance of specimens. Note that each method gives a slightly different zonation (from Eicher, 1976).
60
Biological Criteria for Correlation
The use of paleontological criteria in correlation
assumed primary importance after William Smith's
recognition of the principle of faunal succession.
This success has been enhanced by the irreversibility
of evolution. The major criteria used for correlation
are:
(1) Index fossils: When used, it is assumed that the strata
in which index fossils occur were deposited during
the life span of the fossils.
(2) Faunal or
floral similarity:
Statistical comparison of common species
between two local sequences, the age of one of
which is known. This method is used in the absence
of index fossils. Care should also be exercised not to
use ecologically controlled organisms.
(3) Stage of evolution: Genera that exhibit progressive
evolutionary advancement can be used for
correlation. If the general evolutionary sequence is
established in one area, strata in other areas can be
correlated with this on the basis of the evolutionary
advancement of the contained fossils.
Problems in Correlation
(1) Presence of breaks in the stratigraphic record.
(2) physical and biological facies change.
(3) Reworking of fossil faunas and floras.
(4) Migration of faunas with their environments.
(5) Strong ecological control of floras and faunas.
(6) Incompleteness of the fossil record.
71
Quantitative Biostratigraphy
Graphic Correlation. Introduced by A.B. Shaw (1964),
graphic correlation is very popular. It can be used for
correlating two local sections and on a regional basis. It
involves plotting the first and last appearance of species
in two sections on two axes, to produce a line of
correlation. If the rates of accumulation in the two
sections are equal, then a straight-line correlation is
produced (Fig. 16.3). If the species ranges have the same
spacing but the sections have different rates of
accumulation, a straight line will still be obtained.
However, the correlation line will be deflected toward
the axis with a higher accumulation rate (Fig. 16.4) For
two sections that have different rates of accumulation, a
change in slope will form a "dogleg" kink (Fig. 16.5).
When two sections have the same taxa but one section
has an unconformity or a fault, a "step" or "plateau" is
produced (Fig. 16.6).
Probabilistic Stratigraphy. This was invented by
William Hay in 1972. The method does not require the
measured thicknesses that are essential to graphic
72
73
74
Figure 16.7. Multivariate cluster analysis method of correlation. (A) Lithostratigraphy and position of the trilobite
samples from upper Franconia Sandstone (Upper Cambrian) of southern Minnesota. (B) Q-mode dendrogram
resulting from comparison of 65 samples containing 2 trilobite species. (C) Summary of the larger dendrogram,
showing four major clusters. (D) Biostratigraphic interpretation of results. (E) Principal components analysis of the
trilobite data, projected on the first and third eigenvectors (from Hazel, 1977).
75
SECTION 17
WELL LOGGING
Subsurface information is used for interpretation in
places where outcrops are limited. Such geophysical
techniques as well logging and reflection seismology
are used for correlation purposes. Information on
lithology, porosity, etc. can be derived from
recovered subsurface materials, i.e., conventional
cores, (most reliable) sidewall cores, and ditch
cuttings (least reliable). In drilled boreholes, the
drilling mud helps to lubricate the drilling area and
keep the subsurface pressure down. Well logging has
Resistivity Logs
Resistivity logs were used along with the SP log until
the development of more advanced techniques. They
measure the resisitivity of fluids in surrounding rocks
to an applied electrical current. There are three types:
16-inch (40-cm/ short normal) log, 64-inch (160-cm/
long normal) log, and 18'8" laterolog. Resistivity
increases with decreasing pore space, and the curves
are usually displayed alongside SP/gamma-ray logs
(Fig. 17.2). Note that salt water infiltrated by drilling
mud shows high resisitivity and can be mistaken for
oil. If spacing is increased, it will shift to the left.
Note: The greater the spacing, the more accurate the
reading.
(-)
50mV
(+)
Resistivity
76
Gamma-Ray Log
This type of log measures the natural gamma radiation of
40
Low
API
150
77
Density
GR/SP
Marine
Neutron
Tight
Shallow
offshore
Gas
Oil
Transgressive
Water
Coastal plain
Coastal barrier
Marine shale
sand
A
Sonic
High
High
Low
Salt water
Porosity Logs
Three main types of porosity logs are used:
(1) Formation density log: Measures the density of
rocks as a function of porosity (Fig. 17.5).
