Professional Documents
Culture Documents
SB 2M 2M7
LIBRARY
OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.
Class
EXPERIMENTAL
ELASTICITY
CLAY, MANAGER.
FETTER LANE, E.G.
100,
PRINCES STREET.
ALSO
lontoon:
H. K. LEWIS,
Hetpjig:
Berlin:
efo
Bomfrag
anti
Horfc:
136,
F. A.
A.
ASHER AND
G. P.
(Calcutta:
GOWER
STREET, W.C.
BROCKHAUS.
CO.
PUTNAM'S SONS.
MACMILLAN AND
Co.,
LTD.
EXPERIMENTAL
ELASTICITY
BY
G.
F.
C.
SEARLE, M.A.,
F.R.S.
AND
DEMONSTRATOR IN EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS
AT THE CAVENDISH LABORATORY
OF THE
UNIVERSITY
OF
CAMBRIDGE:
at the
University Press
1908
(Eatnfmtoge
PREFACE
present volume has
its
the
attending
Cavendish Laboratory.
my
class
in
to
practical
in 1890, I
When,
time
for the
use of
physics at the
was appointed
to
my
I found
present post of Demonstrator in Experimental Physics,
The
some
to devise
directly
possible.
also
and
to be conducted.
of these
others
it,
earlier
this
how the
practical
work
so interesting that I
have continued
upon
my practical
class rely
mainly
Many
copies of
211733
PREFACE
VI
more
way than by merely reading a printed book conthe same matter. But the plan of using manuscript notes
in that
taining
makes
to arrange for
it difficult
same experiment at
one time and often prevents the students from preparing themmore than two or three students
to do the
There
is,
satisfactory, for
some of the
earlier manuscripts
many
of the
working of the
class
it
would be more
the material, with additions, in the form of a series of small textbooks, in which a fairly
full
is
published and
lay claim to
any
sort of
com-
my
PREFACE
Vll
The
first
may
be useful
to students at the
mathematical theory of
elasticity,
propositions in thermodynamics.
is
to
and revision of
so
much from
this chapter,
Dr
To the preparation
theory of elasticity
than mine.
The
number
of ex-
two chapters.
Each description
is
followed by a practical
results taken from
perhaps
Some
own
The
observations.
useful to students
training.
if
is
"
workmanship,
home made
"
character
who use
Those who
after-
PREFACE
Vlll
"
To the
apparatus.
principles
is
of greater value
rest,
who
distribute them-
human
activity, a knowledge of
than an acquaintance with the
To
W.
and
my
made
to
G.
Pye
designs.
owe much
attended
my
source of
much
my name
"
"
improvements
to the
many
of doubtful value.
generations of students
I also
me
who have
class.
owe much
my
given in
many
many ways
been a
for
much
oldest colleague,
real reward.
who have
assisted
and especially
Mr
to the
T. G. Bedford, has
years.
me by
by Mr Bedford
his knowledge of physical principles, of the work of teaching
the experimental methods described in this book and of the
difficulties of students makes his aid of great value. Dr Alexander
friends.
The
Russell,
made many
helpful criticisms
and
upon the
criticised
proofs.
Dr
L.
N. G. Filon
PREFACE
has spent
Mr W.
much
C. D.
Whetham,
IX
first
editorial assistance.
Mr
manuscript
my
wife
Mr
P. D.
Mr
A.
J.
Bamford of Emmanuel
Innes of
in
minor ways,
To
my
all
these,
thanks are
given.
The
(v. 2),
ejus.
G. F. C. S.
Augmt,
1908.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
SECTION
1
Introduction
Law
Hooke's
...
3
5
Stress
Measurement
Hydrostatic pressure
of stresses
Strain
10
Shear
11
Maximum
12
.......
8
8
13
14
Rigidity
15
16
17
Young's modulus
18
Poisson's ratio
19
..
10
elasticity
.
11
.'
.
.
15
18
14
17
20
22
13
....
21
elasticities
of
...
...
isothermal
-.
20
22
and adiabatic
25
CONTENTS
Xll
CHAPTER
II
23
24
25
26
...
Dr
Dr
30
31
....
PAGE
32
.
36
Introduction
28
....
33
39
40
46
".......
47
48
29
30
31
Bending moment
32
Removal of the
33
34
Case of a rod
Case of a blade
35
Introduction
36
37
Bending moment
Change of type of bending
"
body
forces
49
50
38
52
...
54
56
57
40
41
Practical approximation
58
<
60
62
...
42
43
Geometry of a
44
45
Introduction
helicoid
.,.,,..
63
63
66
68
CONTENTS
CHAPTEE
Xlll
III
SECTION
46
71
Introduction
Experiment
1.
...........
47
Introduction
48
50
Apparatus
Experiments on loading and unloading a copper wire
Graphical representation of deviations from Hooke's law
51
Practical example
49
Experiment
52
53
54
74
77
78
79
2.
80
Apparatus
Determination of Young's modulus
Practical example
Experiment
72
3.
81
85
55
57
Apparatus
Determination of Young's modulus
Notes on the method
58
Practical example
56
Experiment
59
:'
Determination of
4.
60
*
.
Apparatus
Determination of rigidity
61
Practical example
Experiment
62
63
64
.
Apparatus .
Determination of
.
Practical example
rigidity.
....
...
Determination of
5.
......
.
i
.....
.
rigidity.
87
88
89
method
Statical
.
86
90
91
94
Dynamical method
...
95
.........
97
..
rigidity
;-.
....
99
XIV
CONTENTS
6.
Determination of Young's modulus by
uniform bending of a rod. Statical method
Experiment
SECTION
65
66
67
68
PAGE
.
Apparatus
Determination of Young's modulus
100
102
Practical example
.104
106
Experiment
7.
Determination of Young's modulus by
uniform bending of a rod. Dynamical method
69
70
71
Practical example
107
Experiment
..
Method
73
Practical example
9.
no
Ill
Dynamical
...
...
'
72
8.
Experiment
,.
'.'
.,
'.
112
114
...'-
74
Introduction
75
76
Practical example
Experiment
77
Introduction
78
Approximate
114
....
'.
118
119
.......
79
50
Apparatus
51
62
83
64
';.
Experiment
11.
...
.
.121
126
127
124
:
119
'.
129
130
131
.....
S5
Introduction
132
86
Determination of rigidity
Practical example
134
67
132
XV
CONTENTS
Experiment
Determination of E/(l
12.
- o-2 by
)
the uniform
bending of a blade
PAGE
SECTION
...'.......
88
Introduction
135
89
136
91
Apparatus
Determination of E/(l - o- 2 )
Calculation of E and of o-
92
Practical example
90
Experiment
138
.
.139
139
13.
141
93
Introduction
94
Work done by
95
96
97
Test of
143
forces
98
reciprocal relation
Test of third reciprocal relation
99
Practical example
.145
147
148
first
Experiment
149
.
.150
14.
100
Introduction
101
152
...........
102
103
104
Note
I.
Note
II.
Note
III.
.154
157
159
Motion of a
rigid
155
162
162
body
SECTION
1
Note IV.
Moments
Definition
Some
163
164
of inertia
.
....
.
165
.165
166
XVI
CONTENTS
Moments
Note IV.
of inertia (continued}
SECTION
4
5
PAGE
Moments
Moments
166
12
13
Angular
14
9
10
11
axis
Note V.
1
momentum
169
169
fixed
170
Kectilinear motion
Motion about a fixed axis
170
171
..
.172
Young's modulus
Kigidity
On
Note VH.
Note VIII.
'-.
inertia bars
Work done by
.....
a couple
172
173
174
175
176
178
179
...
Failures
Observations
The recording
.
Diagrams
Note books.
General remarks.
168
.
Note X.
168
Harmonic motion
Note VI.
Note IX.
of a rigid
167
.167
.167
.168
Moments
Moments of inertia of a circular lamina
Moments of inertia of an elliptical lamina
Moment of inertia of a sphere
Moments of inertia of an ellipsoid
Moments of inertia of a circular cylinder.
"Moments of inertia" of areas
INDEX
178
.
of observations
-^
-,
'.
182
182
182
'.
....
.
.180
185
OF THE
UNIVERSITY
OF
CHAPTER
I.
The
while a couple causes a twist in a wire. But the simplest observations on the stretching or bending of a piece of copper wire are
sufficient to show that, even though the forces are not so great as
to break the body, they
When the
its original
enough, the body will completely recover its original form on their
removal. This is equivalent to saying that the form of a body
depends only on the forces which act on it at the time, and not
have no
to act.
because
it
renders
many substances it is
poses, it may be regarded
for
s.
E. E.
THEORY OF ELASTICITY
2
2.
Hooke's law.
[CH.
first
to
ceiiinosssttuu."
at the end of
my Book
ceiiinosssttuu, id est,
Ut
in the
This assumption
is,
law.
fails,
we may say
have taken an
can,
l]
and this can be done without any reference to the complex actions
which occur within the steel itself.
when subjected
by experiment
that,
when a wire
of length
where p
is
Thus, we should
and
cross section
given by
is
From
this
where q
is
the effect of any given set of forces on any given body. Thus,
experiments on the torsion of a rod of circular section would give
no information as to the twist which a given couple would produce
same properties
in all directions,
all
and
to
be homogeneous,
i.e.
to
points.
12
THEORY OF ELASTICITY
[CH.
other,
We
molecular distances.
shall
speak of these
last forces as
due
to molecular actions.
Now,
it is
lie
8
dividing surface within a distance of about 10~ cm. from the sur-
may
here
is
actions due to B, which are included in the second class, but also
by those
forces
due
is
to
pulled by a string or
is
through gravitation.
If we apply Newton's laws of motion, we find that the rate of
increase of the
momentum
resultant in the
same
of
in
any direction
is
equal to the
and
any
STRESS
I]
moment about
all
the
In
many cases
on A, and (2) that the moment about any axis of the molecular
B is in equilibrium with the moment about the same
actions of
Stress.
The word
stress is often
A.
it will
If any
be used only in a definite mathematical sense.
Thus
area
in
of
the
be
drawn
the
the
elementary
body on
body,
parts
either side of the area exert equal and opposite forces on each other
:
The
the
stress.
line
immediate
The
may be
in the
stress
may be normal
to
or
stress at
Measurement of
stresses.
of a
given stress depends upon the units of force and of area which we
employ. To avoid errors, the student should be careful to state
correctly the unit of force
for the
measurement of
areas.
See Note
II.
stress of
THEORY OF ELASTICITY
[CH.
As a simple example, suppose that a vertical wire 1'32 millimetres in diameter supports a mass of 3'5 kilogrammes in a
= 981 cm. see."2 and that the stress is required
locality where g
,
The total
for a plane cutting the axis of the wire at right angles.
6
force acting across the plane is 3*5 x 1000 x 981 or 3*434 x 10
dynes, while
its
area of section
Hence the
square cm.
and
the
stress
is
7r(0'066)
(assumed uniform)
or
T368 x 10~
is
a normal one
is
magnitude
3-434 x 10 6
7.
Hydrostatic pressure. When the stress at a given point
normal to every element of area containing that point, there is
is
hedron
OB,
X,
OABC (Fig.
00
Z
Y,
a,
(3,
1).
ABC
The
consider the
OCA, OAB.
and
Now
force
matter
proportional to the cube of the linear dimensions of the tetrahedron, as is also any
But the forces
force arising from gravity.
l.
Fig.
due to the
as great as
the limit,
parallel to
OA
are a force
S, acting
STRAIN
I]
normally to
ABC, and
a force
X.OBC
or
X.S
cos
a,
acting
PS
cos a
= JT$
cos
a,
Hence
P = X=7 = Z,
so that the stress
is
the area.
Strain.
8.
Suppose
divide
it
drawn
When
in the
an
body so as to
But
body.
it is
them.
9.
When
the strain
is
such
if
THEORY OF ELASTICITY
[CH.
same
unit.
be moved in that plane through the same distance and in the same
direction, the part of the body between the planes is said to be
If the displacement of any particle between A and B be
sheared.
parallel to
and
cubical
and four
of a distorted face
Maximum
Fig. 2.
radians.
For
all
metals Hooke's law only holds for small shears and ceases to
apply
SHEARING STRAINS
l]
either because
is
reached
exceed
radian.
We shall now
Results for infinitesimal shears.
some useful results, which are approximately true for
small shears and accurately true for infinitesimal shears. From
12.
obtain
Fig. 2
But,
when 6
an error of
is
less
may
write
B& = he.
Since
we
find,
(1
+ tan
0)^,
tan 6 by
6,
that
^^(l +
ifl
...... ).
Hence the shear does not alter the length of the edges A-Ji^ A.2B2
2
by more than |0 cm. per cm. If 6 =T^RJ, the change does not
amount to one part in 2,000,000.
In technical mathematical language we may say that 0, the
2
shear, is a small quantity of the first order and that J0 the
,
i.e.
elongation,
A^Bly A 2 B
is
A&
A^
to be neglected,
NC B
2
is
Similarly,
J0 h
>/2.
2.
Now
the angle
AB
7T/4
= he IV2 = \e
h V2.
THEORY OF ELASTICITY
10
thus
we
[CH.
and
N NC
same
it
the diagonal
A^
will
AB
angles after as well as before the straining, though each set will
be turned through \Q in the same direction.
Hence, a uniform shear of 6 radians is equivalent to a uniform
contraction of ^6 cm. per cm. in a direction inclined at 45 to the
13.
elasticity.
Suppose
that,
homogeneous and
isotropic matter,
body
a uniform hydrostatic pressure of p dynes per square
This will evidently compress each elementary cube of the
the stress
cm.
of
is
body
ABC
as an
"
elastic constant
"
of the material.
BULK MODULUS
l]
The
11
modulus or volume
substance and
elasticity of the
is
denoted by
k.
w, the compression
v to v
given by
stress
strain
pressure
compresssion
_pv
k=
is
10 /(5'55 x
10~ ) =
5
1-802 x 10
12
is
For
this reason it is
we can
Hence we have,
dv/v
The negative
(2)
volume corresponding
14.
dv
Rigidity.
to dp.
To produce a shear
in a solid substance
an
THEORY OF ELASTICITY
12
[CH.
We
Fig. 3.
couple.
The
and
will cause
and
But the
will
forces
change the
and B from
of these faces,
JTT 4-
6 and
When
when
\nr
the block
is
strained, be
6 radians.
the stress
is small
enough, it may [^~be expected to be proportional to the shear
4
Fi
6, and experiment shows that Hooke's law
does express the relation between the stress and the shear when
KIGIDITY
I]
13
they are small. Thus, the ratio of the tangential stress on each
of the faces A, B, A', E' to the resulting shear may be regarded
"
"
as an elastic constant of the substance.
The
n =
The
rigidity
a unit
is
shear,
.,.
rigidity
J
i.e.
n=
10
Then the
rigidity
is
given by
= 8'2
it
define
it
Hence
*
This terra is used in Kohlrausch's Introduction
Third English Edition, p. 137.
to
is
tangential to
the
cm., since
Physical Measurements,
'
THEORY OF ELASTICITY
14
[CH.
Since
angles to the plane amounting to p dynes per square cm.
the strain is uniform, there is an equal stress across every plane
parallel to this diagonal plane.
In a similar way it follows that the stress across the diagonal
plane, which passes through the line of intersection of the faces
A
p
and B,
is
strain.
16.
;
It
may
YOUNG S MODULUS
of forces
is
shown
in Fig. 5,
15
a, b is
2ph?
cos Tr/4, or
ph
*J'2,
parallel to the
diagonal plane.
The material
cube of Fig. 5
tangential.
of
Young's modulus.
THEORY OF ELASTICITY
16
[CH.
The
cm. to
T dynes per
+ X cm., the
E= v
Young s modulus =
,,
stress
-,
= -T = T^ = Tl
elongation
\/l
...(5)
As an example
is TT
T=
E=T/e = 51
If the
x 10 12 /2'4
= 212
to
the longitudinal
we can
still
as the ratio of
by the equation
POISSON'S RATIO
I]
17
exceed
"
When
the rod
becomes
is
stretched, its
purposes
it
sufficient to calculate
is
In
Q.
fact,
to the pull P.
When
Poisson's ratio.
18.
a rod or wire
is
stretched by
from
force, it
found that
its cross-section
is
substance to substance.
