and application is very often un der ra ted. There are possibilities for mistakes in outlining a disc spring solution, which in e vi tab ly cause faulty design or even failures later on. Then it is very diffi cult to fi nd better sub stitu tes, because most of the times the in stal la ti on space is fi xed. With a correct design these problems are easy to avoid. The main diffi culty is to realize these in the design stage to get an optimum disc spring solution. Since for most of the designers the disc spring is not daily bread and to many the rules for disc spring design are little known, the most important aspects are summarized here. Spring force The calculation of the force of a disc spring is based on a model by Almen and Lszl. Its accuracy in the usable range of the character line of the spring is very good. Yet there is a slow rise at the beginning of the measured load/defl ection curve, because disc springs never are perfectly symmetrical. They so to speak have to be pressed even. Also the spring force rises in the last part of the load/ defl ection curve more than calculated, when the spring is loaded in between two parallel planes, since the leverage changes due to the never ideally even surfaces (see chapter 1.7). Static loading In the design of a new disc spring a certain stress level should not be surpassed for static loading. The maximum allowable limit is given by the reference stress s om. Its value should not exceed the value of the tensile strength Rm of the material to avoid plastic deformations of the spring, i.e. set ting losses (chapter 2.1). Dynamic loading Most of the disc springs only can bear a limited dynamic load. The life time depends on the load span as well as on the load level (chapter 2.2). The number of cycles, which is to be expected under a certain load con di ti on, can be estimated from fatigue diagrams (chap ter 2.2 and chapter diagrams ). It is also necessary to preload disc springs in a dynamic application to at least 15% to 20% of their maximum deflection, to avoid compres si on-tension alternating stresses in the beginning of the defl ection range of the spring (chapter 2.2). Stacking Disc springs can be stacked face to face (series arrangement), which means their defl ections add up, or they can be stacked in
the same sense (parallel arrangement), then
their forces add up (chapter 3). The latter induces increased friction and a stronger hysteresis effect (chapter 6.5). Thus the for ce in loading direction is higher and in unloading direction lower than the calculated for ce. Applying suitable lubrication (MoS2 con tainig grease) can reduce the hysteresis ef fect. The various possibilities of stacking disc springs can be combined in a stack. Different types of stacking in one spring stack can be used to generate a progressive character line. It is necessary to pay attention to the weaker parts in a combined stacking though, because these normally are pressed fl at qui te fast, which is not allowed in dy na mic loading. If necessary a defl ection li mi ta ti on has to be provided. Guide The surface of guide elements in dynamic disc spring applications always has to be harder than the disc springs themselves. A minimum of 55 HRC is advisable, otherwise