(2) Neutron log: Measures the amount of hydrogen
present in rocks, which reflects the amount of
fluid-filled porosity (Fig. 17.5).
(3) Sonic log: Measures sound wave velocity
(interval transit time), which is dependent on
porosity. It is quite useful for correlation (Fig.
17.6).
Dual laterolog
Low
Tight sandstone
or limestone
Probably
oil,
may be gas
Gas
Dipmeter Logs
Often referred to as the geologist's log, dipmeter is
especially useful in petroleum exploration. Its
primary aim is the measurement of the magnitude
and direction of slope of sedimentary features, such
78
as bedding. For example, a bedding surface cutting
across a borehole at some angle will cause
microresistivity changes to be recorded on the
dipmeter curve, which is recorded with four-tool pad
electrodes. Dip measurements are mathematically
digitized to give arrow plots.
Dip trends. Dip trends can be used to interpret or
recognize structural features (faults, folds) and
stratigraphic features (depositional environments).
Different trends in magnitude and aximuth can
increase with depth, decrease, remain constant, or can
be erratic/chaotic (Figure 17.7). For ease of reference
oil company workers use colors to designate the
trends.
1) Constant or zero dip: This trend is generated by flat,
horizontal bedding (Fig. 17.7A), or tilted, horizontal
beds caused by large-scale tectonism (Fig.
17.7B). Oil company color is green.
79
(8) Barrier island: Red with dips away from the axis
of the barrier island. Some blues (cross beds)
intermixed. Should be coarsening upward on
gamma
ray and SP logs
(9) Reefs: Core of the reef will be chaotic dips.
Drape over the crest will be red with dips away
from the crest. If the reef has foundered,
underlying beds will be blue and dip towards the
reef.
(10) Distributary mouth bar sands will give blue
patterns that theoretically dip seaward at about
10. Should be coarsening upward on gamma ray
and SP logs.
80
Figure 17.7 Dip trends. A, No dip, horizontal bedding; B, Constant dip, tilted bedding; C, Dip increasing with
depth, down-dip thickening; D, Dip increasing with depth,, drape and channel filling; E, Dip decreasing with
depth, cross-bedded strata; F, Dip decreasing with depth, differential compaction beneath a sand lens; G,
Erratic dips, breccia zone of a fault (from Schlumberger, 1986).
81
Figure 17.8. Dip patterns in faulted horizons. A, Series of parallel fault planes; B, Change in dip across fault
plane; C, Drag along the fault plane, upper block; D, drag along the fault plane, upper and lower blocks (from
Schlumberger, 1986).
82
83
Figure 17.10. Variable dipmeter patterns in folded structures. A, Symmetric fold, anticline; B, Symmetric
fold, syncline; C, Overturned anticline; D, Asymmetric fold, anticline; E, Asymmetric fold, Syncline; F,
Recumbent anticline; G, Plunging anticline.
Figure 17.11. Dipmeter results from different depositional environments. A, Distributary channel sand,
Louisiana; B, Dipmeter log of a well drilled southeast of a reef; C and D, Dipmeter data from wells drilled in
a turbidite environment.
84
Figure 17.12. Depositional depths estimated from dipmeter data.
SEISMIC STRATIGRAPHY
Reflection seismology is primarily concerned with
compressional or longitudinal waves, which are
elastic body waves in which the particle motion is in
the direction of propagation. Geologists and
geophysicists have now begun considering shear or
transverse waves and surface waves more seriously in
seismic reflection studies.
Principles
Reflection is a process of convolution and it is
produced by abrupt changes in seismic velocity,
which usually denote a sharp contrast in density.
Reflection coefficient f() = 22 11
22 + 11 where = density, and = velocity.
Figure 17.13 illustrates the basic principle of seismic
reflection. For example, a very dense medium will
have high velocity whereas less dense medium (e.g..
gas) will record low velocity. Three-dimensional and
4-dimensional seismic reflection seismology are now
being widely employed by geophysical companies,
instead of the conventional 2-D method.
Seismic Profiles
The vertical scale of seismic profiles is the twoway travel time, which may or may not be
linearly related to actual lithologic thicknesses.