Let the elongation of the rod, i.e. the increase of length per
unit length, parallel to its axis be e cm. per cm., and let the lateral
contraction, i.e. the diminution of length per unit length, of lines
at right angles to the axis be /cm. per cm.
Then the ratio off
to e
is
and
cr
-r,
Poisson
s ratio
denoted by
is
Thus
<r.
Lateral contraction
:
Elongation
J/
-
.(7)
Since both the elongation and the contraction are pure numbers,
Poisson's ratio is a pure number and is independent both of the
unit of length and of the unit of force.
As an example of the use of this formula, suppose that, when a
steel wire 1000 cm. in length and O'l cm. in diameter is stretched
by
5
by 1*12 x 10~ cm. Then the
"4/1 000 or 4 x 10~ and the lateral contraction is
or 112 x 10~ 4
Hence
elongation
is
Poisson
s.
E. E.
s ratio
x 10~ 4
- = 1*12
- =
4
Lateral contraction
^
Elongation
r-
4 x 10~
'28.
THEORY OF ELASTICITY
18
If a rod of length
I,
having
[CH.
square of side
a,
Since / = ecr,
2/), because/ is very small.
a
of
is
diminution
the
e
we see that
accompanied by
elongation
cross-section of 2cr# square cm. per square cm., and by an increase
is
a2 (l
2
2
/) or a (l
of volume of (1
when
c.c.,
is
+ e) (1
2cre)
1 c.c.
per
c.c.
or e (1
2er) c.c.
per
neglected.
is
an
cr
is
equation
(7
19.
= 3k 2n
6k + 2n
'
In the case
Fig. 6.
and thus only two out of these four quantities are independent. The two relations may be found in the following
ratio
cr,
I]
manner
C, C' (Fig. 6)
19
h (1
-f
/k
We
B, B',
we
P
P
P
&+"9fc
6n +*
6n
But we have seen
in
Pr
/I
rw
\9k
1 \
o3nJ
cm P er cm
-
when expressed
22
in
THEORY OF ELASTICITY
20
terms
of
Young's modulus,
for
p/E
is
[CH.
the elongation,
The
p
p Cm
perCm
6^-9fc
-
But, by
18,
this
contraction,
or
or in
is
when expressed
in terms of
*-! 1
E
Hence, by
By
6n
(9)
9k'
(8),
(9),
of any two of
If
we
we add
(8) to (9),
we
easily find
(9),
we have
_\_E_
~~2
From
(10)
we
6F
find
3k (1
2<r)
2n (1
a) ................ (12)
1, either
Hence, if 2<r were greater than 1 or if a were less than
k or n would be negative. It therefore follows that, for an isotropic solid, Poisson's ratio cannot exceed \ and cannot be less
than
20.
1.
elasticities.
When
the
is,
This effect
is
very
I]
21
script
denoting that the temperature is constant.
On the other hand, if no heat be allowed to enter or leave any
part of the body, the temperature will change in a definite manner
corresponding to the action of the forces, and, since the relation
t
between the
no heat enters or leaves any part of the body, the change of form
Now if dQ
is said to take place under the adiabatic condition.
be the heat which enters a perfectly elastic body under any con-
is
dynamics*, we can
where
dQ =
(13)
tdj>,
d<f> is
of heat
zero.
hence, by
write
dQ
Hence the
elastic constants
We
do
by k Q
EQ and
nQ
when
it is
convenient
so,
See Maxwell, Theory of Heat, Chapter VIII, or Poynting and Thomson, Heat,
Chapter XVII.
THEORY OF ELASTICITY
22
[CH.
and by conduction
observed.
is
to
In other
elasticities, for it
is
any modulus
modulus.
In
elasticity.
of thermodynamics to elasticity, it
is convenient to express the moduli of
elasticity in terms of
differential coefficients.
In the case of the bulk modulus we
21.
discussing the
have,
applications
by equation
13,
(2),
(dp\
-
(14)
dv/q
L
kt
= -
dp\
dp^
-f-
\dvJt
The
subscript
p and
v are so related
that
constant.
Now,
we have
if
dz
fdz\
-j-
-,
das
must be a
we
definite
dy.
a
be
dz\
y,
dx
-T-
\dy) x
\dxjy
If the variations in
fdz\
(
x and
(dz\
fdy\
l]
23
independent variables
that t does not vary,
(dp\
p and
__
\dv)t
If,
v,
and hence,
fdt\
fdp\ _
\dvjp \dtj v
if
p and
_ (dp\
l(dv\
dv p \dQJ v
kj
__
be so related
\dtJ v / \dt)p
\dv/p \dp
(15),
idp\
\dv) Q
h~ (dp\
/dv\
(dQ\
\dvjp \dtjp
_
~
(dQ\ fdp\
\dp' v \dt) v
\dvJt
If the
where
Cp and Cv
dt
~~''
'
(dQ\
\dt) v
Hence
in
specific heat
of a
energy which
we
any
may be
pressure when
In the case of Young's modulus, the state of a given wire is
defined when we know its length and the tension, i.e. the force
per unit area acting across a transverse section, and thus a process
similar to that adopted for k will give
THEORY OF ELASTICITY
24
[CH.
rigidity,
we have
n^_G
~ p
nt
where
Gp
stant,
and
in like
manner
>
is
the shear have the constant value zero, the shearing stress remains
zero in spite of a change of temperature, for no shearing stress is
required to maintain the cubical form of a cubical block when its
stress is identical
shears
we may
with
Ce
identical.
write
n^
=n
rigidity,
we
1
always very small (perhaps not exceeding y^
We
radian) in order to keep within the limits of Hooke's law.
therefore
the
same
conclude
in
such
determinations,
that,
may
the shear 6
is
statical
less nearly
adiabatic.
When
work
will
be done.
On
we
l]
25
may
t ,
+ dt
t,
to
will
Cv
22.
Difference between reciprocals of isothermal and
adiabatic elasticities. Though it is impracticable to calculate
the ratio of the adiabatic to the isothermal value of k or of E from
the ratio of the specific heat for constant stress to that for constant
strain, yet we can find the difference between the. reciprocals of
these values in terms of quantities which can be determined.
shall now find the difference in the case of the bulk
We
On
modulus.
mass of a substance
isothermal line and
AB (Fig. 7) be an
AC an adiabatic line
let
constant entropy.
Let the
and
the
volume
of
unit
mass
the
pressure
at A be p, v and let the corresponding
temperature be t Let the line of conor line
of
stant pressure p
dp cut the isothermal
and adiabatic lines through A in
and C
p ~~ dP
way
DB = - (dv/dp)
Further,
CB
is
DC
corresponds in a similar
Hence
to constant entropy.
t
dp,
when the
THEORY OF ELASTICITY
26
[CH.
CB = (dvldt)p dt.
DB-DC=CB,
But
and hence, by (14) and
(15),
we have
1\
y - y- }dp =
/I
V
\k
(dv\
(-J-)
,.
dt.
\dtjp
k+J
Here
dt
is
dt
(dtjdp\ dp.
..................... (16)
/dv\
/dt
we have
1 = 1 1^\
k^
and hence,
From
know
v \dt)p \d<f)) p
we have
v \dt)p
'
\d(f> ) p
unit mass,
finally,
this equation
we can
~l
k^
1
,
when we
units,
mum
When
*
See Maxwell, Theory of Heat, Chapter IX, or Tait, Heat, Chapter XXI, or
Preston, Theory of Heat, Chapter VIII, Section iv.
I]
C.,
when
= 273
27
on the absolute
12
Hence, by
k
(17),
tvk t
(Idv\*
xlQ
1-7
12
/K
^ 1A _ 5 , 2
4xlO
'^(vdt)p
F,
273 x 0-11 x
0-032.
Thus k^
The
is
cm., the
is
for dv, in
(dt/dT^-(dl/d^) T
apply to the stretching of a rod of unit
a tensile stress T.
will
by
(18)
We
DA
17,
(6),
we then
obtain,
But
^
E
dl = ~ U77 i*
dt
WMJT
\dt) T
(
dl
"
Jb^J
Here
dt
is
dt
= (dt/dT)+ dT=-
(dl/d<f>) T
dT,
THEORY OF ELASTICITY
28
[CH.
fdl_\
fdt\
we have
-!
JL =
E+~
\dt T
we have
\d<j>J T
~ldi
'
T d4> T
unit mass,
__-
E
Hence E^
is
lC T \dt T
E<>
CT
\ldt
linear expansion
When
there
is
CT is
is
equal to Cp
and thus, since I in (19) is numerically equal to v in (17), it follows
that, when the stresses are infinitesimal, the right side of (19) is
one-third of that of cubical expansion and also
Thus
-1=1/1
9\k
E+
1_\
or
But, by
19,
E jk
t
When,
- 60-,
^=
and thus
l-
i/i
o-
about J
is
and thus
C T = G'095 x 4-2 x 10 = 4
E = 1-2 x 10 dyne cm.7
12
I]
Hence, by
?1
29
(19),
- 1 _ tl^l (\ ^ V - _
273 x Oil x
1-2
x 10 12
= 1-0-0026.
for
We
by equation
(8),
19,
I-l-JL
n~ E 3k'
and
hence,,
by (17) and
(19),
1 _ I = w (I rf?y
nt
If
n+
we consider only
free
from
strain,
CT \l
JL
dt) T
3GP
t\ *?Y
\v dtj p
(^
"
we may put
CT = Cp
1
,
(v- dv/dt)p
= 3 (^-
dl/dt) T
21.
CHAPTER
II.
elasticity, it
will
be
experimental work.
Theoretical elasticity suffers from the disadvantage that exact
mathematical solutions for finite strains have been obtained in
very few problems, most of the investigations given in text books
on the subject depending upon the assumption that the strains
stresses
to results
infinitesimal,
fact,
law.
hoped that
CH.
PRINCIPLE OF SAINT-VENANT
II]
31
we have no means
that
or wire
is
of ascertaining to
non-isotropic.
given in Chapter
I,
facts*.
"
which are large compared with the linear dimensions of the partf."
In any given case, much depends upon what is meant by "strains
"
of negligible magnitude and by " distances which are large compared with the linear dimensions of the part." But, when the
body takes the form of a rod, there is mathematical evidence to
if 8l and $2 denote two different
systems of forces,
which, taken together, are statically equivalent to zero force and
zero couple, and if
and S2 be simultaneously applied to the rod
near one of
the rod.
*
MATHEMATICAL SOLUTIONS
32
[CH.
The
assures us that,
if
we apply
neighbourhood of an
of stress
and
strain set
up
is
practically
fixed
discussed in
25.
Dr Filon's
Dr L. N.
G. Filon* has
but
* "
On
systems of load."
DR
33
from the nearest point of application of the pull exceeds half the
radius of the cylinder.
Dr Filon considers the case of a cylinder
He takes
2c and radius a.
AB = A'B' = Jc,
B'G'
c,
c,
when the
Denoting by
central plane,
pull
is
applied.
Dr
The
is r.
is
z and
its original
J and the
= 2c.
*
S.
E. E.
From
0'1097w
the
or
MATHEMATICAL SOLUTIONS
34
[CH.
Dr
Values of
w/w
35
core and the outer layer is not of much consequence in experiments, since our observations are restricted to the surface of the
cylinder.
The student
depends upon
Dr
XX'
r.
force of 4<abF
is
dynes
X'
2a,
f
4a6F
C'
Fig.
9.
bF dynes
per centimetre.
The
lines
CO' and
DD' have no
Dr
when
P lies
CD
by two
* "
between
and X.
If the rod
On an approximate
section under
solution for the bending of a beam of rectangular crossany system of load." Phil. Trans. Royal Society, Vol. 201, A,
Some changes have been made in Dr Filon's notation.
pp. 63 155.
t Phil. Trans. Vol. 201, A, p. 145.
32
MATHEMATICAL SOLUTIONS
36
e to
F/E
for
a series of values of
x.
[CH.
is \,
gives
DR
37
is
and n
which
right angles to the plane containing the axis and the radius r. In
the actual case, when the torsion is caused by stresses applied to
AB
Values of v/v9
38
MATHEMATICAL SOLUTIONS
Dr
[CH.
Filon has calculated* the values of v/v for the case in which
is half its circumference, so that
= 2c.
When
some of the longitudinal filaments are lengthened and some are shortened, and thus
Introduction.
27.
it
may be
a rod
is
bent,
bending, will
bend a
rod,
is
The exact
bending has not yet been found by any matheapproximate treatment of non-uniform bending is
matician.
given in
We
and
An
10).
shall
uniform section
symmetry parallel
Then this plane intersects every transverse section
to its length.
in a straight line, which is an axis of symmetry for that section.
Bars of rectangular or circular section are examples of such rods.
Let the reader take a steel rule about O'l cm. in thickness and
two or three cm. in width and let him bend it. He will then
observe that the transverse section does not remain a rectangle.
The long sides of that section become curved, their centres of
Phil.
steel rule,
Tram.
II]
39
is
of the
28.
shall
it is
axis of bending.
The uniformity
bent,
right angles.
We
shall
examine the
strains
and the
stresses
which
exist,
when the
when
its
is
thickness*.
*
The method we
shall
employ
is
40
MATHEMATICAL SOLUTIONS
Though we have
[CH.
possibility
will
will
is
it
uniformly bent,
transverse section of any longitudinal filament is normal to that
section, and thus the stress is a positive or negative tension.
stress
forces
of the filament.
To maintain equilibrium a
consider, in
this force
is
act.
Change of
29.
One
of
which
it
when
bent,
PN
PM
RH
MK
OR, OS.
CHANGE OF CROSS-SECTION
41
RH
same
Axis OF BENDING
Fig. 11.
and hence
s',
the length,
to
when
stretched, of
PK
when
filament through P,
unstretched, as
length,
is
to
if
the elongation of the
or as p + y
is to
Hence,
p.
be e, we have
longitudinal filament through
is
s, its
MK
~^~
If
~p'
Poisson's ratio,
we
have,
by
18,
Chapter
cr
be
I,
We
sides
MATHEMATICAL SOLUTIONS
42
[CH.
are changed by the strain into two sets of curves, such that the
curves of one set intersect the curves of the other set at right
angles, like lines of force and equipotential lines.
XOY
Now
OX
OX
XOY
which were
OF
OX
curves convex to
Now, by
(2),
filaments which
the longitudinal
same height above
is the
the curved arc PoN^ represent that fibre in the
all
OX
arc
PoNo
or
arc
in the
N+
Pp-^r
_vy
,_
(TV
-
1.
all
Hence,
PN
PN
distances from
as
PN
Q)
I,
now
lie
line
x
71
o-y
Any fibre such as PO-^O in the straight rod will have a definite
If we treat
radius of curvature q in the neighbourhood of
Q
and
denote
of
radius
as
of
a
circle
PfiNo
q
by XQ the perpart
pendicular distance of
from
XQ
or
1
q sin"
we have
= q sin (l/q),
"
\q/
F,
<7 (
~+
V<?
o H3
2 3q
+ o~T Fl
2.45<?
+)
/
CHANGE OF CROSS-SECTION
Il]
is
43
small,
#
is
= constant
oc
OX
in Q,
where
is
represented by
OQ = ^ and OF
approximation, OQ
,
to our degree of
of the fibre which is represented
pi a-
is
independent of #
in S,
is
by
the point
SQ
in Fig. 11.
where
It cuts
OS = p/<r.
Thus,
equal to the original length
in the bent rod.
Since
PN
8
is fixed,
and hence
all
the
OF
OX
are strained so as to
cut at right angles the lines which were originally parallel to OF,
it follows that the former are changed by the strain into arcs of
circles
having
as a
common
F is
centre.
and originally
through
strained into the form of a circle of radius
fibre passing
P/*-
When
OX
to
p',
and hence
(3)
may be
written
a?
so long
'MATHEMATICAL SOLUTIONS
44
[CH.
The
upon an
anticlastic surface
rfy
Hence by
(2)
and
first
(5)
................
dy<
p'
Now, in the case of metals, Hooke's law begins to fail when the
and thus we see from (1) that, in
elongation e exceeds about
should
be so large in comparison with
measurements,
practical
p
y^
the thickness of the rod in the plane of bending that the maxivalue of 7] jp does not exceed y^. Thus since, by
19,
mum
Chapter
I, <r
The exact
which
solution
(6).
