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OnlineEngineeringHydrologyanditsscope::ClassLecturesandNotes

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Contents
1. Whatwestudyin
hydrology?
2. ScopeofHydrology
3. EngineeringHydrology
1. Usesof
Engineering
Hydrology
4. BranchesofHydrology
5. HydrologicalCycle
6. Catchment&Basin,
watershed&stream
order
7. WaterBalance
Components
8. Precipitation
1. Mechanismof
Precipitation
2. Typesof
Precipitation
3. Measurement
9. HydrologicalSoilGroups

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WhatwestudyinHydrology
In hydrology we study Hydrologic cycle, its processes, water balance, precipitation types, estimation of
precipitation, and analysis of precipitation data. We also study infiltration phenomena, solution of the
Richards equation and approximate infiltration models. Methods of measurement of stream flow, stage
dischargerelation,unithydrographtheory,TranspositionofHydrograph,Synthesisofhydrographfrombasin
characteristics,streamflowrouting,floodfrequencyanalysisandattenuationoffloodflowsarealsostudiedin
Hydrology.

Definitionofhydrology:
Thestudyofwaterinallitsforms(rain,snowandwaterontheearthssurface),andfromitsoriginstoallits
destinationsontheearthiscalledhydrology.

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ScopeofHydrology
1. Waterisonethemostvaluablenaturalresourcesessentialforhumanandanimallife,industryand
agriculture.
2. ItisalsousedforPowergeneration,navigationandfisheries.
3. Tremendousimportanceisgiventothehydrologyallovertheworldinthedevelopmentand

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OnlineEngineeringHydrologyanditsscope::ClassLecturesandNotes

managementofwaterresourcesforirrigation,watersupply,floodcontrol,waterloggingandsalinity
control,Hydropowerandnavigation.

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EngineeringHydrology
Ituseshydrologicprinciplesinthesolutionofengineeringproblemsarisingfromhumanexploitationofwater
resourcesoftheearth.Theengineeringhydrologist,orwaterresourcesengineer,isinvolvedintheplanning,
analysis,design,constructionandoperationofprojectsforthecontrol,utilizationandmanagementofwater
resources.
Hydrologiccalculationsareestimatesbecausemostlytheempiricalandapproximatemethodsareusedto
describevarioushydrologicalprocesses.

UsesofEngineeringHydrology
EngineeringHydrologyHelpsinthefollowingways:
1. Hydrologyisusedtofindoutmaximumprobablefloodatproposedsitese.g.Dams.
2. Thevariationofwaterproductionfromcatchmentscanbecalculatedanddescribedbyhydrology.
3. Engineeringhydrologyenablesustofindouttherelationshipbetweenacatchmentssurfacewaterand
groundwaterresources
4. Theexpectedfloodflowsoveraspillway,atahighwayCulvert,orinanurbanstormdrainagesystem
canbeknownbythisverysubject.
5. Ithelpsustoknowtherequiredreservoircapacitytoassureadequatewaterforirrigationormunicipal
watersupplyindroughtscondition.
6. Ittellsuswhathydrologichardware(e.g.raingauges,streamgaugesetc)andsoftware(computer
models)areneededforrealtimefloodforecasting

BranchesofHydrology
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Hydrology

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ProjectScope

SoilTypes

Hydrologicalcycle
1. Thehydrologiccycledescribesthecontinuousrecirculatingtransportofthewatersoftheearth,
linkingatmosphere,landandoceans.
2. Waterevaporatesfromtheoceansurface,drivenbyenergyfromtheSun,andjoinstheatmosphere,
movinginlandasclouds.Onceinland,atmosphericconditionsacttocondenseandprecipitatewater
ontothelandsurface,where,drivenbygravitationalforces,itreturnstotheoceanthroughriverand
streams.
3. Theprocessisquitecomplex,containingmanysubcycles.
4. EngineeringHydrologytakesaquantitativeviewofthehydrologiccycle.
5. Thequantificationofthehydrologiccyclewhichisanopensystemcanberepresentedbyamass
balanceequation,whereinputsminusoutputsareequaltothechangeinstorage.
6. ItisabasicHydrologicPrincipleorequationthatmaybeappliedeitheronglobalorregionalscale
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IO=S

Thewaterholdingelementsofthehydrologicalcycleare:
1. Atmosphere
2. Vegetation
3. Snowpacks
4. Landsurface
5. Soil
6. Streams,lakesandrivers
7. Aquifers
8. Oceans

HydrologicalProcesses
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WaterCycle

WaterEngineering

EngineeringSoil

RainWaterSystem

1. Precipitation
2. Evaporation
3. Transpiration
4. Infiltration
5. Overlandflow
6. SurfaceRunoff
7. Groundwateroutflow

WaterBalanceComponents
Inflow:
1. Precipitation
2. Importdefinedaswaterchanneledintoagivenarea.
3. Groundwaterinflowfromadjoiningareas.

