Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Chapter No.
Chapter 1
Topic
BASIC ASPECTS OF PROTECTION
1.0
Principles of Relays
1.1
Some
1.2
Relaying
1.3
1.4
1.5
Classification of Relays
1.6
1.7
Relays
1.8
Terms
Associated
with
Protective
Test Equipment
Chapter 2
2.1
2.2
Chapter 3
3.1
Overload Protection
3.2
Single
3.3
Protection
3.4
3.5
3.6
Differential Protection
3.7
Earth Protection
Chapter 4
Phasing
Protection
or
Unbalance
Undervoltage Protection
TRANSFORMER PROTECTIONS
4.1
Transformer Protections
4.2
4.3
4.4
Gas Detection
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
Page No.
CHAPTER 5
GENERATOR PROTECTION
5.1
Introduction
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
Protection
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
5.11
5.12
5.13
5.14
Chapter 6
LOCAL
BREAKER
6.1
BACKUP PROTECTION
6.2
Introduction
6.3
6.4
6.5
Chapter 7
7.1
Introduction
7.2
Unit Protection
7.3
Chapter 8
8.1
Introduction
8.2
Measuring Characteristics
8.3
Zones of Protection
8.4
Phase
8.5
Characteristic
8.6
Chapter 9
Sequence
Comparator
for
9.1
Introduction
9.2
Current Transformers
9.3
Voltages Transformers
MHO
Chapter 10
DIGITAL RELAYING
10.1
Introduction
10.2
10.3
CHAPTER 1
Principles of Relays
Every electrical equipment is designed to work under specified normal
conditions. In case of short circuits, earth faults etc., an excessive current
will flow through the windings of the connected equipment and cause
abnormal temperature rise, which will damage the winding. In a power
station, non-availability of an auxiliary, at times, may cause total shut
down of the unit, which will result in heavy loss of revenue.
So, in modern power system, to minimise damage to equipment two
alternatives are open to the designer, one is to design the system so that
the faults cannot occur and other is to accept the possibility of faults and
take steps to guard against the effect f these faults. Although it is possible
to eliminate faults to a larger degree, by careful system design, careful
insulation coordination, efficient operation and maintenance, it is obviously
not possible to ensure cent percent reliability and therefore possibility of
faults must be accepted; and the equipment are to be protected against
the faults. To protect the equipment, it is necessary to detect the fault
condition, so that the equipment can be isolated from the fault without any
damage. This function is performed by a relay. In other words, protective
relays are devices that detect abnormal conditions in electrical circuits by
constantly measuring the electrical quantities, which are different under
normal and faulty conditions. The basic quantities which may change
during faulty conditions are voltage, current, frequency, phase angle etc.
Having detected the fault relay operates to complete the trip circuit which
results in the opening of the circuit breaker thereby isolating the
equipment from the fault. The basic relay circuit can be seen in Fig. No.
1.1
FIG. 1.1
1.1
2.
Symbol
Equipment
Function
Circuit
Switching
Breaker
Isolator
fault currents.
Disconnecting a part of the system
from
3.
Earth switch
live
5.
6.
parts
normal
under
no
and
lad
conditions.
Discharging the voltage on the
lines
4.
during
to
the
earth
after
Lighting
disconnection.
Diverting the high voltage surges
Arrestor
to earth.
Current
Transformer
measurement,
Voltage
control.
Stopping down the voltage for the
Transformer
purpose
protection,
of
and
protection,
To sound an alarm, so that the operator may take some corrective action
and/ or to close the trip circuit of circuit breaker so as to disconnect a
component during an abnormal fault condition such as overload, under
voltage, temperature rise etc.
To localize the effect of fault by disconnecting the faulty part from the
healthy part, causing least disturbance to the healthy system.
1.3
Economy: Cost of the protective system will increase directly with the
degree of protection required. Depending on the situation a designer
should strike a balance between with the degree of protection required
and economy.
1.4
Classification of Relays
1.4.1 Depending upon their principle of operation they are classified as:
Electromagnetic attraction type relays: These relays operate by the
virtue of a plunger being drawn into a solenoid or an armature being
attracted towards the poles of an electromagnet.
Induction type Relays: In his type of relay, a metal disc or cup is allowed
to rotate or move between two electro-magnets. The fields produced by
the two magnets are displaced in space and phase. The torque is
developed by interaction of the flux of one of the magnets and the eddy
current induced into the disc/up by the other.
Thermal Relay: They operate due to the action of heat generated by the
passage of current through the relay element. The strip consists of two
metals having different coefficients of expansions and firmly fixed together
throughout the length so that different rates of thermal expansion of two
layers of metal cause the strip to bend when current is passed through it.
Static Relays: It employs discrete electronic components like diodes,
transistors, zenners, resistors/capacitors or Integrated circuits and use
electronic measuring circuits like level detectors, comparators, integraters
etc. to obtain the required operating characteristics.
Moving Coil Relays: In this relay a coil is free to rotate in magnetic field
of a permanent magnet. The actuating current flows through the
FIG. 1.3
coil. The torque is produced by the interaction between the field of the
permanent magnet and the field of the coil.
1.4.2 Relays can be classified depending upon their application also.
Over voltage, over current and over over power relays, in which operation
takes place when the voltage, current or power rises above a specified
value.
Under voltage, under current under frequencies low power relays, in which
operation takes place when the voltage, current frequency or power fall
below a specified value.
Distance Relays: In this type, the relay operates when the ratio of the
voltage and current change beyond a specified limit.
Definite time lag Relay: This operates after a set time lag, during which
the threshold quantity of the parameter is maintained.
Inverse time lag Relay: This operates after a set time Lab, during which
the operating quantity of the parameter is maintained above its operating
threshold.
1.5
1.6
prove the design and are not recommended for normal production
relays.
2.
After receiving the relays package, it should be visually examined for the
damage in the transit. The following precautions are to be taken while
removing the relay
The relay does not deteriorate by normal use; but other adverse conditions
cause the deterioration. Continuous vibrations can damage the pivots or
beatings. Insulation strength is reduced because of absorption of moisture;
polluted atmosphere affects the relay contacts, rotating systems etc.,
Relays room, therefore, be maintained dust proof. Insects may cause maloperation of the relay. Relay maintenance generally consists of:
a) Inspection of contacts
b) Foreign matter removal
c) Checking adjustments
d) Checking of breaker operation by manual contact
closing of relays.
e) Cleaning of cover etc.
1.6.4 Maintenance Schedule:
1. Continuous Supervision: Trip circuit supervision, pilot supervision,
relay, auxiliary voltage supervision, Battery supervision, CT circuit
supervision.
2. Relay flags are to be checked and resetted in every shift.
3. Carrier current protection testing is to be carried out once in a week.
4. Six monthly inspections: Tripping tests, insulation resistance tests, etc.
Secondary injection tests are to be carried out at least once in a year.
The following tests are to be performed during routine maintenance:
Inspection: Before the relay cover is removed, a visual check of he cover
is necessary. Excessive dust, dirt, metallic material deposited on the cover
should be removed. Removing such material will prevent it from entering
the relay when the cover is removed. Fogging of the cover glass should be
noted and removed when the cover has been removed. Such fogging is
due to volatile material being driven out of coils and insulating materials.
However, if the fogging is excessive, cause is to be investigated. Since
most of the relays are designed to operate at 40oC, a check of the ambient
temperature is advisable. The voltage and current carried by the relay are
to be checked with that of the name plate details.
