CVEN3302 Structural Steel Design

CVEN3302 Structural Design
Semester 2,, 2009
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, UNSW
Introduction
by
Zora Vrcelj
LectureOutline
Introduction Housekeepingrules
Structuralsteel
p p
properties,fabrication
,
LimitstatesdesigntoAS4100
g
4
Strength,serviceability
Loads
Dead,live,wind,earthquake
,
,
,
q
SStructurall
Steel - Properties
Thisiswhatyouendupwith
y
p
ifyoudontbuildwithsteel!
Badchoiceofmaterialcan
causeprematurefailure
Steelisbyfarthemostuseful
materialforbuildingstructureswith
g ofapproximatelytentimes
pp
y
strength
thatofconcrete,steelistheideal
materialformodernconstruction.
Steelisalsoaveryecofriendly
materialandsteelstructurescan
b il di
beeasilydismantledandsoldas
tl d d ld
scrap.
Duetoitslargestrengthtoweight
ratio,steelstructurestendtobemore
economicalthanconcretestructures
fortallbuildingsandlargespan
buildingsandbridges.
Togetthemostbenefitoutofsteel,steel
structuresshouldbedesignedand
t t
h ldb d i
d d
protectedtoresistcorrosionandfire.
Steelstructuresareductileandrobust
andcanwithstandsevereloadingssuch
asearthquakes.
The effectsoftemperatureshouldbe
consideredindesign.Specialsteelsand
protectivemeasuresforcorrosionandfire
i
f
i dfi
areavailableandthedesignershouldbe
familiarwiththeoptionsavailable.
Topreventdevelopmentofcracksunder
fatigueandearthquakeloadsthe
p
connectionsandinparticularthewelds
shouldbedesignedanddetailedproperly.
Theyshouldbedesignedanddetailedfor
easyfabricationanderection.Good
qualitycontrolisessentialtoensure
lit
t li
ti lt
properfittingofthevariousstructural
elements.
Thusthelifecyclecostofsteelstructures,
whichincludesthecostofconstruction,
maintenance,repairanddismantling,canbe
lessthanthatforconcretestructures.Since
steelisproducedinthefactoryunderbetter
qualitycontrol,steelstructureshavehigher
li
l
l
h
hi h
reliabilityandsafety.
Steelstructurescanbeconstructedveryfast
andthisenablesthestructuretobeusedearly
y
g
y
therebyleadingtooveralleconomy.Steel
structurescanbeeasilyrepairedand
retrofittedtocarryhigherloads.
StructuralSteel MildSteel
E
Economic,Ductile
i D til
Hotrolledintostandardshapes
Box sections
Easilyfabricatedbywelding
Standard sections
Cell Form Beams
TypicalSteelFabricationShop
f bi i
fabricationworkshop
k h
h lli
hotrolling
Ductility
Themostimportantmaterialcharacteristicofmildsteel isits
ductility.
Ductility allowsverylargestrainstodevelopwithlittleincreasein
stress,priortofailure.
Theadvantagesofductilityare:
Itcangivepriorwarningofimpendingfailure
Itallowsenergyabsorptionindynamicloadingorinresistingbrittlefracture
Itallowsforredistributionofactions,whichisusuallybenign
,
y
g
p
, in achieving
g a ductile stress-strain curve it requires
q
y
N.B At present,
the yield
stress
fy to be less than 450 MPa. The yield stress is also called the Grade of the mild
steel, i.e. Grade 350 steel has fy = 350 MPa.
Propertiesofmildsteel
p
St
Stress
Not to scale
Upper yield stress
fu
Strain hardening Est
fy
Plastic
Tensile rapture
El ti E
Elastic
st
Strain
Idealisedstressstrainrelationshipforstructuralsteel
N.B.
N B Thesamestressstraincurveisassumedincompression,butweshallseethat
Th
t
t i
i
di
i b t h ll th t
bucklingofmembersandelementsincompressionusuallypreventshighstrainsfrom
beingrealised
IdealisedStressStrain() Diagram
MildStrengthSteel 450 MPa
MildStrengthSteel,
HighStrengthSteel 450 MPa

HighStrengthSteel,
Yieldingunderbiaxialstresses
Mises YieldCriterion
MohrCircleConstruction
Uniaxial
tension
-1.0
P i i l stress
Principal
Uniaxial
compression
f1, f2 normal stresses

shear stress
Princcipal stress
ratio f2/fy
Pure
shear
1.0
1.0
ratio
i f1/fy
-1.0
Maximumdistortionenergy
criterion:
f12-f1f2+f2 2+ 32= fy3
Introductionto
Structural
SteelDesign
DesignProcess
Problem!
Includes: setting criteria, constraints

functional and structural requirements
Definition of problem
(Design brief)
Information search
Includes: design data
data,
information from other
consultants, loads
Preliminary designs and selection

Structural systems
(C
(Conceptual
t l design)
d i )
Includes: type of system,
spacing of major members,
fixity of connections
construction techniques
Detailed design
Drawings and specifications
Advice on construction
Solution
(completed job)
Whentheneedforanewstructurearises,anindividualoragency
hastoarrangethefundsrequiredforitsconstruction.
Theindividualoragencyhenceforthreferredtoastheownerthen
approachesanarchitect.
Thearchitectplansthelayoutsoastosatisfythefunctionalrequirementsandalso
ensuresthatthestructureisaestheticallypleasingandeconomicallyfeasible.
Inthisprocess,thearchitectoftendecidesthematerialandtypeofconstructionaswell.
Theplanisthengiventoastructuralengineerwhoisexpectedtolocatethestructuralelements
soastocauseleastinterferencetothefunctionandaestheticsofthestructure.
Hethenmakesthestrengthcalculationstoensure
safetyandserviceabilityofthestructure.
Thisprocessisknownasstructuraldesign.
Finally,thestructuralelementsarefabricatedanderectedbythe
contractor Ifallthepeopleworkasateamthenasafe useful
contractor.Ifallthepeopleworkasateamthenasafe,useful,
aestheticandeconomicalstructureisconceived.
Howeverinpractice,manystructuresfulfiltherequirements
onlypartiallybecauseofinadequatecoordinationbetweenthe
l ti ll b
fi d
t
di ti b t
th
peopleinvolvedandtheirlackofknowledgeofthecapabilities
andlimitationsoftheirownandthatofothers.
Sinceastructuralengineeriscentraltothisteam,itisnecessaryforhim
tohaveadequateknowledgeofthearchitectsandcontractorswork
tohaveadequateknowledgeofthearchitectsandcontractorswork.
Itishisresponsibilitytoadviseboththearchitectandthecontractor
aboutthepossibilitiesofachievinggoodstructureswitheconomy.
Eversincesteelbegantobeusedintheconstructionof
structures,ithasmadepossiblesomeofthegrandest
t t
ith d
ibl
fth
d t
structuresbothinthepastandalsointhepresentday.
SuccessfulStructures
Functionalrequirements setbyclient
SAFETY buildinglifeincludingconstructionperiod
SAFETY
b ildi lif i l di
t ti i d
STRUCTURALENGINEERS
Aestheticsatisfaction setbyarchitects
Economy Capitalcost isnotjustthestructuralcomponent
butalsofinancingandconstructionspeed
maintenancecosts caneffectlongtermlifecyclecosting
SteelStructuresCode
Section
9
Section
5
to
8
Section
5
4
Section
6,7243& 8
Section
Section
AS 4100
Connections
Engineered
g
Capacity
p1
y
Design
Member
Section
Properties
Method
ofof
Timber
of
subjected
Connections
to- Design
Capacity
Introduction
Timber
Structural
nails,
screws
Products
- Bolting
bending
g
pProperties
scope,
of
Members
eng.
eng.
Australian
Standard
Analysis
bolts,
b
coach
h screws
b ltplywood
l
d
Welding
definitions,
strength
(f
)
tension
Steel
Structures
shear
connectors,
Elastic
poles
stiffness
(E)
Section
capacity
notation,
compression
split
rings
Plastic
Modifn
Modif
n factors
Member
units
itd
(N,
(N
Member
buckling
combined
bicapacity
d di
bending
bglulam
kFrame
modifies
strength
LVL
buckling
mm,
MPa)
actions
Standards Australia
LimitsStatesDesigntoAS4100
g
4
Forrest Centre,
Perth WA
Firstt M
Fi
Melbourne
lb
building
b ildi
to use concrete filled
tubular steel columns
Central
C
t l concrete
t core
with steel beams and
metal formwork
Steel skeleton connected

to the central core
Casseldon Place,
Melbourne
Columns were concrete

filled composite steel
box columns
DesignapproachofAS4100
g pp
4
Basedonlimitstatedesign
Principallimitstates
Strength(ultimatelimitstate),concernedwith
collapse:
yyielding
g
buckling
overturning
Serviceabilitylimitstate,concernedwith
i bili li i
d h
function:
deflection
d
fl i
vibration
LimitStatesDesign
Aim Satisfactoryperformanceunderavarietyofdifferentuses
orloadscenarios
Strength Rarescenarios:
wantsafetyforoccupants
nofailure
Serviceability
y Commonscenarios:
wantsatisfactoryperformanceinserviceundercommonloadings
nocracking,nobouncing,
satisfactoryappearanceandfunction
Strengthlimitstatedesignprinciples
Definerelevantlimitstates
Determineappropriateactions
Analyseusingappropriatemethodsand
g
y
accountingforvariabilitytodetermine:
Designeffects{S*},and
Designresistance{ R}
Ensurenolimitstateisexceeded
S R
Strengthlimitstatedesignprinciples
EffectofFactoredLoadsFactoredResistance
S R
For load combinations, the effect of factored loads (S*) is the
structural effect due to the specified loads multiplied by load
factors.
Variabilityofactions
a ab ty o act o s
Precisionofmodellingactionsvaries:
deadloadsrelatedtomaterialdensityand
thickness
imposedloadsbasedontypeofoccupancy
windandsnowloadsbasedonmeteorological
data
Probabilityofloadcombinationsvaries
y
ACTIONS
DEADLOADS
Weightsofthevariousstructuralmembersandtheweightsofany
objectsthatarepermanentlyattachedtothestructure(i e selfweight
objectsthatarepermanentlyattachedtothestructure(i.e.selfweight
ofthestructure+superimposeddeadload)
LIVELOADS
Buildingloads
Bridgeloads
B id l d
Windloads
Snowloads
Earthquakeloads
HydrostaticandSoilPressure
OtherNaturalLoads(theeffectofblast,temperaturechanges,different
settlementofthefoundation)
DESIGNLOADS GENERAL
Forthedesignofstructuralsteelworkthefollowingloadsandinfluencesshallbe
considered:
G Deadloads,includingtheweightofsteelworkandallpermanentmaterialsof
construction partitions stationaryequipment andadditionalweightof
construction,partitions,stationaryequipment,andadditionalweightof
concreteandfinishesresultingfromdeflectionsofsupportingmembers,andthe
forcesduetoprestressing;
Q Liveloads,includingloadduetointendeduseandoccupancyofstructures;
movableequipment,snow,rain,soil,orhydrostaticpressure;impact;andany
ot e e oad st pu ated by t e egu ato y aut o ty;
otherliveloadstipulatedbytheregulatoryauthority;
T Influencesresultingfromtemperaturechanges,shrinkage,orcreepof
p
,
;
componentmaterials,orfromdifferentsettlements;
W Liveloadduetowind;
E Liveloadduetoearthquake
G DeadLoad
Loadsactinverticaldirection.
Thespecifieddeadloadforastructuralmemberconsistsof:
theweightofthememberitself,
the eightofallmaterialsofconstr ctionincorporatedinto

theweightofallmaterialsofconstructionincorporatedinto
thebuildingtobesupportedpermanentlybythemember,
theweightofpartitions,
theweightofpermanentequipment,and
theverticalloadduetoearth,plantsandtrees.
,p
DeadLoad,G
,
Services(ventilation,electricityducts,etc.)
Superimposed dead load
Load
path?!
Variabilityofmaterialandsection
y
properties
Resistance{R}isrelatedprincipallytomaterial
andsectiongeometry
Yieldstrengthofsteelisguaranteed
e d st e gt o stee s gua a teed
Otherproperties,notablyYoungsmodulus(E),
aremuchlessvariable
Strength(Ultimate)LimitState
Thefollowingconditionsshouldbeconsidered:
Stability:overturning(equilibrium)
Strength:includinglocalandoverallbucklingeffectswhere
appropriate
Itmayalsobenecessarytoconsider:
Secondordereffects
Rupture(duetofatigue)
StrengthLimitState
i e GRAVITYLOADS:1.2G
i.e.
GRAVITYLOADS:1 2G +1.5Q
+1 5Q fR
or
S R
*
R =resistancecapacity(atfailure)
Lefthandsideisfactoredstrengthloadeffect,S*
=capacityreductionfactor
CapacityFactor
Givesconsistentreliabilitytowholestructure
=0.9
0 9(forsteelmembers,M
(f t l
b
Mu,V
Vu,N
Nu)
=0.8(connectorsandconnections)
StrengthLimitState
g
Strength avoidfailureinthelifetimeofthestructure
i.e.liveloadcombination
1.2G
1 2G + 1
1.5Q
5Q
0.8G + 1.25Q
1.2G
1 2G + Wu
i.e.windloadcombination
0.8G
0 8G + Wu
(1)and(3) combinationsareusediftheloadsactinthesamedirection
(2) and(4) areusediftheloadsactinoppositedirections.
StrengthLimitState
g
Loadsaregenerally:UDLs(orpressures=Force/Area)
g
y
p
andPointLoads
Loadeffectsare:
AxialforceN*
BendingmomentM*
ShearforceV*
Whentheseloadeffectsaredeterminedusingfactoredloads(*)theyarecalleddesignloads
Whentheloadeffectsaredeterminedwithoutusingfactoredloadstheyarecallednominalloads
G nominaldealload(giveninloadingcaseAS1170.1)
Q nominalliveload(giveninloadingcodeAS1170.1)
(g
g
7 )
Wu nominalultimatewindload(giveninloadingcodeAS1170.2)
Mu, Nu, Vu the strengths are determined from

the steel code AS4100
S*
StrengthLimitState
g
Anexampleofthedesignequationmaybeestablishingthat:
f
M M b
*
where
M* isthefactoredbendingmomentinabeam(determinedfrom
structuralanalysis)
Mb isthebendingstrengthofthebeam(thataccountsforlateral
buckling)and =0.9
StrengthLimitState
g
Anotherexamplemightbeestablishingthat
N N c
*
where
N* isthefactoredaxialcompressioninacolumn(theloadeffector
designaxialcompression)
Nc isitsstrengththataccountsfortheeffectsofcolumnbucklingif
thecolumnisslender(thenominalcompressivestrength)and
=0.9
ServiceabilityLimitState
y
Thefollowingconditionsmayneedtobeconsidered:
excessivedeflections
excessivevibrations
Bothconditionsareassociatedwithstiffnessrather
thanstrength
g
Formostbuildings,controllingdeflectionswillalsolimit
vibrations
b
Serviceabilityofbeams
y
Deflectionlimitsforbeams:
appearance(sagging)
fitnessforpurpose(machinery,pipegrades)
str ct ral(a oid nintendedloadpaths)
structural(avoidunintendedloadpaths)
ServiceabilityLimits
y
Codegivesguidanceonly
g
g
y
(i.e./L=1/250,1/500,etc.)
Mainmessageis THINKanddiscusswithclient
DesignforServiceability
g
y
howtosizeamember?
1.Agreeondeflectionlimits
A
d fl i li i lim withclient
i h li
2.Evaluateserviceabilityloadcombinationsthathavelimit lim
splitcombinationintoconstituentloadswi
estimatedurationofeachconstituentload
DesignforServiceability
g
y
3.
5 L4 w

