Fundamental Patterns of Knowing in Barbara A. Carper, RIN. BaD. Aniclae Profesor and Chairman Dinionof Medial Surgial Nursing Collegeof Nuring “Text Woman's Unierity Dalles Cote Dallas, Texas Nursing 8 THE GANA conception of any field of inguiey thar ulimael “derermines the kind of knowledge the fed aims 19 develop as well as che man ner in which that knowledge is tobe aunized, tested and applied. The body of Knowledge that server at the rationale for nursing practice has patterns, forme and seructare that serve a8 horizons of fexpectations and exemplify chara teristic ways of thinking about phenomena. Understanding these pat tems is essential for the tesching snd lextning of aursing. Such an understand: ing does not extend the range of Knowledge, but rather involves critical attention 10 the question of what it means to kaow snd what kinds of Knowledge ate held to be of mort value inthe discipline of aursing IDENTIEYING PATTERNS OFKNOWING. our fandsmentl patterns ofknowing have been identified a an analysis ofthe conceptual and syntactical structure of aursing knowledge! ‘The four pat tems. are distinguished according to logical type of meaning and designated as (1) empiric, the science of nursing; (2) esthetis, the are of aursing: (3) the ‘component of « personal keovledge in rnusing; and (4) ethics, the component ‘of moral knowiedge in nursing. Bpivis: The cine of Nursing The term aursing science was rarely used in che literature une the late 1950s. However, since that time there has been sn increasing emphasis, one right even sey a sense of urgency, re scding che development of a body of empirical knowledge specific to nursing There seems to be general agecement sa critical need for shout the empitieal world, koowledge that is eystematcally or finized into general laws and theories forthe purpose of describing explaining and predicting phenomena of special concern «0 the discipline of autsing. Most theory development and research efforts are primarily engaged in seeking fand generating explanations which ace systematic and controllable by factual evidence and which can be vied in the organization and cissiiation of know ede ‘The pattern of keowing which is generally designated ae “aursing Science” does not presently exhib the same degree of highly integrated abstract and. systematic explanations characteristic of the more mature sciences, although aussing lteraare refleces cis as an ideal form, Clearly there are « number of coexisting, ain 4 few instances competing, conceptual seruceures—none of which hes achieve) the satus of what Kuhn cll sientifg) paradigm. That is, no single conceptual, Structure is a5 yee generally accepted} an example of actal scientific practice ‘which includes) law, theory, applica tion, and instrumentation together Fandl .-. provides] madels froin whidi| spring particular coherent traditions off seientife research.”*°" It could. be} argued that some of ehere conceptual structures seem to have greater potenti than others for providing explanations} that systematically ccount for observed) heaomens snd may ultimately peril more eccurate prediction and contro of thera, However, this isa matter tobe de- cermined by reseatch designed to teat] the validity of sch explanstory concept} jn the context of relevant empiric reality | | | ow PunsPocrives porcance, at least at this stage in the} these preparadigm concepesl swuctares perspectives for considering the ami | phenomena of heath and ines ia rle| tion t0 the human ie process; as such they can and. should be legiimacl | ‘The represenation of hesih 6 more than the absence of diese fa cu change permits health to be though | of s-a dynamic site or proces which | changes over a given period of cine a | |umber of coexisting, and i ces competing, conceptual sone of which has achieve ‘what Kuh calls sient at is no single concept 1S yet yenerlly acepred 4 of aceual scientific practic dels} law, cheory, applica srumentation opether widels} models froin whit ular cohevent eraitions off search." Ie could be some of these concept om to have greater potent for providing explanations ‘cally accoune for observed and may ultimacely permis «prediction snd conte off 1, thinjem matter be de- research designed to tes fsuch explanatory conceptsl sat of relevant empicieal 1s t0 be of paremount im least at thie stage in the of nursing science, is chat} dig concepeual stuctares cal models present new ‘or considering the familie f health and ines in rela uma life process as such 1 should ‘be legitimate scoveris inthe discipline tacon of health as more | nce of diseate is a erucil mits heath to be thought tc state oF process which 4 given period of time and 1g to circumstances rather “Alibongh the pattern of knowing in tuersing science is not yet fully developed, preparadign conceptual Srusturet and theoretical models fae preventing importan new Derspectives for considering the Jamiliar phenomena of health and Hlsess. than a static eitherfor entity. The con: ‘epiul change in tara makes it possible to mise questions that previously would have been literally unintelligible "The discovery that one can usefully ‘onceptutize health ss