1.6.5 Mechanical adjustments and Inspection:
The relay connections are to be tight, otherwise it may cause overheating
at the connections. It will cause relay vibrations also. All gaskets should be
free from foreign matter. If any foreign matter is found gaskets are to be
checked and replaced if required.
Contact gaps and pressure are to be measured and compared with the
previous readings. Large variation in these measurements will indicate
excessive wear, in which case worn contacts are to be replaced. Contacts
alignment is to be checked for proper operation.
Test Equipment
occasion for a fault to occur in CT, the secondary test is sufficient for most
routine maintenance. The primary test is essential when commissioning a
new installation, as it checks the entire system. A simple test circuit is
given in Fig. 1.8.
1.7.3 Test Benches:
Test benches comprise calibrated variable current and voltage supplies
and timing devices. These benches can be conveniently used for testing
relays and obtaining their characteristics.
1.8
1.8.1 Introduction
Static Relay is a relay in which the comparison or measurement of
electrical quantities is done by stationary network which gives a tripping
signal when the threshold value is crossed. In simple language static relay
is one in which there are no moving parts except in the output device. The
static relay includes electronic devices, the output circuits of which may be
electric, semiconductor or even electromagnetic. But the output device
does not perform relay measurement, it is essentially a tripping device.
Static relay employs electronic circuits for the purpose of relaying. The
entity voltage, current etc. is rectified and measured. When the output
device is triggered, the current flows in the trip circuit of the circuit
breaker.
With the inventions of semiconductors devices like diodes, transistors,
thyristors, zener diodes etc., there has been a tremendous leap in the field
of static relays. The development of integrated circuits has made an
impact in static relays. The static relays and static protection has grown
into a special branch.
1.8.2 Advantages of Static Relays:
The static relays compared to the electromagnetic relays have many
advantages and a few limitations.
1.8.3 Low Power Consumption
Static relays provide less burden on CTs and PTs as compared to
conventional relays. In other words, the power consumption in the
measuring circuits of static relays is generally much lower than that for the
electromechanical versions. The consumption of one milli-VA is quite
common
in
static
over
current
relay
whereas
as
equivalent
b)
c)
d)
e)
characteristic
of
semiconductors
are
influenced
by
ambient
E.g. In the semiconductor circuit (See Fig. 1.10) the transistor is reverse
biased in normal conditions. No current flows through the relay coil under
fault conditions capacitor will be charged to +ve potential at the base side.
If this potential exceeds that of the emitter, the B-E junction will be forward
biased and transistor will conduct there by tripping the relay. Thus the
comparison is made against the D.C. fixed bias.
1.8.10Comparators
In order to detect a fault or abnormal conditions of he power system,
electrical quantities or a group of electric quantities are compared in
magnitude or phase angle and the relay operates in response to an
abnormal relation of these quantities. The quantities to be compared are
fed into a comparators as two or more inputs; in complex relays each input
is the vectorial sum or difference of two currents or voltages of the
protected circuit, which may be shifted in phase or changed in magnitude
before being compared.
1.8.11Types of comparators;
Basically there are two types of comparators, viz.
FIG. 1.11
FIG. 1.12
FIG. 1.13
FIG. 1.14
a) Amplitude comparators, and
b) Phase comparator
The amplitude comparator compares the magnitudes of two inputs by
rectifying them and opposing them. If the inputs are A and B, the output of
the comparator is A-B and this is positive if A is greater than B i.e. if the
ratio of A/B is greater than one. Theoretically, the comparison should be
purely scalar, i.e. the phase relation of the inputs should have no effect on
the output, but this is usually so if at least one input is completely
smoothened as well as rectified.
The phase comparator achieves a similar operation with phase angle; its
output is positive if arg A-arg B is positive i.e. if arg A/B is less than
CHAPTER 2
INDUCTION DISC TYPE IDMT
OVER CURRENT RELAYS
2.1
Introduction
Induction types are most widely used for protective relaying purposes
involving A.C. quantities. Torque is produced in these relays when
alternating flux reacts with eddy currents induced in a disc by another
alternating flux of the same frequency but displaced in time and space.
These relays are used as over current or earth fault relay. In its simplest
form, such a relay consists of a metallic disc which is free to rotate
between the poles of two electromagnets (Fig. 2.1).
The spindle of this disc carries a moving contact which bridges two fixed
contacts when the disc rotates through an angle which is adjustable. By
adjusting this angle the travel of the moving contact can be adjusted so
that the relay can be given any desired time setting which is indicated by a
pointer on a time setting dial. The dial is calibrated from 0 to 1. These
figures do not represent the actual operating times but are multipliers to
be used to convert the time known from he relay name plate curve into the
actual operating time.
The upper electromagnet has a primary and a secondary winding. The
primary is connected to the secondary of a C.T. in the line to be protected
and is provided with tappings. These tappings are connected to a plug
setting bridge which is usually arranged to give seven selections of
tapping, the over current range being 50 per cent to 200 per cent in steps
of 25% and the earth fault 10% to 40% or 20% to 80% in steps of 5% &
10% respectively. These values are percentages of the current rating of
the relay. Thus a relay may have a current rating of 5A, indicating that it is
suitable for use on CT having secondary current rating of 5A but with a
setting of 50% the relay would start to operate at 2.5A. Similarly if set at
200% it would start to operate at 10A. Thus the relay can be set to pick-up
at any
Characteristic Curve
A set of typical time current characteristic curves of his type of relay is
shown in Fig. 2.2. The curve shows the relation between the operating
current in terms of current setting multiplier along the x-axis and operating
time in seconds along the y-axis. A current setting multiplier indicates the
number of times the relay current is in excess of the current setting. The
current setting multiplier is also referred to as plug setting multiplier
(P.S.M.). Thus
P.S.M=
Primary Current
Primary
Primary Current
Setting Current
Primary Setting Current
Primary Current
Primary Current Setting XC.T.Ratio
Where, as is usually he case, the rated current of the relay is equal to the
=
rated secondary current of C.T. From the figure the operating time, when
current setting multiplier is 10 and he time multiplier is set at 1, is 3
seconds. This is sometimes called the basic 3/10 curve.
It is evident that at the same current setting but the time multiplier set at
0.8, the time of operation is 2.4 seconds. Thus o get the actual tie of
operation against any particular time multiplier setting, multiply the time
of operation of the basic curve by the multiplier
FIG. 2.3
setting. Thus in this example the time of operation is 3 x 0.8 = 2.4 secs.
The time current characteristics of Fig. 2.2 are the inverse definite
minimum time (I.D.M.T.) type since the time of operation is approximately
inversely proportional to smaller values of current and tends to a definite
minimum time as the current increases above 10 times the setting current.
The D.M.T. characteristic is obtained by saturating the iron in the upper
magnet so that there is practically no increase in flux after current has
reached a certain value. This results in the flattening out of the current
time curve.
Example:
and had a time multiplier setting of 0.5. The relay is connected in the
circuit through a C.T. having ratio 500:5 amps. Calculate the time of
operation of the relay if the circuit carries a fault current of 6000 A. the
relay characteristic is shown in Fig. 2.3.
= 60A
-oOo-
60
5 x=1.5
=8
CHAPTER 3
MOTOR PROTECTION
Electrical Motor is an important component of an industry. Squirrel cage induction
motor is most widely used in power stations and industries. To protect the motor
from different faults condition various protection are provided, which are as listed
below.
