Embryology Notes

Embryology- the study of the development of an individual from conception to birth.

Embryology may also be called developmental biology/anatomy
Red bloods cells are renewed every 3 months, (100 million/minute regenerated)
Embryo- an animal in early stages of development in humans this is from conception-8 weeks.
Fetus- An animal in late stages of development (humans from 9 weeks on) when the animal is recognizable as a
specific species.
Conceptus- ALL the structures developed from the zygote (Embryo/Fetus and Membranes)
Congenital defect (Birth defect)Development accomplishes two major functions:
1. Generates cellular diversity in an orderly way (all kinds of cells develop from single zygotic cell; thats
diversity.
a. Differentiation-generations of differentiation (highly-differentiated is more specialized,
undifferentiated look like the zygote.)
2. It assures the continuity of life from one generation to the next
a. Propagation/Reproduction
Genes control what proteins are being made affect other genesmakes more protein etc.
Major features of Development:
1. Fertilization- the fusion of sperm and egg- (begins the life of a new individual
a. Gamete-mature sex cell (sperm cell or egg cell)
2. Zygote is formed
3. Cleavage = rapid mitotic division of the Zygote and its daughter cells
a. Blastomeres- daughter cells
4. Morula = up to 32 Blastomeres is the morula state
5. Blastocyst
Egg cell is 150 micrometers in diameter; largest cell in mankind; can be viewed with naked eye.
Zona pellucida (well protected) the transparent more or less elastic outer layer or envelope immediately surrounding
a mammalian oocyte. It contains glycoproteins.
6. Gastrulation- series of extensive cell rearrangement (scientists say most important stage of life
7. Three germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm) from outside in.
a. Ectoderm will give rise to epidermis, nervous system
b. Mesoderm will give rise to bones, muscle, heart, kidney, gonad, blood cell.
c. Endoderm will give rise to digestive organs, GI track (gut tube originally), some reproductive
organs, and respiratory tract. (liver and pancreas are digestive organs)
8. Organogenesis- generation of organs from the three germ layers
9. BIRTH- I think this one is self-explanatory

Cell Growth and Reproduction

Mitosis (Reproduction) Cells reproduce by dividing themselves into two smaller daughter cells, with everything
divided in half, but a complete set of DNA.

Karyokinesis- Nuclear division (movement of the nucleus)

Cytokinesis- cytoplasmic division (movement of cytoplasm)

Interphase- The entire area between successive cell divisions

Mitosis: literal meaning is thread-like division
Cell Cycle: The well-ordered sequence of events between the time a cell divides to form two daughter cells & the time
those daughter cells divide again; composing of M, G1, S, & G2 phases.
Centrioles/Centrosomes??? Are made up of microtubules

Mitosis (M phase)

Prophase (46 chromosomes; 92 sister chromatid)

o DNA molecules shorten and thicken and become highly coiled; together with
proteins they make up chromosomes.
o Each duplicated chromosome consists of two chromatids attached at centromere.
o Centrioles have also duplicated and they move to opposite poles of cell; spindle
fibers appear
o Nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear
o DUPLICATION DOES NOT TAKE PLACE HERE IT IS IN INTERPHASE
Metaphase (still 46 chromosomes; 92 sister chromatid)
o Chromosomes align across equator of spindle fibers
o Each pair of chromosomes is attached to spindle fibers at the centromere
Anaphase (46 chromosomes PER CELL; sister chromatids have split)
o Each centromere splits, thereby detaching two chromatids that compose each
chromosome from each other
o Chromatids (now called chromosomes; from the moment they split) move to
opposite poles toward centrosomes.
o Cytokinesis becomes apparent
Telophase (2 cells; 46 chromatin)
o New chromosomes start elongating as DNA molecules start uncoiling (chromatin)
o Nuclear envelope reappears enclosing each new set of chromosomes
o Spindle fibers disappear
o Cytokinesis is complete

Chromatinless compact/condensed (less distinct)

Chromosomemore compact/condensed (Distinctly visible)

Interphase (growth phases, 90% of the cells life)

a. G1 Duplication of centrioles (from 2 to 4)
1. G stands for GAP (as in the gaps between M phase and S phase)
b. S synthesis of DNA A.K.A. the duplication of chromosomes
1. One chromosome is now made of two sister chromatid
c. G2 active protein and RNA synthesis
CDKs (cyclin dependent kinases), along with cyclins, are major control switches for the cell cycle, causing the cell to
move from G1 to S or G2 to M

P53- protein that functions to block the cell cycle if the DNA is damaged. If the damage is severe this protein
can cause apoptosis (cell death)
P53 levels are increased in damaged cells this allows time to repair DNA by blocking the cell cycle
A p53 mutation is the most frequent mutation leading to cancer

Somatic cells- body cells (i.e. non-sex cells)

2 sister chromatids connected by a centromere are still considered one chromosome, not considered two chromosomes
until the sisters split.