something that rormallyrenges along continuum has led to atcempts to observe, describe and lash variations in health, or levels of syeiness, ax expressions of human be- Ing’ relationship to the internal snd external environments, Related research fas sought (0. identify behavioral fesponses, both physiological and Paychological, tha may serve a cues by ‘hich one can infer the range of normal Variations of health. It hae also st- tempred 10 identify and categorize signifcan etiological factors which serve {0 promote or iahibie changes in health ‘The science of ussing at present cthibits aspects of oth the “sacar is ‘ory stage of inquiry” and the "stage of deduetively. formulated theory.” The {ak of che natural history stage is pe ‘matty he description and classification 8f phenomena which are, generally speaking, ascertsinable by. direct observation and inspection? Butcusrene fussing literature clearly relecs a shift from this descriptive end classification form co increasingly theoreti which is directed toward « faventing, explanations eo account (oF observed aad classed empirical fcr. This shift reflected inthe change from a largely observational vocabulary t0 8 new, more theoretical vocabulary whose terms have a distinc meaning and defini tion oaly in the context of the cor responding explanatory theory Explanations inthe several open- system conceptual models tend to take the form commonly labeled Functional ‘or teleological For example, che system models explain a person's level of well ness at any particular point in tine a « function of current and accumulated ef fects of interactions with his or her internal end exteraal environments. The concept of adaptation is central to this type of explination. Adaptation is seen as crucial in the process of responding to environmental demands (usually lassie as steessor), and enablesan in dividual to maintain or reestablish the steady sate which is designated as the soil of the system. The developmental ‘masiels often exhibic a more genetic eype of explantion in that certain events, the developmental esks, are believed to b ‘ausllyrelevane or necessary conditions for the normal development of an indi vidual ‘Tha the frst fundamental patern of knowing in aursing is empiccal, factual, descriptive and ultimately simed at Aleveloping abstract and theoretical explanations. It is exemplary, discur sively formulated and publicly verifiableBabes The Art of Noting Few, if indeed any, familar withthe professional literature would deny hac primary emphasis is placed on the evelopment of the scieace of aursing ‘One is almost led eo believe that che only valid and reliable knowledge is hat ‘which is empicical, factual, objectively descriptive and generalizable. There seems to be 1 self-conscious reluctance to extend the term knowledge to include those aspects of knowing in nusiog that, are aot the cesule of erspicical iwestina. tion, These i, nonetheless, what might be described a tacit admission that ring i atleast in part, a0 art, Not uch effort is made to elaborate or t0 take explicit this esther pattern of Knowing in nursing—other than to vaguely associate the "art" with the neral category of manual andlor ‘haical skills involved in nutsing practice Pechaps this reluctance to knowledge the esthetic component as & Fundamental patern of knowing in nore ing originates ia the vigorous effores made in the notso-distnt past 0 ‘exorcise the image of the apprentic type educational system. Within the ap- prentice system, the art of nosing Was élosely associated with an imitative learning. style and the acquisition of Kknowledge by aecumalation of ware \onalized experiences. Another likely source of reluctance is sha the definition fof the term art has been excessively and inappzopriately resticed Weite suggests tha artis 0 complex and variable to be reduced t0 a sigle Aefiition® To conceive the task of | logically doomed co failure in that what iscalled act has no.common properties only recogniable similarities. This Hui and open approach tothe understanding and aplication ofthe concept of are sn tethetic meaning makes posible a wided Consiertion of conditions, situation tnd experiences in aursing chat my] propery be called esthetic, including the Creative process of discovery in the em pisical pattern of knowing. Despite this open texture of the con} cept of at, esthetic meanings can be dis tinguished from those in science in} merely formal or descriptive,” according to Rader, "is about as well esabished any fact inthe whole field af esthetics "On esthetic experience] of a singular, particular, subjective} expression of imagined possibilities o:| jection into the discursive form of Tanguage."” Knowledge atined by em pirical descripcion is discursively form lated and publily verfble, The know ledge gained by subjective acquaintanct,| the direce feeling of experience, de fines discursive formulation, Althowsh sn esthetic expression cequited abstrac tion, ie remains specific and unique ce chan exemplary and. leads to acknowledge that “knowled genuine knowledge, uaderstanding—) Is considerably wider than our di |vey as definition, he says i sed to flute