3.1
Overload Protection
A motor may get overloaded during its operation because of excessive
mechanical load; (b) Single phase; (c) Bearing fault. An overloaded motor
draws overcurrent resulting in overheating of the winding insulation. A
reasonable degree of overload protection can be provided by Bi-metallic
thermal overload relay with setting, 15% for continuously rated motor and
40% for large motors. Modern Motor Protection Relays provide a I 2
sensitive Thermal overload protection having a range of exponential
current/time
characteristics
to
match
with
the
thermal
withstand
characteristic of motor.
3.2
3.3
3.5
Differential Protection
To protect the motor against internal faults, differential protection based
on circulating current principle provided for large critical motors. The
differential protection requires C.Ts of identical ratio and ratings (Class PS)
on both line and neutral side of the Motor for each phase (i.e. 6 C.Ts in
total). The differential relay is usually of high impedance type.
3.6
Undervoltage Protection
A reduced supply to a motor will increase motor losses and overloading of
he winding. An IDMT or definite time under voltage relay operated off Bus
P.T. is used to protect the motor, the under voltage relay trips the motors
connected to the Bus on upstream supply failure and eliminates possibility
of co-incident starting of all motors together, when the supply is
subsequently restored. Thus, prevents stressing of the supply source.
Composite Motors Protection Relays (Conventional analog types) provide
following protection functions.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Stalling (IIt)
Numerical versions are now available which offer following additional
protection functions, besides those given above.
f)
g)
h)
Loss of load
The Numerical versions have data acquisition capabilities and provide
useful service Data (such as load currents, I2/Io content in load current,
thermal status etc.), historic data fault data on operation. These relays
have programmable settings, programmable output relays and continuous
self monitoring against any internal failures.
-oOo-
CHAPTER 4
TRANSFORMER PROTECTIONS
4.1
Transformer protections are provided a) Against effects of faults in the system to which the transformer is
connected.
b) Against effects of faults arising in the transformer itself.
(RMS)
value)
60 KV
7.2 KV
12.5 KV
75 KV
33 KV
170 KV
66 KV
250 KV
145 KV
550 KV
245 KV
900 KV
400 KV
1350 KV
Surge divertors are provided from each line to earth. These consist of
several spark gaps in series with a non-linear resistance. This spark gap
breakdown when surge reaches the divertor and disturbance is discharged
to earth through nonlinear resistance since at high voltage divertors
resistance is low. These surge divertors should have rapid response, nonlinear characteristics, high thermal capacity, high system flow current
interrupting capacity and consistent characteristics under all conditions.
4.1.5 System Earth Faults
a) When neutral of the system is earthed: - It represents short circuit
across the phase. Hence, same protection as for short circuit can be
provided.
b) When neutral is not earthed: - Surge divertor gears in front of
transformer is used.
4.2
ii)
winding.
iii)
iv)
v)
ii)
Coolant failure
iii)
iv)
4.3
Overheating
ii)
Over current
iii)
iv)
Restricted earth-faults
v)
vi)
vii)
Over fluxing
viii)
ix)
Over voltage
x)
Gas Detection
a) Buchholz relay protection
b) Pressure relief valves/switches (for heavy internal faults)
ii)
These types of faults are of serious nature and operate both the floats
provided in the buchholz relay and trip out the transformer.
4.4.2 Principles of Buchholz Relay Operation (Fig. 4.1)
This relay is provided in the connecting pipe from transformer tank to
conservator. Two floats are provided inside the relay and are connected to
mercury switches. Normally the relay is full of oil and in case of gas
collection the floats due to their buyopancy rotate on their supports until
they engage their respective stops. Initially fault develops slowly and heat
is produced locally which begins to decompose solid or liquid insulating
material and thus produce inflammable gases. Gas bubbles are collected in
relay causing oil level to lower down. The upper float rotates as he oil level
in the relay goes down and when sufficient oil id displaced the mercury
switch contacts close and initiates alarm. For serious faults as described
above, gas generation is more violent and the oil displaced by gas bubbles
flows through connecting pipe to conservator. This abnormal flow of oil
causes deflection of both float and trip out the transformer. Recently the
dissolved gas analysis technique (gas chromatography) is in use for predetection of type of slowly developing faults inside the transformer which
helps to decide whether the transformer maintenance/internal inspection
is required to be
FIG. 4.1
10kv x p
Sq. root of 3.Rn
load
current
(say
120
percent
of
FL)
with
proper
discrimination.
4.6.3 Combined over current and un-restricted E/F Protection
(Ref. Fig. 4.2)
a) Typical over current/earth fault protection is shown for a Delta/ start
transformer in Fig. 4.2.
b) IDMT O/C elements on delta and star side, primarily serve as back up
protection against downstream short circuits and are time co-ordinated
with downstream O/C protections.
c) The high set instantaneous O/C elements on Delta side (connected to
source) are provided to detect severe terminal short circuits and
quickly isolate the transformer. These are set over and above the
maximum short circuit current infeeds of the transformer for star side
faults.
d) The start side earth fault protection (IDMT) serves as a backup against
downstream earth faults and is required to be suitably time graded.
This can either be residually connected across the phase C.Ts or
operated off a C.T. in the Neutral Earth connection (standby earth fault
relay). The latter is considered to be advantageous since it can detect
star winding earth faults, beside providing backup for downstream
earth faults. Since the neutral C.T. ratio is not tied up with the load
current, a lower C.T. ratio consistent with the maximum E/F current
limited by NGR can be provided. This renders good sensitivity for the
standby E/F protection.
e) The E/F protection on delta side is inherently restricted to delta winding
earth faults and does not respond to earth faults on the star side, due
b)
connection.
The
relay
is
connected
across
the
parallel
For external earth fault, the associated CTs have dissimilar polarities
forming a series connection. Thus, the resulting current through the
relay is negligible. For internal fault, however, the CTs have similar
polarities, forming a parallel connection, thus adding up the current in
the relay branch. This ensures positive operation of the relay.
4.7
Would flow through operating coil. Under this condition biasing effect predominates and prevents the relay operation.
During internal faults: (Fig. 4.5)
In this case, the reflected current flows through only one half of bias coil
and the operating coil and back to CT neutral connection. Here the
operating quantity pre-dominates resulting into operation of the relay.
4.8
4.9
The power frequency over voltage cause both stress on insulation and
proportionate increase in the magnetizing flux inside the transformer
due to which the iron losses area increased and the core bolts get
maximum component of flux, thereby rapidly heating and damaging its
own insulation and coil insulation. Reduction in frequency during high
voltage fluctuation has the same effect.
FIG. NO. 4.6
b)
c)
20% pickup and 20% bias setting is provided. (The values are typical).
d)
e)
ANNEXURE I
PERMISSIBLE CONCENTRATIONS OF
DISSOLVED
GASES IN THE OIL OF HEALTHY
TRANSFORMER
(TRANSFORMERS UNION AG)
Gas
4-10 years in
More than 10
Hydrogen
Methane
Acetylene
Ethylene
Ethane
Carbon
Year in service
100/150 ppm
50/70 ppm
20/30 ppm
100/150 ppm
30/40 ppm
200/300 ppm
service
200/300 ppm
100/150 ppm
30/50 ppm
150/200 ppm
100/150 ppm
400/500 ppm
Years in service
200/300 ppm
200/300 ppm
100/150 ppm
200/300 ppm
800/1000 ppm
600/700 ppm
monoxide
Carbon
3000/3500 ppm
4000/5000 ppm
9000/12000
dioxide
ppm
ANNEXURE II
CODE FOR EXAMINING ANALYSIS OF GAS DISSOLVED IN
MINERAL OIL AS PER CBIP TECHNICAL REPORT 62.