Then, since
is easily
77
when y = 0, we
for
77
obtain,
found to be
is
We
solid,
Fig. 18
may
In Fig. 12,
an
is
the point
anticlastic surface.
CHANGE OF CROSS-SECTION
45
where the neutral filament cuts the plane of the paper, and S is
the centre of curvature of those transverse filaments which are
initially
parallel
which were
G'D' passing
while the sides BC,
AD
become
as centre.
Fig. 12.
AB
MATHEMATICAL SOLUTIONS
46
[CH.
be found by the aid of Fig. 12. On the net- work of straight lines
drawn on the section of the unstrained rod we mark a set of
points lying on the boundary of the unstrained section, and then
mark on the net-work of radii and circular arcs a second set of
30.
The
resultant effect
a couple G, having
(6)
its
plane of
bending *.
by
17,
Chapter I,
Hence,
T'= Ee.
(l)
T=Ey/p
(8)
OX,
we have
F=^ToL = -^y
The
(9)
the resultant of the body forces per unit of length of the neutral
axis
is
F/p.
Now
stress
filaments.
F vanishes,
for
distribution of stress
is
See Note
I.
BENDING MOMENT
II]
47
per unit length of the neutral axis, vanishes also. In this case
the body forces could be supposed to arise from mutual actions
occurring within the rod and would not require the operation of
The
force
F will
2y =
But
h
Ali,
^oiy
where
is
............................ (10)
When
section.
is
very
31.
Bending moment.
By
4,
Chapter
I,
the
sum
of the
OX
"bending moment,"
axis
i.e.
the
moment about
distance y from
OX. Hence, by
(8), if
= :STay = -2a?/
But Say2
is
the
"
moment of
axis OX.
inertia
If
"
2
.
2
Say be denoted by
/,
we have*
When the rod is bent by couples applied to its ends, the neutral
filament passes through the centre of gravity of the strained
"
section ( 30) and then / is the " moment of inertia
of the
strained section about an axis through
pendicular to the plane of bending.
*
The values
of
its
12.
MATHEMATICAL SOLUTIONS
48
[CH.
is
very small
couple when
G (1 -<r>)=7
/p.
forces,
29
in
forces
is
is
applied.
In Fig.
(8),
and hence
P are
x,
Y= T/(p + y}
y and hence, by
dynes per
28, if
c.c.
T = JSy/p
F=
-,
r.
pfy+y)
Now
Y(p
or
is
y)0dxdy dynes,
EBydxdylp
(12)
KEMOVAL OF BODY-FORCES
II]
Thus the
49
force is proportional to
according as
P is
line of
bounded
Y is
"
"
an elementary wedge of
from
width
to
6
and
dx, extending
angle
(Fig. 11) we see
and that it will nearly vanish
that it vanishes when
MV= MV
When
when JfFand
OX, we
the cross-section
is
initially
MV
is
29, that in the neighbourhood of OF,
by
and hence, since
is the centre of
of
less than
the
gravity
V is greater than
strained section,
when
exceeds some
see,
MV
MV
PN
Hence the
definite value *.
OF
been bent into circular arcs, and will cause new stresses in these
It would be difficult to determine the precise
transverse fibres.
values of these
new
stresses,
but
it is
To make the
we
shall consider
Case of a rod.
MV
MV
and
(Fig. 11) will be nearly equal,
the centre of gravity of the strained section. In this
"
"
case the bending moment due to the reversed body forces will
when
since
this is small
is
be small.
If,
S.
E. E.
at the
we may expect
12.
MATHEMATICAL SOLUTIONS
50
[CH.
"
The
with
Thus,
b.
it
the longitudinal
the formula p' =
value
of
cr.
is
fibres, is
10 cm.
The value
= O'Ol
is
p',
and
a?/2p'
much
b.
The
JJ+
L
JO*^
REMOVAL OF BODY-FORCES
II]
cross-section,
discussed in
some
51
is
We
detail.
Let AB (Fig. 13) represent the section of the bent blade and
C be the point on Y which is midway between the curved
let
may
take the
By
We
must
first
29,
an arc of a
circle of radius p.
If
OC = p,
be represented approximately by
To
find
with 0.
p we
Thus approximately,
=2
\ y
Jo
M be the
2bdx
= 46
("
'-
dx
Jo
P = a?!6p',
Let
A CB,
ACB
is
moment about an
"
we
find
pp
OY
The
42
MATHEMATICAL SOLUTIONS
52
[CH.
this rectangle
We
by
KJ
Hence
-*)*-
~~
(1
EJ
when
Hence we may expect that, when
If
o-
i,
will
equal p
exists.
Introduction.
bending of a rod
free
In
when the
curvature
may
be,
12.
II]
53
We
shall
now
consider the
When
it is
and a
is
lie
along
circular arcs.
Let
A BCD
when
bent, the
RH,
RH
Y
C
Axis OF BENDING
Fig. 14.
Let
OX be
PO
MATHEMATICAL SOLUTIONS
54
[CH.
a tension of
is
suppose
Just as in
through
P be
29, if
is
The
longitu-
T dynes
e,
where
OR = p.
This elongation
due to the
is
stresses
and S
angles to both
and the stress
= V/P>
is
Thus
(13)
Similarly, the tension
causes an elongation
8/E and
the tension
= Eu ...................... (14)
From
we
obtain
(15)
(16)
If
we could assume
changed, so that u
But there
of y.
assumption
= 0, we
and S
in terms
negligible, being
of the
If h be the height
ABCD
and
AD
OF
OL = b
h,
and thus
rh
+b
h-b
dy
BG
OK=b + h
rh+b
2b,
J
h-b
=
ydy
9
2hb.
Il]
if
Further,
55
When
the blade
integrals,
we
is
by (15) that
find
<7
But the
+b
T. 2ady
.
h-b
-b
+ 2<rbu}
2a.
is zero,
and hence
is zero,
When
of the blade
is
() ...................
h-b
(18)
-C
h-b
so that
p(p
................
h)
equation
for h.
we
obtain a quadratic
Thus
Hence
pi
'-
4ffl-
a A) z
A=g
Since h
is
is
we
MATHEMATICAL SOLUTIONS
56
When
the bending
is slight,
is
[CH.
very small.
Thus,
if
J,
we have
h/b
By
6/45/>.
is
given by
,2-n
2
3(1 -o- )^'
When
the bending
is so
slight that b/p is a small quantity of
a small quantity of the second order and may
be neglected. Hence, to this order of accuracy, we may say that
the width of the blade parallel to the axis of bending remains
the
first order,
is
unchanged.
37.
axis
OX
This
is
Bending moment.
be
dyne-cm., we
have, since,
moment about
by (17), au =
h/p,
If the bending
in terms of 2a
When
and
26,
the sides
is
great compared
the values for the
and 6
6, we may replace a and b by a
unbent blade, and may neglect A 2 in comparison with J6 2
/ takes the value / = Ja 6 3 Hence, when b /p is small,
with
the
Then
(22)
is
greater than the value EIQ /p given by the theory of
2
31 in the proportion of 1 to 1
The difference is, however,
onever great, since <r is about J for metals and cannot exceed ^ in
Thus G
isotropic solids.
When
the bending
is
is
small,
we may
increasing
p.
Il]
57
tensions
AB
CD
applying to
and
is
longitudinal filaments near the edge of the blade will give rise
to radial forces tending to counteract the effects of the reversed
tensions.
may
it cannot be made
appreciable by increasing the curvature
of the longitudinal filaments.
We therefore conclude, that, when
the width of the blade is great compared with its thickness, a
that
make the product of the radius and the thickness of the blade
small compared with the square of the width of the blade. In
this case we may regard (22) as giving a nearly accurate value for
the bending moment.
38.
When
the bending
is
very slight, so that a?/p is very small compared with b, the section
of the blade will be changed in the manner described in 29. The
bending moment
will
the equation
But,
compared with
and the bending moment
is
b, there will
The blade
than
is
will
now be
Gp
will gradually
change from
EI
to
MATHEMATICAL SOLUTIONS
58
[CH.
and hence
cm.
;
is
of
the
it will
Relation
and
twist.
it
shall suffer
unchanged and
all
AC
tube of length h cm. and radii r and r + dr cm., the end A being
fixed.
A point Q on the end C describes the angle QOQ' or h<f>/l
radians about the axis and therefore moves through hr<t>/l cm.
Thus the thin prism PQ, which is cut
59
r<f>/l
circular
measure as
identical.
Fig. 15.
of volume, for the radial width, the width measured round the
By Chapter I,
r<f>/l
in the plane
QPQ'
PQ
2
by tangential stresses nrfyjl dynes cm.~ acting on the ends P, Q
parallel to the plane QPQ', together with tangential stresses of
equal amounts parallel to the axis acting on the radial faces.
The
G = (n<f>/l) 2ar
dyne-cm.
important to notice that the given strain does not imply the
action of any forces on the cylindrical surface of the rod.
It is
MATHEMATICAL SOLUTIONS
60
the
is
"
moment
Zar 2 =
ra
[a
1
[CH.
of inertia
Its value
For, if
of the area of
can be found at
we take %7rrdr
= ivra
as the
a cm.,
circle of radius
r2 ^Trrdr
"
cm. 4
J o
method
calculus
is
dvne " cm
21
is
"
second
moment
"
Since there
is
no
stress
and coaxal
cylinders.
If
a,
have
TTH
-&)<!>
r
O = ~ (a*
dyne-cm.
^^j
In this calculation
would
offer the
experiment.
40.
Rods of non-circular
section.
for a
Gl
n<f>
We have seen
and the twist
that,
<
are
Il]
Here Sar 2
is
"
the
moment
of inertia
But
it
"
61
it is
not
true that, for a rod of any other section, Gl/n<f> is equal to the
"
moment of inertia " of the section. It can be shown that, in the
case.
"
comparison we give in each case the value of 7, the moment of
inertia" of the area of the section about an axis through its centre
its plane (see Note IV,
12).
be seen that in every case, except that of a circular
"
moment of inertia " of the
section, Gl/n<f> is less than 7, the
and perpendicular to
of gravity
It will
section.
a.
/ = 4-Tra4
n<f>
Gl
7Ttt
63
16a6
7oX
+ V)
.......... (24)
26.
+ l)-7ra|
*r
where
For a square,
this gives
Gl/n(f>
When
0, 1, 2,
2-2492a4
7 = f a4 =
its
value
is
when
a/6
is infinite.
//W(
*
= a6
Thus,
3
when a >
36,
we may put
MATHEMATICAL SOLUTIONS
62
[CH.
Practical approximation.
In practical cases it is
to
the
to
ends
of
the rod the ideal displane
impossible
apply
tribution of tangential force, in which the force per unit area at
41.
each point
is
But
it
axis.
over the cylindrical surface of the rod near one end will produce
at some distance from that end the same
strain as the ideal distribution provided
that the couples due to the two are equal.
AB
blocks, C, D.
Then,
if
two stout
by means of these
simultaneously a couple
- G
is
applied
to the
section
A, the
manner.
AP
PA
II]
The
in the form of an infinite series, as in equation (25) of
40.
use of the Fourier mathematics is unavoidable unless one side of
In this
is very small compared with an adjacent side.
case the couple can be calculated by simple methods.
shall consider a blade of length I, of width 2a and of very
small thickness 26 cm. and shall find the couple (G dyne-cm.)
the section
We
required to twist one end of the blade through an angle of (f> radians
The twist per centimetre will be denoted
by r
thus
= 0//
Geometry of a
43.
radians per
helicoid.
cm
We
(28)
the centre 0, the axes OX, OZ being perpendicular to the edges of the strip, while
the axis OF is perpendicular to the paper
and
is
directed
reader.
Let
OA
and
way
as
D'
Fig. 17.
called a helicoid.
MATHEMATICAL SOLUTIONS
64
[CH.
* = fcos(Tf),
On
= fsin(Tf),
z=
0, f,
......... (29)
for
may be
Now
OXZ
plane
and thus, by
(32),
= r cos 6,
y = T(r cos
= r sin 0,
0+p)r sin 6.
P is
p
Since
we
given by
dr*
\dr
we must put r =
been performed.
in this
We
thus
obtain
l/'p
= 2r sin 6 cos
+ r jo
2
[1
sin2 6}
f .......
(33)
2 2
rp be so small that r /) is negligible in comparison with unity,
and has the
the curvature is independent of the position of
value
If
0.
........................ (34)
GEOMETRY OF A HELICOID
II]
65
is
helicoid
By
is
_rsin20
p~l+ry
which agrees with (34) when rp
is
infinitesimal.
If
strip,
1/r.
strip is
y, z),
(x
(f, 0, ?),
(f
+ df
dy
sin (r?)
*
S. E. E.
0,
+d)
have,
rj~
move
by
sin
(29),
(T) d%
d% + rf cos (T?) d
See
p. 70.
to the positions
MATHEMATICAL SOLUTIONS
66
Hence,
if dcr
and ds be the
initial
and
[CH.
final distances
between the
points,
Thus
it is
may
helicoid.
44.
H)
When
the blade
is
AOA'
will,
by symmetry,
remain
AOG
OA
Thus the
We
is
plane
between
Hence
all
the
HKLM
Let
(Fig. 18) be a small portion of the blade such that
either face was a square before the blade was twisted, and suppose
that
and
were initially inclined at + J TT to OA, as is
MH
HK
IU,
IV be drawn
HKLM before
faces,
and
it
was
let straight
IV
II]
67
IUV
measured
IU
and
at a distance
M
Fig. 18.
cm.
Hence,
if
IV
we take an
receive an elongation
rh cm. per
IU
q (1
rh) respectively.
tension of
and a pressure
Fig. 19,
that
we
the
see,
by
17, 18,
elongations
are
Chapter
I,
connected
aS
<rR
stress,
there will be
MATHEMATICAL SOLUTIONS
68
[CH.
dh at a distance
+h
Let
QT
lie
Let
PQ=PT=r
and
let
QP T
PT
on by a
shown
force
in Fig.
(R + S)rdh/^/2
to 2 \/2
S .rdh
angles to PT, as
These forces have a resultant
20.
at
parallel to
mhrdh.
right
Fig. 20.
QT; by
stress,
...................... (36)
the
for
of
remaining edges
the blade.
45.
represent the blade seen in perspective, the thickness (26) being greatly
magnified.
Let Fig. 21
2T,
MN
be two
Let KL and
drawn on the edge
straight lines
BB' perpendicular
to the plane of
the blade, the distance between the
Then the couple
lines being dz.
dz
2T
KLMN
Fhdh.
But, by (36),
dz
Fhdh = dz
2nrh*dh
/::
B'/2&
Fig. 21.
TOKSIONAL COUPLE
II]
LK
T=nrb
NM in
69
opposite directions
By
also infinitesimal.
MN
MN
in the opposite direction to the upper force of the pair correand will therefore neutralise it. Proceeding
sponding to
KLMN,
in this way,
we
equivalent to
one force
T applied
direction, as
is
BD
the edge
direction.
the blade
at
may be
shewn
D in
in Fig. 21.
T-#J,
and thus we
find
S =a6s
......................... (38)
This result agrees with that given by equation (27) in 40, when
b/a is so small that 3'3616/a is negligible compared with 16/3
MATHEMATICAL SOLUTIONS
70
[CH.
II
forces at B,
second application of Saint- Venant's principle leads to the conclusion that, provided they be equivalent to a couple G, the
manner
B'D'
is
blade.
in
which the
BD
or along
If the lines in the diagrams be drawn upon the strip the reader
will be aided in following the discussion above.
CHAPTER
III.
of a
Introduction.
number
the ratio of one of these moduli to the other, and here the strains
are assumed to be so small that Hooke's law is obeyed accurately.
it
the use of
nation
of
an
elastic
first
determination.
The
be
quantity deduced from the experiment will
some
In
value*.
of
sort
more
than
a
average
rough
anything
cases the observations are taken on scales divided to millimetres,
and the necessity of keeping within Hooke's law often limits the
measured displacement to one or two centimetres. It is clear
of the elastic
that, in these cases, very careful readings are required if the result
is to be accurate to within two or three per cent.
*
39.
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
72
When
[CH.
The work
will
MENT 4
or
5,
of the wire as in
EXPERIMENT
may be found
or even as in
for a portion
EXPERIMENT
or 10, if the distance between the knife edges be small and the
loads light. Similarly, the same rod may be used for EXPERIMENTS
6 and 10.