in tht Wha sno common propertce— sable similarities, This fd roach tothe understand dn of the womeps of arc and ting makes posible wider of condition, situations aes in nursing chat may alled esthetic, including the ss of discovery in the em} sof knowing. Scie Meaning open texture ofthe con tan aspect, The secogl lor destipive” scoring tout ar wel cinched the" hole eld oft inasined posites of ales which wesits peo the ducurive foun off nowledge eaned by emf on ts dscsively form | Sly vee The know | ve formulate. Alou bresion requted she sem a ge that “knowledge edge wnderstnding— ty der tha aut i bach, the are of nucsings nae visible dough the ation taken to provide whatever the patiene requires to festore oF extend hs ability to cape with the demands ofis situation’ Bue the ac tion taken, 1 have an esthetic quality, eguces the active transformetion ofthe immediate object—the patient's be havior ino a direct, nonmediated per tention of what i significant in teh i, what need ie actually being expressed by the behavior. This perception of the reed expressed is nor only responsible ‘The art of nnrsing involves the wc. Live transformation of the patient's behavior intoa perception of what is iguificant in tt—that tr, what need is being expressed by the bebavior. for the action taken by the nurse but reflected init ‘The esthetic process described by Wiedenbach resembles what Dewey refers to as the difference between fecognition and perception? According to Dewey, recognition serves the pu pose of identification and is stistied hen a name tag oF label is atached se conding «some stereotype or Viowsly formed scheme of classification. Perception, however, goes beyond Fecognition in tha it includes an active fathering together of details and scat fered particulat into an experienced sthole forthe purpose of seeing whet is there, Ie s perception rather chan mere ‘cognition that esas in aunity fends andl means which gives the acion taken anestheric quslty ‘Orem speaks of the att of nursing as being “expressed by the individual nurse through her creatviey and style in designing and providing nursing that is effective and saifying""™ "The art ‘of nursing i creative in tha it eequites evelopment of the ability 0 “envision valid modes of helping in relation 10 results’ which are_approprite.""™® ‘This agsin invokes Dewey's sense of perceived unity beeween an action taken and. its result—a perception of the ‘means of the end as an otganie whole? ‘The experience of helping must be perceived and designed as an integral component of is desired result enther than conceived separately as an inde pendent action imposed’ on an inde: pendent subject. Peshaps this is what is meant by the concept of nursing. che ‘whole patient oF rotalpaticet care. If 0, Whar ere the qualities that enable the creation ofa desiga for nursing care h tliminate of wold minimize the fng= ‘mentation of means and ends? ESTHETIC PATTERN OF KNOWING Bmpachy—thae is, the capacity for parccipating in or vicariously experienc ing another's eelings—is en important mode inthe esthetic pattern of knowing One gains knowledge of another persoa’s singular, particular, fele experience through empathic ac- ‘quaineance’*** Empathy is controlled or moderated by psychic distence or tachment in order to apprehend and abstract whae we are attending co, and in this sense is objective. The more skilled the aurse becomes in perceiving and ‘empathising with the lives of orhers, the mote knowledge or understanding ill be guined of alternate modes of perceiv= "7ing relty. The nurse will thereby have avilable a larger repertoire of choices in designing and providing mutsing care thae is effective and satisfying. At the same time, increared awareness of the ‘variety of subjective experiences ill heighten the complexity and difculty of the decision making involved The desiga of aursing care must bo ac ‘companied by what Langer refers to as sense of form, the sense of "structure, articulation, « whole esulting from che telation of mutually dependent factors, for more precisely, the way the whole is por topether.""!9 The design, itis to be erthetic, must be controlled by the perception of the belance, chythm, pro- portion and uniey of what i done in fion 1 the dynamic integration and aiculation of the whole. "The doing tmay be energetic, and the undergoing ray be acute and intense,” Dewey says, but “unless they are related 10 each ther to form a whole,” what is done be ‘comes merely a matter of mechanical routine or of eaprice® "The esthetic pattorn of keowing in rursing involves the perception of abstracted particulars as distinguished fiom the recognition of abstacted ‘universe, Ie is ehe knowing ofa unigue paricalr esther thaa an exemplary cls "The Component of Peranal Kowaldge Personal knowledge as a fundamental pater of knowing in nursing is the rose problema lien to snaster and to teach. At the stme time, it is perhaps the pattern most essential to understanding the meaning of health in terms of individual well-being, Norsing considered as an interpersonal proce involves interactions, relationships ed taansactions between the nutse snd th pitiencclient. Mitchell