Ratio of Characteristic gases
0.1
Case No.
0
1
0.1-1
1-3
0
0
0
1
0
0
Characteristic fault
No fault
Partial discharge
Typical Example
Normal ageing
Discharge in gas-filled cavities
of low energy
but not
resulting
density
signify-
impregnation, or super-saturation
Partial discharge of
cant
1
1-2
from
incomplete
1-2
energy
between
bad
connections
of
Discharges of high
energy
flow
winding
or
coils
or
temperature
6
(150oC)
Thermal fault of low
temperature range
breaking current.
General
insulated
conductor
overheating
0
concentrations
of
flux,
150o-300oC
Thermal fault of
medium
eddy
currents,
bad
contacts/
temperature range
300o-700oC
Thermal fault of
- do -
high temperature
150o-300oC
CHAPTER 5
GENERATOR PROTECTIONS
5.1
Introduction
Generation are designed to run at a high load factor for a large number of
years and permit certain incidences of abnormal working conditions. The
machine and its auxiliaries are supervised by monitoring devices to keep
the incidences of abnormal working conditions down to a minimum.
Despite of this monitoring, electrical and mechanical faults may occur, and
the generators must be provided with protective relays, which in case of a
fault, quickly initiate a disconnection of the machine from the system and,
if necessary, initiate a complete shut-down of the machine.
The following are the various types of protections provided for a 200/210
MW Generator.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
5.2
5.2.1
A single earth fault in the field winding or its associated circuits, therefore,
gives rise to a negligible fault current and does not represent any
immediate danger. If, however a second ground fault should occur, heavy
fault current and severe mechanical unbalance may quickly arise and lead
to serious damage. It is essential therefore that any occurrence of
insulation failure is discovered and that the machine is taken out of service
as soon as possible. Normally the machine is tripped instantly on
occurrence of second rotor earth fault. Three methods are available to
detect this type of faults (First Rotor earth fault protection) 64R1.
a) Potentiometer method
b) A.C. injection method
c) D.C. injection method
5.3.1
5.3.2
FIG. 5.5
This scheme has an advantage over the potentiometer method in that
there is no blind spot in the supervision of the field system. It has the
disadvantage that some current will flow to earth continuously through the
capacitance of the field winding. This current may flow through the
machine bearings, causing erosion of the bearing surface. It is a common
practice to insulate the bearings and to provide an earthing brush for the
shaft, and if this is done the capacitance current would be harmless.
5.3.3 D.C. Injection Method (Fig. 5.5)
The capacitance current objection to the a.c. injection scheme is overcome
by rectifying the injection voltage as shown in Fig. 5.5. The d.c. out put of a
transformer rectifier power unit is arranged to bias the positive side of the
field circuit to a negative voltage relative to earth. The negative side of the
field system is at a greater negative voltage to earth, so an earth fault at
any point in the field winding will cause current to flow through the power
unit. The current is limited by including a high resistance in the circuit and
a sensitive relay is used to detect the current.
The fault current varies with fault position, but this is not detrimental
provided the relay can detect the minimum fault current and withstand the
maximum.
The relay must have enough resistance to limit the fault current to a
harmless value and be sufficiently sensitive to respond to a fault which at
the low injection voltage may have a fairly high resistance. The relay must
not be so sensitive as to operate with the normal insulation leakage
current, taking into account of the high voltage to earth at the negative
end of the winding and any over voltage due to field forcing and so on.
5.3.4 (a) Second Rotor Earth Fault Protection 64R2 (Fig. 5.5 a)
In this test system is replaced by a replica field system in the form of
potential divider, two 1K potentiometers in parallel with station D.C. is
used as shown in Figure 5.5 (a) with SW1 at 1 st rotor E/F position. Close
switch S1 check that 1st rotor E/F relay VAEM (64R1) operated.
FIG. 5.5 a
FIG. 5.5 b
Shift SW1 to Balance. Obtain balance on the mA meter (Galvanometers) by
coarse / fine adjustment of potentiometer. Shift SW1 on Test position,
check operation of relay 64R2 by closing switch S2 thus creating an
unbalance which simulates second E/F.
5.3.4 (b) Rotor Earth Fault (Fig. 5.5.b)
The Scheme to detect Rotor Earth Fault in case of Brushless excitation
system is shown in Fig. 5.5.(b). In this case, Rotor Earth Fault relay forms
the three arms of a bridge whose fourth arm is the field winding
capacitance o Rotor body. During Rotor earth fault, this capacitance gets
shorted and the bridge becomes unbalanced operating the relay. Main
exciter winding, rotating diodes and Generator field winding is protected
by this relay.
5.4
the stator winding. The fault current can be extensively large in case of
Interturn fault, hence the time delay must be short,
FIG. 5.6
FIG. 5.7
0.2 to 0.4 sec and the over current relay must be set higher than the
maximum unbalanced current in case of external faults and the minimum
unbalanced current for single turn short circuit have to be obtained from
the manufacturer of the machine.
Due to the difficulties in obtaining a reliable and secure interturn
protection, it is in most cases omitted. It is assumed that the Interturn fault
will lead to a single phase ground fault at the faulty spot, and the machine
will then be ripped by the ground fault relay within 0.3 0.4 secs.
Relay is show for one phase only. Similar connections are for other two
phases. Time delay of 200 sec. is provided to avoid operation of relay in
system disturbance condition.
5.5
5.7)
When the generator is connected to a balanced load, the phase currents
are equal in magnitude and displaced electrically by 120o. The ampere turn
wave produced by the stator currents rotate synchronously with the rotor
and no eddy currents are induced in the rotor parts.
Unbalanced loading gives rise to a negative sequence component in the
stator current. The negative sequence current produces an additional
ampere turn wave which rotates backwards, hence it moves relatively to
the rotor at twice the synchronous seed. The double frequency eddy
currents induced in the rotor may cause excessive heating, primarily in the
surface of cylindrical rotors and in the damper winding of rotors with
salient poles.
The approximate heating effect on the rotor of a synchronous machine for
various
unbalanced
fault
K, where
or
severe
load
unbalance
conditions
is
I2
(PU)
t
K =
Time in seconds
a constant depending on the heating characteristic of the machine
(rotor) i.e. type of machine and the method of cooling adopted for
rotor.
Max. permitted
Max. permitted
2
I2.t
continuous I2
Indirectly cooled
30
10
Directly cooled
(5 10)
(5 8)
40
10
40
(%)
Cylindrical rotor
Single phase and specially two phase short circuits give rise to large
negative sequence currents. The faults are however, cleared by other
relays in a tie much shorter than the operate time of the negative
sequence relay.
A two phase short circuit with fault current equal to 3.46 (2 Sq.rt of 3) time
rated generator current implies a negative sequence current component
equal to twice the rate current (2 p.u.). Hence a negative sequence relay
with the setting.
2
I2t = 10s would trip with a time delay of
10 = 2.5 sec.