EXPERIMENT
Law
1.
for Copper.
We
vis.
by
modulus,
if it
exist,
i.e.
if
or
to
serious errors.
These
arise
rise of
temperature.
screw-gauges have the defect that the pitch of the screw, i.e. the
advances for one revolution, is not clearly marked on the instrument.
T.n such cases the student should ascertain the pitch from the teacher, or, in a
practical examination, from the examiner.
Many
distance
it
Ill]
73
The
The first error is eliminated if, instead of finding the displacement of the lower end of the wire relative to a fixed mark, we
observe the displacement of the end of the wire relative to the
lower end of a second wire of the same material, hanging from the
as a
a wire
but
is
by variations
little affected
the wire.
94)
p.
by means
by
x 10~4 cm. 2
grammes and the
3'8
measured
directly,
of the
first
we
be a degree" 1 and
~
The
if
=4
by one part
T dyne
is
grammes
'
5 X 10
~ 16
deree ~
cm."2 then
,
dne ~ cmA
1
,
so that the
in 55.
If two copper wires, each one square mm. in section, carry loads
differing by one kilogramme, the difference of tension will be about
5
by 1*22 x 10" cm. more than the other
is
wire.
48.
may
also
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
74
coefficient of
for
[CH.
tension.
If
and
is
if
T,
1/1
v
or,
by Chapter
I,
da
17,=
.
= --
dE
Mr
column, we
Metal
Ill]
INVESTIGATION OF HOOKE
LAW
75
each other about vertical axes, but freely allow vertical relative
When these links are horizontal, the two wires are
motion.
parallel to each other.
From
M and
The
wires free from torsion and thus to ensure that the two wires
in a vertical plane.
frames.
Two
M and
hang
P to
the
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
76
The head
of the screw
is
divided,
and a
made by the
[CH.
scale
engraved on
number
of complete
In the instrument in use at the
screw.
mm
venient*.
The instrument
is
Suppose that
the screw has been adjusted so that one end of the bubble of the
fine wire passing round the level
level is at its fiducial markf.
as a fiducial
mark.
enough
A brief discussion of
added.
The
of links 5 cm.
=4
CD = 11
cm.
Length
cm.
f If the glass tube of a level be not well secured in the metal tube which
it, an attendant, in cleaning the apparatus, may cause a rotation of the
protects
it
Ill]
it.
77
would be
it
move
CD.
viz.
remaining,
of the suspending wire.
it
to
of
follow the
freedom
stretching
49.
wire.
find
load in the
pan
is
and
is
is
from the other readings the differences are the extensions of the
The results are plotted on squared paper, the abscissae
wire.
representing loads and the ordinates extensions.
When the wire has been unloaded for a comparatively long
time before the initial reading for zero load is taken, a curve
similar to that in Fig. 23 will be obtained.
at least as great as
W, be
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
78
[CH.
placed in the pan for a comparatively long time and if the load be
removed only a short time before the initial reading for zero load
taken, the curve representing the results of loading and unloading will be similar to that in Fig. 24, the wire being slightly shorter
is
little.
EXTENSION
LOAD
EXTENSION
LOAD
Fig. 23.
LOAD
Fig. 24.
Fig. 25.
If,
it,
ment
much
law.
is
maximum load
due
to
diagram given in
51.
Ill]
51.
observations
LAW
may
79
be entered as in the
JF=6kilo.
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
80
[CH.
results for W=Q and for JF=4 kilogrammes are shown in Fig. 26.
attempt was made to reduce the wire to a cyclic state, but the curves show
that the attempt failed, the curves resembling that of Fig. 24. Very careful
The
An
work
is
Mr
Field.
without going beyond the elastic limit, the increase of length may
be large enough for satisfactory observation. When the changes of
length are observed by means of a millimetre scale fitted with a
vernier reading to y1^ mm., errors of one per cent, will probably
occur in the measurements unless the changes exceed one cm.
Hence, if the elongation is not to exceed j^^ cm. per cm., the
wire should be at least 10 metres long. When a more sensitive
appliance, such as that described in 48, is available for measuring
the change of length, satisfactory results can be obtained with
comparatively short wires.
small,
it
is
Any
yielding of the support affects both wires equally, and any change
of temperature causes very nearly the same expansion in both
wires in spite of the difference between the loads, since, as is shown
in 47, the coefficient of expansion depends only very slightly upon
the load carried by the wire.
The two wires are secured to a block of metal attached to
Ill]
beam
81
millimetre scale
or -^ mm. is clamped
the constant load, and a vernier reading to
to the wire which is to be stretched.
The vernier is kept in the
hung from the wire below the vernier and a constant load is hung
from the comparison wire below the scale. The scale pan and the
constant load must be heavy enough to ensure that the wires are
straight.
Fig. 27.
53.
is first
In taking the
read with no additional mass in the
up
pan
to, say,
E. E.
which
6
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
82
[CH.
occurs when a mass is allowed to drop into the pan *. If the reading of the vernier at the end of this cycle of operations differ
appreciably from the reading at the beginning, the wire has been
permanently stretched, and the observations cannot be used for
ing load.
grammes be the
the formula
maximum
load,
then
Material
Mmax may be
calculated
by
Rough
Ill]
as in
54,
83
in centimetres.
The mass
M, +
M,
^Tr=T =
Hence
-=-
C.
Thus the
to
it.
If the values of
loads, the
mean
modulus.
When
of the thread.
62
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
84
[CH.
alone will perhaps not exceed one part in 10,000, the length of
the wire when carrying the pan alone may be taken as equal to
we
It
would be
to within 2
difficult to
mm. by
responding correction
is
expressed in centimetres.
the
= Tra2 ^.
square cm. from the expression A
If the wire can be removed from the support, the volume of
the part between the support and the vernier can be found
by the hydrostatic balance.
square cm.
When the load
2
Mg/A dyne cm.length of I cm. in a
.
If this be
then
c.c.,
A=
V/L
is
The quantity we are really concerned with is not the mean radius but the
2
The appropriate
square root of the reciprocal of the mean value of (radius)"
correction is calculated in Note VI,
1.
.
t The neglect of the distinction between the radius and the diameter of a wire
is
Ill]
Chapter
ht
17,
I,
Young's modulus
stress
.
-.
elongation
54.
is
is
85
Hence, by
given by
MgL
= T = Mg/A
y = f-r- dynes
J
,
IA
l/L
observations
may
be entered as in the
=L
0-0943
0-0947
0-0945
0-0943
0-0943
0-0945
0-0945
mean
Cross section
EXPERIMENTAL WOKK
86
The mean, r050x 10~
4
,
now agrees
diagram.
Youngs
[CH.
from the
981x745
10 4x0 00703
moduln-*~MgL ^
= 9'86xl0
11
Apparatus.
One end
(Fig. 28)
Fig. 28.
is
and
made on the wire near the pulley A and the block B, and the
movements of these scratches are observed by means of two
travelling microscopes, which are focussed on the wire.
If travelling microscopes are not available, microscopes with
is
loaded.
In this case we
may
Ill]
56.
the pan
zero
is
to
up
and
some maximum
value,
and
is
87
The
load in
grammes from
are
at each stage the readings of the scratches C and
in
the
the microscopes. If a load of
grammes placed
steps,
taken by
pan cause C and
to
their
positions for zero load in the pan, the increase in the length of
due to
is x
y cm.
CD
If the value of (x
mean
modulus.
53, so as to pass as
and
is
M=
4 or 5 points between
C and D, two
The
If the
if
of
E=
I,
stress
-,
-.
elongation
17,
is
(x
Young's modulus
= T = MqlA
\
e
-.
(x
y)jL
is
See the
first
MgjA
dynes per
y cm. in a length
Hence,
given by
= T/MqL
A(x
is
dynes
per square cm.
J
y)
as in
radius,
TTO?*.
by Chapter
mean
the cross-section be
due to a load of
grammes
and
this
square cm.,
produces an increase of x
stress
perpendicular
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
88
57.
[CH.
due
is eliminated
to a possible motion of the block
the
motion
of
to
observe
the
scratch D.
microscope
by using a
There is,
however, no temperature compensation, as in EXPERIMENT 2, and
therefore a thermometer should be placed near the wire to give
warning of any serious changes of temperature.
By the microscopes the changes of length can easily be found
to within 1(f0() cm., and thus the wire may be much shorter than
EXPERIMENT
in
where a
2,
-^
cm.
used.
is
It is essential in this
straight
approximate estimate of S L
Let the tangents to the wire at G and
(Fig. 29)
line.
An
is
easily
make
made.
angles 6 l
Fig. 29.
and
#2
If
let ra
empty, we
take
^
If
<f>
be the
mean
of
(sin 0i
1
and
small,
of the arc at
circle
we
#2)
CD
= ^9-
have, since
2^ = mg.
Now, when S
a
+ s in
may
its
subtending an angle
2<
at its centre.
radius of curvature,
2p sin
<f)
_ sin
Then,
if
p be the
IIIJ
and
89
thus, approximately,
S-L
the mass of the pan be 2 kilogrammes, so that
2000# dynes, and if the mass of CD be 10 grammes,
if
Hence,
is
(S-L)/S= 1/960,000.
The elongation due
to the stretching of the wire in the determination of Young's modulus may be as great as yoW cm< P er cm '>
and thus, since the apparent elongation due to changes of sagging
when
about
QO
OOQ
neglected.
58.
Practical example.
wire.
0698
mean
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
90
[CH.
Two microscopes were used, each reading to ^fo mm. they formed a
"pair" and the scales were numbered in opposite directions. In the above
table the readings have been reduced to centimetres, but Mr Bedford recorded
;
the actual readings on the micrometer heads in each case. Thus the two
readings, which appear in the table as -07282 and 0'9732 cm., were recorded
as 7-0 + 56-4/200
From
mm. and
9'5
+ 46*3/200 mm.
we obtain the
91
DETERMINATION OF RIGIDITY
Ill]
Fig. 30.
The
is
clamp
fitted
may
is
is
be eliminated by using a
the line joining their tips passes approximately through the axis
The mean of the displacements of the tips of the tw.o
of the rod.
pointers will be free from any error due to bending of the rod.
60.
When
Determination of
rigidity.
placed in the pan, the wheel will revolve
*
The
may
also be observed by
till
a mass
M grms.
is
means
of a mirror attached to
the rod by a small clamp, the angle through which the mirror turns being observed
by means of a vertical scale and a telescope with cross wires. If the distance of
the scale from the mirror be d cm. and if the image of the scale move past the cross
The
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
92
where
M grms.
R cm.,
be
is
this couple is
(M+ M ) Eg
due
[CH.
to the
mass
M+M
2
dyne-cm., where g cm. see."
is
fixed
Chapter
<
<f>
</>
M+M
II,
(M + M ) gR,
Q
or,
by subtraction,
^7rna
<t>/l
= MgR.
Let the length of the pointer, measured from the axis of the
be p cm., and let y cm. be the vertical distance through which
rod,
when a load
is placed in the pan.
Then, if the
between
the
and
a
never
horizontal
be
angle
greater
pointer
plane
than about -fa radian or 6, we may write
the tip moves,
<t>
Hence,
2gpR Ml
^^
= VlP-
cm ............. (1)
been measured*.
The rod is here supposed to be truly cylindrical. When the radius is not
quite constant, it will generally suffice to treat the rod as a cylinder whose radius is
equal to the mean radius of the rod. The quantity we are really concerned with is
not, however, the
mean
value of (radius)" 4
The appropriate
correction
is
2.
mean
DETERMINATION OF RIGIDITY
Ill]
93
The
and
n.
I.
D is ^ cm.
The mass
of the block
in the
mean
of the
two readings
The
be nearly constant
the best value of
the
as
When
the irregularities
y/M
and y for each value of I should be
are serious, the values of
shown on a diagram as in Fig. 31. Smce the representative points
I.
M
Fig. 31.
a
ideally, on straight lines through the origin 0,
for
thread
a
line
aid
of
stretched
is
drawn
the
53)
(
straight
by
should
lie,
each value of
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
94
[CH.
M=
I,
the
of
y/M
for
IM/y.
I.
Here
Fig. 32.
again the points should lie on a straight line through the origin,
and the best value of IM/y is found from a straight line drawn
in the same
is
results.
61.
Diameter of wheel
mean
4085
4038
Correction for zero error 0*0009 cm. to be added.
Diameter of rod
= 2a = 0*4069 cm.
p= 13-92 cm.
Hence a
0-2034 cm.
of pointer
Length
In the following table only the mean values of y
for
increasing and
Ill]
DETERMINATION OF RIGIDITY
student
decreasing loads are given, but the
and deduce the displacements from them.
must record
95
all
the readings
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
96
the rod
screw
about
[CH.
cm. in diameter.
The rod C
S.
Fig. 33.
The ends
by means
soldered
to
The stand
torsion wire.
is fitted
of
the
with a
a vertical or a horizontal
The small rod soldered to the
in
position.
torsion wire
may be
Fig. 34.
DETERMINATION OF RIGIDITY
Ill]
97
The
Determination of
wire
position through $ radians, the twist of the wire per unit length
is (f)/l radians per cm.
By Chapter II, 39, equation (23), if Gr
nj-*2<l
When
towards
dyne-cm.
its
is
G/K
or 7rna4 </2//f
is
given by
27T
Deducing the
rigidity, n,
mean
must be measured
of the readings.
The diameter of the wire
since
the
fourth
power of the radius
carefully
The moment
S.
E. E.
is
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
98
[CH.
mass and its dimensions by the methods of Note IV. If the bar
be rectangular, and if its length be 2L cm., its width 2A cm.
and its mass
be its moment of inertia about an
grms., and if
+A
2L and
2
grm. cm.
to
2A,
with
K = M (JZ
+ JE )
2
2
grm. cm.
compared with
its
Z
diameter, the term ^ML is the chief term in the
2
2
are comexpression for K, and the terms involving A or
Hence it is quite unnecessary to measure A
paratively very small
width or
its
or
R with a screw-gauge
On
it is sufficient
2L should be measured
as
accurately as
possible.
sec.) is
then deduced.
it
stop-watch
is
generally used
in
results can
bar past a fixed mark, the time indicated by the watch is observed.
After a sufficient number of these times have been recorded, the
is
In this way we obtain a number of intervals, each correWith careful work these
sponding to 50 complete vibrations.
so on.
and
their
mean
METHOD OF TIMING
Ill]
value of the
Transit
99
The
following
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
100
[CH.
amount
The number
3'49
is
0'03.
Apparatus.
rod
it is
condition
is
AB
Ill]
distance
HG being
equal to
KD.
101
To determine the
vertical dis-
wax to the
placement of the middle point 0, a pin is fixed by
rod at 0, the pin being bent so that the part near the tip is
in such a posihorizontal, and a vertical scale S is set up near
tion that the tip of the pin is close to the scale.
Errors of parallax may be avoided and the accuracy of the
may be increased by taking the scale readings of the
readings
of the telescope
pin by means of a fixed telescope. The distance
from the scale should be as small as the focussing of the telescope
will allow, in order that the magnification may be as great as
possible.
When
1 cm.
and
If
a circular rod
is
from
it
rolling.
purposes is shown in
It consists of a rectangular block of brass about 5 cm.
scale
Fig. 36.
many
Fig.
in length,
and
2*5
of different positions.
The screw may conveniently have a milled
head so that it can be tightened by hand.
*
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
102
[CH.
of
M grammes.
KD
the loads,
.(1)
vertical force at
equal to half the weight of the rod. When
the effects due to these moments are small, it follows from Hooke's
that, at each point of the rod, any small change
of curvature of the axis of the rod due to the pans and the loads is
law,
Chapter
the same as
I,
if
2,
The curvature
is
section
have,
by Chapter
II,
31,
G=
where p cm.
the rod.
is
TfIT
(2)
dyne-cm.,
qpp
E = -Go = -(M, + M)
j-+
given by
(1),
we have
cm
(3)
103
in]
The curvature l/p is easily deduced from the vertical displacedue to the two loads. Suppose that
ment of the middle point
moves through the
the point of the pin fixed to the rod at
vertical distance h cm., when the pans alone are hung from the
rod, and that it rises through a further distance h when a mass of
M grammes
is
21 cm.,
Then,
we
have,
if
by the geometry of
circle,
In most cases h
then we
may
From
(3)
write
and
we
(4)
find
= (M + M) pl g
2
27 (h +h)
Since,
by
(5),
the elevation
is
yneS per
E=
and thus
When
"
moment
the rod
is
4-
%-,
cm ................ (6)
(6), for
J<7ra
cm.
the rod
is
given by*
......................... (7)
is
7ra4 h
a circular rod
E-
through
'
7=
When
~
h,
Hence, by
cm
~
h
scl uare
of the
is
given by
......................... (9)
12.