I
384 E lim
(udl,ss)
Note:Designloadfactorsusedfor StrengthLimitStatedonotapplyto
ServiceabilityLimitState
y
((i.e.weusew notw*)
4. Se
Select
ect c
cross-section
oss sect o to g
give
e
5. Check
Ch k bending,
b di
shear,
h
axial
i l strength
t
th
Mu
Vu
Nu
ReferenceMaterial
AS4100 1998SteelStructures:
AS4100
1998SteelStructures StandardsAustralia,Sydney.
S d d A
li S d
AS1170.1&AS1170.2LoadingCodes:StandardsAssociationofAustralia,
Sydney.
NSTrahair&MABradford:TheBehaviorandDesignofSteel
g
StructurestoAS4100,3rd Australiaedition,E&FNSpon,London,1998.
MABradford,RQBridge&NSTrahair:WorkedExamplesfor
MABradford
RQBridge&NSTrahair WorkedExamplesfor
SteelStructures,3rd edition,AISC,Sydney,1997.
STWoolock,SKitipornchai&MABradford:DesignofPortal
FrameBuildings,3rd edition,AISC,Sydney,1999.
DESIGN
OFLATERALLY
RESTRAINED
BEAMS
LectureOutline
B
BeamDesign:
D i
NamegoverningLimitStates?
g
g
_______________
_______________
_______________
_______________
LectureOutline
Steelbeam
Modesoffailure
LocalBucklingandSectionClassification
g
Compact
Noncompact
Slender
Sectioncapacityinbending
SectionCapacity
or
DesignCapacityofFullyLaterally
RestrainedBeams
or
In PlaneCapacity
InPlaneCapacity
or
DesignCapacityofveryShortLaterally
UnrestrainedBeams
Steelbeam
Beams aremembersofstructureswhichcarryloads
transversetotheirlength.
Thesemembersresistflexure (bending)andshear,
andsometimestorsion,introducedbytransverse
loads.
Purlins,rafters,joists,spandrels,lintels,floorbeams,stringersand
othersimilarstructuralpartsareallbeams.
othersimilarstructuralpartsareallbeams
Memberssubjectedtobendingand axialcompression
simultaneouslyarebeamcolumns.
Steelbeam
Beam (UDL -
major axis loading)
Beam
(couple)
Beam
(torsion)
(
)
Beam (UDL -
minor axis loading)
Beam-column
(axial compression
+ transverse loading)
SteelBeam wheredoweuseit?
Strengthlimitstatebending
momentcapacity
Designequationforbendingstrength
( M ) M *
Designcapacity>factoredstrengthlimitstate
D
i
it f t d t
thli it t t
moment
In planebending
Inplanebending
X (u)
Y (v)
Modesoffailure
Theusualstrengthmodes offailurefor
structuralsteelbeams are:
Plastification
Flangelocalbuckling
Lateralbuckling
Webcrippling
Weblocalbuckling undershear
Weshallconsidereachofthesestrengthlimitstatesinturn.
Plastification
AsteelbeammayfailwhenthePLASTICMOMENTMp
develops,orwhensufficientplastichingesdeveloptoforma
mechanism.
Mp = S fy
S plastic section
modulus
fy yield stress
2)
(
(MPa
= N/mm
/
S istabulatedformostrolledsectionsinhandbooks(mm3).
Ductilestressstraincurve
RecallMp isreliantonaDUCTILESTRESS
isreliantonaDUCTILESTRESSSTRAINCURVE
STRAINCURVE.
fy
E
1
Long plastic
plateau means
ductile
y = yield
i ld strain
t i = fy / E = fy / 2
2x10
105
MPa
Maximummoment
Maximummomentthatcanbeattainedisthe PLASTICMOMENTMp
equal areas
C
h
T
plastic neutral axis
NominalcapacityMmax =Ms =Mp
Ms iscalledtheSECTIONCAPACITY.
Itisthemomenttocausefailureofthecrosssection.
Here,Mp =C x h=T x h
Example1
CalculateMp forthesectionshownbelow.
500
20
200
C1
C2
h2
C1
h1
C2
10
T2
20
200
fyf =350MPa
MP
T1
Example2
CalculatethefactoredloadW* tocauseplasticcollapseofthe
beamshownbelow:
W*
410UB60
Sx = 1190 x 103 mm3

fyf = 300 MPa
MP
3000 mm
M = Sx f yf = 0.9 119010 300 Nmm

*
= 321.3 kNm
M = W L = 3W
*
*
M
321.3
*
W =
3
3
W * 107.1 kN
Designbendingcapacity
g
g p
y
M M S
*
= 0 .9
However,lateral
However
lateral andlocal
buckling usuallyresultin
l
loweringM
i Mmax belowM
b l Mp.
MS = MP
Beamsareusuallyunabletoreach Mp becauseof
theoccurrenceofpremature BUCKLING
LocalBuckling
g
and
S ti Cl ifi ti
SectionClassification
Basisofsectionclassification
Rolledorweldedsectionsmaybeconsideredasanassembly
ofindividualplateelements
Someare outstand
Outstand
Internal
flangesofIbeams
fl
f b
legsofanglesandTsections
Someareinternal
websofopenbeams
flangesofboxes
Internal
Web
Web
Flange
Rolled I-section
Flange
Hollow section
Rolledorweldedsectionsmaybeconsideredasanassembly
y
y
ofindividualplateelements
Someareoutstand
Outstand
flangesofIbeams
fl
f b
legsofanglesandTsections
Web
Internal
Internal
te a
Someareinternal
websofopenbeams
flangesofboxes
Flange
Welded box section
Astheplateelementsarerelativelythin,whenloadedincompressionthey
maybucklelocally
Thetendencyofanyplateelementwithinthecrosssectiontobucklemay
limittheaxialloadcarryingcapacity,orthebendingresistanceofthe
section,bypreventingtheattainmentofyield.
Avoidanceofprematurefailurearisingfromtheeffectsoflocalbuckling
maybeachievedbylimitingthewidthtothicknessratioforindividual
maybeachievedbylimitingthewidth
to thicknessratioforindividual
elementswithinthecrosssection.
Outstand
Internal
O t t d
Outstand
Internal
Internal
Web
Web
Flange
Rolled I-section
Web
Flange
Hollow section
I t
Internal
l
Fl
Flange
Welded box section
Flangelocalbuckling
g
g
Buckled flange
Compression flange
Buckled web
Web
Flange andtopcompressiveregionof
thewebDISTORT,buttheline
junctionbetweentheflangesandweb
remainsstraight.
OccursinslenderCOMPRESSIONFLANGES
Flangelocalbuckling
g
g
Ifthecompressionflangeofabeamisslender,itmaybuckleLOCALLY andpreventthe
beamfromreachingitsmaximumbendingstrengthMp(PLASTICMOMENT).
The stress to cause ELASTIC LOCAL BUCKLING ol is given

(see Trahair & Bradford Chapter 4):
ol
E t f
=k
12 (1 2 ) b f
2
Called
FLANGE OUTSTANDS
tf
where:
k = the local buckling coefficient that depends
on edge and loading conditions (= 0.425 here)

E = Young
Youngss modulus = 200 x 103 MPa
= Poissons ratio (0.3 for steel)
bf
bf
Platebuckling
A thin flat rectangular plate subjected to compressive
forces along its short edges has an elastic critical buckling
stress ((cr ) g
given byy
cr
k E t
=

2
12(1 ) b
2
k is the plate buckling parameter which accounts for edge

support conditions,
conditions stress distribution and aspect ratio of the
plate
Platebucklingin
g compression
p
Bounded plate
in uniform
compression
n = number of sine waves
For bounded
flanges kb = 4
Flangeplatebehaviourincompression
Critical buckling coefficient k therefore depends on:
Flange in Compression
Boundaryconditions
L
t
Stressdistribution
Aspectratio
(width/thickness)
(b)
(a)
Simply supported on
all four edges
Buckling coefficient k
5
b
Simply supported
longitudinal edge
Free
Exact
k = 0.425
0 425 + (b/L) 2
NOTE; for a web in pure

compression both longitudinal
edges
g are simply
p y supported
pp
and
k = 4.0.
(c)
1
0.425
Free
longitudinal edge
FREE FLANGE OUTSTAND
(d)
Plate aspect ratio L / b
Example3
p 3
What must we restrict the width to thickness ratio bf/tf to in order to
ensure yielding at fyf will occur before elastic local buckling?
If buckling is to be prevented,
prevented then from:
ol
E t f
=k
12 (1 2 ) b f
2
f yf > ol
so that
bf
tf
0 .425 200 10
=
12 1 0 .3 2
2
f yf 277 (fy in MPa)
tf
b
f
Sectionclassification
AS
AS4100definesthreetypesofcrosssection:
d fi th t
f
ti
(a)COMPACTSECTION
(b)NON COMPACTSECTION
( )
(c)SLENDERSECTION
Sectionclassificationdependson:
Sectionclassificationdependson
slenderness ofeachelement(definedby
awidthtothicknessratio)
idth t thi k
ti )
thecompressivestressdistribution
Slenderness parameter
bf
e =
tf
fy
250
fy in MPa units
Variations in ey and
ep due to residual
stress effects
Thesectionslenderness,
, e
Fromthepreviousexamplewesawthatthesectionslenderness(bf/tf)is
importantinenforcingyieldingtooccurbeforeelasticbuckling.
Itwillbeshownhowthiscanbeextendedevenfurther.
t
be s o
o t s ca be e te ded e e u t e
N.B.
The SLENDERNESS e
of a flange is defined by:
bf
e =
tf
fy
250
fy must be in units of MPa ( = N/mm2)

the significance of the f y term is
apparent from
f
Example
l 3.
The normalising with respect to 250
MPa is historical as most steels once
had fy = 250 MPa. Yield stresses are
now higher.
(b f t f ) f y 250 obviously is more
transparent than (b f t f ) f y
((a)COMPACTSECTION
)
ThesesectionsallowtheFULLPLASTICMOMENTMp andfor
thestrainhardeningregiontobeenteredbefore ELASTIC
BUCKLINGoccurs.
SectionsmustbeCOMPACT ifplasticanalysis/designistobeutilised.
Thesectionslendernessisgovernedby:
e ep
e p is constant
The limits on p are much tighter

th when
than
h fol = fy in
i Example
E
l 3
because higher strains at fy are
needed to make local buckling occur
in the strain hardening region.
There are limits for flange and web

classification
Th limits
The
li it are therefore:
th f
ep =10[stressrelievedflanges]
=9[hotrolled]
[h t ll d]
=8[welded]
[
]
Thedifferenceisdueto initialgeometricoutof
straightness andto differentresidualstresses.
ResidualStresses
Hot rolled
Hotrolled
Welded
Compactsection
p
M - of a
PLASTIC SECTION
M
Moment
t
MP
MY
Inelastic local
buckling well into the
strain-hardening
range
curvature -
The design equation is then:
= 0 .9
M S = M P = fyS
Example4
p 4
530UB92.4
Sx = 2370 x 103 mm3
fyf = 300 MPa
5333
209
10.2
209
N.B. Some UBs have e > 9.

We have not considered the
compactness of the web (this
will be done latter).
(b)NONCOMPACTSECTION
ThesesectionsallowtheFIRSTYIELDMOMENTMy tobereached,
butbucklelocallybeforeMp canbeattained.
Theirmoment/curvatureresponseis:
Thedesign
equationisthen:
Moment
M * M S
M- of a NON-COMPACT SECTION
= 0 .9
MP
MY
Inelastic local buckling
before Mp is reached
andfora
NONCOMPACT
SECTION
e ey
curvature -
M S = f y Ze
Noncompactsection
For non-compact
non compact sections:
ep e ey
The ey limits are looser than the ep limits and essentially

correspond to the coincidence of yielding and elastic local buckling,
but they are modified to include residual stresses and initial geometric
imperfections in the strength.
The limits are therefore
ey = 16 [most flange outstands]
= 15 [welded flange outstands]
N.B. We saw in Example 3 that first yield [MY ] and elastic local buckling
coincided when (b f t f ) f y = 277 , or
(b
t f ) f y 250 = e = 277
250 = 17.5
This is close to the above limits.
Noncompactsection
p
Ze istheeffectivesectionmodulus.
ofcourse,
f
Ze =S
S ifMS =MP
Ze =Z ifMS =MY
[Z =elasticsectionmodulus,
MY =fyZ]
Noncompactsection
p
R l behavior
Real
b h i
Moment
MP
MS
MY
IInelastic
l ti local
l l
buckling
Linear
approximation
curvature -
For non-compact sections we can interpolate linearly between

MY and MP, based on the value of e.
Noncompactsection
p
Linear
approximation
Moment
MP
MS
MY
ey e
Ze = Z +
(S Z )
ey ep
ep
Section strength of
section with e
ey
Check:
e = ep
Ze = Z + 1(S-Z)
1(S Z) = S
[plastic]
e = ey
Ze = Z + 0(S-Z) = Z
[non-compact]
((b)SLENDERSECTION
)
Thesesectionsbucklelocallyevenbeforetheyieldstress(andMy)arereached.
Themoment/curvatureresponseis:
h
i
Forslender
sections:
Moment
M- of a SLENDER SECTION
e > ey
= 0 .9
MP
MY
andfora
SLENDER
SECTION:
Buckling failure prior to MY
curvature -
M S = f y Ze
Slendersection
Theeffectivesectionmodulusmaybecalculatedbytwomethods:
Method1:
Aneffectivewidthapproachomitsfromeachflangethewidthinexcessofthat
whichcorrespondstoey.
be
be
tf
compressionflange(partiallyeffective,2be)
ineffective(ignore)
(g
)
tensionflange(fullyeffective,b)
Slendersection
Theeffectivewidthbe isdefinedsuchthat:
be
tf
fy
250
= ey
or
ey
be
=
b
e
Althoughaccurate,themethodmaybecumbersomeforbeamcrosssectionsasthe
effectivesectionbecomesMONOSYMMETRIC,i.e.
Needtocalculatenewcentroid andI:
Centroidof
originalsection
Centroid of
d f ti ti
defectivesection
yC
yT
ZC = I
yC
Z e = min[Z C , Z T ]
ZT = I
and since
Ze = I
yC
yT
yT < yC
Slendersection
Method2:
Method2
Aneasierandsimplermethodtouse:
Ze
ey
=
e
whereZ istheelasticmoduluscalculatedforthefullsection.
Sectionclassificationbasedonweb
slenderness
l d
Sofarwehaveconsideredthecompressionflangewhichmay
f
f
bucklelocallyunderUNIFORMSTRESS.
Thewebissubjectedtobendingstress (compressionalongoneedge,
tensionalongtheotheredge)andmayalsobucklelocally.
tensionalongtheotheredge)andmayalsobucklelocally
web
T
Underbending,thecoefficientkinwebisapproximately23.9.
Weblocalbuckling
g
Stocky flange
Slender
web
Buckled web
Stocky flange
occursinslenderwebs
withlargebending and/or
shearstress
h t
Webcrippling
Occursduetolocalisedyieldingofthe
g
webnearconcentratedloads.
Behaviorisdominatedbygrossyielding
overasmallwebregion.
web
b
slenderness
Webscanbeclassifiedsimilarlytoflangesas
Webscanbeclassifiedsimilarlytoflangesas:
COMPACT:
e < ep
NONCOMPACT:
NON
COMPACT:
SLENDER:
ep e < e y
e e y
Thelimitsare:
fy
dw
e =
tw
250
ep = 82
ey = 115
tw
dw
slenderness
l d
ForaSECTION tobeCOMPACT:
boththeFLANGESandWEBmustbecompact.
ForaSECTION tobeNONCOMPACT:
EITHERtheFLANGEorWEBorBOTHarenoncompact.
ForaSECTION TOBESLENDER:
EITHERtheFLANGEorWEBorBOTHareslender.
Compactflange
Slenderweb
ii.e.thisSECTIONis
hi
i
classifiedas
SLENDER
Example5
p 5
Calculatethedesignbending(section)capacityfor
thecrosssectionshown.
240
4
8
10
240
fy =250MPathroughout
Example5
p 5
ThecrosssectionisthereforeNONCOMPACT.
f
Example5
p 5
Boxcrosssections
Forthecompressionflange,k
p
g , =4.0
Forthewebinbending,k =23.9
bf
compression
i
flange
b
bf
tf
Weldedboxcolumnin
bending
Rectangular(orsquare)hollowsection
[RHSorSHS]
Boxcrosssections
Forthecompressionflange,k =4.0
Theclassificationsarethesameasforflangeoutstands,butwith:
ep = 30
ey = 45
COMPACT if
again
= 40
= 35
3
e = (b f t f ) f y 250 < ep
NON COMPACT if
NONCOMPACT
SLENDER if
[ hot-rolled]
hot rolled]
[ lightly welded]
[ hheavily
il welded]
ld d]
ep e < ey
e ey
ThewebsofboxcrosssectionsareclearlythesameasthoseofIsections.
DESIGN
OF
LATERALLY
UNRESTRAINED
BEAMS
Lecture Outline
Lateral torsional buckling
Elastic lateral buckling
Twisting moment
warping
Moment gradient factor, m