points out tha there is. growing evidence chat th quality of taterpersonal contacts ha a Jnfluence on a person's becoming il coping with illness and becoming ll." Certainly the pheae “therapeutic use of eel” which has be ‘ome increasingly prominent in. the lieraeuee implies thatthe way in which nurses view their ovn client is of primary concern: peutic relationship, Personal knowledge is concerned wit the knowing, encountering and actu ing ofthe concrete, individual ef. One does 2ot know abon the self one strives simply to Ayow the self. This knowing i 2 standing in relation to another human being and confronting that human being a8 @ person, This "[-Thow” encounter i unmediated by concepeual categories c particulars abstracted from complex or ‘manic wholes." The relation is one of reciprocity, a stare of being that cannot be described or even experienced —it can only be actualized, Such person eowing exteads not only to other solves but also eo relations with one ova self Te requites what Buber refers toas the sacrifice of form, ie, categories oF classifications, for 8 knowing of infinite possibilities, as well as che risk of coal ives and the any there veo a 4 melody is not composed of tones, nor avers of words, aor asa Tinesone mute pull and teat eo crn usiy ia + mulipiiy—so fi withthe oma’ being t0 whom Tsay You ==s an inerpertonal proce ‘actions, tlatonship an terween the nurse and i Michell points out tha “owing evidence at tl crportonal conc ht pena’ becoming ii «ines end becoring > Certainly the phrased Ase of self” which bas be fh, rminet wes that the way in whi their own selves andthe imary concern nay thea sah. | Covledgeisconcerned wi encountering and stole crete, indviual se, Ona Wr abor! the se one acre o the sl This knowing ‘elation to another Name ‘fronting tha oman being is “1-Thoa” encounter if sy conceptual categories off araced fom complet ox the elaion i one of sate of being that cane or even. expesicnced if aero Sach personal ends cot only 10 ote {0 10 reations with one what Buber refers toas the | form, ive, categories for a knowing of infinite ve vel asthe risk of total ody is nat composed of jorse of words, norasatue of fst pull and teat to cutn rliplicgy—yo it swith he 0 whom Tsay Yous ave #0 do this again and tpedicely hei no longer You Maslow refers to this sacrifice of form ‘as embodying a more efficient percep tion of reality in that eeaity is not feneralzed nor predetermined by a famplex of concepts, expeceations, Beliefs and stereotypes. This results in a greater willingness to accept ambi falty, vagueness and discrepancy of Speself end others, The risk of comms iment involved ie personal knowledge is inhat Polanyi calls the “passionace par tiipation inthe act of knowing 2°" ‘The nurse in the therapeutic use of self rejects approaching. the patient lent as an abject and strives instead to Acuualize an authentic personal relation thip beoween two persons. The ind dual is considered. at aa integrated "The nurse in the therapeutic ure of self rejects approaching the patient Hient as an object and strives instead to actnalize an authentic ervonal relationship between tio Persons. ‘pen system incorporating: movement toward growth and fulfilment of human potential An auchentie personal relation fequres the acceprance of others in thei Freedom co create themselves and the tecognition that esch person is not fied encey, but constantly engaged In the process of becoming, How chen should the nurse reconcile this with the ‘ocial andlor professional responsibility {0 control and manipulate the environ: ‘mental variables and even the behavior ‘of the person who isa patentin order to imaintain or restore « steady state? Ifa hhuman being is assumed to be free «0 choose and chooses behavior outside of sccepted aorms, how will this effect che felt by the nurse? What choices mast che fautse make in order to know another self in an authentic relation spare from, the eatepory of patient, even when cite sgorizing for che purpose of treatment is essential the process of nursing? Assumptions repatdingghumen natuce, McKay observes, "tange fiom the ‘existentialise co the cybernetic, from the idea of an information processing ma- chine to one of a many spleadosed be ing" Many of these assumptions incorporate in one form or snother the fotion that there i, For all individuals, « characteristic state which they by virtue fof membership in the species, mast fetive to asrume or achieve. Empiticl descriptions and classifications reflect the assumption thst being human allows for prediction of basic biological, psychological and social behaviors that will be encountered in any given ind vidual Cerisinly empirical knowledge is cescatal tothe pirpores of marsing, But nursing algo requires that we be alere co the fat that models of human nature and theie abstract and generalized categories tefer to and describe behaviors and tats that groups have in common, However, Compass or express the uniqueness of the individual encouatered as x person, sea gelE" These and many other similar ‘considerations ate involved inthe realm fof personal knowledge, which ean bebroadly characterized