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
104
Hence, by (6)
for
[CH.
a rectangular rod
'*g
E = 3Mpl
2
(10)
h is made.
The masses in the
by four or five equal steps from zero to some
maximum value which does not strain the rod beyond the elastic
limit, and the masses are then diminished to zero by the same
steps, a reading of the pin being taken at each stage. The masses
series of observations for
difference
h/M
to use in
= and
ence between the values of h as shown by this line for
for some definite mass
is taken as the value of h for that mass.
These values of
(10).
we
maximum
filaments
Hence, by (4),
rectangular one.
exceed P/(2000d). Thus, if 2d =
should not exceed 1*6 cm.
67.
we
1
see that h
cm. and
if 21
+ h should not
= 80 cm., h + h
We
have
just seen that the elevation of the middle point of the rod must
be comparatively small, if the strains are not to pass the elastic
*
See the
first
MIRROR METHOD
Hi]
105
great
by using a
mirror.
Fig. 37.
is
and
is
is
not loaded.
is
knife edge
approximately
vertical scale
much
disturbed by vibration.
when
the load
M +M
is
hung
at each
end,
9-l/p.
the scale appear to move past the cross wire of the telescope
cm., when the scale-pans are hung on, and through an
through
is placed in each pan, we have,
additional z cm., when a mass
for small angles,
But,
if
+z_
~~ 9/3
21
by
RQ
is
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
106
Comparing
[CH.
we have
^ + 2 = 8(h + h),
or,
and
z,
E=
and
for
a rectangular rod
cm ............. (12)
cm .......... (11)
Practical example.
may be
treated as
66.
Mean
9562
9620
Correction for zero error 0-0006 cm.
to be added.
Radius
=a
'4798 cm.
=p = 35 cm.
Ill]
When
the
mean
elevation h
107
line lying most evenly among the points cut the line J/=0 at O02 cm. and
the line Jf=4000 at 1'30 cm., the difference being 1'28 cm.
Hence, for
M=
4
The values of
cm. grm." 1
1-28/4000 =3 -20 x 10
h/
h/M given in the table are somewhat irregular. If the value 3'60 x 10"* be
4
excluded, the mean of the remainder is 3'27xlO~
slightly higher than the
calculation,
we use
Using A/J/"=3'20xlO~
4
,
we
find,
by
(8),
Young's modulus
The ends
of
the wire or rod are soldered into two clamping-screws which are
secured to two equal inertia bars AB, CD (Fig. 38). Two light
Fig.
38.
hooks about 4 cm. long are screwed into the bars at G, G', so that
the hooks are perpendicular to the wire, as in Fig. 39, which
shows a section of the arrangement by a plane through G perpendicular to the axis of the bar AB. The cylindrical recess in
the inertia bar allows the end of the clamping-screw to lie on the
axis of the bar.
By means of the hooks, the system is suspended
by two parallel strings at least 50 cm. long. Since the centres of
108
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
[CH.
gravity of the bars are below the hooks, the system can rest in
stable equilibrium with the plane
BCD horizontal.
Fig. 39.
When the vibrations are small, the rod or wire is only slightly
bent, and hence the distance GG', measured along the straight
f
If P,
line, differs very little from the length of the wire itself.
be two neighbouring points on the wire and Q, Q' be their projections on the straight line GG', we have QQ' = PP' cosi/r, where
is the angle between GG' and the
Thus, since
i/r
tangent at P.
i|r
is
small,
i/r
so that,
= <.
when
if
Hence,
is
<f>
of
-fy
A/T)
= 1PP'
2
.
of the
first
cm.,
GG'
as invariable.
When
is
and G'
neglected.
motion of
G and
G'
is
negligible.
in]
109
by
the
is
is
1,
is
simply a couple
Conversely, each
is
arc.
It is
ElIp,
and / cm. 4
is
the
"
moment
of inertia
"
"
of the wire about an axis through the centre of gravity of that
area perpendicular to the plane of bending. This axis is perpendicular to the plane of Fig. 38. If < be the angle turned
a radian sec.~ 2
Then, since
(f>
couple
moment
of inertia
_EI ~ 2EI
~~
Kp
Kl
III,
2,
= 2-7T
Hence, by
(1),
be
~2
by Note IV,
2EI/KI
if Ji
we
have,
12,
E=
o _ Z/7
2
cm ............. (2)
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
110
[CEI.
Experimental
70.
details.
As
small arcs.
error.
The
relation
maximum
For,
<l>
by Chapter
maximum
= el/2a.
is easily found.
29, if e be the
the wire be 25 cm. long and O'l cm. in diameter, e will not exceed
does not exceed -fa radian or about 3.
-gifa, if
<
The time
of vibration
for the
p. 197.
in]
mean
reading,
when
111
is
is
sensibly
of the clamping-screws,
and the periodic time should be observed when the clampingscrews are adjusted so that the mark is vertical. The screws should
then be loosened and the wire turned about its axis until the mark
the screws being then tightened and the periodic time
again observed. The mean of the two periodic times is used in (2).
The mass of each bar is found before the hole is bored in it
is horizontal,
and before the hook is fixed to it, and the value of this mass is
grms., if its
stamped on the barf. If the mass of the bar be
if the sides of the square section be 2 A cm.,
and
2L
be
cm.
length
we have, by Note IV, 6,
the
moments
of
AB, CD
This will
(Fig. 38), are exactly equal.
not generally be the case in practice, but it follows from the
A and
principles employed in obtaining equation (3) that, when
K
Kc are nearly equal, the observed time of vibration will not differ
mean
of the
moments
of inertia of
Practical example.
#=
1189
1187
1187
1188
1189
1190
1191
1189
mean
mean
-1188 cm.
-1190
cm
mean
'1189 cm.
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
112
[CH
to be added.
Mean diameter = 2a = -1 189 4- '0005 = '1 194 cm. Radius = a = '0597 cm.
The mean readings for the two diameters, viz. -1188 and '1190 cm. were
so nearly equal that it was considered unnecessary to change the positions of
the clamping-screws in the bars.
Time of 50 complete vibrations 71'0, 70'8. Mean 7O9 sees.
Periodic time 7\ = 1-418 sees.
Hence, by
(2),
we
find for
Young's modulus
4
= 8x3-142x3'793xl0 x31-15
l-418x 00597*
E=
EXPERIMENT
mical method.
8.
-M*xM
Comparison of
elastic constants.
Dyna-
is vertical.
wire
is
recess,
be negligible.
vibrations,
we
have, by equation
(1),
63,
n=
and hence, by
69
is
then
f = p* ............................ (3)
(1),
71
J. i
KA and K
C)
the
moments
The
exactly equal, each bar should be caused to vibrate in turn.
mean of the two periodic times will be very nearly equal to that
Ill]
(KA + KC
to the
).
mean
if
We may
of the
the
moment
therefore take
113
On
page 111
it is
shown
by formula (11) of
19,
Chapter
I, viz.
'-I-
(4 >
Material
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
114
violent
the
is
[CH.
working approximation.
process
of
wire-drawing,
this
Considering
result
is
how
hardly
surprising.
73.
The
Practical example.
results
may
be entered as in the
Time
Mean
70-9 sees.
sees.
E T
Poisson's ratio =er =(E/2n)- 1=1-34.
Hence, by
(4),
Since the
maximum
value of
o-
for
is far
an isotropic solid is
from being isotropic.
this result
Introduction.
It is
shown
in Chapter II,
29, that,
when a rod
AD
which are
common
AB, CD
bending become
C'D' passing through 8. If the distance of 8
from 0, the point where the neutral filament cuts the plane of the
diagram, be p cm. and if the radius of curvature of the neutral
initially
Hence we can
we
have,
by formula
<r,
if
(5) of
29,
we measure the
longitu-
dinal curvature 1/p, viz. the curvature of the neutral filament, and
determine the point S through which the sides A'B', C'D would
pass, if continued.
*
See Chapter
II,
Instead of finding 8,
33, 34, for the difference
we may deduce
1/p'
from
Ill]
115
the angle 6 between the sides A'B' and C'D' when the rod
For, if the width (BG) of the bar be 2a cm., we have
is
bent.
Cm
-~cT~
2a
'~
(2)
We
The apparatus
is
arranged as in Fig. 40. The rod rests upon
two knife edges N, N' and can be bent by means of two equal masses
placed in the pans which hang from the stirrups L, L' near the ends
of the rod, the distances LN and L'N' being equal. The rod should
L'
Fig. 40.
arrangement of the apparatus is the same as that in EXPERIMENT 6, to which the reader should refer. At U, V, midway
between the knife edges, are fixed two steel needles about 3 mm.
in diameter and 40 to 50 cm. in length.
The needle fixed at U
82
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
116
moves along
this scale
T and
when
[CH.
the point
of the other needle
the rod is bent, the relative motion
VP
the readings
may be taken
with certainty to -^
in Fig. 41.
mm.
is
shown
Fig. 41.
the rod at
and
V and
it is
up
and
U are
117
it follows,
as in
66,
that the bending moment is constant for all points of the rod
between
and N'. Hence the neutral filament is bent into a
circular arc.
The value
is
On VS, US
p cm. is the
Fig. 42.
length of the steel pointer measured from the tip to the centre of
the edge of the rod, and let the straight line PP' cut the vertical
lines
or
through
is
the
V and U
sum
in
K and K'.
VSU
PVK, P'UK', we may take
be x cm., we
Hence, by
(2),
we
-,= |2a
= ^-cm-
(3)
2ap
is
no need
for
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
118
The curvature
[CH.
is
A pin
vertical motion of Q, the point midway between U and V.
is attached by wax to the rod at Q and a vertical scale (not shown
placed so that the tip of the pin moves along it when
bent (see Fig. 35). If preferred, the mirror method
67 may be used for finding p.
described in
If the distance between the knife edges be 21 cm. and if h cm.
in Fig. 40)
the rod
is
is
is placed in
be the distance through which Q rises when a mass
each pan, we have I 2 = h (2/> h), or approximately, since h is small
compared with p
}
(4)
Determination of Poisson's ratio. A series of obsermade. The masses in the pans are varied by equal steps
from zero to some maximum value which does not strain the
rod too much. In putting the masses into the pans care must be
75.
vations
is
is
may be put
steel
needles.
load,
VP
the reading on the vertical scale of the pin attached to the centre
of the rod. If the pans be light, we may take the readings when
the pans are empty as the zero readings.
To determine Poisson's ratio from the observed quantities
use the values of l/p and l/p given by (3) and (4), and thus
we
we
find
be shown graphically,
h being taken as abscissa and x as ordinate a straight line is then
drawn by the aid of a thread (page 83) so as to pass as evenly as
The
may
possible
among
The
DETERMINATION OF POISSON
Ill]
EATIO
119
76.
Practical example.
<r
by the formula
(5).
as in
Hence
= 0*15
cm.
To give a clear idea of the magnitudes of the two radii of curvature, the
values of p and p have been calculated by (4) and (3).
Thus,
20 2
Load
in
200
Za
2-48x43
106 '6
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
120
[CH.
which
is
given below,
may be good
of these conditions,
we
shall
other end
in the
manner indicated
in Fig. 43.
Let
be a
F
P
l-x
F
Fig. 43.
PO
downward
force
P
PC
applied at
brium of
to
PC
an upward
F applied at G is
BP
vertical force
PC
PC
where
G = F(l-x}
The
(1)
is
*Vn = F,
where
The
is
(2)
PC
is vertical.
since the only force applied to
is F, and
Hence
there is some point
in the section where the normal stress (T)
in]
Through
changes sign.
121
we have
A(Ty\v =G=F(l-x}
From
(2)
and
(3)
(3)
we have
_F _(Ty\
~A~ l-x'
v
*V
We may
normal
with
its
78.
be great compared
depth*.
Approximate results
for
non-uniform bending.
When
is
itself,
will
is
accurately
We
of
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
122
in length,
and
[CH.
which passes
the
centre
of
curvature
of
the
neutral filament at any
through
and
is
point
perpendicular to the plane of bending, is called the
axis of bending for that point.
responding to that section, while the straight line,
We
Young's modulus
tension
in terms of
by the formula
T=Ee,
(4)
which, by Chapter I,
17, applies to the case where the sides of
the filament are free from stress.
If
(Fig. 44) be the point where the neutral filament cuts
the plane of the transverse section, and if, in that plane, we take
rectangular axes* OX, OY, parallel and perpendicular to the axis
Axis OF BENDING
Fig. 44.
*
The
axis of x is
now taken
x
is
In
in]
of bending
RH,
it follows,
as in
Chapter
123
29, that, if e
II,
be the
= y/P>
If
have,
by
We
if
(4),
now
can
N be
right angles to
it,
and
if
a be an element of area,
we have
relative to the
"
is zero.
known.
In many cases the
that
a way
"
filament passes through the centre of gravity of the section.
In the EXPERIMENT now under discussion the rod slides slightly
motion
when the
friction
is
load
is
opposed by
Since the depression of the centre of the rod
due to a given load is found in practice to be nearly the same
horizontal force.
whether
44), of the
the bending
moment be G
dyne-cm.,
7^7
,
............... (7)
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
124
where /
axis
is
"
the
moment
of inertia
"
[CH.
OX.
When
is
may be taken
zero or negligible,
to coincide with
From
and
(6)
(7)
its
we have
"
GA
~~
EA
(8)
'
"
centre
pN
its
length,
When
a horizontal rod
the force
end with
its
is
bent.
other end,
will be large at all points of the rod, while G will be
zero at the loaded end and will increase as the fixed end is
is
I = Io + Ah?,
which
is
12.
79.
........................... (9)
known
When
a rod
is
forces,
l//o,
and from
bending
is slight,
we can
this
When,
Ill]
if
we
125
of Cartesian coordinates.
x,
AB.
curve
(10)
Fig. 45.
Q make an angle
with OX, then d-^r is the angle between the normals at
and
and hence, if the length of the element of arc PQ be ds, we find
If the tangent at the neighbouring point
dxjds
,
and thus
By
d*b
-/ds
differentiating (10),
and hence, by
we
cos^Jr,
d
dx
dx ds
'
(11)
.(12)
obtain
(12),
.(13)
But
sec2 ty
= 1 + tan
i/r,
and hence
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
126
When
the curve
very small,
80.
rests
we may
is
nearly parallel to
3
replace cos ty
Apparatus.
The
as
is
<ty
dx*'
described in
by wax
so that
is
always
...(15)
OX,
XY such
bed
from
is
[CH.
at
A light
midway between
and a
by a stout
pan is suspended
and B. A pin
up
close
Fig. 46,
To
be used
for
Fig. 47.
65.
Fig. 48.
Ill]
127
81.
axes
CY
CX,
let
Let
the coordinates of
P (Fig. 49)
P relative
be
x,
be any
to the
y cm.
Let
Fig. 49.
Let a load of
in the figure.
grammes be suspended at G. If
the rod be so stiff that it is only slightly bent by its own weight,
weight.
In the case of a weightless rod, the upward force due to each
knife edge is \Mg dynes.
Hence, if G be the bending moment
;
at P,
we have
G = \Mg(l
Thus, by
(7)
and
x)
by
(15),
(16)
(16),
"*)
or,
dyne-cm
da?
(I*)
.(18)
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
128
[CH.
is
to
be
deduced.
Integrating (18) with respect to
where
dyldx
is
a constant.
= 0, when
is
K=
we
is
is
and hence
find
when x =
horizontal,
0.
we have
At G the rod
= 0. Thus
where
x,
is
0.
of
given by
not J Mg
(I
x) but J
Mg (I + x),
which leads to
tf) ................... (21)
But
at B,
and
When
we
the rod
is
12,
/=
and
for a rectangular
side
whose length
is
J-Tra
cm. 4
Ill]
129
we
have,
by
= 0,
where x
(18),
2EI
...(24)
we
(24),
find
= l*/3h
(25)
82.
that, if
K=0
in (19),
we
find
If z be the distance through which the scale S' (Fig. 46) appears
move past the cross-wire of the telescope when the load
is
in
we
as
in
the
have,
67,
pan,
placed
to
Thus, by (26),
^=>
(a*)
cm
y- dynes per square
(28)
*= 4
,
and
We
is
six
times the
easily found.
