Communication System II by Engr. Elemuwa E.P.

8.0

DATA TRANSMISSION

Data transmission is the transfer of information from one place to another.

The information that is transmitted is in binary form and is generally represented
as voltages at the output of a sending circuit that are connected to the inputs of a
receiving circuit.
This involves transmitting digital data over a channel. Considering the binary
case, where the data consists of only two symbols: 1 and 0. If we assign a
distinct waveform (pulse) to each of these two symbols. The resulting sequence
of these pulses is transmitted over a channel, and at the receiver, these pulses
are detected and are converted back to binary data.
Meanwhile, we will consider some of the components used in Digital
communication system.
Source: The input to a digital system is in the form of a sequence of digits, and
this input could be the output from such sources as a data set, a computer, a
digitized voice signal (PCM or DM), a digital facsimile or television or telemetry
equipment to mention but a few .
Multiplexer: The capacity of channel transmitting data is much larger than the
data rate of individual sources. Therefore, multiplexer is the process of
simultaneous transmission of two or more signals in single medium.
Line coder: The output of a multiplexer is coded into electrical pulses or waveforms for the purpose of transmission over the channel and this process is known
as line coding or transmission coding. There are many ways of assigning
wave forms to the digital data. In binary, for example, the simplest line code is
on-off, where a 1 is transmitted by a pulse p(t) and a 0 is transmitted by no pulse
(i.e. zero signal) and a 0 is transmitted no pulses (i.e. Zero signal) as shown in
fig 8.1a. Another commonly used code is polar, where 1 is transmitted by a pulse
p(t) and 0 is transmitted by a pulse p(t) (Fig 8.1b). The polar scheme is the most
powerful code, because for a given noise immunity (error probability) this code
requires the least power. Bipolar also known as pseudoternary or alternate
mark inversion (AM) is another line code, where 0 is encoded by no pulse and
d1 is in coded by a pulse p(t) or p(t) which depends on whether the previous1 is
encoded by p(t) or p(t) as shown in fig 8.1c. This code has the advantage that if
an error is made in the detecting of pulses, the received pulse sequence will
violate the bipolar rule and the error is immediately detected.
The cases discussed above are half width pulses, Full-width pulse are
often used, the pulse amplitude is held to a constant value throughout the pulse
interval (i.e. it does not have a chance to go to zero before the next pulse begins)
and this schemes are called non return-to-zero (NRZ) schemes as shown in fig
8.1d for onoff NRZ signal, and Fig 8.1e for polar NRZ signal in contrast to
return-to- zero (RZ) schemes (fig 8.1a,b,c).

Communication System II by Engr. Elemuwa E.P.

Fig. 8.1. Line Codes (a) On-off (RZ)

(d) On-off (NRZ)

(b) Polar (RZ)

(c) Bipolar (RZ)
(e) Polar (NRZ)

Regenerative Repeater
These are used a regularly spaced intervals along a digital transmission line to
detect the incoming digital signal and regenerate new clean pulses for further
transmission along the line. This process periodically eliminates, and thereby
combats, the accumulation of noise and signal distortion along the transmission
path. If the pulses are transmitted at a rate of R b pulses per second, hence, we
require the periodic timing information the clock signal at R bHz-to sample the
incoming pulses at a repeater. This timing in formation can be extracted from the
received signal itself if the line code is chosen properly. The on off signal can be
expressed as the sum of a periodic signal ( of clock frequency) and a polar
signal, as shown in fig 8.2. Since, the presence of the periodic component, we
can extract the timing information from this signal using a resonant circuit tuned
to the clock frequency. A bipolar, when rectified, becomes an on-off signal.
Hence, its timing information can be extracted the same way as for an on-off
signal.
Thus, the timing signal (the resonant circuit output) is sensitive to the
incoming bit pattern. In the on-off or bipolar case, a 0 is transmitted by no
pulse If there are too many 0s in a sequence, there is no signal at the input of
the resonant circuit and the sinusoidal output of the resonant circuit starts
decaying, which causes error in the timing information. A line code in which the
bit pattern does not affect the accuracy of the timing information is known as a
transparent line code. The polar scheme is transparent, while on-off and bipolar
schemes are non transparent.

Communication System II by Engr. Elemuwa E.P.

