ENERGY CONSERVATION

Energy conservation:
the application of standard energy conservation
techniques at Crabtree Electrical Industries
T.J. Hughes and G.A. Bohoris
How standard energy conservation techniques can reduce operating costs and energy consumption

Introduction
The current literature has based cost savings on loosely
estimated mean costs of electricity and only touches the
surface of the problem of auditing equipment. Work that
has been carried out at Crabtree Electrical Industries
(CEI), Walsall plant, a medium size, vertically integrated,
light engineering company, has produced a relatively
accurate model of the compressed air system by
considering its operating characteristics and integrating
the appropriate tariffs into the model. The model has also
allowed for the further development of cost savings to be
considered and analysed and payback periods readily
calculated. The model does have limitations, mainly
owing to the several necessary assumptions, but has
provided accurate results. The methodology that has
developed is readily applicable to similar companies. The
need for complex modelling has been avoided through the
analysis of the total system and the medium size subsystems, rather than calculating each machines
requirements and using statistical analysis of machine
usage. This would have taken too long and have been
expensive to complete.
The work also involved electricity tariff analysis, an
integral part of the model. A brief discussion of the
competitive electricity market is also given which
identifies the necessary requirements that will enable
competitive bids to be received from the qualified
suppliers of electricity.
The air compressors have been identified from the initial
audit as the single largest consumer of electricity at the
site. The systems analysis showed that the total energy
consumption was significantly larger than the first audit
has shown. This identified that the total system was
inefficient and could be significantly improved by

Industrial Management and Data Systems, Vol. 95 No. 9, 1995, pp. 9-16
MCB University Press Limited, 0263-5577

replacement of equipment which would have the effect of

reducing the total energy consumption of the system.

The direct running cost audit

Taking into account Figure 1, the approach that has been
taken to auditing the energy users has been a step by step
approach which identifies system costs, rather than
individual users, in order to determine the largest
achievable savings. The audit has determined the largest
cost users of energy rather than largest energy
consumers.
Overview
The audit involved the following stages:
meter identification;
working schedules/production patterns;
rated input;
actual usage of energy consumer;
energy consumer running characteristics.
This methodology has been used to enable resources to
be maximized so that time and effort is concentrated on
the areas which would benefit the most. It has been
assumed that the systems which incur the greatest
cost have the greatest cost-effective potential for
improvement.
Meter identification
The historical readings of the utilities have been
obtained from recorded meter readings. Where no data
were readily available, the historical bills have been
audited to give aggregate meter readings over the
duration of the bill. In cases where there has been no
internal recording of the meters, or no meters in place, a
metering system should be set up which records the
consumption of each meter at least monthly. However, it
is demonstrated later in the article that understanding
of the load profile over a day rather than a month could
provide useful information, enabling the optimal tariff

10

INDUSTRIAL MANAGEMENT & DATA SYSTEMS 95,9

when the utility, and therefore the aggregate of all the

equipment, is used.

Figure 1. The interaction between energy consumers, energy

generators and the bills

Energy consumer

Secondary energy

Working schedules/production patterns

A detailed audit of the working schedules has shown
how the plant operates in relation to the weekly,
monthly and annual production patterns. Where data
were not available, an understanding of how working
patterns may differ according to the product has been
assumed. At CEI, the shift patterns varied according to
machine grouping and not physical location. An
accurate understanding therefore of the plants
manufacturing schedule and machine use has been
gained by auditing according to these groups. Table I
shows the variance in working schedules at the plant.
The standard schedules are shown, but shifts may vary
according to the production load, in particular Saturday
morning and the twilight shift when usage varies
according to demand.