Since,
by (12)
cos ty
r -p^
dx
we
have, by (17),
S.
E. E.
= -,
p
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
130
On
sin ^r
when x
we
0,
to
find
sin
[CH.
and thus
1 /Mq
= Mgl* + --
When
tfr
is
small,
the
value
lus
The
some
maximum
value which does not strain the rod beyond the elastic
and the mass is then diminished to zero by the same steps.
If the elongation of the most highly strained filament is not to
limit,
exceed
y^
must not be
less
if rectangular.
2
/
not
exceed
h
should
Hence, by (25),
/(3000a).
At each stage of the loading and unloading a reading of the pin
(or of the cross-wire) is taken. The difference between the mean of
if circular,
the pan
As
corresponds to M.
pan out of account.
If the values of
h/M or
mean
in
66,
of
we may
value of
for
for
values of h (or of
definite
mass M,
These values of
z),
is
as shown by this
line, for
and
for
some
Ill]
9580
9623
131
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
132
EXPERIMENT
of a blade.
11.
Introduction.
85.
[CH.
The uniform
torsion of a blade,
i.e.
with its
strip of metal whose thickness is very small compared
In
45 it is
in
42
to
II.
considered
is
45, Chapter
width,
shown
that, if
<
~
1==
where 2a cm.
From
is
IGnabty
~~~
this equation
n can be
calculated,
when
the relation of GI to
this
may be
-^
clamping
may be employed
TORSION OF A BLADE
Ill]
133
The length
Fig. 50.
blade
is
a screw-gauge and the correction for the zero error of the gauge is
applied, with its proper sign, to the mean of the readings.
The lengths 2Z X and 2Z 2 cm. of the two inertia bars are then
found
their widths
2A and
l
2J. 2 cm.,
equal
M
to M
L.2
and
A we may
2
bars, each
The moment
through
its
A
Note IV,
A + b and hence, by the theorem of parallel axes (Note IV,
is
the
moment
3),
is
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
134
bars,
we
[CH.
moment
of inertia
K=ZM (JZ
+ |J. + 2Ab +
2
b 2 ).
K=^M(L- + 4J.
2
)grm. cm.
(2)
To complete the
determined
of Chapter II,
42 to 45, is only applicable to very small values
of the twist per cm.
At least two observations of the periodic
time are made exactly as in EXPERIMENT 5, to which the reader is
referred.
By Note
is
equal to
2,
G /K
l
Hence, by Note V,
!'
T seconds.
III,
2,
-_=
2*-
Vangular acceleration
= 2?r \/
is
given by
'
====
for
one radian
seconds.
Hence we obtain
U=
From
87.
Cm
lab*T 2 dyneS P6r SqUare
^ 8)
Practical example.
as in the
in
hundredths of a centimetre.
4-66
4-70
4-81
4-70
478
4-80
I
4-66
4-77
4-68
4-67
4-79
4-75
471
4-80
4'68
4-81
4-66
4-70
4-74
4-78
4 -66
4'80
DETERMINATION OF RIGIDITY
Ill]
The mean
means
of the two
0-08xlO-' cm.
is
~
4732 x 10 2 cm.
is
135
;
to be added.
~
Hence thickness = 26 = 4-812 x 10 2 cm.
Thus
= 2*406 xlO~ 2
cm.
5-05,
5-06,
5 "05,
5 "02,
5 '02
5-01,
5-02,
5-05,
5-06,
5 -06.
Mean
Widths
of inertia bars
of inertia of system =
Moment
=2'521 cm.
J/ 2 = 796.
J/!
Thus
= 796,
5 '042 cm.
2
}
Hence ^=2*574
Thus, by
sees.
(3)
_37rW_~
~4^b*T*
37r 2
is
with
logarithmic computation are, however, retained for use in connexion
EXPERIMENT
12.
2
EXPERIMENT 12. Determination of E/(l - o- ) by the uniform bending of a blade.
88.
Introduction.
a radius p cm.,
is
given by
4 ab*E
where 2a cm.
Further,
is
o-
is
is
85, viz.
1
= I6nab
<f),
d y ne ~ cm
-'
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
136
which
of
19,
Chapter
[CH.
I, viz.
^=2n(l+ff),
(2)
which expresses the relation between Poisson's ratio and the two
and n, we have sufficient equations to deterelastic constants
er.
Ill]
137
The
also
(EXPERIMENT
6,
67).
AB
much under
must be considerable
its
the curva-
is
the deflexion of the central point
to be large enough for accurate observation with simple apparatus.
But, when the blade is bent, the horizontal distance between the
threads is less than when the blade is straight and thus a correction
ture
becomes necessary.
scales T,
T are
if
To determine
this correction,
two horizontal
The
when only the pans hang from the threads are treated as
the zero readings the horizontal displacements of the threads due
to the pans alone are negligible.
obtained
The
difference
may
be reduced,
if
is at
movement
necessary,
its
of
by moving
length.
the same level as the knife-edges, the theory shows that the distance
is 6 - ^/SO or -5228 times the whole length of the blade.
The radius
where
ends.
It is
is
is
when
the blade
is
$) or 21-9B,
supported at its
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
138
Determination of E/(l - o- ).
(EXPERIMENT 6), that, when the
2
90.
tion (1)
from
66, equa-
is
(?2
On
It follows
[CH.
p = q-l-$(t + ta
l
where
21 is the distance
),
is
given by
..................... (4)
It is supposed, of
that
the
is
the
when
course,
system
symmetrical
pans are unloaded.
The zero reading on the scale 8 is taken when only the threads
and hooks hang from the blade. The pans are then hung on and
a reading
is
The observations
again taken.
series of loads in the pan, and readings are taken and recorded
both for increasing and for decreasing loads.
The difference
between the mean of the two readings for a given load and the
mean reading when only the threads and hooks hang from the
blade is taken as the elevation of the central point due to that
The readings of the threads on the horizontal scales are
load.
taken for each load, and the value of ti for a given load is calculated
from the mean of the two readings of the corresponding thread for
that load, and similarly for t2
.
p,
is
h (2/3- h)
>>=where
21 is the distance
A,
the
139
Ill]
In EXPERIMENT
we could neglect ^h
6,
in comparison with
may
be neglected or whether
it
must be
retained.
The thickness and the width of the blade are measured exactly
EXPERIMENT 11. If that experiment has been already per-
as in
it will
the blade.
From
(1)
and
(3)
we have
E = SMppg
/T/ dynes per square cm.,
,
(6)
The mean
be nearly constant.
E /(I
'
and from
it
the value of
<r )
is
employed.
91.
Calculation of
E and
of
a-.
- <r )
2
Substituting for
E from
(2),
we have
2n
1^ =
Using
this value of
cr
in (2),
we
obtain
...(8)
On
Practical example.
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
140
[CH.
in
87.
= 59 '40
Hence, by
(4), jo
The readings
cm.
grammes each)
two readings
for
horizontal scales.
Load
grms.
is
for increasing
half- millimetres.
141
in]
Finally,
by
we
(8),
find for
Young's modulus
'
EXPERIMENT
13.
is
uncertain to
87).
relations.
Introduction.
But there
will
we
shall
call
adiabatic and
In the adiabatic
radiation.
case, the
tained constant at every part of the system while the form of the
system is changing. This condition can be approximately secured
in practice by applying the forces so gradually that conduction and
radiation prevent any appreciable changes of temperature.
In the adiabatic case, the changes of form will depend upon the
values.
The
results of
Chapter
I,
22,
show
same
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
142
the two cases,
in
if
we
are
[CH.
dealing with
be maintained.
We now
We
shall
In the adiabatic
produces, and
case, the
also the
be independent of the
forces,
may
to the two sets of forces acting separately, and that the change of
temperature at any point of the system is the resultant of the
changes which occur there when each set of forces acts separately.
In the isothermal case, the change of form, which the second
set of forces produces, will be independent of the change already
set,
is
Similarly, if the forces of the first and second sets are very
small, the effects due to a third set of small forces are independent
of the
first
and second
sets.
is
supposed to be
and
changes of form due to gravity are small and the forces
will be proportional to
are small, the change of form due to
143
in]
and
will
be the same as
if
F acted.
will be proportional to
the change of form due to
acted.
same as if neither gravity nor
Similarly,
Y and
the
Work done by
and F, which
Let the forces
x
and
and
let
act at A and B, have definite directions,
y be the disand F from
placements of A and B measured in the directions of
94.
forces.
and independent
and
= aX + G! F,
bY.
Here
a, b, c lf c2
of gravity,
.... .................... (1)
........................ (2)
is
starting from zero and reaching its full value F, while the
continues to act at A.
The displacement
constant force
c2
A now
to
increases from
c^X + b F.
The
aX
to
additional
(3)
EXPEKIMENTAL WORK
144
[CH.
forces,
If the
work done be
............
where h z
is
(4)
descended.
These relations hold good in both the adiabatic and the isothermal cases, though the four constants a, 6, Cj c 2 have different
,
When
applied in the two methods. But, by .93, the strain and the
temperature at every point of the system are independent of the
order of application of the forces, and thus the final state, and therefore the final energy, of the system,
in the
two
cases.
is
When
system
is
and
are applied in the
gained by the system when the forces
two methods. But, if Q l and Q2 be the amounts of heat given to
and
the system and
2 be the energy gained by the system,,
1
when the
+ Cl XF + i&F + Mgh, +
= W, + Q2 = iaX + c,X Y+ |6F + Mgh 9 +
^ = F! + & = laZ
E
Now, by
ft,
.(5)
ft.
.(6)
system
is
inde-
strain or the
by
constant
is
/?
and thus Ql
in]
145
But h
=h
and Q
= Q and
2
we may
C!=c2
(6)
by (5)
and the isothermal
cases, c x
= Ca,
write
Ci
W = JaZ
and
and
thus,
c2
= c,
........................... (7)
+ c^F+i&F
2
,
.................. (8)
We
Y, ........................... (9)
y
If
we
= cX + bY.
X and
........................ (10)
Y,
we
find
bx-cy
'
ab-c*
From
and
with x
equations connecting
Lord Rayleigh* has deduced three reciprocal relations.
the
and y
= cZ,
........................... (13)
at
is,
by
(9),
a?
Hence, when
The
*
result
F applied
X in (13)
may
is
x=0
= cF.
equal to
........................... (14)
Fin
we have
(14),
as
x=Q =
y Y=o>
Art. 32.
S. E.
E.
10
i,
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
146
[CH.
The displacement
of
is
due to a
due to an
second relation follows from (11) and (12). If a displaceforce required to hold B at rest, so that
and
similarly, if a displacement
at rest, so that
to hold
0,
#=
=0
y be given to B, the
is, by (11),
=-C2//(a&-c
) ...........
Thus,
The
force required
when x
have
....... (16)
x=sf)
= Yy ^.
third relation
be the force
y=
is
0, or,
applied at
A.
Let y=0
(9) and (10).
to keep it at rest, so that
to
Fy=0 be
Then, putting y
the reaction at
in (10),
B when X
we have
(17)
X be
Now
X=
let
in (9)
and thus, by
(17),
-^o
^2/=o
The
result
may
x=Q
B is
the displacement of B,
force.
when a
force acts at
while
is free
from
Ill]
specified in
directions of
respectively.
They do not necessarily represent the
ments of A and B.
96.
Apparatus.
The
first
147
94, the
X and Y
total displace-
relations
may
be tested by experiments made on a long steel rod. It is important that the rod should be long, in order that fairly large
displacements may be obtained without straining the rod beyond
the elastic limit. The rod rests on two knife-edges C and
E C
it
may
be
D F
Fig. 52.
masses
and N, each of two or three kilogrammes, are suspended
from two points
and F on the rod close to the knife-edges.
Pans are attached to the rod at A and B by hooks and strings.
For testing the first relation both pans hang below the rod. For
testing the third relation, the string carrying one pan passes over
a pulley, care being taken that the part of the string between
the hook and the pulley is vertical. To avoid errors due to friction,
the pulley should be fitted with ball bearings, and the string
should be flexible plaited silk fishing line is suitable for the
Pins are attached by wax to the hooks at A and B,
purpose.
;
102
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
148
[CH.
the pans remain in position during the experiment, these displacements are constant and the displacements due to the loads placed
in the pans are simply added to these constant displacements.
The
Test of
97.
relation
is
The mass
the
first
in the J.-pan
is
When
reciprocal relation.
first
to be tested, both
The
B are
.5-pan
scale readings of
is
and
and
again taken.
From
the
first set
B
the displacements of
the second set of observations
placements of
quantities
we can
-3,
and
find a,
6
we obtain xx=0 and y x =o> the disdue to the force Y at B. From these
For, by (1) and (2),
b, ^ and c2
.
Cl
*,
c,
y.
(20)
in]
Similarly the
mean
(a?I=0
value of
.
principles
divided by
)/F gives
cx
is
used
mean
value of (yx=o)l
gives 6. The
and the mean value of (y F=0)/2T
of the
c2
may
c.
98.
is
for finding a.
gives c 2
149
When
the third
A -pan
to be tested, the
but the
hangs directly from
The mass in
string supporting the 5-pan passes over the pulley.
the J.-pan is increased by equal steps and at each stage the load
in the 5-pan is adjusted until the scale reading of
is identical
relation
is
with the zero reading obtained when both pans are empty. Instead
of attempting to make an exact adjustment of the load, we may
take readings for two loads, one a little too great and the other a
little too small, and may obtain the required load by interpolation.
The
force
due
Xy=0
>
since the
string supporting the J5-pan pulls the rod upwards, the weight of
The value of
the load in that pan is
y=0
y=Q/Xy =0 is found for
.4 -pan
by the equation
c2 /6
which
derived from
is
is
used
for calculating
= -F,. /Z ,.
(21)
(2).
eJb***x*JVx,
which
is
The
employed in
(22)
c.Jb
and
Ci/b
furnishes a
94.
The pulley is now moved and the string supporting the A -pan
is made to pass over it, while the 5-pan is hung directly from B.
A second set of observations is then made in which A is kept at
The mean value of X x =o/YXa0 derived from these observarest.
tions
is
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
150
and
this value is
[CH.
cja> derived
.(24)
99.
Practical example.
as in
two slide rules, were used in measuring the displacements and the
readings were taken to ^-fa cm by aid of two telescopes. To avoid unnecessary
complication, the forces were not measured in dynes but in terms of the weight
sliders of
of a kilogramme.
Test of first reciprocal relation.
In the following tables, only the displacements, expressed in centimetres, are given, but the student must record
all the readings and deduce the displacements from them.
Table
1.
Table
2.
Ill]
The constancy
in tables 3
Table
F
'
3.
151
examined
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
152
Table
5.
Table
[CH.
6.
TOKSIONAL HYSTERESIS
Ill]
for the
153
was reached
cycles of
many
and
we shall
twisting and untwisting between the limits +
find that it settles down to a condition in which the couples called
and
into play by the twists +
Q have definite values, and that
,
the couple called into play by any intermediate twist 6, has two
to
#
definite values, one corresponding to the passage from +
to
When
this con-
is
When
after
to reach
+#
and
#o
will
performed.
When
53.
behind the cause (the couple) has been called hysteresis by Ewing.
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
154
The phenomenon
of hysteresis occurs in
[CH.
many
made
by the existence
specially close
of magnetic viscosity.
how
to calculate the
OY
length along
the points on
in the strip
PP'N'N, provided
one
and that unit
radian
represents
a
of
one
represents
couple
dyne-cm. If Q, Q' be
OX
BDB'
work spent upon the wire during the two changes is therefore
represented by the area of the strip PP'Q'Q, and hence, if the
work spent upon the wire during the complete cycle be
ergs,
is represented by the whole area BDB'D'.
In practice it would be inconvenient to plot the couple
(measured in dyne-cm.) and the angle (measured in radians) upon
the same scale. We shall therefore suppose that the scales are so
if
inches) along OX represents p radians, and that one cm. (or one
Then the angle dO is
inch) along OY represents q dyne-cm.
represented by d0/p cm. (or inches) and hence the distance NN' is
ddjp cm. (or inches). Similarly, a couple G dyne-cm, is represented
is G/q cm. (or
by G/q cm. (or inches) and thus the distance
PN
inches).