Fig 8.2 An on-off signal is the sum of a polar signal and clock frequency periodic
signal.
Line coding
Digital data can be transmitted by various transmission or line codes, such as onoff, polar, bipolar etc.
Properties of a line code
1. Transmission bandwidth: It should be as small as possible.
2. Power Efficiency : The transmitted power should be as small as possible
3. Error detection and correction capability: It should be easy to detect
and correct errors.
4. Favorable power spectral density: It is desirable to have zero PSD at
=0(dc); because ac coupling and transformers are used at the repeaters.
So, the significant power in low-frequency components causes dc wander
in the pulse stream when ac coupling is used. The ac coupling is required
because the dc paths provided by the cable pairs between the repeater
sites are used to transmit the power required to operate the repeaters.
5. Adequate timing content: It should be possible to extract timing or clock
information from the signal.
6. Transparency: It should be able to transmit a digital.
Signal correctly regardless of the pattern of 1s and 0s.
Methods of transmitting information
We have six major ways of transmitting information as shown in fig 8.3 below.

Communication System II by Engr. Elemuwa E.P.

(a) Analog signal with no modulation

Analog baseband

Analog
input

Analog output

Channel

(b) Standard analog modulation system

Analog input

Modulator

Analog

Demodulator

Analog
output

Decoder

Digital
output

modem

Digital
output

Decoder &
D/A

Analog
output

Channel
(c ) Digital transmission on digital channel
Digital input

Coder

Digital
Channel

(d) Digital transmission on analog channel

Digital input

Modem

Analog
Channel

(e) Analog transmission on digital channel

Analog input

A/D and
coder

Digital
Channel

(f) Digitized analog signal transmission on analog channel

Analog input

A/D and
Coder

Modem

Analog
Channel

Modem

Decoder
&
D\A

Analog
output

Fig 8.3. Transmission schemes for analog and Digital signals.

8.2 Pulse Modulation
This is the process of using some characteristic of a pulse such as amplitude,
width, position etc to carry an analog signal.

Communication System II by Engr. Elemuwa E.P.

The difference between pulse modulation and AM or FM is that in AM or FM

some parameter of the modulated wave varies continuously with the message,
while in pulse modulation some parameter of a sample pulse is varied by each
sample value of the message. Hence, the pulses are of short duration, so that, a
pulse modulated wave is off most of the time. This factor is the main reason
for using pulse modulation since it allows:
a) Transmitters to operate on a very low duty cycle (i.e. off more than on )
as is desirable for certain microwave devices and lasers.
b) The time intervals between pulses to be refilled with samples of other
messages.
Thus, the second reason allows a number of different messages to be
transmitted on the same channel. This kind of multiplexing is known as timedivision multiplexing (TDM). It is analogous to computer time sharing, where a
number of users simultaneously utilize a computer. The sampling frequency must
be at least twice the highest frequency of the intelligence signal or there will be
distortion that can not be corrected by the receiver and this process is known as
Nyquits Rate.
Really, pulse modulation is not modulation but rather a message
processing technique. The message to be transmitted is sampled by the pulse,
and he pulse is subsequently used to either amplitude or frequency- modulate
the carrier. The three basic forms of pulse modulation are:
(i)
Pulse Amplitude modulation (PAM)
(ii)
Pulse width modulation (PWM)
(iii)
Pulse- position modulation (PPW)
Pulse Amplitude Modulation
In this case, the pulse amplitude is made directly proportional to the modulating
signals amplitude. This is the simplest pulse modulation to create in that a simple
sampling of the modulating signal at a periodic rate can be used to generate the
pulses which are sub sequent used to modulate a high frequency carrier. While
PWM and PPM use constant amplitude pulses and provide superior noise
performance. The PWM & PPM systems fall into a general category known as
pulse time modulation (PTM), since their timing and not amplitude, is the varied
parameter.
There are two basic sampling techniques used to create a PAM signal. Namely :
i) Natural sampling
ii) flat top sampling
Natural sampling is when the tops of the sampled waveform (the sampled
analog input signal) retain their natural shape. While, in flat-top sampling, the
sample signal voltage is held constant between samples, which create a stair
case that tracks the changing input signal.

Communication System II by Engr. Elemuwa E.P.

