Honors Algebra 1

John Ryan
September 19, 2014

Problem Set 2

1.1

Problem 1

Check whether each of the following is a group.

(a) Set of integers under subtraction:
No, because there is no identity. We show by contradiction. Assume e is an
integer such that
ex=xe=x
for any integer x. Then we have
e x = x = e = (x + x).
and
x e = x = e = 0
which would imply that 0 = (x + x) for all integers x, which is a contradiction.
Thus, there is no satisfactory e.
(b) Set of positive integers under multiplication
For this group, it is apparent that 1 is the identity element, since given any
positive integer x, 1 x = x 1 = x. However, we note that not a single integer
greater than one has a multiplicative inverse in the set of positive integers. Take,
for example, 2. What do we multiply by 2 to get the identity, 1? Clearly, the
multiplicative inverse of 2 is 1/2 which is not contained within the set of positive
integers. Thus, this is not a group
(c) The set of rational numbers with odd denominators under addition.
This set is the set of all a/b such that a and b are coprime, and b is nonzero and
odd. We assume 0 can be written 0/1 and begin to check for our requisite facts.
Addition of elements in this set is clearly associative, since addition of real
numbers is associative. We now note that, by this logic, addition on this
set is also commutitive.
The identity is the same as the additive identity of addition on the reals.
This is 0. A quick check yields
a 0
0 a
a
+ = + =
b
1
1
b
b

 The inverse of any element a/b is just a/b (just as with the reals). This
inverse is in the set since a, b coprime implies that a, b also have no
common factors (besides one). A quick check yields
a + (a)
a a
+
=
=0
b
b
b
and 0 is the identity element. No further equalities are necessary here
since addition on the set is commutitive.
Let a/b and c/d be two distinct rational numbers with nonzero odd b and
c and both fractions reduced completely. Then we have
a
c
ad
bc
ad + bc
+ =
+
=
b
d
bd
bd
bd
bd is certainly odd and nonzero. Also, any reduction of the fraction will
result in bd being divided by some number, which, whether that number be
even or odd, will yield yet another odd denominator. Thus, (ad + bc)/(bd)
is in the set, which must be closed under addition.
Thus, addition on our set indeed forms a group.

1.2

Problem 2

(a)
If G is some group containing only three elements, then G must certainly be
the group with an identity (lets say e), some element (lets say a), and the
product of that element with itself (a2 ). Clearly any group of three elements
must contain e and a, and if the third element were not a (lets call it b), then
some multiplication would give us an element outside of the set. Otherwise,
wed have a b = a or a b = b; each of these equalities violates the uniqueness
property of the identity element. Or we would have a b = e, in which case b is
the inverse of a and thus a2 is a product not in the set. Thus, our set in this
case is of the form {e, a, a2 }. Clearly we have
ea=ae
and
e a2 = a2 e
by nature of the identity. But then our only other possible product is
a a2 = a (a a) = (a a) a = a2 a
Thus, this group is Abelian.
(b)
If, for all a, b G we have (ab)2 = a2 b2 , then, for all a, b G, we have the
following:
(ab)2 = (ab) (ab) = abab
and
a2 b2 = aa bb = aabb

giving us
abab = aabb
We multiply each side on the left by a 1 and on the right by b 1 to get ab = ba
for all a and b in the group. Thus, the group is Abelian.
(c)
If any element squared is the identity element, then we know that, given any
two elements a and b, the square of their product (which is some other element
in the group) is the identity. We also know that the product of any two squares
is really just the square of the identity, which is also the identity. Thus, both
(ab)2 and a2 b2 are equal to the identity. Thus they are equal to each other.
Thus, by (b), the group is Abelian.

1.3

Problem 3

S3 = {e, a, b, b2 , ab, ab2 } with a2 = b3 = e and ba = ab2 .