as subjective, concrete and existential. Its concerned With the kind of knowing that promotes wholeness and integrity ia the personal encounter, the achievement of engsge- ment rather than detachment, tnd i denies the manipulative, impersonal Brhics The Morel Component Teachers and individual prtttioners xe becoming incteasingly sensitive to the diffcule personal choices that most be made within the complex context o rmovdern health care. These choices rise fundamental questions about morally Fight and wrong action ia connection with che cate and teestment of illness and the promotion of heslth, Moral di lemmas arise in situations of ambiguity and uncereiney, when the consequences fof one’s actions are diffcule to predict and traditional principles and ethical codes offer a0 help or seem to result in ‘contradiction. The morsl cose which ‘uides the ethical conduct of nurses is Ined on the primary principle of obliga tion embodied in the concepts of service to people and respect for human life The discipline of nursing is held to bea valuable and essential” social service sesponsible for conserving life, lleva Kuowledge of morality in nnrsing goes beyond simply knowing the ‘ethical codes ofthe discipline. It in ludes all voluntary actions that ave deliberate and subject to the jude mest of ight and wrong, T | ing suffering and promoting health. ad « peal ro the echical “rule Book’ als) provide answers in terms of dificult a} dividual moral choices which must bf made in the teaching end practice of The fundamencal pater of knowin identified here asthe ethical componen ‘of nursing is focused on maters of obi gation oF what ought 40 be. dont Knowledge of morality goes beyond simply knowing the norms or ethical codes of the discipline. It includes al voluntary actions that are deliberate andl subject t© the judgment of right an ‘wrong—including judgments of men value in relation t0 motives, intention} and traits of character. Nursing is de} liberate action, or a series of actions} planned and implemented to accompli} defined goals. Both goals and actions in volve choices ade, in part, on the bai ‘of normative jadaments, both patil and general. Oa occasion, the principe tnd norms by which such choices ate] ‘made may be in conflict, | ‘According to Berthold, “goals ae, of course, value judgments not amenable) fo scientific inquiry and. valide sion." Dickoff, James and Wiedes | baci also call attention co the need tobe wate that the specification of god serves as “x norm or standaed by which to evaluate actviey... land]. ental taking them as values—that is, signifies) conceiving these goal contents as stue tions worthy For example, common ing care in relation to che maintenant} for restoration of health is to asi pitients 10 achieve a state in which the)aod promoting health. Bul ‘ethical "rule book’ fail ers in corms of difficult i ral choices which must b © teaching and practice of amental pattern of knowia re asthe ethical componed Tocused on matters of obi what ought 0 be. dong ‘of morality. goes beyoa wing the norms or ethic € discipline. Tt iachudes af som hace delve al the judgment of right an uding judgments of mon F character. Nursing is dl oF a series of action implemented to accompli s:Both goals and actions i $ made, in pact on the bai judgments, both partic ‘On occasion, the principle by which such choices al in conf 110 Berthold, “goals are off f iudgments not amenable fe inquiry. and. valida Dickot, James and Wiedet rcntion tothe need «oi the specification of soa form or standard by whi scivity Lend). ental as valucs—that is sgn hhese-goal contents as situs robe broughr abou." ple, « common goal of aus felation to the maintenance fon of health ie toes chieve a state in which dhe age independent. Much of the Fincece reflects an atte of value a het to the gol af independence, and Ins nang ations ci for shemacves ae the earliest posible esponsibility to the lase posible mo- Ineot However, valuing independence nd atempting to maintain it may be a theexpense of the patient’ leening how fo lve ‘with physical or social de frarances when prognosis indicates that Diferences in ormative judements ina hve more to do with disagreements Feing than lack of empirieal evidence or tnbiguity inthe application ofthe tem tisptes,o ack of uniformity inthe ap plkaton of cluster terms, sch as health, Fe due 10 “the difficulty of decisively About what is and is notimporane.”"This ieads him to conclude "that value judg af what are commonly thought to be igi." The ethical pattern of knowing in furcng reguites an understanding of di {cent philosophical postions resadi at is righs, of differen ethical feame Ars devised for dealing with the com lation. Moral choices to be made must then be considered in terms of specific actions to be taken in specific, oncrete Situations, The examination of the stan ards, codes and values by which we decide what is morally sight should result ina greater awareness of what is involved in making, moral choices and being responsible for the choices made The knowledge of ethical codes wil not provide answers to the moral questions involved in auesing, nor will eliminate