Profiles are produced by changes in density (e.g.,
bedding) and they are used to identify large-scale
underground structures and unconformities. Most
times, only the most prominent lithologic breaks
appear on the seismic record. Unlayered
structures are characterized by a random scatter of
reflections, such as the core of a reef, and a salt
dome (Fig. 17.14).
85
Erosional truncation. Strata at the top of a given
sequence terminate against the upper boundary,
mainly as a result of erosion; e.g., tilted strata
terminating against a horizontal erosional
surface.
SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY
Fluctuations in sea level are important driving
mechanisms
for
shifting
depositional
environments in space. Consequently, some
strata are buried and preserved in the
stratigraphic record according to Walther's law.
Others may be eroded and represented by
unconformities. Sloss (1963) was one of the first
stratigraphers to recognize extensive, large scale
cycles in the stratigraphic record of North
America. These unconformity-bounded cycles or
sequences are thicker near the continental
margins (geosynclines) and thinner in the
cratonic interior (Fig. 17.16). Each typically
starts with thick quartz sandstone at the base,
which is overlain by carbonate rocks and
increasing shales toward the cratonic edge. Some
of the boundaries may be marked by tectonic
events,
e.g.
Sauk-Tippecanoe
boundary
experienced Taconic orogeny in eastern U.S.A.
These unconformities can be matched up
between some continents.
Stratigraphic Cycles and Their Causes
Vail Curves
86
surface outcrop studies for recognition of
unconformities.
The unconformable surfaces were formed
during falls in sea level. Several higher-order
cycles (up to seventh-order) are recognized in
many sequences, such as the Late Cretaceous
Book Cliffs in Utah. The term sequence
stratigraphy is used to denote the integration of
all aspects of seismic reflections and rock
sequences in the interpretation of sea level
87
First-Order Cycles Similar to the super-cycles of
Fischer (1981, 1982), these cycles have durations
of 200 to 400 million years (Fig. 17.17). They
have been related to major plate movements,
which resulted in the formation and breakup of
the supercontinent Pangaea.
Second-Order Cycles. These are eustatic cycles
caused by changes in oceanic ridge volume and
sea floor spreading rates. For example, rapid
periods of seafloor spreading increased ridge
volume, causing a rise in sea level. They are 10 to
100 million years in duration (Fig. 17.17) and
correspond to Sloss' sequences in North America.
Recently, some workers (e.g., Hubbard, 1988)
have related these cycle boundaries to local
tectonic activity, suggesting that the second-order
cycles may not be on a global scale. However,
their formation is probably a combination of
worldwide sea level changes with tectonics
accounting for differences between basins at
different places on the globe.
Figure 17.17. First- and second-order cycles during the Phanerozoic (from Vail et al., 1977).
88
Figure 17.18. Cenozoic time scale, showing third-and fourth-order cycles (from Haq et al., 1987).
Systems Tracts. A complete cycle has three
components: lowstand systems tract (LST) or
shelf margin systems tract (SMST),
transgressive systems tract (TST) and highstand
(2)
systems tract (HST) (see handout). According
to Van
Waggoner et al. (1988, 1991), the cycle starts
(3)
with a fall in sea level, LST, during which
incised valleys are formed on the continental
shelf, and fluvial deposits prograde onto the
shelf edge. If there is no significant drop in
GEOLOGICALLY
relative sea level, SMST stage is formed
instead of LST.
INSTANTANEOUS EVENTS
When sea level starts to rise, TST stage
begins and marine deposits are laid down.
In the absence of radiometric dates, markers can be
Eventually, a highstand is reached (HST)
delineated by their widespread and distinctive nature.
during which deltas can form and result in the
Such events are usually of a few years' duration and are
deposition of floodplain and shallow marine
considered instantaneous with respect to geologic time.
sediments. The erosional base of the cycle is
Examples of geologically instantaneous deposits
called a sequence boundary, and it could be a
include:
type 1 (with LST) of a type 2 (with SMST).
Smaller subdivisions are called parasequences
(1) Diagenetically altered volcanic ash layers, called
and parasequence sets.
bentonites. Their use is called tephostratigraphy or
tephochronology.
Important points:
(1)
(2) Turbidites.
89
(3) Debris flows.