Slenderness reduction factor, s
Idealised end conditions
full, lateral, partial and unrestrained
In-plane bending
X (u)
Y (v)
Out-of-plane buckling
X (u)
or LateralTorsional Buckling
Y (v)
Lateral Torsional Buckling

or
Flexural-Torsional Buckling
or
Member Capacity
or
Lateral-Torsional buckling
or
Out-of-Plane buckling
Lateral buckling
flexural torsional buckling
or
u
Buckled web
Buckled configuration
Original
configuration
u lateral displacement
twist
Introduction
Clamp at
root
Slender structural elements
loaded in a stiff plane tend to
fail by buckling in a more
flexible plane.
In the case of a beam bent
about its major axis, failure
may occur by a form of
buckling which involves both
lateral deflection and twisting.
Lateral-torsional
Lateralbuckling
Buckled
position
Dead weight
load applied
vertically
Unloaded
position
Consider an I-beam ..
Perfectly elastic, initially

straight, loaded by equal
and opposite end moments
about its major axis.
M
L
Section
Elevation
Unrestrained along its length.
Plan
End Supports
Twisting () and lateral

deflection (u)
prevented.
Free to rotate both in the
plane of the web and on
plan.
x
u
Strength limit state bending moment

capacity
Design equation for bending strength
Design capacity factored strength limit

state moment
Lateral buckling
Lateral buckling is the most influential strength limit
state in the design of steel beams.
Lateral buckling is also called flexural-torsional buckling
(or member buckling) and involves the lateral or sideways
instability of long slender beams.
Beams with FULL LATERAL RESTRAINT do not buckle
laterally and their strength is the
CROSS-SECTION STRENGTH defined by:
M * M S
M S = Ze f y
= 0 .9
Lateral buckling
Most commonly beams do not have full lateral restraint and the
nominal strength Ms must be reduced to the MEMBER
BENDING STRENGTH Mb.
Lateral buckling is catastrophic and so

represents a STRENGTH LIMIT STATE.
The design equation is:
M M b
= 0 .9
Lateral buckling
or
flexural torsional buckling
Occurs in slender, laterally unrestrained beams.

Beam deflects laterally ( = sideways) by u and twist
Like columns, the beam reaches an energy configuration at which it prefers to

snap into an OUT-OF-PLANE buckled position rather than continuing to bend
IN-PLANE.
{unstable if u, = 0 after buckling moment}

buckling moment or point of bifurcation
stable buckled position
u,
Lateral buckling
We must therefore calculate Mb based on

lateral buckling of the beam.
This is done by undertaking firstly an

ELASTIC BUCKLING ANALYSIS.

The elastic buckling resistance depends on the
following cross-section properties:
Minor axis bending stiffness EIy
Torsion resistance GJ
Warping resistance EIw
Iy = minor axis second moment of area (mm4)
J = torsional constant (mm4)
Iw = warping constant (mm6)
E = Youngs modulus 200,000 MPa

G = Shear modulus
80,000 MPa
= 0.3
E
for G =
2(1 + )
steel

Iy, J, Iw are all tabulated in the One Steel Handbook.
Alternatively for the doubly-symmetric I-section:
3
bf
tw
tf
Iy =
dw
bf t f
(N.B. web ignored)
1 n
1 3
3
J = bi ti = 2t f b f + t w3 d w
3 i =1
3
I w = I y h 2 4 (doubly symmetric )
Twisting moment - torque

Consider a built-in cantilever subjected to a
twisting moment ( torque)
Mt
move in
ELEVATION
move in
move out
PLAN
Mt
Warping
An interpretation of warping:
A situation where plane sections do not remain

plane during torsion.
This occurs with lateral buckling and its effect is
reflected in the warping constant Iw.
Torsion
The equation of torsion is:
3
d
d
M t = GJ
EI w 3
dz
dz
uniform torsion
resistance
warping torsion
resistance
= angle of twist
Lateral buckling
Basic model for lateral buckling is a simply supported I-beam
subjected to a uniform bending moment M.
Simply supported in the lateral buckling sense

means lateral deflection and twist are prevented at
the beam ends (u = 0, = 0), but the flanges are
free to rotate in their planes when the beam buckles
laterally.
Simply supported I-beam - model

M
free to rotate in plane during

buckling, but u = = 0
L
ELEVATION
BMD
PLAN
M
buckled
top flange
Elastic buckling moment

The ELASTIC BUCKLING MOMENT is:
Mo =
EI y
2
GJ +
EI w
2
(N.B. This is stated without proof. See Chapter 6 of Trahair & Bradford.)
Elastic buckling
Recall for the elastic buckling of a pin-ended column:
N oc =
EI y
2
pin-ended
column
deformed
shape
Euler buckling load

(elastic critical buckling load pin-ended column)
Example 1
Calculate the elastic lateral buckling moment for a simply supported
460UB82.1 beam of length L = 3m subjected to uniform bending.
460
191
From OneSteel Tables section properties handbook:

16
I y = 18.6 106 mm 4
J = 701 103 mm 4
9.9
I w = 919 109 mm6

16
191
460UB82.1
N.B. this is the ELASTIC BUCKLING MOMENT and not the actual
BUCKLING STRENGTH Mb which also depends on the yield stress fy.
Mb will be determined later.

Of course beams in reality are rarely loaded in uniform bending,
nor are they pin-ended (or simply supported) so the formula for
Mo needs some modification.
So far we have considered uniform bending only.

This is very conservative as the elastic buckling moment
(Mo) is increased by unequal moments, transverse loads etc.
This effect is reflected in the m values given in

Table 5.6.1 of AS4100.

M
single curvature
L
M
L
+ = compression
double curvature
M
BMD
- = tension
+
BUCKLED
SHAPE
moment is highest
in this region
M
moment is
very small in
this region

The effect of the moment gradient is reflected in the m values given in
Table 5.6.1 of AS4100 (see attachment).
Alternatively, the BMD is often given using analysis software (Microstran,
Spacegas, Multiframe etc.). Therefore
M*m = maximum
m =
*
1.7M m
2.5
*2
*2
* 2
M 2 + M3 + M 4
( ) ( ) ( )
M*m
x
M*3
M*4
M*2
S/4
S/4
S/4
S/4
design moment within a

segment
where
M*2, M*4 = design

moments at quarter
points of a segment
M*3 = design moment

at the mid-length of a
segment
i.e. BMD segment
Moment modification factors

The SLENDERNESS REDUCTION FACTOR s converts the ELASTIC
REFERENCE BUCKLING MOMENT Mo into a DESIGN STRENGTH.
1/ 2
where
M
M s
+ 3 s
S = 0.6
Mo
Mo
Mo - the elastic reference
buckling moment determined

from Le (effective length)
Mo =
s represents a transition between

Ms) and elastic
buckling (at Mo)
full yielding (at
2 EI y
2
e
GJ +
2 EI w
L2e
Ms the section bending
capacity depending on
whether the cross-section is
compact, non-compact or
slender =
Ze fy

s
Section strength at Ms
1.0
Elastic buckling at Mo
s
0
Le
Short beam does not buckle
laterally and s = 1
Long beam is not influenced

by yielding as its bucking
moment is very small

There are four types:
FULL RESTRAINT (F)

PARTIAL RESTRAINT (P)
LATERAL RESTRAINT (L)
UNRESTRAINED (U)

FULL RESTRAINT (F)
Lateral deflection and twist are effectively prevented, i.e.
brace
stiffeners
compression
flange
seat support
shear
connector
concrete
slab

PARTIAL RESTRAINT (P)
Lateral deflection prevented at some point other than at the
compression flange, and partial twist thus occurs during bucking.
compression
flange
buckled
configuration
tension
flange
Seat support restrains tension (T) flange fully at ends.

LATERAL RESTRAINT (L)
Compression flange is restrained against translation during
buckling, but the cross-section is free to twist during buckling.
screws
brace
thin roof sheeting
quite stiff in-plane but
flexible in bending
thin sheeting bends

during buckling

UNRESTRAINED (U)
Free to both displace and twist during buckling,
i.e. cantilever tip.
W*
cantilever tip

For these idealised end conditions, AS4100 specifies a
TWIST RESTRAINT FACTOR kt

RESTRAINTS
FF
end 1
FP
PP
FL
end 2
PL
kt
LL FU
1
PU
1.0
d w t f
1+

L 2t w
d w t f
1 + 2

L 2t w
Effects of load height

Load applied above the shear centre ( centroid for doubly
symmetric I-section) causes an increased destabilising
torque that lowers the buckling load.
W
W
load at shear centre
load at top flange level
Effects of load height

To account for the height of application of the load, AS4100 specifies a
LOAD HEIGHT FACTOR kl

For load WITHIN THE BEAM SEGMENT
RESTRAINTS
FF
PP
FP
PL
FU
PU
FL
LL
AT SHEAR CENTRE
AT TOP FLANGE
1.0
1.4
1.0
2.0
For load AT THE END OF THE BEAM SEGMENT

RESTRAINTS
FF
PP
FP
PL
FU
PU
FL
LL
AT SHEAR CENTRE
AT TOP FLANGE
1.0
1.0
1.0
2.0
Load and rotation factors: AS4100
conservatively
kr = 1
Lateral restrain classifications
Lateral restrain classifications
End restraints: examples
Twist factor: AS4100
Effective length Le
The reference buckling moment Mo is written in terms of the
EFFECTIVE LENGTH Le similarly as previously as:

2
Mo =
EI y
2
e
GJ +
2 EI w
L2e
L = segment length or length of a

sub-segment between full and/or
partial restraints
kt = twist restraint factor

kl = load height factor
Le = kt kl L
N.B. AS4100 also has a rotational
restraint factor kr that is difficult to
quantify and which we shall take
equal to unity (conservatively):
Le = kt kl kr L = kt xkl x 1.0 x L
L e = kt kl L
Bending capacity, Mb
Finally, the design equation for bending within a segment is:
M M b
M b = m s M s M s = 0 . 9
m reflects the effect of the distribution of the bending
moment along the beam.
s reflects the elastic lateral buckling (via Le
Mo) and
yielding (Ms). It accounts for load height and restraint (via Le).
Bending capacity, Mb
Clearly if ms < 1.0, the full SECTION STRENGTH in bending is
not attained (Ms), and the beam will buckle laterally at Mb. This
is very often the case.
Mb is the MEMBER STRENGTH in deference to Ms which is

the SECTION STRENGTH.
m reflects the bending moment effects (moment gradient) and is

reasonably difficult to control as the loading is fixed.
s can be increased by using a bigger section

(larger Iy, Iw, J) or by bracing the beam to decrease Le.
Example 2
Determine the maximum design moment M* of a 200UC52.2 .
The effective length Le = 3.5m and the end moments are as shown.
M*
206
204
12.5
8.0
S x = 570 103 mm3

12.5
204
200UC52.2
fyf = 300 MPa
I y = 17.7 106 mm4

J = 325 103 mm4
I w = 166 109 mm6
0.4M*
Example 2
1. Determine SECTION CAPACITY Ms
Example 2
2. Determine MEMBER CAPACITY Mb
Example 2
Example 2
In this case the SECTION STRENGTH
than the MEMBER STRENGTH
lateral buckling.
Ms governed rather
Mb that is determined by
This is because of:

the low value of
Le
am that produced a
very high elastic buckling moment Mo . m.
the high moment modification factor
This is NOT always the case and commonly:
Mb < Ms.
Example 3
The loads are applied on the top flange.
Determine the maximum design value of W*.
4W*
B
W*
200UC52.2
Grade 300
P
L
3m
3m
206
204
3m
12.5
S x = 570 103 mm3

I y = 17.7 106 mm4
J = 325 103 mm4
8.0
I w = 166 109 mm6

12.5
204
Example 3
In-plane analysis
*
*
*
M
=
0
=
6
R
3
4
W
+
3
W
C
A
R A* = 1.5W *
M B* = 1.5W * 3 = 4.5W *
*
C
M = W 3 = 3W
BMD
3W*
+
4.5W*
Example 3
Segment ABC moment gradient
3 m FL
16
Example 3
Segment ABC effective length
Example 3
Segment ABC elastic buckling capacity
Segment ABC section capacity
Example 3
Segment ABC slenderness reduction factor, s
Example 3
Segment CD elastic buckling capacity
Example 3
Segment CD slenderness reduction factor, s
Example 4
A simply supported beam with a span of 15m has a nominal central concentrated
live load of 100 kN acting on the top flange. The beam is restrained against
lateral displacement and twist only at the ends, and is free to rotate in plan.
Design a suitable WB in accordance with AS4100 of Grade 300 steel.
150kN
15m
Example 4
Assume fyf = 300 MPa, compact section
m = 1.35
Guess s = 0.25
M sx 562.5 10 6 / (0.9 1.35 0.25) = 1851.9 kNm
Sx 1851.9 10 6 / 300 = 6172.8 103 kNm
Try a 800WB192
b f = 300 mm
A g = 24400 mm 2
t f = 28 mm
S x = 8060 10 3 mm 3
d = 816 mm
I y = 126 10 6 mm 4
t w = 10 mm
J = 4420 10 3 mm 4
9
I w = 19600 10 mm
fyf = 280 MPa
Example 4
Example 4
DESIGN
SHEAR
CAPACITY
Lecture Outline
Strength
g limit state
Local buckling
Intermediate transverse stiffeners
YIELD limit
li it state
t t
BUCKLING limit state
Combined shear and bending