Asexual reproduction

Produces only genetically identical offspring since all divisions are by mitosis

A form of duplication using only mitosis

Since the offspring are identical there is no mechanism for introducing diversity other than gene mutations
This method of rep. is rapid and effective allowing the spread of an organism
Offspring called clones (each are exact copies of original

Sexual Reproduction

Formation of new individual by a combination of two haploid sex cells (gametes)

Both gametes are haploid, with a single set of chromosomes (haploid # in humans is 23)
The new individual is called a zygote, with two sets of chromosomes (diploid, Diploid # 46)
Meiosis is a process to convert a diploid cell to a haploid gamete, and cause a change in the genetic
information to increase diversity in the offspring.

Mitosis is the division of nucleus i.e. Karyokinesis

Meiosis (diminution division)

1. A special form of cell division by which mature sex cells are produced from primitive sex cells
2. It contains two divisions called meiosis I and II; each division contains four phases
3. Haploid (1n) having a single set of chromosomes, as normally carried by a gamete, or having one complete
set of non- homologous chromosomes. In man, the haploid # is 23.
Homologous chromosomes a matching pair of chromosomes, one from each parent
Tetrad (bivalent) (Homologue) a pair of homologous chromosomes which have joined together (synapsed) during
prophase I and metaphase I of meiosis. {2 homologous chromosomes; 4 chromosomes)
Chromatid one of the paired strands of a duplicated chromosome joined by a single centromere
Sister Chromatids two chromatids of a duplicated chromosome are sister chromatids
Non-sister chromatids Chromatids of different chromosomes
Crossing Over The exchanging of genetic material between non-sister chromatids of the paired homologous
chromosomes during the prophase of the first meiotic division, resulting in new combinations of genes (or swapping
of segments of DNA between homologous chromosomes)

Crossing over is a way to recombine the genetic material so that each person is genetically unique; it adds
almost infinite variety to the ultimate genetic makeup of an individual

There is only interphase before Meiosis I not Meiosis II (Meiosis II is identical to mitosis)
Anaphase I of Meiosis is the most important (because the centromere does not split, thus halving the number of
chromosomes) Meiosis I is the only difference
REVIEW MEIOSIS FOR TEST
When is a haploid cell produced? After the end of Meiosis I (after cytokinesis)

Mitosis:
For a somatic cell (2n, 2C) maternal and paternal copies of genes

But once it copies itself for duplication (2N, 4C)

After centromere splits in Meiosis (2N, 2C)

Meiosis:
Starts out as (2N, 2C)
i.
ii.
iii.

Duplicated to (2N, 4C)

After Meiosis I (1N, 2C)
After Meiosis II (1N, 2C) As in the Gametes

Five stages of Prophase I of Meiosis:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Leptotene: thin thread stage

Zygotene: synapsis of maternal and paternal homologues
Pychutene: Crossing over occurs (thick thread)
Diplotene: Separation begins (double thread)
Diakinesis: moving apart

Independent assortment of paternal and maternal chromosomes:

The alignment of different pairs of homologous chromosomes on the metaphase plate in Meiosis I is random.
Thus, when the homologous chromosomes separate in anaphase I, the maternal chromosomes may go to the
same pole and the paternal chromosomes go to the opposite pole. Or, there may be a mixture of maternal and
paternal chromosomes at each pole.
With 23 chromosomes in a human gamete there are 2^23 possible combinations (8388608)
CONTRASTING MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS
Mitosis
One cell division results in two daughter cells
Chromosome number per nucleus is maintained
following division
One S phase per division
Normally there is no pairing of homologous
chromosomes
Normally no recombination or crossovers
Centromeres divide at anaphase
Genetic composition of daughter cells is rigidly
maintained
Chromosome Behavior:

Meiosis
Two cell divisions result in four products of meiosis
Chromosome number is halved in final product of
Meiosis
One S phase per 2 divisions
Full synapsis of homologous chromosomes in Prophase
At least one crossover per homologous pair
Centromeres ONLY divide at Anaphase II
Independent assortment and crossing over promote
genetic variation