22
Example on load dissymetries which give rise to negative sequence
currents in the generator are 1.
input from the Generator V.T. is used to sensitise the over current
protection on fault. This ensures [positive operation even though the
sustained fault current is less than the full load current of the machine due
to the effect of armature reaction. The over current backup is also set with
adequate time delay to coordinate with down stream backup protections.
5.8
service
conditions
and
external
faults,
with
unsaturated
current
differential
relays
are
also
used
for
generator
differential
Over
excitation
restraint
to
counteract
operation
at
abnormal
The relay has an unrestrained differential high set unit. The unrestrained
operation must be set higher than the maximum inrush current of the
transformer. It gives fast tripping (10-20m sec.) The CT and relay
connections are shown in Fig. 5.11.
5.10
current to the relay. The scale range used is 5-20mA for 1A and 30-120 mA
for 5A rated CT secondary currents. Time delay of 2 seconds is provided.
The detail connections of CT and relay are shown in Fig. 5.12.
5.11
5.12
5.14
tripped while the machine is running at fu load and rated power factor, the
subsequent increase in terminal voltage will normally be limited by a quick
acting AVR. However, if the AVR faulty or at this particular time switched
over to manual control, over voltage will occur. This voltage rise will be
further increased if simultaneous over speeding should occur, owing to a
slow acting turbine governor.
Modern unit transformers with high magnetic qualities have a relatively
sharp and well defined saturation level, with a knee point voltage between
1.2 and 1.25 times the rated voltage (Un). A suitable setting of the over
voltage relay is, therefore, between 1.15 and 1.2 times Un and with a
definite delay of 1 to 3 sec.
An instantaneous high set voltage relay can be included to trip the
generator quickly in case of excessive over voltage following a sudden loss
of load and generator over speeding.
Cause
Effect
Insulation damage
Relay
Voltage Relay
Setting
Stator Earth
2-5% of normal
Fault
neutral voltage
preventive paint
Abnormal mech. or thermal
Fault
Interturn fault
Overcurrent, overheating.
Interturn Short Circuit
Negative Phase
Unbalance loading
Sequence
Gen. Loss of
Exen.
1. Unintentional Opening of
field breaker.
2. An o/c or s/c in field. Winding
- do -
- do -
1-5% of voltage
injected.
-do -
Double Primary
0.5 to 1.5A
Excessive rotor
CT &O/C relay
O/C Relay
heating
(I2 based)
or as recommended by
Induction Generator
Impedance
manufacturer.
Dim = 0.5xXd pu
Asynchronous
Relay/Offset MHO
t.d. 2 sec.
Operation
Relay
Offset=0.75 Xdpu
3. Fault in AVR
Overheating of rotor
and stator end zone
Gen. Min.
impedance
Load imp.
Generator
MHO Relay
Differential Relay
Differential
1-1.5 msec.
1-5% of rated Gen.Current
10-15 msec.
Protection
Reverse Power
Motoring damage to
Directional power
Protection
Low Forward
turbine blades
Over speeding
relay
t.d. 2 sec.
Power
Over Frequency
Overspeed
Frequency Relay
Under
(Mech. Device)
Over fluxing (V/f)
Frequency
Over fluxing
Malfunctioning of AVR.
Frequency
Dependent
iron parts
Voltage relay
Over Loading
operation
Overloading in-terms of current or
Static thermal
Set=Amb. Temp. +
Protection
winding
Over Voltage
temp.
Sudden loss of load at full load
Insulation damage
Voltage Relay
plate
110%-2 sec. t.d.
Protection
- do -
- do -
- do +5%
t.d. 2 sec.
-5%
t.d. 2 sec.
V = 1 to 1.3
F
T = 3-5 sec.
generator Overspeed
GCB fails to trip
External sources
LBB Protection in
5-8%. In Set at 5%
feeding fault
conjunction with
Bus Bar
protection
CHAPTER 6
BUS ZONE PROTECTION AND LOCAL
BREAKER
BACKUP PROTECTION
6.1
Introduction
With ever increasing short circuit levels and growing complexities of the
supply system, Busbar protection is becoming increasingly relevant even
at medium voltage level in Industrial Distribution system. Besides, major
Industrial installations with high contract demand and growth potential,
often get utility supply at Extra High Voltage (EHV) level i.e. 132 KV and
above where high speed bus bar protection is considered essential from
the point of view of system stability.
Local breaker backup protection (against stuck breaker condition) though
more prevalent in utility systems can be applied in industrial distribution
system at an advantage. This protection gets well with Bus Bar protection
as it can share common tripping logic with bus bar protection.
6.2
6.2.1 Stability
It should be stable under maximum through fault condition with fault level
approaching switchgear breaking capacity.
6.2.2 High Speed Operation
Typical operating time range between 10-30 msecs. Fast clearance
enables maintaining system stability, besides limiting equipment damage
and also enables localised isolation of the faulted Busbar avoiding wide
spread disruption in the system.
6.2.3 Selectivity
It should be selective in isolating the faulted busbar, particularly in case of
multi-bus installations.
6.2.4
The protection should operate positively for internal fault, despite long
intervening quiescent periods, the bus faults being fewer and far apart.
6.2.5 Sensitivity
For external faults, the summated inflow from healthy circuits is equal to
the outflowing current from faulted circuit and thus the currents are
balanced, with no differential current through the relay. For internal fault,
however, all CTs see inflow of current into the bus. The secondary
currents, therefore, add up into the relay branch. Typical current
distribution for external and internal fault is shown in Fig. 6.3.2.1.
The above illustration, considers ideal current transformers with no errors
which is too simplistic an assumption. In practice, CTs have errors and may
experience unequal saturation due to remnant flux in the core and
dissimilarities in their magnetizing characteristics, particularly if the fault
current is asymmetrical having a slowly decaying d.c. component. This
may produce transient unbalance, causing operation of the high speed
differential
relay.
The
practical
differential
protection
for
busbars,
2.
This type of protection requires special class PS CTs (with low turns
ratio errors) of identical ratio and ratings on al circuits. Exclusive CT
cores are required for high impedance schemes which cannot share
common CT cores with other protections.
3.
6.3.2.3
Supervision
The differential protection has a fail safe design. Consequently, the relay
becomes potentially unstable for any open circuit or cross connection in
the CT secondary of he associated feeders. The maloperation of the Busbar
protection can be prevented on load under the above condition by setting
the pick up threshold of the differential element over and above the
maximum loaded circuit current. However, the relay may still maloperate
on a through fault, if the CT secondary open circuit goes undetected. A
maloperation of busbar protection could be catastrophic, particularly in
interconnected system and hence continuous supervision of CT secondary
is required as an additional safeguard.
The supervision relay is an AC voltage relay, connected across the
differential relay branch, having a sensitive setting range (usually 2 14
volts) and a fixed time delay to prevent transient operation on internal
faults. The relay is connected to sound an alarm and short CT secondary
Bus wires, on operation. Typical circuit arrangement for CT supervision
relay is shown in Fig. 6.3.2.3.
6.3.2.4
Check Feature
2.
6.3.2.5
C.T. Switching
6.5
6.5.1 Introduction
In EHV substations, reliability of fault detection is enhanced by providing
duplicated protections (either Main 1/Main 2 or Main and Backup
Protection). At the upper end of the EHV levels, the D.C. sources for
protection are also duplicated for better redundancy.