Outflow:
1. Surfacerunoffoutflow
2. Exportdefinedaswaterchanneledoutofthesamearea.
3. Evaporation
4. Transpiration

ChangeinStorage:
Thisoccursaschangein:
1. Groundwater
2. Soilmoisture
3. Surfacereservoirwateranddepressionstorage
4. DetentionStorage

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OnlineEngineeringHydrologyanditsscope::ClassLecturesandNotes

GlobalWaterBalance
Intheatmosphere:
Precipitation(P)=Evapotranspiration(ET)
100+385=61+424

Onland:
P=Evapotranspiration(ET)+Surfacerunoff(R)+Groundwateroutflow
100=61+38+1

Overoceansandseas:
Oceanprecipitation+Surfacerunoff+Groundwateroutflow=Evaporation(E)
385+38+1=424

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HydrologicalSystems
Ahydrologicsystemisasastructureorvolumeinspace,surroundedbyaboundary,that
acceptswaterandotherinputs,operatesontheminternally,andproducesthemasoutputs.
Thestructure(forsurfaceorsubsurfaceflow)orvolumeinspace(foratmosphericmoistureflow)
isthetotalityoftheflowpathsthroughwhichthewatermaypassfromthepointitentersthe
systemtothepointitleaves.
Theboundaryisacontinuoussurfacedefinedinthreedimensionsenclosingthevolumeor
structure.
Aworkingmediumentersthesystemasinput,interactswiththestructureandothermedia,and
leavesasoutput.
Physical,chemicalandbiologicalprocessesoperateontheworkingmediawithinthesystem
themostcommonworkingmediainvolvedinhydrologicanalysisarewater,airandheatenergy.
Theglobalhydrologiccyclecanberepresentedasasystemcontainingthreesubsystems:the
atmosphericwatersystem,thesurfacewatersystem,andthesubsurfacewatersystem.

CatchmentandBasin
1. ACatchmentisaportionoftheearthssurfacethatcollectsrunoffandconcentratesitatits
furthestdownstreampoint,referredtoasthecatchmentoutlet.
2. Therunoffconcentratedbyacatchmentflowseitherintoalargercatchmentorintotheocean.
3. Theplacewhereastreamentersalargerstreamorbodyofwaterisreferredtoasthemouth.
4. Thetermswatershedandbasinarecommonlyusedtorefertocatchments.Generally,
watershedisusedtodescribeasmallcatchment(streamwatershed),whereasbasinis
reservedforlargecatchments(riverbasins).

WatershedandStreamorder
1. Thewatershedorbasinisdefinedbythesurroundingtopography,theperimeterofwhichis
calledadivide.Itisthehighestelevationsurroundingthewatershed.Allofthewaterthatfallson
theinsideofthedividedhasthepotentialtobeshedintothestreamsofthebasinencompassed
bythedivide.Waterfallingoutsideofthedivideisshedtoanotherbasin.
2. Thewaterflowinginstreamsiscalledstreamflow
Hortonsuggestedaclassificationofstreamorderasameasureoftheamountofbranchingwithina
basin.Afirstorderstreamisasmall,unbranchedtributary.Asecondorderstreamhasonlyfirstorder
tributaries.Athirdorderstreamhasonlyfirstandsecondordertributariesandsoon.Whenachannel
oflowerorderjoinsachannelofhigherorder,thechanneldownstreamretainsthehigherofthetwo
orders.

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OnlineEngineeringHydrologyanditsscope::ClassLecturesandNotes

WaterBalanceProblem
Inagivenyear,acatchmentwithanareaof2500km2received1.3mofprecipitation.Theaverage
rateofflowmeasuredinariverdrainingthecatchmentwas30m3s1.
1. Howmuchtotalriverrunoffoccurredintheyear(inm3)?
2. Whatistherunoffcoefficient?
3. Howmuchwaterislostduetothecombinedeffectsofevaporation,transpiration,andinfiltration?
(Expressedinm).
Solution

Totalrunoffvolume
=numberofsecondsinayearaverageflowrate
=3153600030
=9.4608108m3

Runoffcoefficient
=Runoffvolume/precipitationvolume
=(9.4608108)/(1.32500106)
=0.29(29%)
Thewaterbalanceequationcanbearrangedtoproduce:
ET+F=PRS
Where:P=(1.32500106)
=3.25109m3
R=9.4608108m3(fromTotalrunoffvolume)
S=0(i.e.nochangeinstorage)
So,
ET+F=3.251099.4608108
=2.30392109m3
=(2.30392109)/(2500106)
=0.92m