L d bearing
Load
b i stiffeners
tiff
YIELD limit state
BUCKLING limit state
Strength limit state

shear capacity
Design equation for shear
strength
t
th
( Vv ) V *
D i
Design
capacity
it factored
f t
d strength
t
th limit
li it
state shear
Local buckling in shear

The WEB off a steel
Th
t l member
b resists
i t th
the
SHEAR STRESSES.
Local buckling in shear may restrict the
SHEAR CAPACITY of a BEAM.
The design equation is:
V Vv
*
= 0.9
Vv = nominal
shear
h
capacity
it

Consider firstly
y when the shear stress in
the web is APPROXIMATELY UNIFORM.
shear
stress
Parabolic
P
b li but
b
approximately
uniform
d dw tw
V
=
(d w t w )
For this case DEFINE Vv = Vu
(u uniform)

Equation
ol
E
= k
12 (1
2
tw
dw
can also be used for local buckling

with shear stresses.
Example
p 1
Unsitffened web yielding in shear before buckling locally.
If the web is to yield before buckling locally then:
fy
y =
ol
For a long web, k = 5.35 and using E = 200 x 103 MPa, = 0.3
produces
2
f yw
3
5.35
200 10 t w
dw
which rearranges to
tw
12 1 0.3
f yw
250
81.9

dw
Example
p 1
The yield capacity is then
Hence in AS4100 if
Aw
f yw
dw
<
tw
82
f yw 250
The web yields before buckling and

where
Vw = 0.6 Aw f yw
For universal sections Aw = dtw

For welded sections Aw = dwtw
0.58 Aw f yw
Vu = Vw
Example
p 1
when
d w t w > 82 /
local buckling capacity
dw
and so when
tw
f yw 250 the capacity equals the
ol Aw
82
f yw / 250
th webb buckles
the
b kl before
b f
it yields
i ld andd Vu = vVw
where Vw = 0.6 Aw f yyw and
82
=
f yw
dw
t
250
w
Example
p 1
N.B.
g
, it is common to add
When bucklingg governs,
vertical stiffeners as Vu drops off rapidly as 1 (d w t w )2
The provision of these vertical stiffeners will not
i
increase
the
th capacity
it when
h yielding
i ldi governs, i.e.
i
when
82
d w tw <
f yw 250
(they only increase the buckling capacity)
Vertically stiffened webs

If a web has vertical stiffeners,, its strength
g is increased markedlyy because:
the elastic local buckling coefficient is increased

a benign tension field action develops similar to a truss action
Of course this only applies when
stiffener
Vu < Vw
flange
web
dw
stiffener
Verticallyy stiffened webs

Vu = v d V w V w
The nominal capacity is:
82
=
fy
dw
t
250
w
2
(
)
0
.
75
d
/
s
+1
when
82
=
fy
dw
t
250
w
s dw
[(d
/ s ) + 0 . 75
2
when
s < dw

d =
1v
1 .15 v 1 + (s / d w )
+1
v reflects the local buckling contribution.
Under shear, the local buckling coefficient is approximately:
k = 5 .35 + 4 (d w s )
s dw
k = 5 .35 (d w s ) + 4
s < dw

d reflects the TENSION FIELD contribution.
M
stiffener
stiffener
web
flange

The stiffened web p
panel acts like a truss,, but the compression
p
region
g
of the
thin web plate is very slender and unable to resist much compressive stress.
Check the equations:
(d w / s )
so
Let s >> d (no stiffeners)
82
v =
d w f yw
t w 250
Hence
82
Vu =
d w f yw
t
w 250
1 v
1
d
+1 1
1.15v
1 Vw
which is the same as for

an unstiffened web.
Example
p 2
Calculate the design shear capacity for a 200x2 web plate if
stiffeners are placed at 400 mm intervals.
Example
p 2
Example
p 3
What stiffener spacing in the 200x2 web plate is needed
to resist a design shear V* = 56kN?
Example
p 3
This design
Thi
d i equation
ti agrees with
ith the
th previous
i
design
d i check
h k and
d illustrates
ill t t
the bilinear interpolation in the (v d) table.
Non-uniform shear stress distribution

The shear may be nonuniform in a monosymmetric beam:
parabola
2Vu
Vu =
f vm
0.9 +
f va
The
h strength
h Vu is defined
d f d as earlier
l for
f uniform
f
shear
h
stress
fvm = maximum shear stress

fva = average shear stress
For design:
V Vv = 0.9
*
Non-uniform shear stress distribution

vm = fvm = maximum shear stress
V Qmax
=
It w
area A
at this location Q = A y
va = fva = average shear stress

va = f va
V*
=
d wt w
f vm Qmax
For this case:
=
dw
I
f va
Proportioning intermediate transverse stiffeners

Intermediate transverse stiffeners are used to PREVENT BUCKLING OF
THE WEB IN SHEAR when subjected to a design shear force V*.
Recall the design check is:
Vu = v d V w V w
v and d are calculated based on a stiffener spacing s.
V w = 0 .6 Aw f yw
The stiffener must be STIFF ENOUGH to prevent

local buckling, as well as STRONG ENOUGH to carry
the tension field component without failing.
They must therefore be designed for STRENGTH and STIFFNESS.

MININUM AREA: A minimum area is required for the stiffeners to carry
the vertical force in the tension field action utilised in the use of v.
The minimum area rule is:

2
s
(
s / dw )
As 0 .5Aw (1 v )
2
d
w
(
)
1+ s / dw
= 1.0 for a pair of stiffeners
=1
1.8
8 for a single stiffener comprising of an angle section
= 2.4 for a single plate stiffener
v = factor determined earlier = f ((d w / t w ) f yw / 250 , s / d w )

MININUM STIFFNESS:
Stiffeners must be stiff enough to enforce a node
at the web/stiffener junction at local buckling
I s 0 .75 d w t w3
3 3
w w
2
1 .5 d t
s / dw <
s / dw
web
2
stiffener
Iw is the second moment of area of the stiffener about the

web centreline.
Buckling
g capacity
p
y
When intermediate stiffeners are used,
used the capacity of the web is
Vb = vdVw.
Hence:
V ( Rsb + Vb )
*
= 0 .9
Rsb = buckling capacity determined in the same way as for a

load bearing stiffener
Vb = dvVw as earlier, where

Vw = 0.6Awfy as earlier
dw
v = f
tw
s
,
250 d w
f yw
End p
panel
At the end of the beam the tension field must be anchored
anchored .
sep
end panel tension field

action cannot be mobilised
This can be achieved by choosing s in the design equation:
V * ( v d )V w
with
d = 1 .0
Connection of intermediate stiffener to web

< 4tw
< 4tw
Stiffener/web connection must be capable of resisting a design shear force of:
t w2
0.008 f ys [kN / mm]
bs
tw = web thickness in mm
bs = stiffener outstand in mm
fys in MPa (N/mm2)
Stiffener outstand
As for a load bearing stiffener local buckling
of stiffener must not occur prior to attainment of
the yield stress, i.e.
bs
ts
f ys
250
15
Vertically stiffened webs

local b
buckling
ckling of the web
eb in shear
yes
YIELD LIMIT
STATE
V * Vu
Vw = 0.6fyAw
v 1
Vu = vV w
yes
yes
END
no
proportion
INTERMEDIATE
(TRANSVERSE)
stiffeners
V b = v d V w
(spacing)
V Vb
no
yes
decrease s
no
N.B vd
includes s
BUCKLING
LIMIT STATE
no
V * Vw
END
increase Aw
END

Sometimes Vv has to be reduced where high shear forces V* and high moments M*
coincide.
(for example, in a continuous beam where V* and M* are high at an internal support)
BMD
SFD

g
Design capacity:
Vvm = Vv
V Vv m
*
= 0.9
M 0.75(M s )
*
when
1.6M
Vvm = Vv 2.2
M s
when
M
0.75
1.0
M s
MS is BENDING SECTION CAPACITY.
1.0
Vvm/Vv
0.75
1.0
M*/Ms
Proportioning method
an alternative procedure
If the flanges
g have enough
g capacity
p
y to resist the bending
g moment,,
the web may resist all of the shear force. Thus,
M M f = 0.9
*
Mf = Cdf = Tdf = Af fyf df

Af = area of flange
df = distance
di t
b
between
t
flange centroids
DESIGN THE WEB
ONLY FOR SHEAR
V Vv
*
then
C = Af fyf
df
T = Af fyf
Mf
Web crippling limit state

Occurs due to localised yielding of
the web near concentrated loads.
Behavior is dominated by gross
yielding over a small web region.
web
b

Crippling
Crippling is caused by YIELDING of the web due to concentrated
loads (point loads and reactions).
CRIPPLING IS PREVENTED BY LOAD BEARING STIFFENERS
PLACED IN PAIRS ON EACH SIDE OF THE WEB AND WELDED TO
THE FLANGE.
We have to design
g for two
limit states:
Stiffener p
plates
welded to web
and flanges
YIELD and
BUCKLING
web

CONCENTRATED
CONCENTRATED LOADS
LOADS are only an abstraction
(structural idealisation) used in structural analysis
In reality,
y, the loads are applied
pp
to the flange
g byy a STIFF BEARING PLATE
P*
Stiff bearing
plate
flange
ELEVATION
web
Web crippling
pp g limit state
We will consider firstlyy the case when NO STIFFENERS are p
present.
If either the YIELD or BUCKLING limit state fails for the unstiffened web
then stiffeners must be design for
for.
The bearing stress is assumed to disperse through the flange at 1:2.5
bearing
plate
R*
bbf
flange
R*
1
2.5
2.5
ELEVATION
web
b
END ELEVATION
Web crippling
pp g YIELD limit state
For the YIELD LIMIT STATE:
R Rby
*
= 0.9
Rby = 1.25bbf t w f y
yielding
bearing
The 1.25 factor accounts

for the benign
g triaxial
stress state at the
flange/web interface
where
h
the
th restraining
t i i
actions allow large stresses
to be resisted so that the
strength is taken as
((1.25fy)
Web crippling BUCKLING limit state

For the BUCKLING
LIMIT STATE,
S
the
h
stress is dispersed as
below to obtain bb:
bb
dw/2
1
SUPPORT REACTION
CASE
2.5
R*
POINT LOAD
CASE
dw/2
The web is then considered as an

effective
column as below:
effective column
R*
N
tw
1
2.5
1
1
bb
2.5
dw/2
Le
bb
dw/2
N

The BUCKLING LIMIT STATE is then:
R Rbb
*
= 0.9
Rbb is the buckling capacity of a column bb wide by tw thick with a

slenderness ratio Le/r = 3.5 (dw/tw)
buckling
bearing
radius
di off gyration
ti
I/A

The BUCKLING capacity Rbb of the column
column can be obtained from the
following recipe:
1. Calculate the MODIFIED SLENDERNESS: n =
Le
r
fy
dw
= 3.5
250
tw
fy
250
2. Use the column tables with n and b = 0.5 to determine c (T6.3.3(3))

3. The column capacity is then:
Rbb = c (t wbb ) f y
If Rb = min [Rby, Rbb] the check is then:
R Rb = 0.9
*
Web crippling
If either the YIELD or BUCKILNG limit states fail for an unstiffened web
then PAIRS OF LOAD BEARING STIFFENERS will be required.
tw
bs
bs
ts
A-A
web
If the stiffeners are to be adequate they must again

satisfy YIELD and BUCKLING limit states.
Web crippling
N.B.
load
l d bearing
b
i
stiffeners
iff
resist
i concentrated
d lloads
d
intermediate transverse stiffeners (which were considered
earlier) resist local buckling of the web in shear.
The YIELD LIMIT STATE is:
R Rsy
*
Rsy = Rby + As f ys
yield
stiffened
Rby
b - capacity of unstiffened web (as earlier)
As - area of stiffener (2bsts)
fys - yield stress of stiffener
= 0.9
Example 4
Check the adequacy of a pair of load bearing stiffeners 100 x 16 plates with
fys = 350 MPa for the girder shown with a design load of 1600 kN applied
through a stiff bearing of length 300 mm. Check YIELD only.
1500
300
25
10
Rby
b = 1.25bbf t w f y
25
300
Rsy = Rby + As f ys
Web crippling
pp g BUCKLING limit state
The BUCKLING LIMIT STATE is:
= 0.9
R Rsb
*
stiffened
buckling
Rsb is the column buckling capacity of the following

effective cross-section:
cross section:
tw
web
ts
ls
bs
ls
Eff ti cross-section
Effective
ti
bs
17.5t w
or s / 2
f y / 250
s = spacing
between
stiffeners
(whichever is less)
Web crippling
The column buckling capacity Rsb can be obtained from the following recipe:
1. Determine the slenderness ratio:
Le
r
Le = 0.7dw if the flanges are restrained by other structural members against twist
rotation, i.e.
Le = 1.0 dw
otherwise
members
prevent
twist
Web crippling
r
I/A
For the effective section:
I (2 b s + t w ) t s / 12
3
A = 2 b s t s + 2 17 . 5 t w /
f y / 250 t w
or
A = 2 b s t s + 2 (s / 2 )t w
whichever is less
Web crippling
2. Calculate the modified slenderness ratio:
Le
n =
r
fy
250
3. Determine c from tables using b = 0.5

4. The BUCKLING STRENGTH is then:
Rsb = c Af y
N.B. The load bearing stiffener must YIELD before it buckles locally
it lf Th
itself.
Therefore,
f
outstand of stiffener
bs
ts
ys
250
15
yield stress of
stiffener
Example
p 5
Check the BUCKLING LIMIT STATE in Example 4.
4
1500
300
25
10
16
100
10
100
25
300
ls
ls
EFFECTIVE
STIFFENER/WEB
CROSS SECTION
CROSS-SECTION
Example 5
(Flanges unrestrained
i
against
i
twist)
i
Example
p 5
Clearly load bearing stiffeners design is a TRIAL & ERROR

PROCESS requiring design checks.
Web crippling
load bearing stiffeners resist concentrated loads
INCLUDE
STIFFENERS
WITHOUT
STIFFENERS
YIELD LIMIT
STATE
BUCKLING
LIMIT STATE
YIELD LIMIT
STATE
BUCKLING
LIMIT STATE
Rsy = Rby + As f ys
Rsb = c Af y
Rbb = c (t wbb ) f y
Rby = 1 .25bbf t w f y
R* Rb
Rb = min[Rbb, Rby]
yes
END
no
R Rs
*
Rs = min[Rsy, Rsb]
yes
END
no
increase As
Steel Beam-Columns
Strength
Limit
State
Reference
e e e ce Material
ate a
9AS4100 1998 Steel Structures: Standards Australia, Sydney
9AS1170 1 & AS1170
9AS1170.1
AS1170.2
2L
Loading
di C
Codes:
d Standards Association
of Australia, Sydney, 1998.
9NS Trahair & MA Bradford: The Behavior and Design of Steel