Mitosis: Homologous chromosomes independent

Meiosis: Homologous chromosomes pair forming tetrads (bivalents) until anaphase I

Chromosome number:

Mitosis: Identical daughter cells

Meiosis: haploid daughter cells

Gametogenesis generation of the gametes

Primitive sex cells (2n) Mitosis primary sex cells (2n) Meiosis I- Secondary sex cell (1n) Meiosis II
Mature sex cell (1n)
Spermatogenesis takes place in the testes
Oogenesis Takes place in the ovaries
Chromosomal aberrations:
Junction coming together

Nondisjunction: Failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate subsequent to metaphase in

meiosis or mitosis so that one daughter cell has both and the other neither of the chromosomes

Aneuploidya chromosome number that is not an exact multiple of the usually haploid number
Polyploidy a chromosome number that is a multiple greater than two of the haploid (having one or more
extra sets of chromosomes with more than two sets of chromosomes)
o Polyploidy is caused by two sperm fertilizing one egg
Nondisjunction causes diseases such as: (these are all aneuploidy)
o Down syndrome (trisomy 21) Most prevalent aneuploidy 1/700 births
Severe mental problems as well as some physical defects
o Klinefelters syndrome (XXY) 1/500 males
Considered male, (Small testicular size, female-type pubic hair, long arms and legs, breast
development, narrow shoulders, poor beard growth, frontal baldness absent, wide hips)
o Turner Syndrome (X,0)
Short stature, low hairline, shield shaped thorax, widely spaced nipples, small finger nails,
brown spots (nevi), rudimentary ovaries Gonadal streak (underdeveloped), no menstruation,
elbow deformity, poor breast development, constriction of aorta, fold of neck skin, regular
facial features, BRAIN IS FINE
o Triple X syndrome
Doesnt appear different from a normal female

SPERMATOGENESIS (begins at puberty Lasts until you die)

1. Spermatogonium (nia) Primitive sperm cell (2N)
a. There are several million during fetal development, by the time of birth 1-2 million left, at puberty
roughly 400,000 sperm cells left
2. Primary Spermatocyte Primary sperm cell (2N)
3. Secondary Spermatocyte Secondary sex cell (1N)
a. Spermatids (pretty much the sperm cell, just needs cytoplasm shed off)
i. The stage between spermatid and spermatozoa is spermiogenesis (a morphological change)
4. Spermatozoa Mature sex cell (singular form spermatozoon) (1N)
a. PRODUCTION: 1000 sperm /minute OR 100 M/day

OOGENESIS (Stops altogether at menopause)

{(Begins in fetal life halts around the time of birth @ prophase I; gives them lots of time to make RNA and
proteins)} {(it resumes at puberty; stimulated by LH Process is once again halted @ Metaphase II upon
ovulation at secondary oocyte stage it will not go on unless the secondary oocyte is fertilized)}
1. Oogonium (nia) primitive egg cell (2N)
2. Primary oocyte (primary sex cell (2N)
a. From one primary oocyte only one viable secondary oocyte (or ovum) is produced due to uneven
cytokinesis in meiosis I and meiosis II
3. Secondary oocyte + a polar body (Secondary Sex Cell (1N)
a. During the reproductive life, about 400 secondary oocytes are ovulated
4. Ovum (Ova) + polar body mature sex cell (1N)
Acrosome Sperm has an enlarged lysosome like a saline boob implant this contains hydrolytic enzymes
The hydrolytic enzymes are used to digest the Corona Radiata
Structure of Egg:

Follicle is outermost layer, full of follicular cells surrounding the egg cell.
Zona Pellucida [Vitelline Membrane] transparent layer of glycoproteins around the Eggs membrane
o Space between Zona pellucida and egg membrane is the peri-vitelline (location of polar bodies)
o Zona Pellucida prevents inter-species fertilization

Ovulation occurs when the follicle ruptures, still surrounded by the zona pellucida, lots of follicular cells are
also released surrounding egg
Underneath the plasma membrane of the egg there are about 15,000 cortical granules (Golgi enzymes)
o Contains hydrolytic enzymes
o Enzymes to break down the cell for sperm to enter