Precipitation
WhatisPrecipitation?Defined:
Waterfallinginsolidorliquidforme.g.rain,snow,andhail.
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UsesofPrecipitationData
Runoffestimationanalysis
Groundwaterrechargeanalysis
Waterbalancestudiesofcatchments
Floodanalysisfordesignofhydraulicstructures
Realtimefloodforecasting
lowflowstudies

MechanismProducingPrecipitation
Threemechanismsareneededforformationofprecipitation.
1.LiftingandCoolingLiftingofairmasstohigheraltitudescausescoolingofair.
2.Condensationconversionofwatervaporintoliquiddroplets.
3.DropletFormationGrowthofdropletsisrequirediftheliquidwaterpresentinacloudistoreach
groundagainsttheliftingmechanismofair.

TypesofPrecipitation
Dependinguponthewayinwhichtheairisliftedandcooledsoastocauseprecipitation,wehave
threetypesofprecipitation,asgivenbelow:
CyclonicPrecipitation
ConvectivePrecipitation
OrographicPrecipitation

CyclonicPrecipitation:
Cyclonicprecipitationiscausedbyliftingofanairmassduetothepressuredifference.Cyclonic
precipitationmaybeeitherfrontalornonfrontalcyclonicprecipitation.

Frontalprecipitation:
Itresultsfromtheliftingofwarmandmoistairononesideofafrontalsurfaceovercolder,denserair
ontheotherside.Afrontmaybewarmfrontorcoldfrontdependinguponwhetherthereisactiveor
passiveaccentofwarmairmassovercoldairmass.

Nonfrontalprecipitation:
Iflowpressureoccursinanarea(calledcyclone),airwillflowhorizontallyfromthesurroundingarea
(highpressure),causingtheairinthelowpressureareatolift.Whentheliftedwarmaircoolsdownat
higherattitude,nonfrontalcyclonicprecipitationwilloccur.

Inthecaseofacoldfront,acolder,denserairmassliftsthewarm,moistairaheadofit.Astheair
rises,itcoolsanditsmoisturecondensestoproducecloudsandprecipitation.Duetothesteepslopeof
acoldfront,forcefulrisingmotionisoftenproduced,leadingtothedevelopmentofshowersand
occasionallyseverethunderstorms.

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Inthecaseofawarmfront,thewarm,lessdenseairrisesupandoverthecolderairaheadofthe
front.Again,theaircoolsasitrisesanditsmoisturecondensestoproducecloudsandprecipitation.
Warmfrontshaveagentlerslopeandgenerallymovemoreslowlythancoldfronts,sotherisingmotion
alongwarmfrontsismuchmoregradual.Precipitationthatdevelopsinadvanceofasurfacewarm
frontistypicallysteadyandmorewidespreadthanprecipitationassociatedwithacoldfront.Warmfront
precipitationisgenerallylighttomoderate.

ConvectivePrecipitation
Convectiveprecipitationiscausedbynaturalrisingofwarmer,lighterairincolder,denser
surroundings.Generally,thiskindofprecipitationoccursintropics,whereonahotday,theground
surfacegetsheatedunequally,causingthewarmerairtoliftupasthecolderaircomestotakeits
place.Theverticalaircurrentsdeveloptremendousvelocities.Convectiveprecipitationoccursinthe
formofshowersofhighintensityandshortduration.

OrographicPrecipitation
Orographicprecipitationiscausedbyairmasseswhichstrikesomenaturaltopographicbarrierslike
mountains,andcannotmoveforwardandhenceriseup,causingcondensationandprecipitation.All
theprecipitationwehaveinHimalayanregionisbecauseofthisnature.Itisrichinmoisturebecauseof
theirlongtraveloveroceans.

DefinitionsofsomeusefulTechnicalterms
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Depth:depthofrainfallatapointoroveranarea(mm)
Duration:theperiodoftimeduringwhichrainfell(hours)
Intensity:Depthofrainfallperunittimei.e.depth/duration(mm/hr)
Timedistribution:Rainfallhyetographsareplotsofrainfalldepthorintensityasafunctionoftime.
Cumulativerainfallhyetographsarealsocalledrainfallmasscurve.
Isohyets(contoursofconstantrainfall)canbedrawntodevelopisohyetalmapsofrainfalldepth.
NormalAnnualPrecipitation(meanof30yearsannualppt)

MeasurementofPrecipitation
PointDataGauges
Nonrecordingraingauges
Theyareknownasnonrecordingbecausetheydonotrecordtherainbutcollecttherain.

Recordingraingauges
Theseareusedtodetermineratesofrainfalloverperiodsoftime.Threetypesincommonuseare:
1. WeighingType
2. TippingBucketType
3. 3.FloatType
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