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OnlineEngineeringHydrologyanditsscope::ClassLecturesandNotes
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CivilEngineeringOnlineEngineeringHydrology
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Hydrology
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Estimating
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Ebooks|HydrologyLectures&Notes
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Contents
1. Whatwestudyin
hydrology?
2. ScopeofHydrology
3. EngineeringHydrology
1. Usesof
Engineering
Hydrology
4. BranchesofHydrology
5. HydrologicalCycle
6. Catchment&Basin,
watershed&stream
order
7. WaterBalance
Components
8. Precipitation
1. Mechanismof
Precipitation
2. Typesof
Precipitation
3. Measurement
9. HydrologicalSoilGroups
Reinforcementin
Emmegiesse
Company
Overheadcranes,lifting
solutionsforoffshoreand
azardousareas
WhatwestudyinHydrology
In hydrology we study Hydrologic cycle, its processes, water balance, precipitation types, estimation of
precipitation, and analysis of precipitation data. We also study infiltration phenomena, solution of the
Richards equation and approximate infiltration models. Methods of measurement of stream flow, stage
dischargerelation,unithydrographtheory,TranspositionofHydrograph,Synthesisofhydrographfrombasin
characteristics,streamflowrouting,floodfrequencyanalysisandattenuationoffloodflowsarealsostudiedin
Hydrology.
Definitionofhydrology:
Thestudyofwaterinallitsforms(rain,snowandwaterontheearthssurface),andfromitsoriginstoallits
destinationsontheearthiscalledhydrology.
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ScopeofHydrology
1. Waterisonethemostvaluablenaturalresourcesessentialforhumanandanimallife,industryand
agriculture.
2. ItisalsousedforPowergeneration,navigationandfisheries.
3. Tremendousimportanceisgiventothehydrologyallovertheworldinthedevelopmentand
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OnlineEngineeringHydrologyanditsscope::ClassLecturesandNotes
managementofwaterresourcesforirrigation,watersupply,floodcontrol,waterloggingandsalinity
control,Hydropowerandnavigation.
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Engineering
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EngineeringHydrology
Ituseshydrologicprinciplesinthesolutionofengineeringproblemsarisingfromhumanexploitationofwater
resourcesoftheearth.Theengineeringhydrologist,orwaterresourcesengineer,isinvolvedintheplanning,
analysis,design,constructionandoperationofprojectsforthecontrol,utilizationandmanagementofwater
resources.
Hydrologiccalculationsareestimatesbecausemostlytheempiricalandapproximatemethodsareusedto
describevarioushydrologicalprocesses.
UsesofEngineeringHydrology
EngineeringHydrologyHelpsinthefollowingways:
1. Hydrologyisusedtofindoutmaximumprobablefloodatproposedsitese.g.Dams.
2. Thevariationofwaterproductionfromcatchmentscanbecalculatedanddescribedbyhydrology.
3. Engineeringhydrologyenablesustofindouttherelationshipbetweenacatchmentssurfacewaterand
groundwaterresources
4. Theexpectedfloodflowsoveraspillway,atahighwayCulvert,orinanurbanstormdrainagesystem
canbeknownbythisverysubject.
5. Ithelpsustoknowtherequiredreservoircapacitytoassureadequatewaterforirrigationormunicipal
watersupplyindroughtscondition.
6. Ittellsuswhathydrologichardware(e.g.raingauges,streamgaugesetc)andsoftware(computer
models)areneededforrealtimefloodforecasting
BranchesofHydrology
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Hydrology
CivilEngineering
ProjectScope
SoilTypes
Hydrologicalcycle
1. Thehydrologiccycledescribesthecontinuousrecirculatingtransportofthewatersoftheearth,
linkingatmosphere,landandoceans.
2. Waterevaporatesfromtheoceansurface,drivenbyenergyfromtheSun,andjoinstheatmosphere,
movinginlandasclouds.Onceinland,atmosphericconditionsacttocondenseandprecipitatewater
ontothelandsurface,where,drivenbygravitationalforces,itreturnstotheoceanthroughriverand
streams.
3. Theprocessisquitecomplex,containingmanysubcycles.
4. EngineeringHydrologytakesaquantitativeviewofthehydrologiccycle.
5. Thequantificationofthehydrologiccyclewhichisanopensystemcanberepresentedbyamass
balanceequation,whereinputsminusoutputsareequaltothechangeinstorage.