Corona Radiata the layers of follicular cells surrounding the egg

100 Million sperm/ mL
Atretic follicle a degenerated follicle that has collapsed

TEST 2 STARTS
Recognition of sperm and egg
Chemotaxis Sperm attraction by egg (species specific) releases chemical with the egg
Capacitation enables the subsequent acrosomal reaction
Freshly ejaculated sperm are incapable of fertilizing eggs, they must reside in the female reproductive
track for a certain period of time to gain the ability to fertilize the egg.
Capacitation The attainment of the ability to fertilize the egg of the sperm on its passage through
the reproductive track
Hyaluronic acid holds the zona pellucida together, this is what the sperm must digest to break
through
Acrosomal reaction fusion of the sperms plasma membrane with the acrosomes membrane and the
release of the contents (exocytosis)
Fertilization occurs in the outer 1/3 of the fallopian tube
The requirement for capacitation prevents premature acrosomal reaction (The acrosomal reaction
does not occur in the vagina, occurs in the fallopian tube when its time to fertilize the egg.
Role of Zona Pellucida receptor molecules in zona pellucida binding molecules in the plasma
membrane of the sperm, prevents inter-species fertilization
Pronase will dissolve zona pellucida
Gamete fusion and the prevention of polyspermy
Plasma membrane of the egg must be able to fuse with the plasma membrane of the sperm
1) Fast block to polyspermy
a. A transient depolarization of the eggs membrane potential from the resting level (-70
mV) to a positive level (+20 mV) at this positive point no more sperm can fuse with the
membrane
b. Opening of additional Sodium channels
c. Happens very fast (between 0.1s-3.0s)
d. Apparently the entry of one sperm (and the acrosomal stuff) causes the opening of
sodium channels
2) Slower block to polyspermy
a. Cortical granule reaction
b. Exocytosis of the cortical granules into the perivitelline space
c. Hydrolytic enzymes from granules cause extensive chemical modification of the plasma
membrane of the egg and the sperm that are already located in the perivitelline space
i. This effectively messes up the interaction of the plasma membrane of sperm and
egg; prevents polyspermy

d. There are also lots of polysaccharides (sugars) which increases the Osmolarity of the
perivitelline space
i. Osmosis (water flows in)
ii. Lifting and hardening of the zona pellucida
1. This produces a PERMANENT block
2. The hardened zona pellucida is called the fertilization membrane
Parthenogenesis development of the egg without sperm (asexual reproduction// sometimes clonal

Example: whipped tail gecko

Y bearing sperm are smaller and faster thats why there is a 105/100 ratio of men to women
Assisted Reproductive Techniques (you have to have unprotected sex for a year first)
1. Intrauterine insemination (also called Artificial Insemination)
a. Must have open fallopian tube
b. Hormonal (FSH Gonadotropin) treatment of female to stimulate the development of
multiple follicles (ovarian hyper-stimulation)
c. We use HMG (Human menopausal gonadotropin)
d. Allows you to pass inflamed/infected vagina/cervix
e. Use a catheter to launch millions of sperm up higher where they have a better chance to
survive
2. In vitro fertilization (outside the body)
a. Ovarian hyper-stimulation for 2 weeks
i. FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) like stimulation
1. More expensive is HMG (menotropin)
2. Less expensive is Clomyd or serophene (clomiphene citrate) an estrogen
antagonist
a. By taking anti-estrogen negative feedback ramps up FSH production
3. Lupron: A GnRN agonist
b. Oocyte retrieved. (Collection/treatment of sperms also).
i. Laproscopicallly
ii. Transvaginally (EEEKK!!!!)
c. In vitro fertilization and embryo culture
i. You hope they all get fertilized and then you let them incubate for 2-2.5 days,
hopefully about ten eggs.
ii. They are morula state now (8-16 cells)
d. Embryo transfer: You have to inject the woman with progesterone to create a nourishing
environment in the uterus (mimics time right after ovulation) so that the uterus is
conducive to implantation
i. Inject 3-4 embryos back in
Lazy Sperm fixes

G.I.F.T. Gamete intra-Fallopian tube transfer (deposit the gamete straight into the fallopian
tube via the birth canal
Z.I.F.T. Same but with zygote instead of gamete
Or you can deposit sperms into perivitelline space
ICSI (Intra-cytoplasmic sperm injection) Or deposit ONLY 1 sperm into the actual egg
Selective Reduction of Implantations: if all four eggs are implanted you run the risks associated
with multiples babies
Legal Parentage: John Doe donated his sperm, somehow he found your paper trail and wants his
kid (must give up rights but some people claim to change their mind)
Disposition of embryos, (And who has custody of it after death/divorce)