FIG. 6.3.2.5(a): TYPICAL C.T. SWITCHIG ARRANGEMENT
FIG. 6.4.0: LOW IMPEDANCE SCHEME
(BIASED)
Besides, the control breakers are provided with duplicated trip coils. All
these measures, undoubtedly improve the reliability of fault detection and
Follower Timer
Range
Recommend
ed
Generator
Circuit
All other
circuits
(TFRs/Lines/Bu
s Couplers etc.
ed
5 80%
Setting
5%
0.1 1 secs.
Setting
0.2 secs
20 320%
20%
0.1 1 secs.
0.2 secs.
FIG. 6.5.2(b):
FIG. 6.5.3: COMBAINED BUS BAR PROTECTION/LBB
A more sensitive setting is generally adopted for Generator application, in
view of the fact that a stuck breaker situation for certain abnormal
conditions like motoring, may involve very low current infeeds.
6.5.3 Combined Tripping Logic for LBB/Bus Bar Protection
Where Busbar protection is contemplated, the LBB scheme can share
common trip logic/tripping relays with Busbar protection. A typical
combined Busbar protection/ LBB scheme is shown in Fig. 6.5.3 of 2 Bus
Installation.
6.5.4 Setting Criteria for LBB Timer
The LBB time delay is primarily influenced by the tripping time of the
breaker and the reset time of the current check relay on correct tripping of
the breaker. Besides, adequate safety margin is also to be allowed. The
timing criteria is explained on a time scale below.
Usually a time delay of 200 msecs. Is adopted which allows sufficient time
co-ordination with remote back up protection.
- oOo -
7.
7.1
Introduction
Industrial Power Distribution systems make extensive use of cable feeders
for example, between captive generation Bus or Grid Supply Bus, to load
centers/Power control centers. These feeders are often radial or some
times form part of a ring main systems. While IDMT over current/earth
fault protection is mostly used for radial distribution feeders particularly in
the tail end unit type protections, such as pilot wire protection are also
sometimes used on critical feeders.
The unit protections are highly selective, sensitive and fast in operation,
but do not have any back up capabilities. The IDMT protection on the
contrary, are simple and economical but slower in operation to necessitate
time coordination between adjacent sections for selective trippings. IDMT
relays, however, provide excellent backup protection to the down stream
system.
7.2
Unit Protection
The principle of unit systems was first established by Merz and Price. This
fundamental differential system have formed the bases of may highly
developed protective arrangements for feeders and many other plant
equipments. Two forms of different schemes are available.
a) Circulating Current System
b) Balanced voltage system
7.3
the name
implies,
IDMT
relays
have
an
Inverse
time/current
i) Standard Inverse
t = 0.14/(10.02-1)
t = 13.5/(I-1)
t = 80/(I2-1)
t = 120/(I-1)
Fig. 7.3.1(a) shows the above characteristic at the max. time multiplier
setting of I.O
While standard Inverse Characteristic covers majority of he applications,
very invese characteristic is particularly useful here there is a substantial
reduction in the fault current as the distance from the power source
increases. Extremely Inverse characteristic is particularly suitable in
grading with fuses (the operating time being inversely proportional to the
square of the current, the characteristic eminently matches with the fuse
characteristic). Long Inverse characteristic is primarily used for overload
protection or earth fault protection in resistance grounded systems.
The IDMT relays provide both time and current grading to achieve
discrimination between successive stages in the distribution system.
7.3.2 Grading Margin
The time interval (grading margin) between adjacent relay for selective
operation depends upon following factors.
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
Safety Margin
The table below gives typical allowance to be made for the above factors.
FIG. 7.3.1(a).:IDMT CHARACTERISTICS
FIG.7.3.3.1 (a)
EM Relay
7.5
0.05
0.1
Static Relay
5.0
0.03
0.05
7.3.3.2
When fault current can flow in both direction at the relay location,
directional IDMT over current/earth fault can be used at an advantage to
ensure selective tripping. Usually a separate directional element is
provided which controls the operation of the IDMT over current relay. The
directional unit is basically a power measuring device in which the relative
direction or phase of the fault current is checked with reference to the
system voltage.
Typical CT/VT input connection and Vector diagram for directional over
current and earth fault relay is shown in Fig. 7.3.3.2 a/b and Fig. 7.3.3.2
c/d.
Referring to A phase element, the voltage coil flux lags the input volts Vac
by 45o, whereas the current coil flux is in phase with current IA. Since the
torque is function of v x 1 sin a, where v = voltage coil flux, 1 =
current coil flux and a = Angle between the two interacting fluxes,
maximum torque will be produced when a = 90o. The maximum torque
will, therefore be realized when IA lags
range of the directional element will be 45o lead to 135o lag as shown in he
vector diagram.
7.3.3.3
of he parallel
7.3.3.3.1 (a).
FIG. 7.3.3.2(a): Directional O/C relay Quadrature Connection
FIG. 7.3.3.2(b): VECTOR DIG. FOR 45O LEAD MTA FOR
QUADRATURE
CONNECTION FOR A PHASE RELAY.
FIG. 7.3.3.2(c): DIRECTIONAL EARTH FAULT RELAY CONNECTION
FIG. 7.3.3.2(d): VECTOR DIG. FOR DIRECTIOAL E/F RELAY
Ring Main System: Directional relays are used for Ring Mains. A
typical example is shown in Fig. 7.3.3.2 (a). While the source end station
(A), can have non-directional relays (in view of no possibility of infeed
reversal), the intermediate stations should have directional relays looking
into the feeders.
The time grading can be worked out by considering the rid open at one
side of the supply point, reducing it to radial system and grade from the
tail end. The same procedure can be repeated by opening the grid on the
other side, at the supply point.
Directional IDMT relays are also used on the feeders between Grid supply
and captive supply Bus for selective tripping and improved coordination.
-oOo-
CHAPTER 8
LINE PROTECTION (DISTANCE SCHEMES)
8.1
Introduction
Distance Protection is one of the most extensively used form of protection
for transmission and sub-transmission lines. Distance relay, primarily
measures the impedance of the line between the relaying point and fault
point and compares it with the setting impedance to ascertain whether the
fault is within the zone or outside. Practical distance relays have normally
3 zones of operation an instantaneous first zone and time delayed
backup zone 2 and 3.
When applied in conjunction with a signaling channel, it provides selective,
high speed protection for he line in question, and also a time delayed
backup to the adjoining lines through its second and third zone, thereby
combining the advantages of a unit as well as non-unit protection.
The heart of a distance protection is a comparator which carries out the
impedance measurement. Several impedance measuring characteristics
are available covering both short and long lines, which are discussed
below.
8.2
Measuring Characteristics
The various measuring characteristics and heir applications are described
below:
passes through the origin and diameter represents the setting impedance
or Replica Impedance (ZR) at an angle .
MHO Characteristic has an angle dependant reach (being maximum along
the setting Impedance angle) and is directional. It is less prone to power
swings/load encroachment due to its restricted coverage on the R-X plane,
particularly along the Resistive Axis.
8.2.2.2
voltage
reference
from
healthy
phase(s).
While
the
Zones of Protection
Conventional distance relays have normally 3 zones of protection namely
an instantaneous zone 1 and time delayed zone 2/zone 3. Correct
coordination between distance relays on adjacent lines in a power system,
is achieved by judiciously selecting the reach and time settings of the
various zones. Typical reach and time settings for a 3 zone scheme is
shown in Fig. 8.3.0(a).