Structures to AS4100, 3rd Australia edition, E&FN Spon, London, 1998.
9MA Bradford, RQ Bridge & NS Trahair: Worked Examples for
Steel Structures, 3rd edition, AISC, Sydney, 1997.
9ST Woolock, S Kitipornchai & MA Bradford: Design of Portal
Frame Buildings
Buildings, 3rd edition,
edition AISC,
AISC Sydney,
Sydney 1999.
1999
Lecture
ectu e Out
Outline
e
9
Steel Beam-column
9
Types of failure:
in-plane failure
9 lateral-torsional
l t l t i l buckling
b kli
biaxial failure
BMD, Mx
Frames
a es
x - direction
2-D frame
BMD, My
x
w
3 D frame
3-D
y
x
y - direction
w,UDLappliedinboth
xandydirection
In-plane
p a e be
behavior
a o
STEEL BEAM COLUMNS are subjected to
COMBINED BENDING and COMPRESSION
N
M1
This is typical of a
column in a rigid
frame:
A
M2
N
Steel beam
Beam (UDL -
Beam
major axis loading)
(couple)
Beam
(torsion)
Beam (UDL minor axis loading)
Column
(axial compression)
Beam-column
(axial compression
+ transverse loading)
In--plane
In
p a e be
behavior
a o
There are three STRENGTH LIMIT STATES that may have to be considered:
(i) IN
IN-PLANE
PLANE FAILURE
when the member is loaded about its major axis with full lateral support so that lateral
beam buckling cannot occur (or column buckling cannot occur around the minor axis)
or when the column is bent about its minor axis
(ii) FLEXURAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING

when the member is bent about its major
j axis and there is insufficient lateral support
pp
(iii) BIAXIAL FAILURE

when the member is loaded about both principal axes
In--plane
In
p a e be
behavior
a o
X (u)
Y (v)
Out--ofOut
of-plane
p
buckling
g
X (u)
or FlexuralTorsional Buckling
Y (v)
In--plane
In
p a e be
behavior
a o
mM
M
N
N
Lateral restraints
1 m 1
For a column with an imperfection o the moment under the

application of an axial force N at mid-height
mid height is:
N o
1 N NE
[P- effect (second order effects)]
N E = EI / L
2
Euler buckling load
In--plane behavior
In
R ll
Recall,
e0
P- effect
N
M
M
L
M [1-(1+) z/L]
M
N
eL
eccentrically applied axial load

results in double curvature bending
FIRST ORDER EFFECTS

N
SECOND ORDER EFFECTS
In--plane
In
p a e be
behavior
a o
N
The first-order moment No is therefore amplified by:
In a beam-column, the imperfection may be thought of as

being caused by the moments M and mM at the ends
mM
In--plane
In
p a e be
behavior
a o
Thee deflected
de ected sshape
ape of
o the
t e beam-column
bea co u
iss ggiven
ve by ((Trahair andd Bradford,
d o d, 1998
998
Chapter 7):
v=
M
[cos z ( m cos ecL + cot L )sin z 1 + (1 + m ) z L]
N
where
when
N 2 N
=
= 2
EI L N E
2
N
< cos
N E the maximum moment is:
N
N

+ cot
M m = M 1 + m cos ec
NE
N E

and when
cos
N
NE
the maximum moment is

(i.e. at the end of the member)
In--plane
In
p a e be
behavior
a o
These equations are clearly cumbersome
cumbersome, and the maximum
moment is approximated by:
M max
cm
=M
M
1 N NE
where
h
cm = 0.6-0.4
0 6 0 4m
The maximum stress in the beam-column is:
max
N M max
= +
A
Z
Axial stresses
Bending stresses
In--plane
In
p a e be
behavior
a o
If the beam
beam-column
column reaches its maximum strength when max = fy then:
max
N M max
= fy = +
A
Z
cm
N
M
+
1=
NY M Y 1 N N E
/fy
from
N M max
1=
+
Af y
Zf y
M max
or
cm
=M
M
1 N NE
where
In AS4100:
NY is replaced by the strength
Ns (=kf Ag fy)
NY = Afy is the squash load

MY = Zfy is the first yield moment
MY is replaced by the bending strength

Ms = Ze fy
Effective modulus
so
In--plane
In
p a e be
behavior
a o
D i equation:
Design
ti
The DESIGN MOMENT M* is usually obtained from a secondorder elastic frame program (i.e. Microstran or Spacegass)
cm
which has the amplification
p
factor
build into it.
1 N NE
Alt
Alternatively,
ti l the
th maximum
i
momentt M*max can be
b obtained
bt i d ffrom a fi
firstt
order (linear) analysis and then amplified to produce M*.
In--plane
In
p a e be
behavior
a o
AS4100 thus requires the design actions N* and M* to satisfy:
The strength Ms(1-N*/Ns) is called Mr .
N
*
M M S 1
NS
Reduced from Ms due

to axial force.
N S
[N.B. for a R-C cross-section]:
N*
No N *
M S
strength
p
envelope
M*
strength
envelope
M*
M o
Example
a pe1
Determine
D
t
i the
th d
design
i major
j axis
i section
ti momentt capacity
it
Mrx of a 200UC52.2 of Grade 300 steel which has a design
axial compressive force of N* = 143.9 kN
204
f y = 300 MPa
12.5
2206
8.0
A = 6660mm2
S x = 570 103 mm3
12.5
Plastic section modulus
Example
a pe1
For compression:
F bending:
For
b di
Example
a pe1
For combined actions:
Plastic
ast c capac
capacity
ty
The equation:
M M S 1 N N S
*
is based on first yield at
If the cross
cross-section
section is
COMPACT (i.e. local
buckling is not a problem
and e < ep) then the stress
distribution at failure is:
f il
failure,
i.e.
i
PLASTIC
BEHAVIOUR
fy
Stress reaches
first yyield fy
M*
N*
ELASTIC
BEHAVIOUR
M*
N*
fy
Example
a pe2
Pl ti analysis
Plastic
l i off a rectangular
t
l cross-section
ti
f y = 300MPa
M*
N*
N
Geometric
centroid
fy
C
d
dn > d / 2
T
fy
Plastic
neutral axis
C = bxdnxfy
T = bx((d-dn)xfy
Example
a pe2
N = C T = bd n f y bdf y + bd n f y = N S + 2d nbf y
d
d dn
M = C +T
2
2 2
These equations may be solved for dn, and using
N S = bdf y
bd 2
MS =
fy
4
produces at plastic failure
N
NS
M
+
=1
MS
In--plane
In
p a e be
behavior
a o
N
M
+
M S N S
*
1.0
N*
N S
= 1
M*
N*
+
=1
M S N S
M * M S
1.0
The linear interaction may therefore often be too conservative. In AS4100, if the crosssection is COMPACT and EFFECTIVE (kf = 1) and doubly symmetric then
rx
= M
N*
1 . 18 1
N S
= 0 .9
Example
a pe3
The 200UC52
Th
200UC52.2
2 considered
id d earlier
li iis d
doubly-symmetric
bl
t i
compact (e < ep for bending) and effective (e < ey for
compression). Hence
M rx = 1.18 153.9(1 143.9 1798) = 167.1kNm
204
N
M * M rx = M S 1.181
N S
12.5
12.5
2206
8.0
M S
but M S = 153.9kNm < 167.1kNm

The section is thus unaffected by axial
compression and fails plastically at
M S = 153.9kNm
In--plane
In
p a e be
behavior
a o
The equation:
M M rx
*
is a check on the strength of the cross-section under bending (M*)

and
d compression
i (N*)
If th
the b
beam-column
l
is
i too
t slender
l d (i.e.
(i Le/r
/ is
i too
t great)
t) it may fail
f il
by column buckling at NC rather than yield at NS.
N.B. We have considered it to be laterally restrained, so it cannot
buckle laterally at Mb < MS. We will check this later.
In--plane
In
p a e be
behavior
a o
M x M ix
*
Hence in AS4100:
N*
M ix = M sx 1
N C
In-plane
p
strength
bent about x-axis
N C = ( C k f Af y )
is the column strength
N.B. We have assumed the

b
beam-column
l
fails
f il in-plane
i l
by
b
column buckling about the xaxis. It cannot fail by buckling
about the y-axis because it is
laterally restrained.
NC must be determined therefore from nx
Effective length
g factor
For column design or checking we generally use the effective length
Le (although the above example has shown how n can be determined
from the elastic bucklingg load determined byy a computer
p
program
p g
or
from charts in text books).
Le = ke L
L is the column length;
ke is
i the
h EFFECTIVE LENGTH FACTOR
Some standard cases for isolated columns are given below
(Trahair & Bradford, 1998):
Effective length
g factor
l =L
l = L/ 2
l = 0.7L
NE
NE
l = L/ 2
l = 2L
NE
NE
NE
l
L
L
L
l
NE =
Theoretical
ke
AS4100
ke
2EI
2 2EI
NE = 2
L
L2
4 2EI
NE = 2
L
1.0
0.5
0.7
0.5
2.0
1.0
0.5
0.85
0.7
2.2
4 2EI
NE = 2
L
NE =
2EI
4L2
Example
a pe4
Check
Ch
k th
the 200UC52
200UC52.2
2 considered
id d earlier
li if it iis subjected
bj t d tto
design moment of 121.5 kNm and 124.7 kNm as well as an
axial compression of 143.9 kN. The effective length Le about
the x-axis is 7.0 m.
f y = 300MPa
204
rx = 89.1mm
12 5
12.5
12.5
206
8.0
124.7 kNm
143.9 kN
121.5 kNm
143.9 kN
Example
a pe4
N*
M ix = M sx 1
N C
In--plane
In
p a e be
behavior
a o
The linear interaction equation is essentially based on first yield
at fy and may in some cases be too conservative. Thus for
compact doubly symmetric sections (with kf = 1), AS4100 uses:
3
*
+
N

*
m
M M ix = M sx 1
1
2 N C
1+ m
+ 1.18
2
M rx
N*
1
N C
Example
a pe5
For the 200UC52.2 in the previous example
204
f y = 300MPa
12.5
rx = 89.1mm
206
80
8.0
124.7 kNm
121.5 kNm
12 5
12.5
143.9 kN
143.9 kN
Example
a pe5
In--plane
In
p a e be
behavior
a o
If the cross-section is bent
about the y-axis then in AS4100:
M M ryy = 0.9
*
y
N
M ry = M sy 1
N S
Section capacity about y-axis
and out-of-plane buckling CANNOT occur.
In--plane
In
p a e be
behavior
a o
Further if the cross-section is doubly symmetric and compact,
the less conservative equation below may be used:
M M ry
*
y
= 0.9
N
M ryy = 1.19M syy 1
N S
*
M syy
Section capacity about y-axis
Example
a pe6
Determine
D
t
i the
th d
design
i minor
i
axis
i section
ti momentt capacity
it
Mry of a 200UC52.2 of Grade 300 steel which has a design
axial compressive force of N* = 143.9 kN
S y = 264 103 mm3
204
Z y = 174 103 mm3
12.5
b
206
80
8.0
N.B. for a rectangular section
S = bd 4 Z = bd / 6
2
12 5
12.5
So S = 1.5Z and the code requires that
Z e 1.5Z
Example
a pe6
Out--o
Out
of--p
of
plane
a e be
behavior
a o
A beam
beam-column
column bent about its principal (x) axis may buckle laterally and twist,
if there is insufficient lateral support, at a load which is significantly less than
the maximum load predicted by an in-plane analysis.
This flexural-torsional buckling may occur while the member is still elastic, or
after some yielding due to in-plane
in plane bending and compression has occurred
occurred.
Out-of-plane
behaviour
In-plane
behaviour
Flexural-torsional bucking of beam-columns
Out--ofOut
of-plane
p
buckling
g
X (u)
or FlexuralTorsional Buckling
Y (v)
Out--o
Out
of--p
of
plane
a e be
behavior
a o
Consider an elastic beam-column in uniform bending:
Moc
Moc
Noc
Noc
L
SIMPLY SUPPORTED
Out--o
Out
of--p
of
plane
a e be
behavior
a o
The combination of moment Moc and compression Noc to cause lateral
buckling (i.e. buckling out of the plane of loading) is derived in
Chapter 7 of Trahair and Bradford (1998) as
M oc
Mo
N oc
= 1
Ny
1 N oc
Nz
EI y
GJ + EI w
2
L2
L
where
GJ
Nz = 2
ro
Mo =
2 EI w
1 +
2
GJL
is the Euler buckling load
Ny =
2 EI y
L2
is the torsional buckling load (i.e. the load to buckle

the member by twisting about its longitudinal axis,
axis
and ro2 =
Ix + Iy
A
, ro = polar radius of gyration)
Out--o
Out
of--p
of
plane
a e be
behavior
a o
Equation
M oc
Mo
N oc
= 1
Ny
1 N oc
Nz
does not account for the amplification of Mc due to Ncx, where is the mid1
span deflection. We have seen that the amplification is
1 N N X
where
N x = 2 EI x L2
Hence equation
M oc
Mo
M oc
Mo
as the member is bent about its x-axis
N
= 1 oc
Ny
N
= 1 oc
Nx
1 N oc
Nz
can be replaced by:
1 N oc
Ny
1 N oc
Nz
Out--o
Out
of--p
of
plane
a e be
behavior
a o
For most hot-rolled sections Noc<<Nx, and Ny<<Nx so that:
(1 N
Equation
M oc
Mo
= 1 oc
Ny
N z ) > (1 N N y )(1 N N x )
1 N oc
Nz
can then be approximated by:
N oc
M oc
1
+
=1
(1 N c N x ) M o
Ny
This equation is the basis of the AS4100 design rule.
rule
Out--o
Out
of--p
of
plane
a e be
behavior
a o
Since
M oc
1 N oc N x
corresponds to the amplified moment
(that is, the second order M* from a stiffness package),
this equation becomes:
or
M M ox
*
x
out of plane
N*
M*
+
1
N c M b
M ox = M b (1 N N c )
*
Example
a pe7
Check the out
out-of-plane
of plane member capacity of the 200UC52.2
200UC52 2 beambeam
column of Grade 300 steel considered previously with end moments of
121.5 kNm and 124.7 kNm that bend it into reverse curvature if the
effective
ff ti lengths
l
th for
f column
l
and
d beam
b
lateral
l t l buckling
b kli are both
b th
Le = 7000 mm.
A = 6660mm 2 I x = 52.8 10 6 mm 4 I y = 17.7 106 mm 4

ry = 51.5mm J = 325 103 mm 4 I w = 166 109 mm 6
204
12.5
12.5
206
8.0
Example
a pe7
Example
a pe7
Example
a pe7
Biaxial
a a be
bending
d g
More
o e generally
ge e y a beam-column
be
co u
iss bent
be about
bou BOTH
O
major
jo axes
es by M*x and
d M*y ,
as well as being subjected to a compressive force N*.
Thi situation
This
it ti is
i complex
l to
t model
d l accurately.
t l AS4100 requires
i
a CROSS
CROSSSECTION CHECK to be made according to:
or for compact doubly-symmetric I-sections
*
x
*
y
M
N
+
+
1
N S M Sx M Sy
according to the less conservative:
M
prx
*
x
M
+
M
pry
*
y
prx
where:
*
N
2..0
s = 1. 4 +
N s
M pry
N*
= 1 . 18 M sx 1
N S
M sx
N*
= 1.19 M sy 1
N S
M
sy
Biaxial
a a be
bending
d g
AS4100 also requires a MEMBER CHECK to be made according to:
M brx
*
x
M
+
M
bry
M brx = min[M ix , M ox ]
*
y
M bry = M iy
m = 1 .4
Example
a pe8
Determine the maximum design value M* of a 200UC52
200UC52.22 beam-column
beam column
of Grade 300 steel which has a design axial compressive force of N*=
143.9kN, major axis (x-axis) end moments of M* and 0.974M* causing
reverse curvature
t
b
bending,
di
and
d minor
i
axis
i (y-axis)
(
i ) end
d moments
t off 0.4
04
M* and 0.4M* causing single curvature bending. Le = 7m for column
and beam buckling.
204
12.5
Mx
x
206
8.0
I x = 52.8 10 6 mm 4
ry = 51.5mm
I y = 17.7 106 mm 4
J = 325 10 mm
3
12.5
A = 6660mm 2
My
I w = 166 109 mm 6
Example
a pe8
Example
a pe8
Frames
Lecture
ectu e Out
Outline
e
9
9
C l
Column:
9
elastic buckling load
effective length factor
Frames:
with simple joints
9 with semi-rigid joints
9 with rigid joints
9
Types:
Analysis Method:
First order (linear, no P- effects)
Second order (nonlinear, P- effects)
Elastic Buckling Analysis