In vivo means inside the body

10-15% of couples are infertile

Uterine linings:
Endometrium More inner

Where implantation takes place

Myometrium more outer

causes contractions

First week of development

Begins at fertilization:

Fertilization starts at the fusion of the sperm and eggs plasma membranes
ends at the fusion of the two nuclei (male and female pronuclei)
take a full day for fertilization
Fertilization occurs in the outer 1/3 of the fallopian tube

Egg usually live for about 1 day after ovulation and Sperm live for about 3 days. So the window for
fertilization: 3 days before or 1 day after ovulation
Cleavage mitotic division of the zygote and the subsequent Blastomeres (will begin within one day of
fertilization)
Time of fertilization (at the fusion of pronuclei) is Day 0
Once the first division is completed the zygote is now called an embryo
Negative growth of cells because the daughter cells from cleavage are still within the zona
pellucida, they just split the cytoplasm of the zygote. The total mass doesnt change. (Reduced cell
size but increased cell number)
When you have 12-32 Blastomeres the Embryo will enter the stage known as morula stage
Morula stage a ball of Blastomeres still enclosed in the zona pellucida
All of this so far has taken place in the fallopian tube, (The benefit of this happening in the zona
pellucida is that it keeps the zygote from implanting in the fallopian tube
3-4 days after fertilization the morula enters the uterus
Implantation anywhere other than the uterus is entopic pregnancy (end of the pregnancy, you may
bleed to death in the middle of the night if they dont find it early)
Blastomeres that are located in the center of the morula are called inner cell mass; ICM

This will develop into the embryoblast Gives rise to most of the embryos structures

Blastomeres that are located at the outer edge are called outer cell mass; OCM

Gives rise to trophoblast This becomes the fetal membranes Those become the placenta

Totipotent can become any type of cell (like stem cells)

Pluripotent Like a red blood cell
OCM and ICM are decided simply by luck of the draw, you have to be in the right place at the right
time
Day 5-6 they are moved to the uterus. Implantation begins here and will be completed by day 9
Accumulation of fluid between the OCM and ICM creates a cavity called the blastocyst cavity (i.e.
blastocyst stage)

How many of the Blastomeres contribute to the formation of the ICM (out of the 8 cell stage)?

You can pick some random numbers to test and see if they are the proper number answer
Make allophenic mice (made by combining the Blastomeres of two different embryos, suck
Blastomeres out of two separate eggs and mix them together in a peatree dish) say one parent
had black fur and the other white
You inject the new allophenic embryo into a progesterone doped mommy mouse so she can
carry it
Chimera individual with genetic material from two or more different embryos
o 1 Blastomere contribute there will be no mixed pattern. (1:1 ratio)
o 2 Blastomeres contribute (1 white WW: 2 Mixed WB: 1 black ratio BB)
o 3 Blastomeres contribute (1 WWW: 3WWB: 3WBB: 1BBB)

The more Blastomeres that contribute the less pure white or black offspring you get.
73% are mixed so approximately 3 Blastomeres contribute to ICM
You have to get rid of the zona pellucida before it can be implanted
Hatching of the Embryo takes place around day 5-6
Two factors affect hatching
1. Blastomeres secrete hydrolytic enzymes enzymatic dissolution of Zona
(more important)
2. Expansion of the embryo
Once the enzymes have popped a hole in the Zona, the embryo can sense the pressure change &
squeeze out
Endometrium goes ballistic when it comes in contact with the hatched embryo and the presence of
progesterone
Endometrium is transformed into highly proliferate, highly secretory, and highly vascularized known as
a decidua (thicker and thicker lots of blood vessels and lots of uterine milk secretion)
This is called decidualization of Endometrium. The endometrium develops into part of the placenta.