the necessity for having to make moral choices, Bat ican be hoped thet ets ae tothe demands ofthe proces of hustifcation, de more expli they ace thou the norms thst gover heientons the more personally engaged they are ia tsccssing sortoundiag creumwtancet and potential consequences, the more *eihical” they wll be; and we cane sk much more! USING PATTERNS OF KNOWING A philosophical discussion of patterns of knowing may appear © some as s somewhat idle, if not stbiteary snd seticial, undertaking having litle of 20 connection with the practical concerns tnd difficulties encountered in the day- torday doing and tetching of nussing But it represents a personal conviction that there is a need to examine dhe kinds fof knowing thet provide the discipline with its particular” perspectives and significance, Understanding fowe funds mental patterns of knowing makes poss Ihe an increased awareness af the plexity and. diversity of nucsing knowledge Hach pattern may be conceived as necessary for schieving mastery in the aliscipline, but none’ of them alone should be considered sufficient. Neither are they mutoally exclusive, The each ing and learning of one pactern do not requize the rejection or neglect of any of the others, Caring for another requires the achievements of nursing science, that is, che knowledge of empirical faces sjstematically organized into cheoretical explanations regarding the phenomena of health and illness. Bur creative imagination also plays its pare in the synurx of discovery in science, as well as, in developing the ability to imagine the consequences ofalreente moral choices. Personal knowledge is estental for ethical choices in that moral action presupposes personal maturity and Freedom, If the goals of macsing ae to be more tha conformance to unexamined norms, ifthe “ought” is nor «0 be de termined simply on the basis of wha is possible, then the obligation to cate for another humaa being involves becoming certain kind of person—and not ‘merely doing cereain kinds of things. f the design of nursing care is wo be more than habitval or mechanical, the capacity to perceive and interpre experiences of others and to imaging Lively project the effects of morring ac tions on ther ives becomes necessary shal "Nussing thus depends on the sient knowledge of human behavior in health and in illness, the esthetic perception of Significant human experiences, + per sonal understanding of che unique in vialicy ofthe self and che capacity 0 make choices within concrete situatione fnvolving. particular moral judgments, the subjective i I Nursing depends on the scientific} nowledge of man bebavior tn | breath and in tues, the esthetic} perception of significant human — | ‘experiencer anda personal under | standing ofthe wniqne individu. | ality of theself. | Bech of these seperate but interrelate and incerdependeat fundamental pa terns of knowing should be taught tf understood according to ite distincty] logic, the restricted. cixcumstances af which iis valid, the kinds of data isl sues and the methods by which ead} rttcla Kind of tu is dstingishe and wasranted The major significances 10 the di cipline of morsing in distinguishing pa terns of knowing are summarized s8"(} the conclusions of the sdisciplinf conceived a8 subject matter cannot bf taught or learned without reference of the stracesre of “the discipline—t sand methods al) inguiry that determine the kind. a knowledge gained and limi is meaning) Scope snd validity; (2) exch of ehe funds} mental patterns of knowing repes necessary bur not complete appr the problems and questions in the di} cipline; and (3 sll knowlege is subjet to change and revision, Every solution an existing problem raises new and ua Solved questions. These new and a8 Ye unsolved representative com problems require, at ls of inquiry and differen} conceptual structures; they change th shape and patteins of knowing. Withopens onthe scientific dn ils tbe ester + ofsignfcens bumen cnand a ersonnl wen ‘Ft wnt indivi eee ] sse separate but iaterrla pendent fondanental pi vowing should be eaugh af according co its distinct ‘lid, the kinds of daa iesul the methods by which en ind of truth i distinguish (oF significances tothe did vursing in distingwishing pa ‘wing are summarized °( asions of the discipling ws subject matter canna bi rarned without reference eof the discipline —di ive concepts and methods determine the kind al fined and limit its mean ality; (2) each ofthe fonda} eras of knowing representsi ut not complete approsch ns and questions in the dg (9) all knowledge is subje ad eevision. Every solution problem rises new and ut tions. There new and a rroblems require, at_cimesl vds of inquiry and diferedl structures; they change di parterns of knowing. Wilf ach change inthe shape of knowledge, clarifies the effect of each new thing exhing end learning require lookiag, Krown on other things known and the for different points of contact and con- discovery of aew patterns by which fection among, idess and things. This connection modifies the whole. REFERENCES ale Ee Sie icy Reeeiccarrd cnn." Ria ea kar er ape CR tr tree ie a “ymin Tey Dor sheers Ea ot ——