(4) Tektites, which are formed by the impact of
meteorites.
VIDEO on Seismic
Stratigraphy (46 minutes)
MAGNETOSTRATIGRAPHY
Magnetic polarity stratigraphy or
magnetostratigraphy
deals
primarily with surface outcrops. It
must be used with other
geochronologic method to achieve
a high precision.
Concepts
Most rocks contain naturally
occurring magnetic minerals, such
90
complicated, tedious procedure,
sometimes leads to erroneous results.
which
(b)
(b)
(c)
91
Figure 17.19. The large scale pattern of the earth's polarity history, (A) Time scale according
to Cox (1982). Mixed polarity predominates except during the long Cretaceous normal and
the Permo-Carboniferous reversed episodes. The pre-Carboniferous polarity was poorly known at
the time. (B) Time scale according to Molostovsky et al. (1976), based on data
from the Siberian
Platform. This time scale goes back to the Cambrian, though the relative
lengths of zones and the
dating are not as well constrained as for the Mesozoic-Cenozoic
time scale (taken from
Prothero and Schwab, 2014).
CHEMOSTRATIGRAPHY
Some stable isotopes (those which do not decay
with time) can become more or less abundant
with respect to others during oceanographic
and climatic changes. These isotopes exist in
welldefined ratios in the ocean and atmosphere
as a result of fractionation by their differences
in atomic weight, and it is now used for
stratigraphic interpretation. Stable isotope
stratigraphy is not independent but needs
another time control, such as biostratigraphy, in
order to be efficient. All the methods in current
use carry out measurements on exclusively
marine organisms.
of oxygen are
16
18
16
92
respect
to
an
arbitrary
laboratory standard called PDB
(= Pee Dee Belemnite), since
calcite from belemnite is used
to
calibrate
the
mass
spectrometer. The ratio is
calculated using the following
equation:
12
13
13
13
12
16
18
18
which have
18
16
16
18
18
18
O = --------------------------------------------x 100
18
18
16
( O/ O) standard
18
Note:
16
[( O/ O) sample - ( O/ O) standard]
16
of
18
13
18
87
86
Sr and the
86
Sr/ Sr
in
modern
oceans
is
approximately 0.7090, but this ratio
fluctuates as more
87
Sr is produced by the
93
87
40
K+e
40
Ar +
86
T = 0.693/l
The decay of the parent to daughter may take place in
one step or in a series of steps, and T and l should be
accurately known for precise dating. In general, the
most reliable rates are derived from igneous rocks
because the moment of crystallization of a mineral
yields a sharp starting point. For metamorphic rocks,
the minerals yield a date for the last metamorphic event.
Table 18.1 lists some of the radiometric dating
techniques and the minerals that are used.
SECTION 18
GEOCHRONOLOGY
Radioactive Decay
Radioactive decay is used for measuring the
absolute or numerical ages of rocks and events.
Called radiometric dating, it was pioneered
early in the 20th century. Its use depends on the
observation that the rate of decay of radioactive
elements is constant. It may involve the loss of
protons and/ or neutrons. There are three types
of decay, all of which take place entirely within
the nucleus.
(1) Alpha decay: Loss of protons and neutrons.
238
234
40
Ca + e
U/Th/Pb
Pb/Pb
Fission track
Th + He (a-particle)
K/Ar
Ar/Ar
94
(same rocks as for K/Ar)
Muscovite, biotite, K-feldspar,
glauconite, apatite, sphene
(metamorphic, igneous and
some sedimentary rocks)
Organic materials, such as charcoal,
wood, cloth, paper, twigs, peat,
ivory, bones, shells, and pottery
(sedimentary rocks only)
Rb/Sr
C/N
232
Th
40
40
40
40
40
206
235
40
Uranium/Thorium/Lead.
This is
the oldest technique in use. It is
also the most reliable for dating
igneous rocks because of the
abundance of uranium in some
rocks. Two isotopes of uranium can
be used, and lead can be derived
from thorium as follows:
U
Dating Techniques
238
Pb + 8He (a-particle)
207
(b)
Pb + 7He
208
Pb + 6He
(c)
Because
207
Pb
accumulates
206
207
assumption that
Pb and
Pb are always
radiogenic, it is possible to obtain an estimate
of the earth's age since the crust crystallized.