Stimulates proliferation of trophoblast. Only nuclear division no cytokinesis becomes a mass of

cells

The endometrium also causes a reciprocal reaction

Rats ovulate every four days; gestation period is 21 days (can have pseudo pregnancy lasting 14 days)
Syncytium a mass of cells
Syncytiotrophoblast mass of trophoblast cells (highly proliferate, vascular, highly invasion

Uses this to borough into Endometrium

What is left of the original trophoblast is known as cytotrophoblast

2nd week
Generation of epiblast and hypoblast from ICM (embryoblast)

Epiblast is more outer layer

Hypoblast is more inner layer
These two together are known as the Bilaminar Germ disk

Generation of Amniotic cavity within the epiblast and generation of yolk sack from hypoblast

Forms between epiblast and amniotic Membrane

By the fourth week the yolk in gone (primary yolk and secondary yolk degenerate)
Generation of chorionic cavity
Extraembryonic mesoderm From the epiblasts proliferation

Somatic (outer) coats cytotrophoblast

Splenic (inner) coats yolk sack
Cavity between is the chorion

Yolk sac formation of blood cells and blood proteins produces germ cells (give rise to sperm and
egg)
Reticulum non-cellular matrix
Connecting stalk what suspends the embryo in the chorionic cavity (develops into umbilical cord)
The Uteroplacental circulatory system
Purpose of implantation is to get the blood out of the mother.
The spaces popping up in the syncitiotrophoblast are called trophoblastic lacunae
Sinusoids (capillaries) make connections with these lacunae, this process of establishing connection is
called anastomosis (connection by branching) Now there is blood in the lacunae.
There is never direct mixing of blood between fetus and mother. (your blood would only mix in a
trauma)
The protrusions of cytotrophoblast form the primary stem villus (11-13 days)
The extraembryonic mesoderm that lines the trophoblast (somatic layer) follows suit and penetrates
the core of the primary stem villus to form secondary stem villus (16 days)
These somatic cells form capillaries tertiary stem villus (21 days)
Decidua capsularis The layer of endometrium covering the implanted and expanding (bulging)
embryo; it becomes progressively attenuated as the embryo enlarges and, by the fourth month, is
squeezed against the decidua parietalis and thereafter undergoes rapid regression
Decidua basalis The area of endometrium between the implanted embryo and the myometrium,
which develops into the maternal part of the placenta
Decidua parietalisThe rest of the uterine endometrium other than decidua capsularis and decidua
basalis
Gastrulation extensive cell movements and rearrangements by which a bilaminar germ disk is
transformed into a trilaminar germ disk.
Primitive streak will always appear at the tail end of the embryo (15 days)
Appearance of the primitive streak during the second week, on about day 15, a faint groove appears
along the longitudinal midline of the bilaminar germ disc, which now has assumed an oval shape. Over
the course of the next day, this groove becomes deeper and elongates to occupy about half the length
of the embryo. On day 16, a deeper depression surrounded by a slight mound of epiblast appears at
the presumptive cranial end of the groove, near the center of the germ disc
This groove is called the primitive groove, the depression is the primitive pit, and the mound
surrounding it is called the primitive node. The entire structure is called primitive streak.
The primitive streak establishes the longitudinal axis and thus the bilateral symmetry of the future
adult; it sets the stage for the initiation of gastrulation.

Ingression migration of cells from surface layer into the interior

Invagination infolding
These terms describe the movements of cells into the three germ layers.
Epiblast cells begin to detach along the primitive streak and migrate down to invade and displace
hypoblast cells, forming the (intra)embryonic endoderm
Epiblast cells keep migrating laterally and cranially above the newly formed endoderm and form the
embryonic mesoderm
After the migration is complete, the epiblast is called embryonic ectoderm
Thus, gastrulation converts the bilaminar germ disc into a trilaminar germ disc
Three germ layers interact with one another and set the stage for the period of organogenesis from
week 4 to week 8
Epiblast cells begin to detach along the primitive streak and migrate down to invade and displace
hypoblast cells,
Epigenesis: the development of an organism from an undifferentiated cell, consisting in the successive
formation and development of organs and parts that do not preexist in the zygote; opposed to the
erroneous theory of preformation.
Maternal chromosomes

regulate embryoblast development

Paternal chromosomes

regulate trophoblast development

Molar Pregnancy Pregnancy marked by a neoplasm within the uterus, whereby part or all of the
chorionic villi are converted into a mass of clear vesicles
A hydatidiform mole that results from over-production of the tissue that is supposed to develop into
the placenta. The placenta normally nourishes a fetus during pregnancy. Instead, these tissues
develop into a mass. The mass is usually made up of placental material that grows uncontrolled.
Often, there is no fetus at all.
The cause is not completely understood. Potential causes may include defects in the egg,
abnormalities within the uterus, or nutritional deficiencies. Women under 20 or over 40 years of
age have a higher risk. Other risk factors include diets low in protein, folic acid, and carotene.
There are about 3,000 molar in the United States pregnancies per year.
Teratogen Any agent or factor that interferes with normal embryonic development, inducing or
increasing the incidence of congenital anomaly in the developing embryo
Teratology The study of malformations or serious deviations from the normal type in organisms