6. ItisabasicHydrologicPrincipleorequationthatmaybeappliedeitheronglobalorregionalscale
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OnlineEngineeringHydrologyanditsscope::ClassLecturesandNotes
IO=S
Thewaterholdingelementsofthehydrologicalcycleare:
1. Atmosphere
2. Vegetation
3. Snowpacks
4. Landsurface
5. Soil
6. Streams,lakesandrivers
7. Aquifers
8. Oceans
HydrologicalProcesses
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WaterCycle
WaterEngineering
EngineeringSoil
RainWaterSystem
1. Precipitation
2. Evaporation
3. Transpiration
4. Infiltration
5. Overlandflow
6. SurfaceRunoff
7. Groundwateroutflow
WaterBalanceComponents
Inflow:
1. Precipitation
2. Importdefinedaswaterchanneledintoagivenarea.
3. Groundwaterinflowfromadjoiningareas.
Outflow:
1. Surfacerunoffoutflow
2. Exportdefinedaswaterchanneledoutofthesamearea.
3. Evaporation
4. Transpiration
ChangeinStorage:
Thisoccursaschangein:
1. Groundwater
2. Soilmoisture
3. Surfacereservoirwateranddepressionstorage
4. DetentionStorage
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OnlineEngineeringHydrologyanditsscope::ClassLecturesandNotes
GlobalWaterBalance
Intheatmosphere:
Precipitation(P)=Evapotranspiration(ET)
100+385=61+424
Onland:
P=Evapotranspiration(ET)+Surfacerunoff(R)+Groundwateroutflow
100=61+38+1
Overoceansandseas:
Oceanprecipitation+Surfacerunoff+Groundwateroutflow=Evaporation(E)
385+38+1=424
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OnlineEngineeringHydrologyanditsscope::ClassLecturesandNotes
HydrologicalSystems
Ahydrologicsystemisasastructureorvolumeinspace,surroundedbyaboundary,that
acceptswaterandotherinputs,operatesontheminternally,andproducesthemasoutputs.
Thestructure(forsurfaceorsubsurfaceflow)orvolumeinspace(foratmosphericmoistureflow)
isthetotalityoftheflowpathsthroughwhichthewatermaypassfromthepointitentersthe
systemtothepointitleaves.
Theboundaryisacontinuoussurfacedefinedinthreedimensionsenclosingthevolumeor
structure.
Aworkingmediumentersthesystemasinput,interactswiththestructureandothermedia,and
leavesasoutput.
Physical,chemicalandbiologicalprocessesoperateontheworkingmediawithinthesystem
themostcommonworkingmediainvolvedinhydrologicanalysisarewater,airandheatenergy.
Theglobalhydrologiccyclecanberepresentedasasystemcontainingthreesubsystems:the
atmosphericwatersystem,thesurfacewatersystem,andthesubsurfacewatersystem.
CatchmentandBasin
1. ACatchmentisaportionoftheearthssurfacethatcollectsrunoffandconcentratesitatits
furthestdownstreampoint,referredtoasthecatchmentoutlet.
2. Therunoffconcentratedbyacatchmentflowseitherintoalargercatchmentorintotheocean.
3. Theplacewhereastreamentersalargerstreamorbodyofwaterisreferredtoasthemouth.
4. Thetermswatershedandbasinarecommonlyusedtorefertocatchments.Generally,
watershedisusedtodescribeasmallcatchment(streamwatershed),whereasbasinis
reservedforlargecatchments(riverbasins).
WatershedandStreamorder
1. Thewatershedorbasinisdefinedbythesurroundingtopography,theperimeterofwhichis
calledadivide.Itisthehighestelevationsurroundingthewatershed.Allofthewaterthatfallson
theinsideofthedividedhasthepotentialtobeshedintothestreamsofthebasinencompassed
bythedivide.Waterfallingoutsideofthedivideisshedtoanotherbasin.
2. Thewaterflowinginstreamsiscalledstreamflow
Hortonsuggestedaclassificationofstreamorderasameasureoftheamountofbranchingwithina
basin.Afirstorderstreamisasmall,unbranchedtributary.Asecondorderstreamhasonlyfirstorder
tributaries.Athirdorderstreamhasonlyfirstandsecondordertributariesandsoon.Whenachannel
oflowerorderjoinsachannelofhigherorder,thechanneldownstreamretainsthehigherofthetwo
orders.
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OnlineEngineeringHydrologyanditsscope::ClassLecturesandNotes
WaterBalanceProblem
Inagivenyear,acatchmentwithanareaof2500km2received1.3mofprecipitation.Theaverage
rateofflowmeasuredinariverdrainingthecatchmentwas30m3s1.
1. Howmuchtotalriverrunoffoccurredintheyear(inm3)?
2. Whatistherunoffcoefficient?
3. Howmuchwaterislostduetothecombinedeffectsofevaporation,transpiration,andinfiltration?
(Expressedinm).
Solution
Totalrunoffvolume
=numberofsecondsinayearaverageflowrate
=3153600030
=9.4608108m3
Runoffcoefficient
=Runoffvolume/precipitationvolume
=(9.4608108)/(1.32500106)
=0.29(29%)
Thewaterbalanceequationcanbearrangedtoproduce:
ET+F=PRS
Where:P=(1.32500106)
=3.25109m3
R=9.4608108m3(fromTotalrunoffvolume)
S=0(i.e.nochangeinstorage)
So,
ET+F=3.251099.4608108
=2.30392109m3
=(2.30392109)/(2500106)
=0.92m
Precipitation
WhatisPrecipitation?Defined:
Waterfallinginsolidorliquidforme.g.rain,snow,andhail.