This is done by comparing the isotopic ratios of
lead ores of differing geological ages.
Fission-Track Dating. This dating technique
deals with "tracks" left behind by the
238
39
39
39
39
39
95
Its main limitation is that the system can absorb
atmospheric argon.
Rubidium/Strontium. The b-decay
87
87
N+neutron (g-decay)
Recently,
C dating has been proving
useful in dating the Pleistocene ice age
events.
CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHY
Chronostratigraphy
attempts
an
integrated correlation
of
biostratigraphy,
geochronology, magnetostratigraphy and other dating
techniques (Fig. 18.2). It is called time-rock stratigraphy
because it establishes time relationships among geologic
units. Often times, two data sources may not agree or tie
in, and discrepancies can occur in data
collection,
as
in
radiometric
dating.
Chronostratigraphic
methods
fall
into
two categories:
(1) Unidirectional: Biostratigraphy and radiometric
dating.
2) Cyclical: Magnetostratigraphy, lithostratigraphy,
sequence stratigraphy, stable isotopes (except strontium
isotopes which are unidirectional).
14
C+H, decays to
14
N+b
96
indicates how repeatable measurements are,
while resolution is the ability of a system to
discriminate between two closely spaced events
in geologic time. For example, reworking, poor
preservation, etc. limit biostratigraphic
precision, whereas resolution is limited by the
rate of evolution. The following discussions
from Prothero (1990, Chapter 13, page 300317) show how chronostratigraphy is used on
local, continental and global scales. Prothero
and Schwab
(2014) also
discuss
the
global
Eocene/Oligocene boundary on pages 445-452.
Local Scale: Plio-Pleistocene of East Africa
Setting. Olduvai Gorge (northern
Tanzania) around Lake Turkana
(northern Kenya), Omo River
drainage (southern Ethiopia), and
Afar Triangle (Eritrea, Ethiopia and
Djibouti). This region is important
for hominid fossils, being the home
of our oldest hominid relative,
Ardipithecus
ramidus
(4.3-4.5
million years old). One of the most
famous specimens from the region is
a nearly complete skeleton of a
female nicknamed "Lucy," which
belongs
to
Australopithecus
afarensis More recent findings of
bones in the Sahara Desert, though
contentious, indicate an age of 6.07.0
million
years
for
Sahelanthropus, an intermediate
between apes and true hominids.
Dating.
There is a very reliable
biostratigraphic control, but it is not
correlatable with other continents.
Tephochronology has improved
correlation within the Turkana
Basin. However, it is not useful
outside areas of volcanic ash falls.
Magnetostratigraphy gives the finest
resolution of time and best
correlation with other parts of the
world. It is defined within a
framework of biostratigraphy and
radiometric dates.
18
97
agreements with microfossil zonation.
Recently, Ar/Ar dating of volcanic ash
yielded 33.5-34.0 m.y., and this is closer to
the biostratigraphic zonation boundary.
98
SECTION 19
Textural Characteristics. Assumptions:
BASIN ANALYSIS
Basin analysis is simply the application of
stratigraphy and sedimentology to analysis of
the geologic history of a basin. It also includes
aspects of paleontology, paleoecology and
paleogeography. The following are the general
approaches used toward achieving this goal.
Provenance
Provenance involves using petrographic data to
reconstruct the origin of sediments. The
following sets of data are particularly useful:
Heavy Minerals. Heavy minerals are generally
used for reconstructing provenance because
every assemblage is diagnostic of the source
area.
Examples:
(1)
(2)
Paleocurrent
Analysis.
Sedimentary
structures, such as cross beds and ripple
marks, are used for interpreting the direction
of current transport. Such results are
normally represented as Rose Diagrams.
Because paleocurrent directions can vary in
different
environments,
hundreds
of
measurements are usually required for
analysis.
(1)
STRATIGRAPHIC
DIAGRAMS AND MAPS
(2)
Data Gathering in the Field
(3)
Accurate
measurement
and
precise
description of field data are important in
establishing spatial relationship of rocks
over geographic areas. Such data may be
99
from outcrops or from the
subsurface, with the latter being
obtained by drilling and remote
geophysical methods, such as
seismography. Important field
characteristics, which should be
recorded in words, sketches and
photographs, include:
(1) General lithologic characters, sequences
and relationships of lithologies, e.g., types
of contacts.
pinch
out
Data Interpretation
The information derived from field and
laboratory studies can be synthesized and
represented in graphic form. Examples are
given below:
Stratigraphic
Cross
Section.