The formation of Prechordal Plate Notochordal Process:

While mesoderm is being laid down from the epiblast, some of the newly formed mesodermal
cells aggregate to form a compact mass cranial to the primitive pit. This compact mass of
mesoderm is termed Prechordal plate
At the same time, some mesodermal cells form a hollow tube in the midline, cranial to the
primitive pit but caudal to the Prechordal plate. This tube like structure is termed Notochordal
process
The Notochordal process is then transformed into a solid, linear, and rod-like structure called
notochord

Axial bones will be formed around the notochord

The primitive streak lasts only for one week. Initially (at the beginning of the 3rd week) it spans
about half the length of the embryo. As the gastrulation proceeds, it becomes gradually shorter,
regressing caudally. By the end of the 3rd week, it only occupies 10% of the embryos length, in
the 4th week, it disappears. The fate of various populations of migrating epiblast cells can be
tracked in experimental animals by cell tracing techniques and cell lineage study labeling with
dye chemicals or radioactive materials

The formation of -Buccopharyngeal Membrane and Cloacal membrane

Two faint depressions appear in the ectoderm:
Cranial end adjacent to Prechordal plate Buccopharyngeal Membrane (forms oral cavity)
Caudal end behind the primitive streak Cloacal Membrane (Anus and urinary tract)
Later, the ectoderm in these areas fuses with the underlying endoderm, extruding the
mesoderm, forming a bilaminar membrane.

Formation of the three mesoderms

Lateral plate mesoderm Lateral to the intermediate mesoderm, the remainder of the lateral
mesoderm forms a flattened, sheet-like structure called lateral plate mesoderm
o Splits into two layers:
a ventral layer associated with the endoderm
Gives rise to epithelial coverings (visceral serous membranes) of the viscera
(internal organs derived from the endoderm) and hence is called the
splanchnopleuric mesoderm; it also gives rise to the heart.
and a dorsal layer associated with the ectoderm
Gives rise to inner linings of the body wall (parietal serous membranes), to
parts of the limbs, and to most of the dermis, and hence is called
somatopleuric mesoderm
Intermediate Mesoderm Lateral to the paraxial mesoderm is another pair of cylindrical
condensations called intermediate mesoderm
o Urinary system and part of the reproductive system
Paraxial MesodermThe mesoderm lying immediately on either side of the notochord forms a
pair of cylindrical (rod-like) condensations called paraxial mesoderm
o axial skeleton, voluntary muscles (in trunk and limbs) and part of the dermis

After folding the endoderm becomes the gut tube

Somatic layer will line the body cavity
As the primitive streak regresses at the end of the 3 rd week, the mesodermal cells begin to
condense on both right and left sides of notochord

Paraxial Mesoderm develops into somites, which establish the segmental

organization of the body
Cells in paraxial mesoderm first form a series of rounded, whorl-like structures called somitomeres
on both side of the notochord, progressing craniocaudally
Most of the somitomeres develop further to form discrete blocks of segmental mesoderm called
somites

However, the 1st 7 pairs of somitomeres do not form somites, they give rise to muscles of the
head and neck
The 1st pair of somites appear on day 20 in the region of future base of skull
The 8th, 9th, 10th pairs of somitomeres 1st, 2nd, and 3rd pairs of somites
The rest of the somites In craniocaudal progression at a rate of 3-4 a day finishing on day 30

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can be used to tell age of embryo

42-44 pairs of somites form, but the caudal-most several somites eventually disappear
Final count is 37 pairs

Gives rise to

The first 4 pairs of somites bones/muscles/part of dermis of the HEAD

The next 8 pairs of somites bones/muscles, part of dermic of the CERVICAL region
Next 12 pairs of somites bones/muscles/part of dermic of THORACIC region