Bill
Electricity

Energy consumer 1
Gas
Energy consumer N
Water
Compressed air
Steam
Hydraulic power
Indirect cost
Direct cost

to be chosen. At CEI the site has one main electricity

meter that has been used for billing purposes by the
MEB, and a number of gas meters which differentiate
between production and non-production use. At other
companies there may be oil, steam, and other types of
meters. The bills should be audited in order to determine what is paid for and to gain an understanding of

The demand at the site may change significantly

throughout the year, depending on the type of product
made or seasonality of sales. This may significantly alter
the annual demand at the site of the measured utility.
Where this is the case an adjustment factor based on
monthly sales should be introduced to minimize this

Table I. Standard working shifts

Area

MondayThursday
Start
Finish

Press shop
Toolroom
Opposite toolroom
Press assembly Hare
Power press
Colour shop
Opposite colour shop
Special purpose
Next to office
(Old toolroom)
Opposite office A
Opposite office B
Autocapstan
Cold heading
Sheet metal
Pullmax
Main
Trimming
Trimming
Wheelabrator
Toolroom
Opposite I/M
Hilts

07:00
06:00
08:00
08:00
06:00
08:00

17:40
14:00
16:30
16:30
14:00
16:30

06:00

14:00

08:00
08:00
08:00
06:00

16:30
16:30
16:30
14:00

06:00
08:00

14:00
16:30

08:00
06:00
07:00
08:00

Friday
Start
Finish

07:00
06:00
08:00
08:00
06:00
08:00

17:40
12:00
14:45
14:45
12:00
16:30

06:00

14:00

08:00
08:00
08:00

14:45
14:45
14:45

06:00

14:00

16:30
14:30

08:00
06:00

14:45
12:30

18:00
16:30

07:00
08:00

18:00
14:45

14:00
17:00

22:00
21:00

14:00

22:00

14:00

22:00

14:00

22:00

14:00

22:00

Saturday
Start
Finish

14:00
17:00

22:00
21:00

14:00

22:00

14:00

22:00

14:00

22:00

07:00
12:00

12:00
16:00

08:00
06:00
08:00

12:00
12:00
12:00

07:00

14:30

Sunday
Start
Finish

ENERGY CONSERVATION

characteristic. These data should be available from

production or sales figures, although using sales figures a
lead time allowance may be appropriate to cater for the
period which the items are kept as stock. This will
highlight seasonality in production and distinguish
where the current production is in terms of maximum
capacity. At CEI, the load is greatest during the spring
and summer months, with production cut back during the
winter when the holiday periods are taken into
consideration.
Rated input
This audit has identified the rated motor input of the
electric motors and/or the rated gas input for gas
appliances. Several machines use electricity to heat tools;
where this has been the case two values have been
required, the initial mean kWh while heating the machine
from cold and the typical mean running kWh while the
machine is kept at the required temperature. These
values have been ordered by the size of kW input.
The appliances (shown in Table II) in some cases use
more than one type of energy input. In these cases the
major user has been audited at this stage.
Actual usage of energy consumer
The use of the machine has been calculated using the
working shifts and a multiplying factor, where appropriate, based on the number of times the machine has
been actually used during the working period. As an
example, there are three compressors of which only two
are used. Of these one is run for 24 hours and the other for
8.5 hours a day.
Energy consumer running characteristics
The characteristics of motors or heaters affect the total
energy consumption. Some motors may run on and off
load, particularly reciprocating compressors and injection
moulding machines. Surprisingly when motors are off
load they still consume a relatively large amount of

electricity, although significantly less than during on load

periods[1]. The audit needs to measure both the on and off
load time period where relevant. The approximate total
electricity consumption is therefore given by:
(Percentage of time on load kW on load)
+ (Percentage of time off load kW off load).
An equation which included the characteristics of the
motor under different loads would have been appropriate
if the motor had been measured against a more efficient
motor. However, a mean kW on load figure should
provide enough accuracy.
The load profile changes during the day. The machines
have therefore been measured at different half hour
periods throughout the day, and randomly over several
weeks. This has provided an indication as to the mean
demand during the morning, midday, afternoon and
night working periods. A total kWh value is obtained by
localized electricity meters adding up the half hour total
electricity consumption which would dispense with the
above equation.