Twodimensional representation of a series of
stratigraphic sections. Unlike a geological
cross section, it contains no topographic
information. It however gives one a clear
idea about the geologic history of an area
(Figs. 19.1 and 19.2).
100
Figure 19.2. Schematic illustration of a fence
diagram (from Boggs, 2012).
101
Isopach
Isochore
Figure 19.5. The difference between isopach and isochore.
102
as explained in the three-component
triangle (from Krumbein and Sloss,
1963).
103
plate tectonic model has been used to
interpret
sedimentary
sequences.
Accumulation occurs in the stable interiors of
continents (cratons), and the margins of
continents
(geosynclines).
The
term
geosyncline was introduced by James Dana
in 1873.
Cratonic Sedimentation
The center of a continent is composed of the
Precambrian shield or dome, and sediments
are added by lateral accretion, especially on
the sides of the dome (Fig. 19.10). As a
result, sediments are thinner toward the
dome, and they are mainly composed of
shallow marine sandstones, limestones and
shales, with occasional fluvial and deltaic
sequences. Such was the mode of deposition
of Sloss' sequences of North America.
Cratonic sedimentation was more common
during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic Eras, and
the
sequences
are
bounded
by
unconformities. They are much thinner in
comparison with geosynclinal sediments.
Good examples of cratonic basins can be
found in Africa (Chad, Iullemmeden) and the
United
States
(Illinois,
Michigan).
Continental margins have thick piles of
sediment accumulation (averaging 7 miles or
35,000 ft) in deeply subsiding basins. The
sediments are usually deformed.
104
Geosynclines are associated with
4)
2) Molasse:
Plate Tectonics
The similarity between the boundaries of continents
revived.
By 1970, it became clear that (a) the crust was and is
still being formed at spreading centers (ridges) and
(b) continents are consumed at sites of collision
called subduction zones. The model of plate tectonic
became much clearer once it was recognized that
crustal plates had a core of silica continental crust
and a thinner but denser fringe of basaltic oceanic
crust. Three types of plate margins have been
recognized:
Divergent Margins
105
Divergent margins occur in the following
settings:
1) Oceanic: Spreading centers where oceanic
rifting occurs, e.g., mid-oceanic ridges.
Nothing happens sedimentologically in the
spreading center, but some deposition
occurs at the continental edge (i.e., at the
passive margin basin). An example is the
Baltimore Canyon Trough in the U.S.A.
2) Spreading center under a continent: The
crust breaks as a result of uplift and
extension, forming rift valleys. Block
faulting creates horsts and grabens in which
redbeds and alluvial fan deposits are laid
down. Such rifts arise at isolated points to
form triple junctions, which are very
common around the Atlantic; e.g., Benue
Trough, Nigeria. An aulacogen forms when
one of the three rifts fails and stops
spreading. This depression eventually
becomes oceanic and fills up with sediment.
Sketch below.
Transform Margins
Convergent Margins
Convergent margins can result from three
situations:
1) Ocean-ocean collision: Subduction
occurs when one of the oceanic
crusts dives under the other. Island
arcs form on the overriding plate.
There are no granites but basalts or
pillow lavas, oozes, turbidites,
graywackes and
shales are
commonly deposited in deep sea
trenches.
106
(b) very great thicknesses of rapidly deposited
sediment, and
(c) abundant sediment supply from multiple
sources.
REFERENCES
Ager, D.V., 1981. The Nature of the Stratigraphic Record, 2nd
Edition: John Wiley, New York.
Allen, J.R.L., 1970. Sediments of the modern Niger Delta: a
summary and review: SEPM Special Publication 15, 138 157.
Allen, J.R.L., 1977. Physical Processes of Sedimentation:
Allen and Unwin, 248 p.
Anstey, N.A., 1982. Simple Seismics: International Human
Resources Development Corporation, Boston, 138 p.
Baars, D.L., 1962. Permian systems of the Colorado Plateau:
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107
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