D4 = {e, a, b, b2 , b3 , ab, ab2 , ab3 } with a2 = b4 = e and ba = ab3 .
(a) Find all subgroups of S3
{e, a} and {e, b, b2 } are clearly cyclic subgroups. We have that (ab)(ab) =
abab = a(ab2 )b = a2 b3 = e, thus {e, ab} is a cyclic subgroup. We also have
that (ab2 )2 = abbabb = ab(abb)bb = abab = e, thus {e, ab2 } is a cyclic subgroup.
{e} is the trivial subgroup, and S3 is a subgroup of itself. We have now listed
all subgroups of S3 .
(b)
{e}, D4 {e, a}, {e, b, b2 , b3 }, {e, b2 }, {e, ab}, {e, ab2 }, and {e, ab3 } are all cyclic subgroups of D4 (Homework 1 used as reference).
Also, we have {e, a, b2 , ab2 }, since all elements square to equal themselves,
b2 a = bba = babbb = abbbbbb = ab2 , ab2 b2 = a, aab2 = b2 , ab2 a = abba =
ababbb = aabbbbbb = b2 and b2 ab2 = bbabb = babbbbb = bab = abbbb = a.
Finally, we have {e, b2 , ab, ab3 }. All elements square to themselves. b2 ab =
bbab = babbbb = ba = ab3 ,ab3 b2 = ab, b2 ab3 = bbabbb = babbbbbb = bab2 =
abbbbb = ab, abab3 = ababbb = aabbbbbb = b2 , ab3 ab = abbbab = abbabbbb =
abba = ababbb = aabbbbbb = b2 . Now we have listed all subgroups.

1.4

Problem 4

S is a set and A(S) is the set of permutations of that set. For some x S, we
define
Stab(x) = {g A(S) : gx = x}
Prove that Stab(x) is a subgroup of S.
Proof:
We first note that the set of permutations of S that fix x are all in the set of
all permutations of S. Thus, Stab(x) is a subset of A(S). Now we see whether
Stab(x) meets the criteria for being a subgroup (the operation being composition
of permutations, which can be considered as bijective functions) of A(S)
A(S) is associative. Thus, for any 3 permutations x, y, z, x (y z) =
(x y) z). Therefore, Stab(x) is associative.

 The identity of A(S) is the permutation in which all elements are fixed
at their original positions. Obviously this permutation fixes x, so it is in
Stab(x) and it is also the identity of Stab(x).
Let f (n) and g(n) be bijective functions from S to S such that they
represent permutations in A(S), and such that they are in Stab(x). Then,
both functions map any element n to some other element. Since both are in
Stab(x), we have that f (x) = x and g(x) = x. Then, f (g(x)) = f (x) = x
and g(f (x)) = g(x) = x. So compositions of functions in Stab(x) are in
Stab(x), thus it is closed.
Every function in A(S) has an inverse. Take a permutation g in Stab(x).
Then gx = x. We apply the inverse g 1 to both sides to get g 1 gx =
g 1 x which gives us x = g 1 x from which we conclude that g 1 fixes x.
Then g 1 is in Stab(x). Thus, every element of Stab(x) has an inverse in
Stab(x).
Now we let T be a subset of S and consider the following subset of T :
Stab(T ) = {g A(S) : x T, gx = x}
In a similar way as before, we prove that Stab(T ) is a subgroup of A(S)
For exactly the same reason as above, Stab(T ) is associative due to A(S)
being associative.
Let f (n) and g(n) be bijective functions from S to S such that they
represent permutations in A(S), and such that they are in Stab(T ). Then,
both functions map any element n to some other element. Since both are
in Stab(T ), we have that f (y) = y and g(y) = y for all y T . Then,
f (g(y)) = f (y) = y and g(f (y)) = g(y) = y for all y T . So compositions
of functions in Stab(T ) are in Stab(T ), thus it is closed.
The identity of A(S) is the permutation in which all elements are fixed at
their original positions. Obviously this permutation fixes y for all y T ,
so it is in Stab(T ) is also the identity of Stab(T ).
Every function in A(S) has an inverse. Take a permutation g in Stab(T ).
Then gy = y for all y T . We apply the inverse g 1 to both sides to get
g 1 gy = g 1 y for all y T which gives us y = g 1 y for all y T from
which we conclude that g 1 fixes y for all y T . Then g 1 is in Stab(T ).
Thus, every element of Stab(T ) has an inverse in Stab(T ).
Now we define the normalizer and prove that it is a subgroup of A(S):
N orm(T ) = {g A(S) : x T, gx T }
For exactly the same reason as above, N orm(T ) is associative due to A(S)
being associative.
Let f (n) and g(n) be bijective functions from S to S such that they
represent permutations in A(S), and such that they are in N orm(T ).
Then, both functions map any element n to some other element. Since
both are in N orm(T ), we have that f (y) T and g(y) T for all y T .
4