Sample and Hold circuit

Most A/D integrated circuits come with S/H circuits integrated into the system. A
typical S/H circuit is shown in fig 8.3. The analog signal is fed into a buffer circuit,
and the purpose of the buffer circuit is to isolate the input signal from the S/H
circuit and to provide proper impedance matching, as well as drive capability, to
the hold circuit. Many times the buffer circuit is also used as a current source to
charge the hold capacitor. The output of the buffer is fed to an analog switch,
which is typically the dram of a JFET or MOSFET. The JFET or MOSFET is wired
as an analog switch and controlled at the gate by a sample pulse generated by
the sample Clock. When the JFETs or MOSFETS gate is asserted, the switch
will short the analog signal from drain to source. This connects the buffered input
signal to a hold capacitor, and the capacitor begins to charge to the input voltage
level at a time constant determined by the hold capacitors capacitance and the
analog switchs and buffer circuits on channel resistance. When the analog
switch is turned off, the sampled analog signal voltage level is held by the hold
capacitor.
The S/H circuit is designed, so that, the sampled signal is held long
enough to be converted by the A/D circuitry into a binary representation. A time
required for S/H circuit to complete a sample is based partly on the acquisition
and aperture times.
The acquisition time is the amount of time it takes for the hold circuit to
reach its final value, which is controlled by the sampled pulse. While, the
aperture times is the time that the S/H circuit must hold the sampled voltage.
Both limit the maximum frequency at which the S/H circuit can accurately
process the analog signal.
Factors that can affect the quality of the S/H circuit
i)
The analog switch on resistance must be small
ii)
The output impedance of the input buffer must also be small
iii)
A low capacitor should be used, so that, a fast charging time is
possible. Although, a small capacitor have problem of holding a charge
for a very long time.
iv)
Highquality capacitor should be used such as does that has
dielectrics of polyethylene, polycarbonate, or Teflon.
Pulse Width modulation
This is a form of PTM, and it is also known as pulse-duration modulation
(PDM) and pulse-length modulation (PLM). A simple means of PWM
generation is shown in fig 8.4 using a 565 PLL. It actually creates PPM at the
VCO output, but by applying it and the input pulses to an Exclusive-OR gate,
PWM is also created. It implies that for the phase locked loop (PLL) to remain
locked, its VCO input (pin 7) must remain constant. The presence of an
external modulating signal up sets the equilibrium. This causes the phase
detector o/p to go up or down to maintain the VCO signal (control) voltage . A
change in phase detector output also means a change in phase difference
between the input signal and VCO signal. Hence, the VCO output has a

Communication System II by Engr. Elemuwa E.P.

phase shift proportional to the modulating signal amplitude. This PPM output
is amplified by Q1 just prior to the output. The exclusive-OR circuit provides a
high output only when just one of its two inputs is high. Any other input
condition produces a low output. By comparing the PPM signal and the
original pulse input signal as inputs to the Exclusive-OR circuit, the o/p is a
PWM signal at twice the frequency of the original input pulses.
The adjustment of R3 varies the center frequency of the VCO. The R 4
potentiometer may be adjusted to set up the quiescent PWM duty cycle. The
outputs ( PPM or PWM) of this circuit may then be used to modulated a
carrier for subsequent transmission .
6v

10
33k

0.01

0.1

Signal
Input

3
390

390
C

6v

Phase
Detector

Amplifier

3.6k

5.6k

VCO

NE 565
PLL

0.001
1

R3

1000pF

6k

R6
5k

10k
R5

Exclusive OR
gate 7486

Modulation

input

PWM
out put

PPM
out put

Q1
2N413

0.5

5v

PWM out put

Pulse Position Modulation

PPM and PWM are very similar, but PPM can be generated from PWM. Since
PPM has superior noise characteristics, it turns out that the major use for
PWM is to generate PPM. By inverting the PWM pulses and then
differentiating them, the positive and negative spikes are created. Thus, the
position of these pulses is variable and now proportional to the original
modulating signal, and the desired PPM signal has been generated. The

R4

4.7k

Communication System II by Engr. Elemuwa E.P.