Associated time delays Zt Inst, Z2-t2, Z3-t3.
The settings criteria for various zones is given below:
Zone 1
Zone 2
Zone 3
reach the remote busbars bars with similar margin, to account for possible
under-reaching due to relay/CT/PT errors. The Zone 2 covers up to 50% of
the shortest adjoining section and ensures that it does not overlap with
the zone 2 of adjoining section, thus avoiding coordination problem.
However, if the shortest adjoining section is too short, compared to the
protected section, the margin against possible under-reaching may not be
adequate. In such an eventuality, the zone 2 can be set to cover 120% of
the protected section.
Zone 3 protection is intended as a backup against uncleared external
faults and hence set to cover the longest adjoining line. The zone 3 setting
should, however, be checked against possible load encroachment,
particularly in case of long heavily loaded lines.
8.4
FIG. 8.4.0(a)
FIG. 8.4.0(b): SEQUENCE COMPARATOR VOLTAGES
FOR MHO CHARACTERISTIC
Therefore, filtered to remove the unwanted frequency components and
then squared, so that they retain the phase angle information of the
original sinusoidal inputs.
To understand the operation of the comparator, the input square wave A
and B, which have either a high or low value can be regarded as logic
variables. If the high and low state of the input signals is represented as A
B and A B respectively, there are four possible combinations of their state
i.e. A B, A B, A B, and A B. if both signals have unity mark space ratio and
equal time periods, the four combinations will occur in a cyclic manner,
with only two possible variations.
If A leads B, the sequence would be A B, A B, A
B, the sequence would be A B, A B,
Band A B.
The comparator has a logic circuit which examines the input signals at
every change of state to see which of the two sequence are being followed
and determines whether the same is progressing in a tri or restraint
condition. The circuit can identify a trip or restraint condition from a single
change of state and from any starting point from the cycle. However, a
single change of state may be deceptive, if the input signals are laden
with noise, since noise signals may alter the zero crossings and reverse
the sequence momentarily. Greater security is therefore obtained, if
tripping is conditioned by a number of status changes corresponding to a
trip sequence. The comparator has a counter to determine the number of
status changes. Every acceptable change corresponding to a tri sequence
increments the counter while a change corresponding to restraint
condition decrements the counter to a minimum of zero. The criteria for
operation is usually a count of 3 or 4.
Referring to the figure 8.4.2(a) and (b), the noise signals introduces an
extra pair of zero crossing one adding to the total count and the other
subtracting. After each such interference, the counter is in the same
FIG. 8.4.1: RESTRAI LOGIC SEQUENCES
(a)
FOR COMPARATOR
FIG. 8.4.1: OPERATE LOGIC
(b) SEQUENCES FOR COMPARATOR
FIG. 8.4.2(a): BASIC NOISE IMMUNITY
FIG 8.4.2(b) : BASIC NOISE IMMUNITY
ii)
iii)
Switch on to fault.
FIG. 8.5.1(b)
FIG.8.5.1(c ) IMPEDANCE DIAG
FIG.8.5.1: PSB LOGIC
FIG.8.5.2: VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER SUPERVISION
The VTs logic monitors either Zero Sequence of Negative sequence current
and voltage at the terminal of the relay. Discrimination between a primary
system fault and a blown off P.T. fuse or secondary wiring discrepancy is
obtained by blocking the distance protection only when zero or negative
sequence voltage is detected without the appearance of zero or negative
current, as shown in the logic diagram.
When MCBs are used for controlling the VT supply, an auxiliary contact of
the same is used to block the protection on operation of the MCB. This is
normally done by cutting off the scheme d.c. supply through a normally
open contact of the MCB.
8.5.3 Switch on to fault (SOFT) Feature
As explained before, the polarizing voltage signal is required for the
distance relay under all fault conditions for correct measurement and
directional measurement and directional discrimination. However, the
polarizing voltage signal may completely vanish for a close-up 3 phase
fault. The memory polarization where provided, will certainly help to
maintain the polarizing signal provided he relay has seen a prefault
voltage before. However, when a dead line is energized with its earthling
clamps left inadvertently in position, after a maintenance shutdown and if
the associated distance protection is fed from line voltage transformers,
the memory polarization also will not help for obvious reasons. To guard
against such eventuality, parallel switch-on to fault (SOFT) trip logic is
provided in all distance relays as standard feature, using voltage and
current level detectors, as illustrated in Fig.8.5.3 (a).
The SOFT logic is enabled only after the voltage and current level
detectors of all the 3 phases are in a de-energized status for a preset time
interval, signifying that the line is initially dead. When the line is energized
distance
protection
covers
about
80-85%
of
the
line
in
its
instantaneous first zone, the faults in the last. 15-20% being referred to
the delayed zone 2. Thus for end section faults, the clearance is delayed
from
the
farthest
end.
This
situation
cannot
be
tolerated
in an
2.
When the lines are equipped with high speed auto reclosing, a nonsimultaneous tripping would defeat auto reclosing, since there is no
effective dead time to ensure de-energisation of the fault arc.
element has also operated, end A will trip in Carrier Aided Trip mode,
resulting a near simultaneous clearance of the fault from both ends.
The different variations of carrier schemes are:
Acceleration
Blocking
Introduction
The magnitude of current and voltage in a power circuits are
usually too high to be handled by the secondary equipments like
measuring instruments and relays. The instrument transformers are
therefore, used as input devices which produce a scaled down
replica of the primary input quantities within the required accuracy,
for connecting the secondary equipments.
While the instrument transformers used for measurement purpose
handle steady state quantities close to the rated values, those used
for protection, handle fault quantities which are affected by d.c.
transients, harmonic distortions etc. the performance requirements
of the instrument transformers are therefore at variance depending
upon their applications.
9.2
Current Transformers
Ratio Error
It is defined as the difference in magnitude of the primary
and secondary current expressed as percentage of the
primary current.
Knxls Ip
X 100
Ip
Phase Angle
This is the phase angle difference between the primary
current and the reversed secondary current vector.
c)
Composite Error
This is defined as the R.M.S value of the difference (Kn Is-Ip)
integrated over one cycle under steady state conditions
expressed as a percentage of RMS primary current. Thus,
FIG. 9.2.1
100
Composite error Eo -= Ip
I
T
: :
in magnetizing the core, producing high core flux. This results in increased
secondary E.M.F. with the voltage shooting up to very high value
depending upon the primary current level and the working/saturation flux
levels.
9.2.5 Classification of CTs
There are three basic types of CTs.
1)
Measuring CTs
2)
Protection CTs
3)
9.2.5.1
The CTs should have optimum ALF/VA Rating, so that they do not
saturate up to at leas 20 time current setting. This may be achieved
by selecting low burden relays or by selecting a ratio of appropriate
high value.
ii)
Overrated CTs having high VA rating and ALF, may produce high
secondary currents during severe faults
5P/ 10P class CTs are used for Non-balanced protections like IDMT
overcurrent, Earth fault relays. However, for balanced protection like
circulating current differential, where balance is required between the
ii)
iii)
For class PS, CTs, the turns ratio errors are limited to 0.25% which helps in
maintaining balance between the protection systems during maximum
through fault condition.