(braced and sway frames)
Effective length
g factor isolated column
For column design or checking we generally use
the effective length Le
Le = ke L
L is the column length;
ke is
i the
h EFFECTIVE LENGTH FACTOR
Some standard cases are given below (Trahair & Bradford, 1998):
Frame Idealisation
STRUCTURAL FRAMES are composed
p
of one dimensional members
connected together in skeletal arrangements which transfer the applied loads to the
supports.
Reduction of 3-D framework to plane frames
Two-dimensional flexural frames

TWO DIMENSIONAL FRAMES a number of independent
two-dimensional frames with in-plane loading.
THE STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOUR of a flexural frame is

influenced by the behaviour of the member joints, which are usually
considered to be either SIMPLE, SEMI
SEMI-RIGID
RIGID or RIGID,
according to their ability to transmit moment.
Member joints
Force &
Moment connection
Force connection
Moment connection
Frames
a es
While most FRAMES are three-dimensional, they may often be
considered as a series of parallel two-dimensional
two dimensional frames,
frames
or as two perpendicular series of two-dimensional frames.
THE BEHAVIOUR of a structural frame depends on its

arrangement and loading, and on the type of
connections used.
Frames
ThemembersusuallyhavesubstantialBENDINGACTIONS
ThemembersusuallyhavesubstantialBENDINGACTIONS,
andiftheyalsohavesignificantaxialforces,thentheymustbe
designedasbeamties orbeamcolumns.
I f
InframeswithSIMPLECONNECTIONS,themoments
ithSIMPLECONNECTIONS th
t transmitted
t
itt d
bytheconnectionsaresmall,andoftencanbeneglected,and
thememberscanbetreatedasisolatedbeams,
oreccentricallyloadedbeamties orbeamcolumns.
However,whentheconnectionsareSEMIRIGIDorRIGID,
thereareimportantmomentinteractions betweenthemembers.
Frames with simple joints

No moment is transmitted through a SIMPLE
JOINT,, the members connected to the jjoint mayy
rotate.
If there are sufficient number of pin-joints to make the structure statically
determinate then each member will act independently of the others,
determinate,
others and may be
designed as:
an isolated tension member, compression member, beam
or
beam-column.
(if the
th pin-jointed
i j i t d structure
t t
i indeterminate,
is
i d t
i t then
th some partt off it may actt as a
rigid-jointed frame)
Frames with simple joints

One of the most common methods of designing frames with
SIMPLE JOINTS is often used for rectangular frames with

vertical (column) and horizontal (beam) members under the action
of vertical loads only.
Th columns
The
l
i suchh a frame
in
f
are assumedd to
t actt as if eccentrically
t i ll
loaded.
(it should be noted that such a pin-jointed frame is usually incapable of resisting
transverse forces, and must therefore be provided with an independent bracing
or shear
h
wall
ll system)
t )
Frames with semi

semi-rigid
rigid joints
SEMI-RIGID JOINTS are those which have
d
dependable
d bl momentt capacities
iti andd which
hi h partially
ti ll
restrain the relative rotations of the members at the joints.
The action of these joints in rectangular frames is to reduce the

maximum moments in the beams,
beams and so the semi-rigid design
method offers potential economies over the simple design method.
Frames with rigid joints

Behaviour:
RIGID JOINT a joint
j i which
hi h has
h sufficient
ffi i rigidity
i idi to virtually
i
ll
prevent relative rotation between the members connected.
Properly arranged welded and high-strength friction grip bolted
joints are usually assumed to be rigid.
There are important interactions between the members of frames with rigid
joints, which are generally stiffer and stronger than frames with simple or semirigid joints.
Therefore rigid frames offer significant economies.
Frames with rigid joints

Behaviour:
Although a RIGID
FRAME may behave in an approximately linear fashion
while its service loads are not exceeded, especially when the axial forces are small,
it becomes non-linear near its in-plane ultimate load because of yielding and
buckling effects.
When the axial compression forces are small, failure occurs when a sufficient
number of plastic hinges have developed to cause the frame to form a collapse
mechanism, in which case the load capacity of the frame can be determined by
plastic analysis of the collapse mechanism.
Frameswithrigidjoints
g j
MethodsofAnalysis:
9 First
Firstorderelasticanalysis
orderelasticanalysis
9 Secondorderelasticanalysis
9 Advancedanalysis
Stressresultants(M,N&V)
( ,
)
anddeflections
Equilibrium
Stressstrain
Stress
strain
Compatibility
9 First
Firstorderplasticanalysis
orderplasticanalysis
CollapseLoad(Equilibrium,Mechanism)
Stability
Bucklingloads
Effectivelengths
9 Elasticbucklingofbracedframes
9 Elasticbucklingofunbraced(sway)frames
First-order
First
order elastic analysis
Assumptions:
9
Material behaves linearly (yielding effects are ignored);
The members behave linearly (no P-
The frame behaves linearly (no frame instability effects such as those
effects are taken into account)
caused by the moments of the vertical forces and the horizontal frame
deflections P-
deflections,
effects, are taken into account)
i.e. Flexibility
y method of analysis,
y , Stiffness method of analysis
y
(commercial computer packages)
Second-order
Second
Second order effects in elastic frames include additional moments
moments.
The second-order
second order moments arising from the member deflections from the
straight line joining the member ends are often called the P-
effects.
The second-order moments arising from the joint displacements are often
called
ll d the
h P-
P
9
effects
ff t .
I braced frames, the

In
th joint
j i t displacement
di l
t are small,
ll
and only the P- are important.

9
I unbraced
In
b
d
fframes, the
th PP effects
ff t are iimportant,
t t
and often much more so than the P- effects.
Second-order elastic analysis

y
P
P
ISOLATED COLUMN
P-
P-
FRAME
braced
sway
Second-order
Second
IndependentBehaviour
InteractiveBehaviour
First order plastic analysis

PLASTIC ANALYSIS tends to be used less commonly,
y,
even if a steel structure satisfies the more stringent conditions
that must be imposed for rational plastic analysis.
All instability effects are ignored.
The collapse
p strength
g of the frame is determined by
y using
g the rigid-plastic
g p
assumption and finding the plastic hinge locations which first convert the frame
to a collapse mechanism.
All members must be ductile so that the plastic moment capacity can be
maintained at each hinge over a range of hinge rotations sufficient to allow the
plastic collapse mechanism to develop
develop.
Plastic analysis and design will be considered in subsequent

lectures, but it is worth noting that the plastic analysis is
dependent on the elastic buckling load factor (c) of the frame.
Advanced analysis
Ideally, the member stress resultants (M,
Ideally
(M V,
V N) should be
determined by a method of frame analysis which accounts for
both second
second-order
order effects (P
(P- and P
P-)
), inelastic
behaviour, residual stresses and geometrical imperfections,
and any
y local or out-of-plane
p
buckling
g effects.
Such a method has been described as an advanced analysis.
Advanced analysis is still basically a research tool.
Elastic buckling of braced frames

Analysis:
The results of an elastic buckling analysis may be used to approximate any second-order effects.
The set of member forces Nom which causes buckling depends on the distribution of
th axial
the
i l forces
f
in
i the
th frame,
f
and
d iis often
ft expressedd in
i terms
t
off a load
l d factor
f t c by
b
which the initial set of axial forces Nim must be multiplied to obtain the member
forces Nom at the frame buckling,
buckling so that Nom = c Nim.
Alternatively, it may be expressed by a set of effective length factors km which
define the member forces at frame buckling by Nom = 2EIm/(kmLm)2
The determination of the frame buckling load factor c may be carried out using a suitable
computer program (i.e. buckling analysis option in Microstan)
Elastic buckling of braced frames

A l i
Analysis:
Alternatively, the
effective length factor km of each compression member
may be obtained by using estimates of the
member relative end stifnesses
1, 2 in a braced member chart (AS4100).
The direct application of this chart is limited to the vertical columns of regular
rectangular frames with regular loading patterns in which each horizontal beam
has zero axial force, and all the columns buckle simultaneously in the same
mode.
Effective length
g factor frame column
More generally a column may be in a braced frame or a sway frame.
Elastic spring
restraints against
rotation and
translation
Elastic spring
p g
restraints against
rotation
A is restrained by Column A-1 and beams A-2 and A-3

B is restrained by column B-6 and beams B-5 and B-4
Relative end stiffnesses braced frame

If the frame is BRACED AGAINST SWAY, and is of regular rectangular geometry
with negligible axial force in the beams, ke is the solution of (Trahair & Bradford,
1998)
A B
A + B
tan ke
+
=1
1 cot +
4 ke 2 ke
ke
ke
where at end A
(I L )
=
(I L )
columns
and similarly at end B
modifying factor
beams
(I L )
=
(I L )
columns
beams
ke is then obtained from Fig. 4.6.3.3 of AS4100. The values of e are given below.
Stiffness factor,, e far end restraint conditions

Sway Frame
Non Sway (Braced) Frame

M
e = 1.0
far end rigid
g
e = 1.5
far end pinned
e = 2.0
far end fixed

4EI/L
M
3EI/L
e = 0.5
3EI/L
e = 0.67
M
6EI/L
e = 1.0
2EI/L
M
4EI/L
Relative end stiffnesses

FIXED BASE
PINNED BASE
column
column
beam
beam
A = 0.6
A = 10
Buckling
g load factor braced frame
For a BRACED FRAME ((i.e. one that is not free to sway)
y)
the procedure to calculate the effective length is:
STEP 1.
1 Calculate
C l l t A and
d B for
f each
h off the
th columns.
l
STEP 2.
2 Use
U th
the chart
h t to
t determine
d t
i ke for
f each
h off th
the columns.
l
STEP 3. Calculate
N om =
2 EI
(k e L )
for each of the columns.
STEP 4. Estimate the BUCKLING LOAD FACTOR, m

f each
for
h off the
h columns,
l
where
h N* is
i the
h axial
i l
compression in the column.
N om
=
N*
Effective length factor braced frame

STEP 5.
5 Estimate the FRAME BUCKLING LOAD FACTOR from
cr = min of the m values
STEP 6. Recalculate Nom = crN* for each of the columns
STEP 7. By using
N om =
2 EI
(L e )2
= cr N *
recalculate the effective length for each of the columns from
Le =
EI
2
N om
Example
a pe1
16 kN
40 kN
E
24 kN 60 kN 56 kN 100 kN
D
5m
100UC14
1890
3.18x106
B, E
250UB25
3270
35.4x106
C, D
150UC23
2980
12.6x106
250UB37
4750
55.7x106
B
C
6m
Section A (mm2) I (mm4)
Member
5m
Find the effective length for each of
the columns.
8m
A first order matrix stiffness analysis produces the following axial forces in this
braced frame:
Member
N* (kN)
A
-39.5
-0.8
-197.4
-31.9
E
-7.6
F
+4.7
Example
a pe1
A
Example
a pe1
Elastic
s c buc
bucklingg loads:
o ds:
Buckling load factor:

A
C
D
Example
a pe1
Recalculate
ec cu e buc
bucklingg loads
o ds in each
e c member:
e be :
A
C
D
Effective lengths
A
Elastic buckling of sway (unbraced) frames

Analysis:
The determination of the frame bucking load factor c of a rigid-jointed
rigid jointed
unbraced frame may also be carried out using a suitable computer program.
For isolated unbraced members of very simple unbraced frames, a buckling

analysis
l i may also
l be
b made
d from
f
first
fi principles.
i i l
Alternatively the effective length factor, km of each compression member may be

obtained by using estimates of the relative end stiffnesses 1, 2 in a chart such as
that of
AS3600.
Relative end stiffnesses sway frame

If the frame is FREE TO SWAY and is of regular rectangular geometry with
negligible axial force in the beams, ke is the solution of:
A B ( ke ) 36
= cot
6( A + B )
ke ke
2
where (as for a braced frame)
(I L )
=
(I L )
columns
beams
and
d
(I L )
=
(I L )
columns
beams
ke is obtained from Fig. 4.6.3.3 of AS4100
Effective length factor sway frame

The procedure for determining Le in a SWAY FRAME is:
STEP 1. Calculate A, B and use the chart to determine ke for each column
STEP 2. Calculate
N om =
2 EI
(k e L )
for each of the columns
STEP 3. For each STOREY calculate its buckling load factor from
ms =
(N
(N
STEP 4.
4 Estimate frame bucking load factor from cr = min of the ms values
STEP 5. Recalculate Nom = crN* for all the columns
STEP 6. Recalculate
Le =
2 EI
N
om
for all the columns
om
*
L)
L
Example
a pe2
20
10
40
20 kN
Member A (mm2) I (mm4)
C
B
50
50
80
5m
A, E
6660
52.8x106
B, D
3860
17.6x106
3270
35.4x106
5210
86.4x106
30
A
E
6m
5m
Find the effective length for each of
the columns.
6m
A first order matrix stiffness analysis produces the following axial forces in this
braced frame:
Member
N* (kN)
A
-116.2
-37.5
-22.5
-42.5
E
-143.9
F
-8.9
Example
a pe2
Elastic
s c buc
bucklingg loads:
o ds:
Upper storey columns
Example
a pe2
Elastic
s c buc
bucklingg loads:
o ds:
Lower storey columns
Example
a pe2
Buckling
uc
g load
o d factor:
co :
Example
a pe2
Recalculate
ec cu e buc
bucklingg loads:
o ds:
Design of connections I
Lecture Outline
Bolts bolt group
Bolts,
Welds,, weld ggroup
p
butt weld, fillet weld
Force connections
splices in tension and compression, truss joints, shear splices
and connections in beams
Moment connections
b
beam
momentt splice
li
Force and moment connections

seat for the beam-to-column connection, semi-rigid beam
to-column connection, the full strength beam splice
Connections
Connections are used to transfer the forces supported
pp
by
y a structural
member to other parts of the structure or to the support.
They are also used to connect braces and other members which provide
restraints to the structural member.
Connections join members using CONNECTORS
CONNECTORS, such as bolts,
bolts pins,
pins
rivets, or welds, and may include additional plates or cleats.
The arrangement off the
Th
h components iis usually
ll chosen
h
to suit
i the
h type off
action (force or moment) being transferred and the types of member
((tension or compression
p
member,, beam,, or beam-column))
A connection is designed by analysing the method of force transfer from the
member through the connection and its components to the other parts of the
structure, and by proportioning each component so that it has sufficient
capacity for the force that it is required to transmit.
Connections
The need for connections:
gap
Axial action
(longitudinal stresses )
stress/force
t
/f
transfer
t
f required
i d
M
Shear action
(shear stress )
surfaces slide past each other
Bending
g action
(longitudinal stresses)
C
T
Lack of compatibility
P
Torsion action
(shear stress)
bracket rotates
CONNECTIONS
(a) hold parts together
(b) allow transfer of internal actions
Connections
Real connections usuallyy have combinations of these actions:
Moment action due to V & H.
T
Tension action due to H.
H
S
Shear action due to V