information content is not contained in either the pulse amplitude or width as

in PAM or PWM, which means that the signal now has a greater resistance to
any error caused by noise. Also, when PPM modulation is used to amplitudemodulate a carrier, a power savings results since the pulse width can be
made very small.
Thus, at the receiver, the detected PPM pulses are usually converted to
PWM first and then converted to the original analog signal by integrating.
Conversion from PPM to PWM can be accomplished by feeding the PPM
signal into the base of one transistor in a flip-flop. The other base is fed from
synchronizing pulses at the original (transmitter) sampling rate. The period of
time that the PPM- fed transistors collector is low depends on the difference
in the two inputs and is therefore the desired PWM signal.
8.3 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
This is the most common technique used in digital communications for
representing an analog signal by a digital word. PCM is used in many
applications such as telephone system, DC laser disks, voice mail, digitized
video special effects, digital audio recording etc.
A simple illustration of the PCM is the analog- to- digital conversion
process- ADC or A/D converter. A simple example of this process is how our
voice and the mechanism required to convert it in to a digital data format
suitable for inputting to a computer. This requires that the analog signal,
which is a continuous-time signal, be converted into a series of quantized
values that then represent the original analog signal in digital form. This
digitized signal can then be digitally processed by the interface circuitry to the
computer or by the computer itself. The data can then be held in the computer
until accessed by the DAC, the digital-to-analog converter.
PCM is a technique for converting the analog signals into a digital
representation. The PCM architecture consists of a sample- and-hold circuit
and a system for converting the sampled signal into a representative binary
format. Firstly, the analog signal is input into a sample-and- hold circuit. At
fixed time intervals, the analog signal is sampled and held at a fixed voltage
level until the circuitry inside the A/D converter has time to complete the
conversion process of generating a binary value and the block diagram of the
process is shown in fig 8.5.
Analog Input
Signal

Anti-aliasing
filter

Sample andPAM
Hold
O/P

Analog to
Digital
Converter

PCM
Output

Fig. 8.5. A block diagram of the PCM process

From the block diagram of the PCM, the analog to digital converter (ADC) is
used to convert the information signal to digital format. This process is known
as digitizing. A block diagram of a PCM (transmitter and receiver) is shown in

Communication System II by Engr. Elemuwa E.P.

fig 8.6. The ADC is shown in the transmitting section and the DAC in the
receiver section.
Parallel bits
Analog to digital
converter (ADC)

Antialiasing
filter

Analog in

Clock

Serial bits
Serial-to-Parallel
Converter

Clock

Clock

Parallel to serial
converter

Communication Link
Digital-to-analog
converter (DAC)

Analog Out

Parallel Bits
Fig. 8.6.

Clock

PCM Communication Systems

Digital to-Analog converters

The main function of the DAC is to convert a digital (binary) bit stream to an
analog signal. The DAC accepts a parallel bit stream and converts it to its
analog equivalent as shown in fig 8.7.
LSB

b0
DAC

MSB

V0

bn-1
Fig. 8.7. DAC Input/Output

The least significant bit (LSB) is called b 0 and the Most Significant bit (MSB) is
called bn -1. The resolution of a DAC is the smallest change in the output that
can be caused by a change of the input. This is the step-size of the converter
and is determined by the LSB. The full-scale voltage (V s) is the largest voltage
the converter can produce. In a digital- to- analog converter the step size or
V
resolution is given as q = fsn
.
(8.1)
2
Where n is number of binary digits.
Analog- to- Digital Converters
The ADC uses DACs in its construction. Fig 8.8 shows a simple 4-bit ramp
ADC. When the analog information goes into the comparator. The output is
ANDed with the clock to cause the counter to begin counting. When the
counters digital output reaches the analog equivalent the AND gate is low
and the counter stops counting. The end of conversion (EOC) signal is used

Communication System II by Engr. Elemuwa E.P.

to latch data into the registers and reset the counter. Some delay must be
used before resetting the counter; otherwise the data would not be latched
into the registers. This time is longer than the time it takes the register to latch
the data.
Other types of ADC are the successive-approximation ADC and the dualslope ADC. The successive-approximation is more widely used such as the
coder- decoder (codec) circuit for telephone operations.
VA
+
EOC
-

Comparator

Clk

Vo

Counter
Q0 Q1 Q2 Q3

D/A

Data Register

Digital Word
Fig.8.8.

4-bit Ramp Analog to Digital Converter

CODEC
In PCM systems, the A/D circuitry is referred to as the encoder, while the
D/A circuitry at the receiver is corresponding termed the decoder. These
functions are often combined in a single LSI clip termed a codec (coderdecoder). These devices are widely used in the telephone systems to allow
voice transmission to be accomplished in digital form. A block diagram of a
codec is shown in fig 8.9.

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Communication System II by Engr. Elemuwa E.P.

Comparator

Analog
in

Auto
Zero

Analog
Out

Successive
Successive
Approximation
Approximati
Register
on Register

I/P
Sample &
hold

5-V
reference

Non-linear
D/A Converter

Output
PCM buffer

Control Logic
Input PCM
Buffer

O/P
Sample & hold

Fig. 8.9.