The area
of the strip
PP'N'N
is
the
strip.
or,
in symbols,
W=pqA
where A square cm.
drawn on the paper.
(1)
ergs,
as
(or square inches) is the area of the curve
*
(2).
TORSIONAL HYSTERESIS
Ill]
102.
Apparatus.
155
is
shown
in
of
is
is
torsion head
wire
in
diameter
R
Fig. 54.
R is
The rod
is
pulled down-
may be
in a
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
156
[CH.
The
if
and
and
scale.
d cm.
<
In some cases
it
= x/2d
may
radians
(2)
the axis of the wire, be h cm. and if the angle <f> correspond to a
displacement of x cm. along the scale, then, for small angles,
<j)
= xjh
radians.
One
of these rods
is
clamp so that the wire is vertical and the other rod is secured to
an inertia bar, exactly as in Fig. 33. The periodic time, T seconds,
of the torsional vibrations of the bar
of inertia,
gramme
is
its
give
is /* dyne-cm.
Then the couple
the auxiliary wire a twist of one radian is
2, the angular acceleradyne-cm, and hence, by Note III,
required to give
TORSION AL HYSTERESIS
Ill]
157
pa/lK radian
T=
2?r
Thus
Hence,
*=
if
deflexion of
and
see." 2
5?'
........................... < 3)
(3),
n
103.
= LLX =
Experimental
details.
wire from any torsional couple, and the screw is then tightened.
The mirror, the lamp and scale and the focussing lens are then
adjusted so that a sharp image of a cross- wire is formed on the
scale near its centre.
One observer, who may conveniently sit on
image of the cross- wire. If a cycle with the limits + 200 and
200 is to be studied, the torsion head is turned to + 200 and the
scale reading of the cross-wire is taken.
The head is then turned
back to +160 and the scale reading is again taken, and this
200 is reached. The
process is continued by steps of 40 till
motion is then reversed and readings are taken at intervals of 40
till + 200 is reached.
This constitutes the first cycle.
But, to
eliminate initial effects, a second and a third cycle are performed
without any break in the process of observing. The cyclic state
be more quickly reached if the wire be put through a few
200 before the obsercycles of twisting between +200 and
will
When
the wire
is
104.
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
158
it
exerts
is
easily
changed by
[CH.
vibration.
When
is
been moved.
be found that the readings obtained in the
third cycle are practically identical with those obtained in the
second cycle. If this be the case, we may consider that the cyclic
It will probably
state has
may
is
Note IX.
Since the scale readings of the cross-wire are taken at equal
may be employed directly in calculating
sum
If one cm. (or one inch) along the axis of angle correspond to
m degrees,
it
corresponds also to
radians,
where
(5)
and
one cm. (or one inch) along the axis of couple correspond to
a motion of the spot of light through n cm., it also corresponds to
if
(4),
(6)
159
TORSION AL HYSTERESIS
Hi]
Hence, by
(1),
is
given by
On
the
spent upon the two wires is correctly given by the area of
the
But
since
wire.
loop if Hooke's law holds good for the stout
stout wire
upon
it
is
in each cycle.
represents the work spent on the copper wire
The student who wishes to pursue the subject should obtain
104.
Practical example.
W depends upon
as in
C. Searle and
the following record of an experiment made by Messrs G.
W. Burton upon a copper wire about 0'09 cm. in diameter and 36'5 cm.
in length.
The wire, by which the couple was measured, was of brass and
.
Head
Reading
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
160
Mass
of inertia bar
[CH.
=J/=820 grammes.
=2Z=37'92 cm.
of inertia bar
Length
Width of inertia bar
Moment
=2 A =-1-6 cm.
of inertia of \)&r
= K=
(18-96
=9-84 xlO 4
Time
Periodic time
=7 =126'l/50=2-522
Mean
+ 0'8 2
grrn.
cm. 2
126'1 sees.
sees.
The
torsional couple
is,
by
(4),
equation
27T 2
X 51 x 9-84 x 104
9-8x65-5x2-522^
dyne-cm.
...(8)
After the torsion head had been turned through two or three cycles with
+200 and -200, the readings in the above table were taken.
the limits
The readings for the third cycle agreed so closely with those for the second
cycle that the third cycle was taken as closely representing the cyclic state of
the wire. In the third cycle there was a slight discrepancy between the two
Scale readings (cm.
28-
26-0
23-5
21-0
18-5
16-0
-200
-100
+100
+200
TORSIONAL HYSTERESIS
Ill]
readings for
The
loop.
+200.
161
in
thus 26'9-25'2=r7.
The loop shown in Fig. 55 was plotted on paper ruled in inches, and 2 cm.
of deflexion and 80 of angle were each represented by one inch.
The distances
on the paper corresponding to the differences shown in the last column were
The step of 40 is
0, 0'85, 1*5... inches, the sum being 16'0 inches.
represented by -| inch and hence A, the area, is ^xl6'0=8'0 square inches.
Since one inch corresponds to 80, p=80ir/ 180 =1'396 by (5), and since one inch
therefore
4
corresponds to 2 cm. of deflexion, it also corresponds, by (8), to 2x2 43xl0
and
thus
the
to
one
inch
on
the
is
dyne-cm,
couple corresponding
diagram,
q,
-
4*86
xlO 4 dyne-cm.
Hence, by
(7),
we
S.
B. E.
11
NOTE
I.
F act at P.
be taken as origin,
Then apply
let
let
and
a force equal in magnitude to
The
in the same direction, and (ii) an equal force in the opposite direction.
two forces of this pair are themselves in equilibrium and so have no resultant
a force
to
(i)
in
The three forces can be replaced by a single force
acting at
the same direction as the force at P together with a couple formed by the
force at P and the remaining force at 0.
Treating all the other forces of the
effect.
group in the same way, we see that the whole group is equivalent to a
number of forces acting at
and to a number of couples. The forces may
be combined into a single resultant force acting at
and the couples into a
NOTE
for 0.
II.
D'ALEMBERT'S PRINCIPLE.
Suppose that any particle of a solid or fluid body has an acceleration
sec.~ 2 and that the mass of the particle is m grammes.
Then the
resultant of all the forces which act on the particle is the single force
of
/cm.
"
dynes in the direction of /. This force is called the effective force."
forces acting on the particle may be divided into two classes.
The
first class comprises the forces due to external bodies, whether they be transmitted by gravitational or electromagnetic action or are caused by the direct
mf
The
contact of some external body. The second class contains all those forces
which act on the particle arid are due to other particles of the body itself.
These
NOTES
163
But, by Newton's third law, the forces on any two particles due to their
mutual action form a system in equilibrium*, and thus, when taken together,
they have no component in any direction and no moment about any axis.
Hence, for any given body, the whole group of internal forces forms a
system in equilibrium and gives rise to no force in any direction and no
applied forces and the system of internal forces are together exactly
But the internal forces form
equivalent to the system of effective forces.
in equilibrium and therefore may be left out of
thus arrive at the result known as D'Alembert's Principle,
by themselves a system
account.
We
forces,
resultants
the
the rate of
momentum
mf
component
momentum is
momentum in one
system of applied
unit of
of
second.
forces.
The
C.Q.s.
is
Again, since the rate of generation of momentum in the particle
exactly represented by the force mf, the rate of increase of the moment of
momentum
is
it
follows that the rate of increase of the angular momentum of the whole
is equal to the moment about the same axis of the
NOTE
III.
rectangular axes fixed anywhere in space and let x^ y\,Zi cm., #2) #2> *fe cm
be the coordinates at time t of particles of masses mi, 2 ... grammes. Then,
be the mass of the
if > fy C be the coordinates of the centre of gravity and
'
system of
particles,
112
164
NOTES
If we denote by x\ the rate at which x\ increases with the time, then x ^ is the
And if
velocity of the particle mi in the positive direction of the axis of x.
Xi stand for the rate of increase of #j, then x^ is the acceleration of mj in the
same direction. Since, in the C.G.s. system, time is measured in seconds, the
1
2
shall
velocity is x\ cm. sec." and the acceleration is x^ cm. sec."
extend this notation to the other coordinates.
then have, at once, for
.
We
We
the velocities
J/g = 2m#,
and
Jf;j
= 2my, J#=2w,
(2)
J/
= 2m.,
Now, by Note
MTJ = 2my,
M=2mz
(3)
is
in any direction, it follows that 'S.mx is equal to the ^-component of the whole
If the three components of the resultant of this
group of applied forces.
and similarly for Y and Z. Hence,
group be A', 7, Z, we have 'S.mx =
by
(3),
Ml = X, Mrj=Y, Ml=Z.
Thus
(4)
ij t
M grammes
F=Mf.
This result
is
is
AXIS.
rate of increase of
be
dyne-cm.,
it
o>
follows that
G = Ka,
momentum
Ka>.
is
NOTES
NOTE
IV.
MOMENTS OF
As a knowledge
DEFINITION.
1.
is
165
INERTIA.
of the
essential in practical
moments
work
of inertia of bodies of
in elasticity,
we
give a sketch
Let mi
let ri
r2
2 ...
or axis.
mi r^ + m 2 r2
is
...
called the
moment
of inertia of the
. . .
= 2mr2
axis.
We shall denote
2wr2 by K.
in
OX
Hence, by
1,
we have
^ = 2m(y
1
If the distance of
# = 2m(*
+^2 ),
from
be R, and
if
+#2
(1)
K = ?,m(x*+f}
),
we
+ z2
).
find
Kt+Kt + K^ZH.
(2)
its centre,
the
K^K^K^H.
If the
body be an
(3)
OXY,
then
+y*)=K + K2
l
(4)
(5)
166
NOTES
THEOREM OF PARALLEL
3.
AXES.
(Fig. 56)
and
let
any
be
M and
on OG.
let
the
PN
moment
of inertia of the
Q,
and
let
body
Fig. 56.
that
Then
2
=2m.(PG 2 + OG* + WG GN]
= 2m P# + 0<72 2m + 2 OG^m GN,
K =^m OP
.
GN is
where
Since
G is
N and
by adding
to
the product of
M and
ITS
AXES OF
by
Ki = Q.
(1),
about
OY is
The moment
proportional to
of inertia
when
V-
Fig. 57.
given, for, if we uniformly stretch the rod to n times its original length,
T as it was originally, and thereeach particle will be n times as far from
fore the new moment of inertia of each particle will be n 2 times its original
is
value.
K% is proportional
K^qMl\
where q
is
to
.................................... (7)
Now, by
(7),
the
moment
OA
about an axis
and
that of
moment
of inertia of
OA
about
OY is
half
or
Thus, by
(7),
(8)
NOTES
167
ITS
by
(8),
IV
ro
.'B'
Fig. 58.
(9)
Similarly
...(10)
By
...(11)
(4)
6.
MOMENTS OF INERTIA OF A UNIFORM RECTANGULAR BLOCK ABOUT
at the centre of the block and
AXES OF SYMMETRY. Take the origin
ITS
let
OX, OY,OZbe parallel to the edges 2, 26, 2c. Then JTj is unchanged when
and simithe block is compressed into a uniform lamina in the plane
OYZ
and hence, by
(11),
] .......
(12)
7.
MOMENTS OF INERTIA OF A UNIFORM CIRCULAR LAMINA ABOUT
AXES OF SYMMETRY. Let the radius be a
and the mass M, and let the axes OX, OY
(Fig.
Take a narrow
strip
of the lamina.
PQF
parallel to
OX,
hence,
By
strip
by
OX is m
OQ* and
by summation,
(8),
the
moment
and hence,
Fig. 59.
addition,
ITS
168
NOTES
K =K
But, by symmetry,
and hence
Thus
Then, by
K^K^ K = %Ma*
(4),
............................... (14)
8.
AXES OF SYMMETRY.
2a, 26.
If,
ellipse, parallel to
OX,
ITS
OF be
7 be uniformly
if
KI = 2m7 2 = (6 2 /a 2 ) 2my 2
But 2mx and 2my are the same as
2
by (13), each is equal to JJ/a
2
hence,
By
K = 2w
= ^mx\
and K\
elliptical
and
lamina
(4),
9.
Let
M be
and
at a distance
the mass and a the radius, arid let the axes OX, OY, OZ pass
through the centre 0. Consider an element of the sphere in the form of a
thin disk of radius r and of mass
with its plane parallel to the plane OXZ
y from
Fig. 59
it.
By
7,
moment
the
Thus, by summation,
Since
2
2
2
y =a - r we have
,
Ki =2mr2
By
7,
the
moment
K^ = Ma2 - %K2
and thus
Since,
by symmetry,
Ki = K2 =K3 we
,
find that
K^K^K^Ma*
Hence
............................ (17)
10.
MOMENTS OF INERTIA OF A UNIFORM SOLID ELLIPSOID ABOUT ITS AXES
OF SYMMETRY. Let the diameters parallel to OX, OY, OZbe 2a, 26, 2c. If,
without change of mass, the sphere of
9 be uniformly strained so that the
points,
y,
is
brought to
17,
f,
where
=#,
Tj
= by/a,
NOTES
become the
will
169
under consideration.
ellipsoid
If
be the mass of an
element of volume,
2m 2 = 2m.*;2
moment
half the
Thus
..................... (18)
..................... (19)
... ..................
(20)
11.
AXES OF SYMMETRY. Let the mass of the cylinder be M, its length 2 and
radius a. Take the axis OX to coincide with the axis of the cylinder,
and let
be the centre of the cylinder. Then the value of K\ remains the
same if the cylinder be compressed into a uniform circular lamina of radius a
ITS
its
in the plane
OTZ.
Hence, by
(14),
Now
OX
and let
perpendicular to
x from the plane OYZ. The
moment
is ^7/ia2 ,
3), its
moment
K = A'
2
But 2w#
is
the
hence,
(22)
12.
"MOMENTS OF INERTIA" OF
AREAS.
If a
and
the axis
we
shall denote
it
by
/.
"
The
moment
of inertia
"
of the area
same
mass per unit area. The moment of inertia of the area
may therefore be found by substituting A the magnitude of the area, for J/,
the mass of the lamina.
In the c.G.S. system, / will be expressed as a
moment
multiple of one
cm 4
see that
its
where h
is
From
170
NOTES
Here
26.
A = 4ab.
About a diameter
About a diameter
Here
a.
5,
find
I = ^Ab =$
/2 = ^Aa
1
/3 =/j-|-/2 = |a6(a 2 -f 6 2 ).
A = rra 2
and thus, by
7,
we have
= 72 = A a = J n-a
I3 = Aa = ^Trai
2
/j
centre,
Here
we
centre,
About a diameter,
About the normal through the
Hence, by
A = 7rab
and thus, by
8?
we have:
About the diameter
2a,
A = %A 62 = J 7r6 3
26,
/2 =J^
ANGULAR MOMENTUM OF A
13.
7 3 =/i + /2 = J
centre,
When
a rigid body turns about a fixed axis, the velocity, and therefore also the momentum, of any particle is at right angles to the perpendicular,
AXIS.
of length r cm.,
particle be
1
per second, the velocity of the particle is ra> cm. sec." and its momentum is
1
mroi grm. cm. sec." or mra> dyne-sec., a dyne-sec, being the amount of
momentum which
momentum about
distance
r,
is
momentum
momentum
of the whole
moment
of inertia of the
of the particle
body
is
thus
body
m about the
2mr2 <o
o>
The angular
is the same
The quantity 2m r2
Hence
is rigid.
axis.
or o>2mr2 since
axis.
is
the
the
moment of
14.
The
o>
is
and
whole body
<
is ^o) 2
2mr 2
2
grm. cm.
is
the
moment
of
171
NOTES
NOTE
V.
HARMONIC MOTION.
KECTILINEAR MOTION. On a circle with
P and draw a perpendicular
Then, if P move
upon any diameter AOA'.
round the circle with uniform speed, the point
The length OA is called
moves along AOA'.
the amplitude of the oscillation and the time
in going from A to A' and back
occupied by
1.
(Fig.
PM
take a point
to
is
the speed of
v cm. sec." 1
OP be
is cor
to
Hence
cm. in length.
v = o)r
when
instant
ON be x cm.