Tariff analysis
Electricity
Background the competitive market
The work carried out by OFFER, the electricity regulator,
has enabled companies whose maximum demand
exceeds 100kW to purchase electricity from a second tier
supplier or their host REC. A second tier supplier is one of
61 companies who have been granted a licence to sell
electricity and the Host REC is the local electricity
company. The regulator has left the purchasing manager
with a number of deadlines and requirements in order to
receive electricity from suppliers other than the Host
REC (Figure 2).
The first stage has been to ensure that the company has a
meter operator appointed, then the purchaser must

Table II. Rated input audit

Equipment

Approximate
rated input (kW)

Gas/electric

Quantity

Warm air heating

3,400 (Total)

Gas

91

Hot water heating

1,000 (Total)

Gas

Steam boiler
Compressors
Hydraulic pump motors
Injection mould presses
Automould bipal presses

855
178
33
22
4 (2)

Gas
Electric
Electric
Electric
Electric

11

1
3
3
31
56

Normally in use
(Standard hours)

Total
(kW)

Dependent on
weather
Dependent on
weather
1
2
2
15
28

3,400
1,000
855
356
66
330
112 (56)

12

INDUSTRIAL MANAGEMENT & DATA SYSTEMS 95,9

Figure 2. Appointment of the host REC as meter operator

Appoint meter
operator (COP5)

Host REC

Provide, install and

maintain, appropriate
meter, excluding
communications

Lease purchase meter,

install and maintain,
appropriate meter,
excluding
communications

Purchase meter

Install meter
Meter operator/
maintenance

Contract
negotiations
One month notice
prior to second tier
supply
Remain with host
REC

Second tier

No communications
link required

Install communications
link

Responsibility of
UKDCS

Note: Crabtree Electrical Industries are charged, irrespective of supplier, 200 per annum
for communications by UKDCS. This forms part of the National Settlements Charge

accept a tariff four working weeks before the contract

starts, so that if the supplier is a new company, the meter
operator may be informed of the change and install the
appropriate communications hardware at the site. There
have been problems in the past with the UKDCS (United
Kingdom Data Collection Service) and bills have had to be
predicted but as the market matures these problems
should be reduced.
The market is divided up into several categories each of
which, dependent on the maximum demand, requires a
meter of the appropriate code of practice. The categories
are over 10MW, between 1MW and 10MW, and between
100kW and 1MW. The Code of Practice meters which
apply are 2, 3 and 5 respectively. This may create
difficulties where a site is in the process of change and the
new demand is unknown, or where the site demand may
jump between two categories.
The purchase of electricity
Electricity is a good where electricity suppliers
discriminate against the smaller users, i.e. the greater the

demand the lower the cost per kWh. It may be

advantageous, if there are several sites spanning the
boundaries of the markets, to negotiate all the companys
sites with one supplier, or alternatively pick and mix the
best deals on offer. Analysing which deal is the most costeffective is a necessity and a stronger position is
maintained by requesting quotations for all sites at the
same time. The provision of a years historical kWh data
is the most practical way of providing each potential
supplier with the same information which may be
checked. It is worthwhile checking the load profile
(electricity consumption over half-hourly periods
throughout the year) since the least expensive tariff after
checking has been found to be more expensive. Selection
of comparable tariffs should then be optimized for the one
which is the simplest to reduce the total cost. This does
not mean reducing the kWh consumption by the most.
With some tariffs, the cost of electricity increases
significantly during specified times of the day. During
these times reducing the electricity consumption by a
small amount will lead to significant cost savings.
Therefore, the analysis of the kWh consumption by shift
times, which is matched with a tariff that changes its cost

ENERGY CONSERVATION

during the start or finish of shifts, has enabled potentially

large savings to be made with simple electricity
reductions.
Pool has been expressed as the tariff which is most
appropriate for companies who are able to load manage
the electricity. There is however more to the argument
than just load management. Pool is a risk which
electricity companies have gone some way towards
reducing with the provision of software programmes
such as Wigwam, which will predict the cost of
electricity for the next day based on the bid prices at 10:00
a.m. by the generating companies the previous day. This
prediction software is useful but there is a limit to the
amount of load management available by any company.
When prices have reached extremes, as has happened
recently, the pool will be expensive.