Incidentally, 5P/ 10P class CTs are sometimes provided with deliberate
turns ratio correction to0 maintain accuracy specified limits at ALF and
hence are unsuitable for such special applications.
Typical Illustration of class PS CTs specifications
Ratio 100 / 1A
VK >u 100 Volts
Im < 30 Milliamps at VK / 2
RCT < 1.0 ohm
9.2.6 Core Balance CT (CBCT)
CBCT are used for sensitive earth protections where the required
sensitivity cannot be obtained using residual CT connections or by the use
of CT on neutral earth connection.
In case of residual connection, the phase CTs primary rating is based on
the full load rating of the circuit. Besides, the unbalance produced due to
unequal errors in the phase CTs prohibits the use of very sensitive setting
n the earth fault relays.
The CBCT on the contrary, are excited by the primary residual current
since the core encloses all the 3 phases and hence do not have a high
primary rating. Thus sensitivities down to 0.5 Amps primary or better can
be obtained. When used for 4 wire systems, the CBCT core encloses the
neutral, besides the phases. Thus high earth fault sensitivity can be
obtained irrespective of the single phase unbalance.
Typical Applications
For Transformers
IF
transformers.
For Busbar
IF
capacity.
For Generators
IF = Maximum through fault current limited by sub transient reactance
(Xd) of the generator.
For Motors
IF
Motors).
For Shunt Reactors
IF = Maximum charging current of the reactor.
For Short Feeders
IF = Maximum through fault current for fault at remote end busbar.
B)
C)
Distance protection
VK > (1 +
X
R ) ) IF (Zr +RCT + nRL)
Where
X
R
IF
point.
Zr = Relay ohmic burden
RCT = CT secondary Resistance
nRl
(two way
ii)
iii)
IA Secondary
9.3
i)
Preferred when CTs are out door and lead burdens are high.
ii)
iii)
Kn.Vs-Vp
Vp
X 100
Metering VTs
ii)
Protection VTs
iii)
Residual VTs
The VTs are usually specified in terms of
-
Voltage Ratio
Accuracy Class
Rated VA Burden
Typical Illustration
11KV /3 V, 110/ 3 V, class 1.0, VA 50
VF 1.2 continuous / 1.5 for 30 seconds.
FIG. 9.3.1
9.3.3.1
% Ratio
Error
+0.1
+0.2
Phase Angle
Error (Minutes)
+5
+10
Reference Conditions
Voltage 80 120%
Burden 25 100%
0.5
1.0
3.0
9.3.3.2
+0.5
+1.0
+3.0
% Ratio
Error
+3%
+6%
3P
6P
Phase Angle
Error(Minutes)
+120
+240
Reference
Conditions
Voltage 5% to Voltage
Factor
times
rated
voltage
Burden 25 100%
P.F.0.8 Lag
Frequency -Rated
% Ratio
Error
5 PR
10
3.4
9.3.3.3
+20
+40
Not Specified
+ 5%
+ 10%
Phase Angle
Error(Minutes
)
+ 200
--
Reference
Conditions
Voltage 5% to Voltage
Factor
times
rated
voltage
Burden 25 100%
Frequency Rated
P.F. 0.8 lab.
3.
System Earthling
Effectively Earthed
Rated Voltage
Factor
1.2
1.5
Rated
Time
Continuous
30 Seconds
1.2
1.9
Continuous
30 seconds
1.2
1.9
Continuous
8 Hours
Non-Effectively
earthed
system
(with Automatic Earth fault
tripping)
Isolated Neutral or Resonant
Earthed system (without
Automatic Earth fault tripping)
VTs used in no-effectively earthed systems have voltage factor since in the
event of an earth fault in one of the phases, the healthy phase voltage
may rise to phase to phase value (i.e. 3 times phase to neutral voltage)
as shown in Fig. 9.3.4.
FIG. 9.3.4
FIG. 9.3.5.3: STAR/OPEN DELTA CONNECTION
9.3.4 V.T. Connections
V-V
2.
Star/Star
3.
9.3.5.1
V-V Connection
Star-Star connection
The primary windings, are connected in star with star neutral solidly
grounded and the secondaries are connected in series to form an open
delta connection as shown in Fig. 9.5.3. This type of connection is called
residual connection and requires either 3x single phase VTs or a suitable 3
phase 5 limb VT.
The residual connection is used for polarizing directional earth fault relays
or for earth fault detection I non-effectively grounded or isolated neutral
system.
-000-
CHAPTER 10
DIGITAL RELAYING
10.0. Introduction
Protection scheme basically consists of protective relay and circuit breaker
(i.e. Switching Circuit). Out of these two, protection relay plays an
important role and therefore, it is known as brain behind the above
scheme. It is the relay which senses the fault, determines the location of
the fault and then sends tripping command to the proper Circuit Breaker
by closing its trip coil. There has been continuous development and
improvement in the theory, design ad operating principle of the protection
scheme. From electromechanical relay of induction type in the beginning
now we have digital relaying scheme using on-line microprocessor / mini
computer. The idea being to develop a relay having.
1. Less Burden : (If the burden of a C.T. is high, its magnetic core gets
saturated, result being secondary O/P is not linearly proportional to
primary quantity and relay may maloperate).
2. High Speed : (If the fault is cleared quickly, not only the transient
stability limit of the system is improved but also permanent damage to
the equipment is avoided. Risk of fire or risk to the personnel is
avoided).
Hence, during 1960 with the advent of digital computer, digital relaying
becomes a reality, by developing several algorithm to realize different
protection function using digital computer. But because of large size and
cost of the computer only software package to realize different protection
scheme
were
microprocessor
developed.
and
During
early
mini-computer,
1986,
digital
with
relaying
the
using
arrival
on
of
line
Lower Burden
No contact problem
I1 + I2
2
realize
differential
protection
using
microprocessor/mini
e.g.
If I1 = I2 =I0
G fault
If I1 = I2, I0 = 0
L.L.fault
If I1 = I2 + I0 =0
LLG fault
It1
I0
Pick up current
Bias
(II
accurately
and
of
different
frequencies
than
supply
frequency.
3. Transient signals can be simulated easily.
4. Flexibility and ease of programming
5. Accurate and realistic testing of relays
The scheme is as shown in Fig. 10.3 A PC AT 386/486 computes, the
sample corresponding to the instantaneous values of the test signals
(Digital) which is supplied to Digital to Analog Converter (DAC) with
interrupt occurring at the end of inter sample interval. The number of
sample per cycle can be 12, 16, 24, 36, 60. The DAC output waveform is a
stepped waveform with stepped waves with number of steps = number of
sample selected per cycle. These waveforms are smoothened and
undesired harmonics are filtered out. Then waveforms are amplified by
power amplifiers to generate relay test signals with necessary test levels.
PC has Menu Driven Software; Viz.
a) Calibration Menu
b) Relay Selectio0n Menu
c) Type of test selection
Relay test programme is stored in CPU of PC and computer monitor the
relay trip status. After the test CPU generate relay characteristic plots.
10.3
The relay reach is set to desired value. Test starts by simulating voltage
and current signals with phase difference equal to zero between V & I of
selected phases for which fault is to be simulated. The current signals of
the faulty phases and voltage signals of the healthy phases are maintained
at rated value. Then voltage signals of the selected faulty phases are
decreased in steps till relay operates. At this point, computer holds the
present value of fault voltage,
V current signals and phase difference
between them and Z =
-000-
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.