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OnlineEngineeringHydrologyanditsscope::ClassLecturesandNotes
UsesofPrecipitationData
Runoffestimationanalysis
Groundwaterrechargeanalysis
Waterbalancestudiesofcatchments
Floodanalysisfordesignofhydraulicstructures
Realtimefloodforecasting
lowflowstudies
MechanismProducingPrecipitation
Threemechanismsareneededforformationofprecipitation.
1.LiftingandCoolingLiftingofairmasstohigheraltitudescausescoolingofair.
2.Condensationconversionofwatervaporintoliquiddroplets.
3.DropletFormationGrowthofdropletsisrequirediftheliquidwaterpresentinacloudistoreach
groundagainsttheliftingmechanismofair.
TypesofPrecipitation
Dependinguponthewayinwhichtheairisliftedandcooledsoastocauseprecipitation,wehave
threetypesofprecipitation,asgivenbelow:
CyclonicPrecipitation
ConvectivePrecipitation
OrographicPrecipitation
CyclonicPrecipitation:
Cyclonicprecipitationiscausedbyliftingofanairmassduetothepressuredifference.Cyclonic
precipitationmaybeeitherfrontalornonfrontalcyclonicprecipitation.
Frontalprecipitation:
Itresultsfromtheliftingofwarmandmoistairononesideofafrontalsurfaceovercolder,denserair
ontheotherside.Afrontmaybewarmfrontorcoldfrontdependinguponwhetherthereisactiveor
passiveaccentofwarmairmassovercoldairmass.
Nonfrontalprecipitation:
Iflowpressureoccursinanarea(calledcyclone),airwillflowhorizontallyfromthesurroundingarea
(highpressure),causingtheairinthelowpressureareatolift.Whentheliftedwarmaircoolsdownat
higherattitude,nonfrontalcyclonicprecipitationwilloccur.
Inthecaseofacoldfront,acolder,denserairmassliftsthewarm,moistairaheadofit.Astheair
rises,itcoolsanditsmoisturecondensestoproducecloudsandprecipitation.Duetothesteepslopeof
acoldfront,forcefulrisingmotionisoftenproduced,leadingtothedevelopmentofshowersand
occasionallyseverethunderstorms.
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OnlineEngineeringHydrologyanditsscope::ClassLecturesandNotes
Inthecaseofawarmfront,thewarm,lessdenseairrisesupandoverthecolderairaheadofthe
front.Again,theaircoolsasitrisesanditsmoisturecondensestoproducecloudsandprecipitation.
Warmfrontshaveagentlerslopeandgenerallymovemoreslowlythancoldfronts,sotherisingmotion
alongwarmfrontsismuchmoregradual.Precipitationthatdevelopsinadvanceofasurfacewarm
frontistypicallysteadyandmorewidespreadthanprecipitationassociatedwithacoldfront.Warmfront
precipitationisgenerallylighttomoderate.
ConvectivePrecipitation
Convectiveprecipitationiscausedbynaturalrisingofwarmer,lighterairincolder,denser
surroundings.Generally,thiskindofprecipitationoccursintropics,whereonahotday,theground
surfacegetsheatedunequally,causingthewarmerairtoliftupasthecolderaircomestotakeits
place.Theverticalaircurrentsdeveloptremendousvelocities.Convectiveprecipitationoccursinthe
formofshowersofhighintensityandshortduration.
OrographicPrecipitation
Orographicprecipitationiscausedbyairmasseswhichstrikesomenaturaltopographicbarrierslike
mountains,andcannotmoveforwardandhenceriseup,causingcondensationandprecipitation.All
theprecipitationwehaveinHimalayanregionisbecauseofthisnature.Itisrichinmoisturebecauseof
theirlongtraveloveroceans.
DefinitionsofsomeusefulTechnicalterms
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OnlineEngineeringHydrologyanditsscope::ClassLecturesandNotes
Depth:depthofrainfallatapointoroveranarea(mm)
Duration:theperiodoftimeduringwhichrainfell(hours)
Intensity:Depthofrainfallperunittimei.e.depth/duration(mm/hr)
Timedistribution:Rainfallhyetographsareplotsofrainfalldepthorintensityasafunctionoftime.
Cumulativerainfallhyetographsarealsocalledrainfallmasscurve.
Isohyets(contoursofconstantrainfall)canbedrawntodevelopisohyetalmapsofrainfalldepth.
NormalAnnualPrecipitation(meanof30yearsannualppt)
MeasurementofPrecipitation
PointDataGauges
Nonrecordingraingauges
Theyareknownasnonrecordingbecausetheydonotrecordtherainbutcollecttherain.
Recordingraingauges
Theseareusedtodetermineratesofrainfalloverperiodsoftime.Threetypesincommonuseare:
1. WeighingType
2. TippingBucketType
3. 3.FloatType
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