V.
V
T
Torsion action due T = Ve.

Shear action due to V.
Connections
Splice:
p
design for
M* and V*
BMD
V
M*
SFD
V*
Bolts
Several different types of bolts may be used in structural connections
connections,
including ordinary structural bolts (i.e. commercial or precision bolts
and black bolts), and high strength bolts.
Bolts may transfer loads by shear and bearing, by friction between
plates clamped together,
together or by tension.
tension
i.e.
4.6 ultimate tensile strength fuf (f-fastener) 400 MPa
- structural or block bolts (industrial buildings)
8.8 high strength bolts fuf = 830 MPa
(yield is 0.8 of 830 664 MPa)
Pins
Pin connections
Pi
ti
used
d to
t be
b provided
id d iin some triangulated
t i
l t d frames
f
where
h
it was thought to be important to try to realize the common design
assumption
p
that these frames are p
pin-jointed.
j
The cost of making a pin connection is high because of the machining

required for the pin and its holes, and also because of difficulties in
assembly.
Pins are now rarely used, except in special applications where it is

necessary to allow relative rotation to occur between the member being
connected.
t d
Rivets
In the past,
past hot
hot-driven
driven rivets were extensively used in structural
connections. They were often used in the same way as ordinary
structural bolts are used in shear and bearing and in tension
connections.
There is usually less slip in a riveted connection because of the tendency
for the rivet holes to be filled by the rivets when being hot-driven.
Shop riveting was cheaper than filed riveting, and for this reason shop
riveting was often combined with field bolting.
However,, the use of riveting
g has declined considerably,
y, and has been
largely replaced by welding or bolting.
Bolts, rivets
Bolt dimensions
4 6 commercial bolts
4.6
8 8 high strength bolts

8.8
fuf = 400 MPa

MP
fy
fyf = 240 MPa
fy
nominal
diameter
D
of
fastener
fuf = 830 MPa

proof stress fyf = 660 MPa
0.2% permanent strain
dc core
dia.
ds
diameter
of tension
stress area
Types of filed connections
Joints between beams

Force &
M
Moment
connection
i
Force connection
M
Moment
connection
i
Force connection
Force & Moment connection

Force &
Moment connection
Beam--to
Beam
to--column joints
Force &
Moment connection
M
Moment
t connection
ti
Force connection
Moment connection
Axial shear
Force connection
Force connection
Force connection
Force connection
Eccentric shear / Tension

Force & moment
connection
ti
Force connection
Flexible end connections
Any moment
transfer can
b neglected
be
l t d
Force connections
Rigid and semisemi-rigid connection
Force & moment

connection
Force & moment connection
Semi--rigid
Semi
g connection
Force & moment connection
Prying action
Connections to concrete cores
Web panel in shear

(instability)
Axial compression and

bending moment
A h
Anchorages
Base plate
Contact steel-concrete and concrete in compression
Bolt tightening
g
g
SNUG TIGHTS (S) achieved by full effort of a person using a
standard spanner (friction between two surfaces is not too high)
BERARING (B) design action transferred by shear in bolts and
bearing on connected parts at STRENGTH LIMIT STATE
FRICTION (F) bolts tightened to induce a minimum tension so
that damping action transfers shear at SERVICEABILITY LIMIT
STATE due to friction
TENSION ((T)) snugg tightened
g
and then tightened
g
further a
certain number of fraction of turns
Bolts
Bolts suffer only 2 actions, tension and shear.
bolts in tension
T
bolts in shear
P/2
P
P/2
Torsion
(Pe causes shear)
S
P
P/2
P/2
two shear planes
P one shear plane
Bolt categories
g
very flexible (semi
(semi-rigid
rigid connection)
4.6/S
8 8/S
8.8/S
88.8/TB
8/TB
8.8/TF
only snug tightened
can be snug tightened too but it is wasteful

friction capacity
capacit (serviceability
(ser iceabilit limit state)
Commercial
C
i l packages
k
(i.e.
(i Microstran,
Mi
t
Spacegas,
S
etc.)
t ) assume
moment connection (hence connections are able to resist
bending moment)
Modes of failure
B lt in
Bolts
i TENSION
Bolts in SHEAR
B lt in
Bolts
i BEARING
Desi n checks required:
Design
a. Bolt strength
g
b. Plate bearing
c. Plate tearing:
i Straight
i.
St i ht across
ii. Staggered
Modes of force transfer
Force
connection
Bolted plates in shear and

tension
ae
df
Tearing out at end of a plate,

due to tension
V*v Vv
=0.7
Vv= ae t fup
fup - ultimate
lti t ttensile
il strength
t
th off
plate material
Bearing failures
top
p plate
p
V* B
beam reaction
other p
plate
V* B
per bolt
local crushing
under washer
Force
connection
Strength
g limit state
Shear
*
f
V f
Vf* = design shear force

Vf = nominal shear capacity of bolt
Vf = 0.62 fufkr (nnAc + nxAo)
= 0 .8
(i)
Connections are less ductile

than beams
(ii) We do not want connection
to be the weakest link in
the structure
nn= number of shear planes with treads IN the shear plane whose
bolt area is Ac
nx= number of shear planes without treads EXCLUDED from
shear plane whose bolt area (shank area) is Ao
Shear distribution in a
force connection

kr= reduction factor for a lapped
pp connection of length
g Lj
If:
Lj < 300 mm kr = 1.0

300 < Lj < 1300 mm kr = 1.075 Lj /4000
nx = 1
nn = 3
Lj > 1300 mm kr = 0.75
Ao
T*
T*
Lj
Not exactly in equilibrium
moment imbalance
nx
Shear
planes
Ac
nn
nn
nn
Tension
*
tf
N tf
= 0 .8
Ntf* = design tension force

Ntf = design tension capacity of bolt
Ntf = As fuf
As = tensile stress area of bolt
Shear and tension

Bolts
o s aree only
o y subjected
subjec ed too two
wo actions:
c o s: TENSION
NS ON and
dS
SHEAR,,
caused by axial forces, shear forces, bending moments and torsion,
when tension and shear occur together, the bolt strength has to
satisfy the following interaction equation:
2
N
+
N
tf
*
tf
1 .0
= 0 .8
INTERACTION CURVE
pure shear
SHE
EAR
V
f
*
f
safe
pure
tension
AXIAL
Vf , Ntf = nominal
i
capacities
i i determined
i
earlier
i
(snug tighten bolts there is no tensile force in bolts)
Shear and tension
Shear and tension typical examples

NO BENDING
BENDING
PV
PV
CG of
bolt
group
PH
CG of
bolt
group
e
PV /n
Line of P through CG
Shear force
from loading
Pv
M Moment
from
frame
action
BENDING
M = Pv e
M causes extra
t
tension per bolt
PH
Shear per
Sh
bolt V*vf
PH /n
Tension per
b lt V*tf
bolt
Beam--to
Beam
to--column joints
Force &
Moment connection
Moment connection
Force connection
Moment connection

BENDING
Tension in these bolts

T1
T
M
S
h1 h
2
h3
dn/3
NA
y3
y
1
T23
d
dn
dn/3
Plates compressed
mp
together
g
Could calculate position of NA by trial and error until T
but usually dn
h/6.
C,

(i) Take moment about line of force C.
M = n1T1h1 + n2T2h2 + etc.
n1= No. of bolts on level 1
(ii) From linear force diagram
T2 = T1 y2/y1 , T3 = T1 y3/y1
(iii) Substitute into M equation and rearrange.
T1 = M y1 /(nihiyi) per bolt at level 1.

(iv) Shear per bolt = S / total number of bolts.
(v) Now apply shear and tension interaction equation.
However if there are horizontal forces, such as Phe , eccentricities etc,
include their effects and then apply interaction equation.
Ply in bearing
Bearing force on ply Vb* due to a bolt
ply
ae
V Vb
*
b
bolt
= 0 .9
Vb = nominal bearing capacity of ply
Vb = 3.2d f t p fup > aet p fup

df = bolt diameter
tp = thickness of ply
fup = ultimate tensile strength of ply
Example 1
Checking the capacity of a connection
lap splice connection 35 70 70 35
40
70
Splice
l
plates,
l
2x10mm
10
thick
h k
fy = 260 MPa steel, fu = 410 MPa
35 70
N*
70 35
N* N*
*
10
N*
20
70
10
40
9M24,8.8/S
ELEVATION
PLAN
Spliced plate, 20mm thick

fy = 250 MPa steel, fu = 410 MPa
a. Bolt strength
M24 8.8 /S in dholes= 26mm
Threads intercept one shear plane

plane, plain shank the other shear plane.
plane
Design capacity of bolts in shear = Vfn + Vfx = 133 + 186 = 319 kN [TA2.2]
b Plate bearing
b.
(spliced plate)
Vb = 3.2 x 24 x 20 x 410 = 630 kN 35x 20 x410 = 287 kN

Since 287 < 319, plate bearing capacity governs.
Example 1
Serviceability limit state for bolt

For 8.8/TF where slip at service load is to be limited
Although a serviceability limit state still uses a capacity reduction factor
Shear:
V V sf
*
sf
= 0 .9
V*sf = nominal bolt shear capacity for friction-type connection

Vsf = neiNtikn
= slip factor (coefficient of friction) taken usually as 0.35

nei = number of effective interfaces
Nt = minimum
i i
bolt
b lt pretension
t i in
i
generating a friction-type connection
kn = 1.0 for standard holes

= 0.85 for short slotted or oversize
holes
= 0.7 for long slotted holes
Shear + Tension
V
V
sff
*
sf
N
+
N
ti
*
tf
1 .0
= 0 .7
Vsf* = design serviceability shear force

Ntf* = design strength shear force (bolt pre-tension)
Nti = bolt p
pretension
Minimum Nti VALUES (kN)
M16 95
M20 145
M24 210
M30 335
M36 - 490
Bolt group subjected to inin-plane

loading
doubler plate
weld
bolt
Momentt
M
connection
column
stiffener
stiffener
Consider n bolts of equal area subjected to force P eccentric e

to the y-axis which passes through the bolt centroid.
y
Pe
end plate

loading
Separate shear caused by P and Pe are hard to calculate and sum vectorially.
Instead we calculate position of
INSTANTANEOUS CENTRE OF ROTATION.
Force Vfi* on i-th bolt and radium ri from centre of rotation.
y
(xc, 0)
e
ri
Vfi*
x

loading
V = kri A
*
fi
I z = A x + y
2
k = constant
A = area of bolt
2
about centroids
Pe
k =
Iz
P
xc =
kn A
N.B.
(1) force in x
x-direction
direction as well its effect can be included in the same way; and
V
*
fi
= {V fi* x 2 + V
*
fi
y 2 }1 / 2
(2) if welds are used replace the bolt area with the weld size and summations by
integrals along the weld
Example
p 2
A typical web side plate connection is shown in the figure on
the next slide in which a single 10mm thick side plate is bolted
t th
to
the web
b off a b
beam and
d iis welded
ld d tto th
the fl
flange off th
the column.
l
In designing the welds, the beam reaction is assumed to act
through the centroid of the bolt group at a distance of 90mm
from the face of the column. In designing the bolts, the beam
reaction is assumed to act at the line of the weld at a distance of
90mm from the centroid of the bolt group.
Problem:
For a design beam reaction of 250 kN, determine the maximum
shear force in a bolt of the bolt group
Example
p 2
Example
p 2
Solution:
The calculations are based on the instantaneous centre of
rotation approach of Chapter C9 of the Commentary (AS4100).
By inspection, the centroid of the bolt group is at its geometric
centre.
Example
p 3
Determine the maximum shear in the bolt group in the beam
splice shown.
25
55 140 30
65
35
70
70
35
75
Member design
actions at bolt group
centroid
Shear = +160kN
Moment = +20kNm
8-M20 8.8/S bolts.

Threads in shear plane.
2x280mm E48XX fillet welds.
Single web plate.
This problem demonstrates the in-plane elastic analysis of a bolt group.
Example
p 3
Example
p 4
Check an M20 88.8/S
8/S bolt whose treads intercept a single shear
plane for a design shear of Vf* = 43.1kN
25
55 140 30 75
65
35
70
70
35
Member design
centroid
Shear = +160kN
Moment = +20kNm
8-M20 8.8/S bolts.
Single web plate.
This problem illustrates the determination of the shear capacity of a bolt.
Example
p 4
Example
p 5
Determine the maximum design tension force that can be
transmitted in conjunction with a design shear force of Vf* =
43.1kN byy an M20 8.8/TF bolt whose threads intercept
p a single
g
shear plane.
Member design
25
55 140 30 75
65
35
70
70
35

centroid
Shear = +160kN
Moment = +20kNm
8-M20 8.8/S bolts.
plane
Single web plate.
This problem illustrates the checking of the strength of a bolt under combined
shear and tension.
Example
p 5
Example
p 6
Determine the maximum serviceability tension force that can
be transmitted in conjunction with a serviceability shear force
of Vsf* = 30.0kN byy an M20 8.8/TF bolt in a standard hole.
This problem illustrates the checking of the serviceability of a bolt in a frictiongrip connection with a single interface.
Bolt groups in torsion

e
PV
Pys = P/n
y
Bolt shear
due to
torsion
y
CG
T = PVe
PTx
PTy
CG of bolt group
bolt shear due

to torsion
From mechanics of solids PT
= torsional constant x r
Torque per bolt Ti = PT x r = C x r2 = C x (xi2

For n bolts, total torque T =
Torsional constant C =
x
PT
+ yi2)
Ti = C x r2 = C (xi2 + yi2)
T / (xi2 + yi2)
Bolt g
groups
p in torsion
In bending = My/I
In torsion PT = Tr/IP
or torsional components
p
PTx = Ty/I
y P,
where IP =
PTy = Tx/IP
(xi2 + yi2)
CRITICAL BOLT vectorial effect of components is maximum