Cells from cervical and thoracic somites also invade the upper limbs muscles

The next 5 pairs of somites bones/muscles/part of dermis of LUMBER

Cells from lumbar somites also invade the lower limb buds muscles

Next 5 pairs of somites bones/muscles/parts of the dermis SACRAL

Last 3 pairs of somites Coccygeal somites
Neurulation formation of the neural tube
Begins during the 3rd week and completed in the 4th week
The 1st event in the formation of the future CNS is the appearance of the neural platethe
thickened ectoderm cranial to the primitive pit
Neural plate folds during the 4th week to form the neural tube
Neural plate develops in response to inducing substances secreted by the underlying
mesodermal structure Prechordal plate
Neural Crest Neuroectodermal cells that originate in the dorsal aspect (lateral lips) of the neural
folds or neural tube; these cells leave the neural tube or folds and differentiate into various cell types
including dorsal-root ganglion cells, autonomic ganglion cells, the chromaffin cells of the adrenal
medulla, Schwann cells, sensory ganglia cells of cranial nerves, 5, 9, and 10, part of the meninges, or
integumentary pigment cells (melanocytes)
A pair of somites becomes:

Scherlotomes Bone
Myotomes muscle
Dermotomes part of the dermis

The cranial half of the first cervical scherlotomes becomes the occipital bone, this accounts for the
discrepancy in numbers of cervical vertebrate when compared to somites (and the caudal half of the
last cervical scherlotomes contributes to the first thoracic vertebrae.
These scherlotomes move towards notochord and neural tube:

1st the somites differentiate into scherlotomes, myotomes, and dermotomes

2nd the scherlotomes split into caudal and cranial parts
3rd the caudal half of the first scherlotomes fuses with the cranial part of the succeeding one
forming individual vertebra

The neural tube sends signals saying to form the vertebral arch
Notochord sends signals telling scherlotomes to become vertebral body
If this goes wrong it leads to conditions like scoliosis (improper forming of body) and spina bifida
(improper forming of arch)
The transverse processes of the vertebrates elongate and become ribs

Spina bifida aculta small dimple and a little pocket of air, not a lot of adverse side effects
Spina bifada systica forms cyst on back
If only meninges are in the cyst it is called minigocele spina bifada
If only the spinal cord is in the cyst (it penetrated meninges) it is called myeloccele
If both it is called myelominingocele

Chance of spina bifida in US is .1% most likely cause is lack of folic acid in mother but we really arent
sure
Defective induction of the formation of vertebral arches causes Spina bifida
Embryonic induction stimulation of specific developmental pathway in one group of cells (the
responding tissue) by a closely associated group of cells (the inducing tissue)
This process of embryonic induction is fundamental to the development of tissue diversity, example:

Prechordal plate Neural plate

Neural tube Vertebral arches
Notochord vertebral bodies

Vertebral bodies are formed in response to substances produced by the notochord, whereas
vertebral arches form in response to substances produced by the neural tube
Defective induction of vertebral bodies on one side of the body may result in a severe scoliosis;
abnormal induction of vertebral arch may cause spina bifida and anencephaly
The segmental sclerotomes split and recombine to form vertebrae
8 cervical sclerotomes produce 7 cervical vertebrae, whereas in the rest of the vertebral column
there is a one-to- one relationship of sclerotomes to vertebrae
As the sclerotome migrates toward the notochord and neural tube, it splits into a cranial half and a
caudal half, and the caudal half of each sclerotome fuses with the cranial half of the succeeding
sclerotome. The resulting composite structures proceed to surround the notochord and neural tube to
produce vertebrae
Sclerotomes and perhaps notochord also form the intervertebral discs
The ribs develop from costal processes of the developing thoracic vertebrae
The sternum develops from a pair of longitudinal mesenchymal condensations, the sternal bars, that
form in the ventro-lateral body wall
Closure of the neural tube proceed bi-directionally, ending with closure of the cranial and caudal
neuropores
Abnormalities of neural tube closure not only affect the development of the CNS but also interfere
with vertebral arch morphogenesis. Disturbances of neural tube closure underlie the spina bifida and
anencephaly defects.
Spinal Dysraphism Dysraphism signifies incomplete fusion or malformation of a seam or junction
Spinal Dysraphism junction. Includes all forms of spina bifida. The open form is called spina bifida
cystica and the closed form is spina bifida occulta
Rachischisiscongenital fissure of the A closure defect of the spinal cord; a vertebral column,
characterized by a cleft of the vertebral column
Spina BifidaA developmental anomaly characterized by defective closure of the vertebral arch,
through which the meninges and sometimes the spinal cord may protrude (spina bifida cystica) or may
not (spina bifida occulta)

Cranioschisis (craniorachischisis) (anencephaly, cranium bifidum) congenital malformation in which

there are incomplete closure of the skull and absence of all or a major part of the brain
Meningohydroencephalocele. This anomaly may form through defective ossification of the occipital
bone and probably is not a consequence of defective closure of the neural tube