Systems analysis indirect running costs audit

The Direct Running Cost Audit has enabled the largest
energy consumers to be identified singularly. This audit
has been designed to link individual machines into
systems and model their use as one dynamic system. This
has produced an accurate estimate of the real running
costs throughout the day at any particular time of year.
The latter is important as it enables cost reducing
measures to be analysed by putting the new data into the
model and payback periods to be calculated to a
reasonable accuracy.
The compressed air system has been modelled in enough
detail to provide an accurate analysis of the demand on
the system in cubic feet per minute (cfm)[2], at a constant
pressure, with electricity being purchased on the pool
tariff. The survey data are specific to compressed air, but
the methodology could quite easily be applied to other
systems with different data collection.

Compressed air
The compressed air system required several stages to be
carried out to provide a comprehensive model of how
much air is required around the plant. Further study is
being currently carried out into the pressure
requirements of the system as more savings may be
easily obtained through the reduction of pressure at
various times of the day.
The system
The system is as follows:
Generation how compressed air is generated and
its associated costs.
Layout location of compressor, air dryer and
cooling towers; pipe network; location and size of
valves and air receivers.

13

Use volume, location, pressure and duration that

air is used; volume, location, pressure and duration
that air is actually required.
Leakage quantification.

Generation
The current system comprises three approximately 1,000
cfm compressors, two BroomWade 1,000 reciprocating
compressors and an Alley compressor. The compressors
feed air into air dryers and this air is then stored in air
receivers. Water is used as the coolant for the air
compressors and after coolers, which is pumped from
cooling towers around a water circuit. The water is
continuously drawn from South Staffordshires water
main since there is evaporation at an estimated 1 per cent
of the total volume of the cooling towers. The water also
requires chemicals to maintain standards set by
parliament to minimize the risk of legionellas.
Layout
The compressors are situated at two sites, either end of
the main L pipework (5in). Feeds supply the different
factory areas at either 2in, 2.5 or 3in which receive air into
air receivers before use at machines. No analysis into the
optimal size of pipework has been carried out since there
is no significant pressure loss due to distribution.
Use
Air is used at the site for three major applications:
(1) to balance clutches on presses;
(2) at low pressure, less than 4 bar inside machines;
(3) to blow off or clean mould tools.
The major pressure has historically been set at a mean 90
psi; however only a few machines, which run between
06:00 and 22:00, use air at 80 psi or more. The next
pressure level is at 60 psi which is adequate for the vast
majority of uses. Significant saving due to a reduction in
generation cost and volume of air lost through leaks is
possible by generating the maximum pressure required
by the machines throughout the day.
Air leak quantification
Air leak quantification will enable a value to be put on the
volume of air wasted around the plant. Since the cost of
air is a large proportion of the electricity cost in a light
manufacturing plant, reducing the leaks will reduce the
cost of air per unit of production, and hence the electricity
bill, considerably. The layout of compressed air pipes
showing the location of valves has been used to assist in
developing a map of air leaks, which may be turned
off by the insertion of automatic valves.
Running the compressors with the valves open and then
selectively closing off areas will put a volume of air per
minute on to the areas. Then, either these areas can be
closed off when not in use to reduce the cost of
compressed air, or further analysis can be carried out into