Codec block diagram

Telemetny
This is the process of gathering data on some particular phenomenon with out
the presence of human monitors.
Thus, it is defined as the remote metering. The gathered data may be recorded
on chart recorders, tape recorders, or computer memory and then n picked up at
some convenient time. If the data are transmitted as a radio wave, it is called
Radio telemetry. Telemetry systems may be FDM or TDM or both.
8.4 Computer Communication
The data communication that takes place between computers and peripheral
equipment is of two types. Namely:
i)
Serial Communication
ii)
Parallel communication
Serial Communication
The data that are send in serial form ( i.e. One bit after another on a single pair of
wires) may be classified into two broad parts. Namely:
i)
Synchronous system
ii)
Asynchronous system
In an asynchronous system, the transmit and receive clocks free- run at
approximately the same speed. Each Computer word is preceded by a start
bit and followed by one or two stop bits to frame the word. While, in
synchronous system both sender and receiver are exactly synchronized to the
same clock frequency.

11

PCM
Out

PCM
in

Communication System II by Engr. Elemuwa E.P.

Parallel communication
In parallel communication, it uses one connecting line per bit, and all bits are
transmitted simultaneously. Fig 8.12 shows how binary number 10110 is
transmitted from circuit A to circuit B.
Data Transmission Via AM
The international morse code can be transmitted by simply turning a
carrier on and off. The morse code is not a true binary code in that it not only
includes marks and spaces, but also differentiates between the duration of these
conditions. The morse code is still used in amateur radio- telegraphic
communications. A human skilled at code reception can provide highly accurate
decoding. The international morse code consists of dot (short mark) dashes (long
mark) , and spaces. A dot is made by pressing the telegraph key down and
allowing it to spring back rapidly. The dash is made by holding the key down
(keying) for three basic time units. While the spacing between dots and dashes in
one letter is one basic time unit and between letter is three units. The spacing
between words is seven units.
The basic form of transmitting highs and lows is to simply key a
transmitters carrier on and off. Fig 8.12a shows a dot, dash, dot wave form,
while fig.8.12b shows the resulting transmitted output if the mark allows the
carrier to be transmitted and space cut off transmission. Hence, the carrier is
conveying intelligence by simply turning it on or off according to a prearranged
code. This type of transmission is called continuous wave (CW). Since the wave
is periodically interrupted it is sometimes called interrupted continuous wave
(ICW).

Fig. 8.12. CW waveform

Whether the CW in fig 8.12b is created by a hand operated key, a remote
controlled relay, or an automatic system such as punched tape, the rapid rise and
fall of the carrier presents a problem. The steep sides of the waveform are rich in
harmonic content, which means the channel bandwidth transmission would have
to be extremely wide or else adjacent channel interference would occur. This is a
severe problem in that a major advantage of coded transmission versus direct
voice transmission is narrow bandwidth channels. The situation is remedied by
the use of an LC fitter as shown in fig 8.13. The indicator L 3 slow down the rise
time of the carrier, while the capacitor C 2 slows down the decay. This filter is
known as a keying filter and is also effective in blocking the RFl (Radio frequency
interference) created by arcing of the key contacts, from being transmitted, which

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Communication System II by Engr. Elemuwa E.P.

is accomplished by the L1, L2 , RF chokes and capacitor C1 that form a low pass
filter.

Fig. 8.13. Keying Filter and Resulting CW Waveforms

CW is a form of AM and therefore suffers from noise to a much greater extent
than FM systems. The space condition (no carrier) is also troublesome to a
receiver since at that time the receivers gain is increased by AGC action so as to
make received noise a problem.
Data Transmission Via FM/RM
The transmission of digital data via frequency or phase modulation offers some
of the same advantages one amplitude modulation that occur in standard analog
systems. The most common codes used for transmission are ASCII, EBCDIC,
Baudot, Gray and PCM codes. All these codes except PCM are typically used to
code computer information, while PCM is used to convert analog signals into
digital form.
Frequency shift keying: FSK is a form of frequency modulation in which the
modulating wave shifts the output between two predetermined frequenciesusually termed the mark and space frequencies. It may be considered as an FM
system in which the carrier frequency is midway between the mark and space
frequencies and is modulated by a rectangular wave.
Phase shift keying: This is the most efficient methods for data modulation PSK
systems provide a low probability of error. The incoming data cause the phase of
the carrier to phase shift a defined amount.

13