Then, given y T , f (g(y)) = f (z) for some z T , and thus f (z)

T . Similarly, g(f (y)) = g(z) for some z T , and thus g(z) T . So
compositions of functions in N orm(T ) are in N orm(T ), thus it is closed.
The identity of A(S) is the permutation in which all elements are fixed at
their original positions. Obviously this permutation fixes y for all y T ,
so it is in N orm(T ) and it is also the identity of N orm(T ).
Every function in A(S) has an inverse. Take a permutation g in N orm(T ).
Let yi be the ith element of T . Then gyi = zi T . The inverse of g sends
all zi s back to their respective yi s. Since all yi s and zi s are in T , g 1 takes
elements from T and sends them to elements in T . Thus, g 1 N orm(T ).

1.5

Problem 5

Let G be a group. Define the center of a group:

Z(G) = {g G : h G, gh = hg}
We prove that Z(G) is a subgroup of G.
Since G is associative and Z(G) is a subset of G, Z(G) is associative as
well.
Let x and y be elements of Z(G). Then, for all g G, xg = gx and
yg = gy. Since x and y are both in G, that gives us that xy = yx. Now
take any z G. Then we have (xy)z = x(yz) = x(zy) = (xz)y = (zx)y =
z(xy) = (xy)z. Thus, xy Z(G).
The identity e of G is, by definition, commutitive. Thus, it is in Z(G),
and it is the identity of Z(G) as well.
Let x be an element in Z(G). Then, given any g G, we have xg = gx. We
right-multiply each side by x1 to get xgx1 = g. Now we left-multiply
each side by x1 to get gx1 = x1 g. Thus, g 1 Z(G).
Let S be a subset of G. Now we define the centralizer of a subset of a group:
Z(S) = g G : s S, gs = sg
We prove that Z(S) is a subgroup of G.
Since G is associative and Z(S) is a subset of G, Z(S) is associative as
well.
Let x and y be elements of Z(S). Then, for all s S, xs = sx and ys = sy.
Now take any s S. Then we have (xy)s = x(ys) = x(sy) = (xs)y =
(sx)y = s(xy) = (xy)s. Thus, xy Z(S).
The identity e of G is, by definition, commutitive. Thus, it is in Z(S),
and it is the identity of Z(S) as well.
Let x be an element in Z(S). Then, given any s S, we have xs = sx. We
right-multiply each side by x1 to get xsx1 = s. Now we left-multiply
each side by x1 to get sx1 = x1 s. Thus, g 1 Z(S).
(c)
Z(S3 ) = {e}
Z(D4 ) = {e, b2 }
5

1.6

Problem 6

Subgroup H = {e, a} of S3 .
He = eH = H
Ha = aH = H
Hb = {b, ab}
bH = {b, ab2 }
Hb2 = {b2 , ab2 }
b2 H = {b2 , ab}
Hab = {ab, b}
abH = {ab, b2 }
Hab2 = {ab2 , b2 }
ab2 H = {ab2 , b}
Subgroup J = {e, b, b2 } of S3 .
Je = eJ = J
Ja = {a, ab2 , ab}
aJ = {a, b, ab2 }
Jb = bJ = J
Jb2 = b2 J = J
Jab = {ab, a, ab2 }
abJ = {ab, ab2 , a}
Jab2 = {ab2 , ab, a}
ab2 J = {ab2 , a, ab}