P passes
and
let
(1)
the time
sees,
through A.
is
at radians,
and
hence
x=rcosa)t
(2)
AOA
If the velocity of
in the direction OA be u cm. sec." 1 , u is
along
to
the
to
the
same direction, of the velocity of P.
equal
component, parallel
Since the latter is at right angles to OP, we have
u=
Since u
is
v sin
a>t is
and multiplying by
-co 2rsin(co+^7r).
- cor
cor
sin at
(3)
of increase of r cos
POA =
- cor sin
a>t
rate of increase of
and
sino>
is
sin(co
- co 2r cos a>t
i.e.
or
- co 2
*?.
Hence,
if
the acceleration of M, be
/=-**
When x
is positive,
towards
0.
As
(4)
and thus/
vice versa,
is
always directed
2?r
radians in
co
= 27r/7
T=.
T
,
or
...(5)
NOTES
172
has towards
Since o> 2 is equal to the acceleration which
unit displacement, i.e. when #=1, this result can be written
when
M has
(6)
and an angular velocity such that the displacement, velocity and acceleration
are equal to those of the given point, and hence the periodic time of the
of
its acceleration is proportional to its displacement from its mean position, is called harmonic. The
radius of the auxiliary circle does not appear in the formula for the periodic
The
is independent of the amplitude of the vibration.
time, and hence
2.
AXIS.
In
many
body, instead of moving along a straight line, turns about a fixed axis in such
a way that its angular acceleration a is equal to p6 radians per sec. per sec.,
where 6 radians is its angular displacement from its mean position and p is a
constant.
of
that
is
If
60, in
such
OM is equal
way
time of
its vibrations, is
given by
NOTE
for
one radian
VI.
YOUNG'S MODULUS.
it is
with a radius equal to the mean radius of the wire, the latter being determined by observations at a number of points equally spaced along the wire.
It may be useful to show how a closer approximation may be reached.
NOTES
173
let
To a
of
modulus, we
have, by equation
~ FL/m
Expanding the
17,
(5),
Chapter
and
if
E be
Young's
I,
FL/m
m denominators by
we have
'~~~
FL (m
32& 2
first
since 26 = 0.
Hence, as far as
correcting term,
FL
and
is slightly
2.
of
too small.
KIGIDITY.
If
we apply to equation
39,
(23),
Chapter
II,
an argument
The method
of
desires to
all
the
NOTES
174
NOTE
ON
VII.
INERTIA BARS.
A good plan is to solder each end of the wire into a hole drilled along
the axis of a metal cylinder 2 or 3 cm. in length and 0'4 or 0'5 cm. in
diameter. One of these cylinders fits easily into a hole drilled at the centre
bar.
of the inertia bar at right angles to its length, and the cylinder is secured
there by a small set screw, while the other cylinder is secured in the same
bar.
less
6,
K = I x 320 (20
Q
Note IV,
+ (i) 2} = 42693-33.
11,
2
.grm. cm.
is drilled in
The mass
inertia of
is
moment
If the
K=K
two
Jc^
and
millions.
of inertia of the bar after the hole has been drilled be K, then
this, it will be seen, differs from
by less than one part in
NOTES
175
Though boring the hole has not appreciably affected the moment of
it has changed the mass of the bar from 320 grms. to
If we had taken 320- 1'005 grms.
320 - 1-005 grms. i.e. by one part in 320.
as the mass of the bar and had treated the bar as a uniform rectangular
inertia of the bar,
block, the
moment
of inertia would be
Jx{320- 1-005}
and
},
it
moment
of inertia is the
NOTE
WORK DONE
When
+() 2
an
a couple
is
is
be seen, from
the mass to be employed
by a
.secured
|20
It will
attached to
it.
VIII.
BY A COUPLE.
d6 radians, an amount
d W ergs will be done by the couple.
require to know how d W depends upon
infinitesimal angle
of work
We
& and
A,
d6.
upon
couple
is
(Fig.
61)
radius r cm.
be
We may
applied by
means of two
strings
F dynes, we have
._,.
rig. ol.
angle
is
where
is
the work done by the couple while the body turns through the
angle 6 radians.
When the couple
is
initial position,
NOTES
176
done while 6 increases from zero to
The
latter is
JF=$x^0=#max X(
where
6r max
when
6 = ().
dyne-cm,
is
the
maximum
value of
NOTE
ergs,
6r, i.e.
IX.
on paper, of which the whole or a part passes as evenly as possible among the
points representing a number of observations. In such a case much labour
would be involved in the attempt to determine, even approximately, the
equation to the line, and then the calculation of the area by aid of the
equation would still remain to be made. This method is, therefore, seldom
used.
line.
The
Mi
M M
2
Fig. 62.
When we
...
An
MM
(Fig. 62),
l
the axis of x and the two ordinates AiMlt A n n we divide
n into n- 1
=
=
a
cm. and so
A
a
A
Let
cm.
d
of
2
2
2
l cm.,
1
l
length
equal parts, each
on.
If d be small compared with the least radius of curvature at any point
NOTES
177
AiA n we may replace the arcs A^A^ A 2 A 3 ... by the correand treat each of the vertical strips as a trapezoid. The area
chords,
sponding
A 2 2 ),
of the trapezoid A l
l
2 and of | (A 1
1 +
2 A 2 is the product of
1
on the curve
MM
MM
mean height of the chord AiA 2 and thus the area is (^ai + ^a 2 )d square
cm. The area of the next trapezoid is (%a 2 + ^a 3 ')d and so on. On addition,
we find that, if the area A MI n A n be A square cm.,
the
A = (a + a 2 +
...
The
Draw a
may be
+an _ + !Od
1
expressed as follows
The
>i,
b2
of equally spaced ordinates, add half the first and half the
the sum of the intermediate ordinates and multiply the whole
series
last ordinates to
BMi
..................... (1)
and
we denote a
and (2),
If
by
Ci
and so
on,
and
if
be the area
A\B\Bn A n we
,
have, by (1)
<7=(^ + c 2 +
In
many
instances
coincides with
By
taking
An
d
(e.g.
Then
...
+ Cn _ + i Cn )cZ.
1
^=0
and
cn
=0
........................ (3)
Bn
made
as great as may be
c's are exactly
desired, provided that the values of the a's, the 6's or the
known.
If the observations be taken at equal intervals with respect to the variable
quantity represented along the axis OX, it is unnecessary to draw the curve
a's, 6's
or
c's
When the observations are not taken at equal intervals with respect to
the quantity represented along OX, we can either find the sum of the areas
of the separate trapezoids corresponding to successive intervals (if the
intervals be not too great), or
among the
S.
we may draw
E. E.
12
178
NOTES
NOTE
HINTS ON PRACTICAL
X.
WORK
IN
PHYSICS.
1.
FAILURES.
demonstrator in practical physics spends a large part
of his time in correcting students' mistakes. He has to discover, for instance,
why it is that a student obtains 537*86402 [no units mentioned] for Young's
modulus by an experiment on a brass wire instead of 9'86 x 10 n dynes per
square centimetre. It is then found, perhaps, that the student has confused
the radius of the wire with its diameter, that, having got hold of a screwinch, he has treated one turn
gauge in which one turn is equivalent to
as equivalent to ^ millimetre either because it looked about -| millimetre
if
worthless,
The
his
and
is
viz.
entirely useless to
following hints
may
any human
is
537 '86402,
being.
work and may help him to discover where they have occurred when,
is
obviously wrong.
OBSERVATIONS.
number be not
correctly read
has been entered, the student should, when possible, look at the instrument
again in order to detect any discrepancy between the written entry and the
instrumental reading.
What he actually
wrote
is
to write.
Some
of the
Wrong
sees a 10
NOTES
divisions, one of the latter is
179
fifth of
a main
division.
The numbered
divisions are read from left to right, but the tenths are
read from right to left. Thus 25 '4 is wrongly read as 25*6, the 6 tenths
"
in the latter number being reckoned from the
26."
The student does not understand the graduation of the instrument, either
because he has not given sufficient attention to the matter or because the
unit of measurement is not marked on the instrument
in the latter case
;
he cannot be expected to
ascertain
it
from those
ends."
The attempt
to
measure a length by a
when a
"
single reading
distance of 30 cm.
sometimes leads
is
put down as
"
wrong end of the scale is used and so the distance
"
"
to be measured lies between the " 100 and the " 70 on the scale, and not
between the "0" and the "30." If, in addition to the reading "70," the
"
"
reading 100 had been taken and recorded, the error would not have occurred.
Similar remarks apply to the measurement of many other quantities, e.g.
masses, angles, and resistances.
In finding the periodic time of a vibrating system, a student sometimes
"
calls
one " when he starts the stop-watch he stops the watch as he calls
"
and though he imagines that he has found the time of 50 vibrations,
fifty
"
he has really found the time of only 49. He should call " nought when he
**
When
ramble
the periodic time exceeds about two seconds, the mind has time to
other interests between one count and the next, and therefore a
off to
steady hand, a keen eye, and a good general command of the body are
essential in accurate physical determinations ; mere intellectual power avails
nothing by itself. Any rule of life which deviates from temperance in all
things (including work) may be expected to render the hand less steady and
the eye less keen, and so to lead to inferior work. University students whose
fingers are deeply stained with tobacco do not, as a rule, become skilful
observers, though they
may show
3.
THE RECORDING OF OBSERVATIONS. As soon as an observation has
been made, enter the result in a note book, not on a scrap of paper. Do not
NOTES
180
wait to see the result of a second adjustment before recording the result of
first one.
Take the figures as they come without any attempt to force
the
them
is
own powers,
is likely
to
do
reliable
work
is
expressed.
you have reason to reject any of your observations, cancel the entries
by bold lines drawn through them, so that there may be no mistake as
to what is rejected and what is retained.
Neatness is here of secondary
If
importance.
record of the observations good and clear, and that he should preserve it for
reference. If any practical use is to be made of the results of an experiment,
it is
and
will
be able to send in
From
the observations
is
NOTES
181
Many
the reciprocal of a number; and he will then not waste time in working
it out by the aid of logarithms.
The slide rule is so convenient in those cases where moderate accuracy
suffices, that the student should endeavour to become proficient in its use.
it must be recognised that its accuracy is limited.
Care should be taken to carry the arithmetic to a
But
The
sufficient
number
of
final result
An
example
will
make
this clear.
The value
of
=4-8
1-7
X2-8
1-67
X2-76 =4-61
to 2 figures
to 3 figures
1-674x2-763 = 4-625 to 4
figures.
Hence the rough 2 figure arithmetic has introduced an error of about one
in 25.
With 3 figure arithmetic the error is reduced to about one in 330,
figures the error is only about one in 4000.
the other hand, it is useless to retain many significant figures in the
arithmetic when the data are only correct to a few significant figures.
and with 4
On
When
number
the
is
odd.
Thus
3-485
of significant figures
but one
is
is left
number adopted
digit even.
When
thus:
left of
the numbers are very great or very small, it is best to write them
~
4'19xl07 or 5 "89 X 10 5 keeping one significant figure only on the
the decimal point. There is less chance of error in copying 5-89 x 10~ 5
,
logarithm.
Thus
log (4-19
X 10 7 ) = 7-6222,
log (5'89x
KT 6 = 57701.
)
123
182
NOTES
common
sense.
cross-section of a
5.
DIAGRAMS. When series of observations are plotted on squared paper,
the student should express very clearly upon the diagram the two
physical
quantities which are represented along the horizontal and vertical axes.
When
diagram
is
generally worthless.
The points plotted on the diagram should be clearly marked by small circles
drawn round them or in other ways.
In every case when a series of observations is made, one quantity X is
X X
whole range.
had been large, the errors of observation would not have completely obscured
the law which the experiment was designed to investigate.
6.
NOTE
laboratory.
The student
BOOKS.
which to write
fuller
He
he has done in the laboratory, and will also gain practice in describing
experimental work in his own words. The note book should have large
But
pages, and ample space should be left for future notes and additions.
however great the labour spent upon this book, it can never take the place of
the laboratory note book in which the original records are written.
The student should write his name and address in his note books as
a safeguard against their
loss.
GENERAL REMARKS.
leave an experiment
which he does not understand.
Every experiment involves many principles, and thus a single experiment
7.
while there
is
thoroughly grasped in
it
much
knowledge which will help him in future experiments. Hence, one experiment well understood is of far more educational value than a dozen in
which the student has gained only hazy notions.
There is no such thing as the ANSWER to any experimental investigation,
for no two persons would obtain precisely the same result, however carefully
183
NOTES
any measurement
is
increased,
common
gramme. To be certain
weights could weigh it to
gramme, it would be necessary to use double weighing
and to allow for the buoyancy of the air. To reach an accuracy of
nytf <J gramme, it would be necessary to have a table of corrections for the
weights employed, while to come within i o7ooo gramme would require an
accurate knowledge of the pressure, the temperature and the hygrometric
state of the air, and would require the refined appliances of a national
physical laboratory and the skill of an expert.
balance and
of the mass to
y^
(e.g. rise
of temperature).
result in
gauge when 2Z
is
two
significant figures in
%A
it is,
at the
INDEX.
The
and not
to sections.
Absolute zero 21
Action and reaction 3
Adiabatic elasticity 20
After-effects 1
Anticlastic curvature 65
surface 44
Area,
measurement
of by
trapezoidal
124
mirror method of determining 104
of helicoid 64
rule 176
Bending moment
47, 109
Bottomley, Dr J. T. 73
Brass, elastic constants for 113
Breaking stress 82
Bulk modulus 10
Burton,
W.
94, 159
Change of
57, 114
Ellipse,
Ellipsoid,
Change
Elongation
on 73
Comparison of
Compression 7
work in 71
of liquid or gas 11
Electromagnetic radiation 163
9,
16,
41,
54
elasticity 71
ri-
186
INDEX
Modulus
Moments
torsion 36
162
Freedom,
definition of 165
of torsion 13
Molecular actions 4
properties of 165
theorem of parallel axes 166
six degrees of 76
Momentum,
C.G.S.
Gas, elasticity of 11
Geometry
of helicoid
63
Phosphor bronze,
Homogeneous
Hooke, Eobert 2
Hooke's law 2
deviations from 78
determination
6,
11
of energy
by
Isothermal elasticity 20
Isotropic 3
ticity
22
Liquid, elasticity of 11
negative pressure in 11
see
Kayleigh
Love, A. E. H., treatise on elasticity 31
Eigid body,
Maximum
strain
in
experiment
104,
110, 130
Maxwell's thermodynamic relation 26
Mirror method of determining curvature
104
by bending of a
torsional
152
Lord Eayleigh,
of,
experimental investigation of 72
dissipation
for
Hydrostatic pressure
Hysteresis loop 158
elastic constants
113
Helicoid, curvature of 64
geometry of 63
acceleration of centre of
gravity of 163
angular acceleration of 164
angular
momentum
of 164, 170
INDEX
Eigidity 11, 13
by statical method 90
by torsion of a blade 132
table of values of 113
Bound
rod,
uniform torsion of 58
187
Saint-Venant's principle 31
application of 69, 70
illustration of 62
Searle, G. F. C. 74, 94,' 110, 113, 119,
131, 150, 159
60, 169
round rod 58
Torsional couple 58, 68
hysteresis,
dissipation
Shakespear, G. A. 74
Shear, definition of 8
of
energy
through 152
Trapezoidal rule
areas 176
permanent 82
maximum
rod 61
rectangular rod 61
rods of non-circular section 60
for
measurement
of
in experiments 8
for
113
Slope at end of rod 105, 129
Specific heat at constant pressure 23
at constant volume 23
52, 135
bending of rod 38, 100, 107
torsion of a blade 63
torsion of a round rod 58
for 172
Viscous yielding 153
Strain, definition of 7
Strained section of rod 44, 114
Stress, definition of 5
Volume
elasticity 10
Work done by
forces 143
breaking 82
Stresses on diagonal planes of a sheared
cube 13, 14
coefficient
of
Young's
Tenacity 82
Tension, effect of, on coefficient of expansion 73
Theoretical elasticity, assumptions of 30
Thermodynamics, applications
ticity
22
CAMBRIDGE
to elas-
Young's modulus 15
determination of, by bending a blade
135
method 100
temperature coefficient of 74
CAMBRIDGE PHYSICAL
SERIES
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XI.
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VIII.
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