PTy
PTy
PTy
Pmax = P
PTy
PTy
PTy
+ (PTy + PyS )
Tx
VECTORIAL SUMMATION
PTy
PTy
PTy
PTy
PTy
PTy
PTy
Design of connections II
Lecture Outline
Welds, weld group
butt weld
weld, fillet weld
M
Moment
t connections
ti
beam moment splice
Force and moment connections

seat for the beam-to-column connection, semi-rigid beam
to-column connection, the full strength beam splice
Welds
Structural connections between steel members are often made by arc
arc-welding
welding
techniques, in which molten weld metal is fused with the parent metal of the
members or joint plates being connected.
Welding is often cheaper than bolting because of the great reduction in the
preparation
p
p
required,
q
, while ggreater strength
g can be achieved,, the members or
plates no longer being weakened by bolt holes, and the strength of the weld
metal being superior to that of the material connected.
In addition, welds are more rigid than other types of load-transferring
connectors.
On the other hand, welding often produces distortion and high local residual
stresses,
t
and
d results
lt iin reduced
d dd
ductility,
tilit while
hil fi
field
ld welding
ldi may b
be diffi
difficult
lt
and costly.
Welds
Force connection
Force connection
Intermediate web stiffeners
Butt welds
Butt welds
Fillet welds
Butt welds are frequently used to splice tension members
members.
A full penetration weld enables the full strength of the member to be developed,
while
hil the
th butting
b tti together
t th off the
th members
b
avoids
id any joint
j i t eccentricity.
t i it
Butt welds often require
q
some machining
g of the elements to be jjoined.
Special welding procedures are usually needed for full strength welds between
thi k members
thick
b
to
t control
t l the
th weld
ld quality
lit and
d ductility,
d tilit while
hil special
i l inspection
i
ti
procedures may be required for critical welds to ensure their integrity.
Butt weld
Fillet welds
We will
w only
o y co
consider
s de equal
equ leg
eg fillet
e we
welds
ds here:
e e:
throat
t
throat
t
weld size
Design
g actions are calculated/unit length
g of weld on p
plane of throat:
Longitudinal shear, transverse shear, normal force all act on throat and
are summed vectorially to produce:
vw* = design force per unit length of weld
Fillet weld joint
Forces on weld elements

The forc
force p
perr un
unitt length
ngth of fillet weld in the x,, y and z
directions may be determined using the familiar expressions:
general fillet
weld group
*
*
P
M
*
x
zy
vx =
Lw
I wp
centroid of fillet
weld group
Py*
*
M
*
zx
vy =
Lw
I wp
*
z
*
x
P*
y
M*
y
*
y
M y M x
P
v =
+
Lw
I wx
I wy
*
z
P*x
M*x
M*
P*
Weld in x-y
plane, z = 0
General fillet weld group
Design equation
v v w
*
w
Strength
S
e g des
design:
g :
*
w
(v ) + (v ) + (v )
*
x
*
y
* 2
z
D i off any generall fillet

Design
fill t weld
ld group subject
bj t to
t a generall design
d i action
ti sett
(P *x, P *y, P *z, M *x, M *y, M*z )

may be obtained by evaluating the property set
Lwx, Lwy, Lwz, Iwx, Iwy, Iwp (see Table on next slide)
and substituting into the governing equation
(fillet weld group loaded in-plane
in-plane and out-of-plane)
out-of-plane ),
checking that the governing inequality is satisfied, at each of the critical points.
Practical fillet weld g

groups
p
Many
y fillet weld groups
g p comprise
p
lines of welds parallel
p
to the x and y axes.
For such relatively regular fillet weld groups, the identification of possible critical
points is correspondingly more straightforward.
The possible critical points for
a fillet weld g
group
p consisting
g of
lines of weld parallel to the x
and y axes only are numbered 1
to 8.
8
y
2
x
7
4
5
Possible critical p
points in
particular weld group
Forces on weld elements

where:
Lw
Iwx, Iwy
- the total length of the weld;
Iwp
- the p
polar moment of area of the weld elements about the
centroid of the weld group (treated as a line element)
= Iwx + Iwy
- the second moments of area of the weld elements

(treated as a line element) about the x and y axes respectively;
The previous expressions can be

sightly modified in order to allow
them to reflect realistic
distributions of the design force
set ((P*x, P*y, P*z) between
components of the total length of
the weld group, as follows:
Px* M z* y
v =
Lwx I wp
*
x
v =
*
y
Py*
Lwy
M z* x
I wp
*
Pz* M x* y M y x
+
v =
Lwz
I wx
I wy
*
z
where:
Lwx, Lwy, Lwz

the lengths of the weld
assumed to receive the
component forces along
the individual x, y and z
axes respectively
Fillet Weld Group Loaded

i -plane
inin
l
Fillet weld group loaded in-plane by a common

design action set of forces (P*x, P*y) and design moment (M*x):
*
*
P
M
*
x
zy
vx =
Lwx I wp
v =
*
y
v*z = 0
Py*
L wy
Py*
Pz*
*
z
M x
+
I wp
M z*

out--of
out
of--plane
Fillet weld group loaded out-of-plane by a common
design
g action set of forces (F*y, F*z) and design
g moment (M*x)):
v*x = 0
v *y =
Py*
L wy
*
*
M
P
*
xy
z
vz =
+
Lwz
I wx
Py*
Pz*
Mx*

out
out--of
out
of--plane
plane
P
Line welds
unit thickness
e
Mx
Py
Lw1
yt
1
Lw2
yc
Centroid of
weld group
Lw1
v*y = P*y/Lw = force per unit length acing in y-direction

Lw = total weld length = 2Lw1 + 2Lw2
v *z = M *xyc/Iwx = normal force per unit weld in x-direction at point A
Iwx = second moment of area of unit weld about centroid (mm3)
Weld group subjected to outout-of

of-plane loading
vn vz
throat
vy
(perpendicular)
vt
force per unit length
vz = p
produces normal component
p
p
vz / 2 and transverse component
on throat.
{ (
vw = v + vz
2
y
Therefore at A (say)
) + (v
)}
2 1/ 2
v y2 + v z2
n
For bolts calculate Ix as
A y 2
Py
V
=
y
and
n
etc.
vz / 2
Design
g equation
q
Strength
S
e g des
design:
g :
v v w
*
w
vw = nominal
i l capacity
it off fillet
fill t weld
ld per unit
it llength
th
vw = 0.6fuwttkr
= 0 .6 GP
SP special
p
ppurpose
p
kr = reduction factor for length of weld Lw(m)

= 1.0 (Lw < 1.7)
= 1.10
1 10 0.06L
0 06Lw (1.7
(1 7 < Lw < 8.0)
8 0)
= 0.62 (Lw > 8.0)
tt = throat
th t thi
thickness
k
= 0 .8 SP
=t/ 2
fuw = ultimate tensile strength

g of weld
= 480 MPa for E48XX electrodes (most common)
= 410 MPa for E41XX electrodes
(high degree of inspection)

GP general purpose
(low degree of inspection)
Weld stress trajectories

j
Weld symbols
Weld symbols
Example 1
Determine the maximum shear per unit length in the uniform
thickens weld group caused by a design shear force of 160kN
through
g the centroid of the bolt ggroup
p and a moment of 20kNm
N
about the centroid of the bolt group.
25
55 140 30 75
65
35
70
70
35
Member design
centroid
Shear = +160kN
Moment = +20kNm
8-M20 8.8/S bolts.

Th d iin shear
Threads
h
plane.
l
Single web plate.
This problem demonstrates the in-plane elastic analysis of a fillet weld
group under combined shear and bending.
Example 1
The centroid of the weld group is (70 + 30 + 25 + 37.5) = 162.5 mm from
the centre of the bolt group.
V * = 160 kN, M * = 20 + 160 162.5 / 1000 = 46.0 kNm
( I x + I y ) / t = 2 280 3 / 12 + 2 280 (75 / 2 )
= 4 . 446 10 6 mm 3
A / t = 2 280 = 560 mm
x c = V * (I x + I y ) / M * A
= 160 10 3 4 .446 10 6 t / 46 .0 10 6 560 t

= 27 .6 mm
rmax =
(75 / 2 + 27 .6 )
= 154 .4 mm
+ 140
yc = 0
vw* = M *rmax t / (I x + I y )
= 46.0 10 6 154.4 / 4.446 10 6
= 1.597 kN/mm
Example 2
Determine the weld leg size required for the equal leg fillet weld
group, if the weld category is SP and the electrode is E48XX.
25
55 140 30 75
65
35
70
70
35
Member design
centroid
Shear = +160kN
Moment = +20kNm
8-M20 8.8/S bolts.
Threads in shear p
plane.
Single web plate.
This problem illustrates the design of a fillet weld group
Example 2
f uw = 480 MPa
k r = 1.0
= 0.8
vw* = 1.597 kN / mm
1.597 103 0.8 0.6 480 tt 1.0
tt 6.93mm
t 6.93 2 = 9.8mm
Use 10x10 SP E48XX weld.
N.B. A smaller weld could be used if the weld group dimensions

were increased
increased. This would require the reanalysis of the weld
group.
Example 3
An 8mmx8mm SP fillet weld from E48XX electrodes has a
longitudinal design shear per unit length of vwL* = 1.0kN/mm and
transverse design shears per unit length of vwx* = 0.6kN/mm
0 6kN/mm and
vwy* = 0.4 kN/mm. Check the adequacy of the weld.
This problem illustrates the checking of a fillet weld under combined loadings.
loadings
vw* =
(1.0
+ 0.6 2 + 0.4 2 = 1.233kN / mm
f uw = 480 MPa
tt = 8 / 2 = 5.66mm
k r = 1.0 = 0.8
vw = 0.8 0.6 480 5.66 1.0 = 1.303kN / mm > 1.233kN / mm = vw*
Therefore OK.
Example 4
Box section fillet welded to end plate
(Fillet loaded out-of plane)
y
1
2
3
305
450 kN
weld
group
cetroid
90 kNm
4
7
5
203
Design actions:
Px* = 0 , Py* = 450 kN , Pz* = 0
M
*
x
= 90 kNm
kN , M
*
y
= 0, M
*
z
=0
Weld g
group
p properties:
p p
L w = 2 (305 + 203 ) = 1016 mm
Example 4
If it is
i assumedd that
th t the
th vertical
ti l shear
h is
i primarily
i
il taken
t k by
b the
th webs
b
of the box section, then this vertical shear must be assumed to be
transferred through the vertical fillet weld only.
Hence,
L w = 2 305 = 610 mm
d = 305 mm
b = 203 mm
I wx = d
6 + bd / 2 = 14 . 2 10 mm
2
at ppoints 1,, 2,, 3,, 8
y = 152.5 mm
4, 5, 6, 7
y = 152 . 5 mm
Example 4
Global set of design actions per unit length
v*x = 0
v*z = (90000) ( 152.5)/14.2106

v*y = - 450/610
= + 0.967 at points1, 2, 3, 8 ( y = + 152.5)
= - 0.738 at points 3, 4, 7, 8
=0
at points1, 2, 5, 6
= - 0.967 at points4, 5, 6, 7 (y = -152.5)
R l
Resultant
force
f
per unit
i length:
l
h
v w* =
( 0 . 738 )2
+ ( 0 . 967
)2
= 1 . 22 kN/mm
Weld capacity:
8 mm E48XX fillet weld
v w = 0.6 f uw t t k r = 1 .30 kN/mm > v w*
= 0.8 fuw = 480MPa

t w = 8 tt = 8 2 = 5.66
kr = 1
Example 5
Fillet welded bracket loaded In-Plane
y
175
275
180 kN
d = 300 mm
b = 275 mm
3 2
1
Weld group
centroid
300
x
4 5
weld centroid
x
b2
x =
= 89 . 0 mm
2b + d
design actions
Px* = 0 Py* = 180 kN Pz* = 0
critical points
*
x
=0 M
*
z
= 180 (275 + 175 89 . 0 )
*
y
=0
= 64980 kNmm
Example 5
Weld group properties:
Lw = 2 275+ 300= 850mm
assume Lwx = Lwy = Lwz = Lw = 850mm

I wp = I wx + I wy
3002 (6 275+ 300) 2753 (275+ 2 300)
I wp =
+
12
3(2 275+ 300)
= 21.8106 mm3
at points 1, 6 :
x = 275 89.0 = +186

y = 300/ 2 = 150
at points 2, 3, 4, 5 :
x = 89.0 y = 150
Example 5
Global design actions per unit length:
*
M
64980150
zy
v*x =
=
I wp
21.8106
= + 0.447 at points 1, 2, 3 ( y = +150)

= 0.447
44 at points
i
4, 5, 6 ( y = 150
1 0)
*
M
x 180 64980186
v*y =
+ z =
+
Lwy I wp
850
21.8106
Fy*
= 0.767 at points 1, 6 (critical)

180 64980 ( 89.0)
=
+
850
21.8106
= +0.054 at points 2, 3, 4, 5 (not critical)
Resultant
R
lt t fforce per unit
it length:
l
th
points 1, 6
vw* =
( 0.447)2 + ( 0.767)2
= 0.888 kN/mm
6 mm E48XX fillet weld
v w = 0.6 f uw t t k r
= 0 . 978 kN/mm > v w*
OK
= 0.8 fuw = 480MPa

t w = 6 t t = 6 2 = 4.24
kr = 1
Reference material
NS Trahair & MA Bradford: The Behaviour and Design of Steel
Structures to AS4100, 3rd Australian edition, E&FN Spon,
London, 1998.
ST Woolcock, S Kitipornchai & MA Bradford: Design of Portal
F
Frame
Buildings,
B ildi
3rd edition,
diti AISC,
AISC S
Sydney,
d
1999
1999.
TJ Hogan & IR Thomas: Design of structural connections, 4th
edition, AISC, Sydney, 1994.

CVEN3302 Structural Steel Design

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CVEN3302 Structural Steel Design

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CVEN3302 Structural Design

Semester 2,, 2009

School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, UNSW

Cell Form Beams

Upper yield stress

Strain hardening Est

HighStrengthSteel 450 MPa

f1, f2 normal stresses

Includes: setting criteria, constraints

Preliminary designs and selection

Steel skeleton connected

Columns were concrete

the eightofallmaterialsofconstr ctionincorporatedinto

Superimposed dead load

Mu, Nu, Vu the strengths are determined from

major axis loading)

minor axis loading)

Sx = 1190 x 103 mm3

M = Sx f yf = 0.9 119010 300 Nmm

Welded box section

Welded box section

The stress to cause ELASTIC LOCAL BUCKLING ol is given

k = the local buckling coefficient that depends

on edge and loading conditions (= 0.425 here)

= Poissons ratio (0.3 for steel)

k is the plate buckling parameter which accounts for edge

n = number of sine waves

NOTE; for a web in pure

FREE FLANGE OUTSTAND

Plate aspect ratio L / b

f yf 277 (fy in MPa)

fy must be in units of MPa ( = N/mm2)

The limits on p are much tighter

There are limits for flange and web

N.B. Some UBs have e > 9.

The ey limits are looser than the ep limits and essentially

The limits are therefore

ey = 16 [most flange outstands]

= 15 [welded flange outstands]

This is close to the above limits.

For non-compact sections we can interpolate linearly between

Buckling failure prior to MY

Moment gradient factor, m

Lateral Torsional Buckling

flexural torsional buckling

Perfectly elastic, initially

Unrestrained along its length.

Twisting () and lateral

Strength limit state bending moment

Design equation for bending strength

Design capacity factored strength limit

Lateral buckling is catastrophic and so

The design equation is:

flexural torsional buckling

Occurs in slender, laterally unrestrained beams.

Like columns, the beam reaches an energy configuration at which it prefers to

{unstable if u, = 0 after buckling moment}

stable buckled position

We must therefore calculate Mb based on

This is done by undertaking firstly an

Elastic lateral buckling

E = Youngs modulus 200,000 MPa

M2, M4 = design