14

INDUSTRIAL MANAGEMENT & DATA SYSTEMS 95,9

the way in which they are used, to try to determine ways

of reducing costs. It is important, however, to understand
that the total cost of a leak is not simply the volume of air
measured during the half-hour test period. Instead it is
relative to the volume of air used throughout the year and
the cost is related to the tariff that the electricity bill is
charged. This highlights the importance of a systems
approach to cost reduction.
The model
The aim of the model has been to calculate the current
cost attributable to the generation of compressed air and
the ideal system which meets the criteria of the objective
function, the optimal size, and results, in the short term,
in a three-to-four-year payback.
Objective function (specification)
There are five objective functions these are:
(1) Provide a reliable compressed air supply to the
Walsall plant.
(2) Minimize the running cost of compressed air
system.
(3) Reduce the maintenance cost of the compressed air
system.
(4) Remove the water towers and associated
equipment.
(5) Maintain enough capacity to cover the failure of
one compressor.
The cost of running the complete system should be
calculated. This will include the electricity costs of the
water towers, air dryers and air compressors; the water
usage cost of the water towers; the maintenance cost of the
air dryers and compressors; and the chemical cost of
maintaining the water to current regulations. Indirect costs
such as stoppage times could not be quantified owing to a
lack of information, although the compressors were known
to be unreliable and cause periods of lost production.
A rough and fairly accurate approximation to how much
air is used at the plant has been determined through the
use of calculations based on the volume of air generated
by the compressors at any time. The use of air may be
roughly determined by equation 1. A survey of the on/off
times of the compressors will then produce the load
characteristic of the plant throughout the day. This is
important as it will give a good indication of the volume
of air used by the different shifts at the plant. The data,
shown in Table III, were the result of a survey carried out
over only a few days; since it is known that this is the
busiest period as production increased to allow for the
holiday layoff, this is sufficient to be used to find the
optimum size of the new compressors. The survey is also
backed up by the results of a survey, carried out by
Airmech using air meters, which was able to show the
peak system demand of 1,080 cfm which could not be
accurately calculated by equation 1.

Equation 1: standard equation to determine the volume

of air used at time T
n

t i ( on )

VT = Vri
t i ( on ) + t i ( off )
i =1
where
VT = Total volume of air (scfm).
Vri = Rated output (cfm) of the ith compressor.
ti(on) = Time that the ith compressor is on load.
ti(off) = Time that the ith compressor is off load.
The resultant chart may look similar to Figure 3. (This is
only applicable to reciprocating compressors.)
This profile is not a perfect model of the demand, but
shows the systems peaks that must be catered for. The
readings were also taken during the maximum
production period of the factory and should therefore be
considered near the maximum cfm usage required. The
system during certain periods would increase air
consumption by approximately 200 cfm while deflashing
machines were used in the production process. Post
analysis of the demand has shown the demand at the site
to be larger than that predicted. This has been due in part
to new machinery installed at the site and production
increases, but also to inaccuracy of the night time
measurements of the air demand.
The mean direct use kWh charges were also calculated,
from a years historical pool price data, according to
related periods of the day that the compressors load
changes, so that a more accurate running cost could be
calculated (see Table IV).
The current tariff pool contains two other charges; kWh
yearly maximum demand and kVA triad charge. The
total kWh used by the compressors during the time that
the charge occurs, i.e. when the site historically used the
maximum kWh, is multiplied by the charge to calculate
the cost attributable to the compressors. Likewise the
same method is used to calculate the cost attributable for
the kVA triad charge, but an estimate of the compressors
power factor (80 per cent) is used to convert kWh to kVA.
The air dryers and water towers have been modelled
using the same methodology, measuring the time that
they are in use in order to calculate the yearly running
costs. The water towers also consume approximately 1
per cent of the total volume of the towers throughout the
year at a cost of 61p/m 3 and require the addition of
chemicals throughout the year.
Comparison with air cooled screw compressors
The major compressed air manufacturers machines
have been considered using the manufacturers own
published kilowatt consumption figures. The machines
have been compared against each other using the above
data, to find which manufactures machines best suited

ENERGY CONSERVATION

15

Table III. Compressed air audit

Date

Time
Time
Pressure
Time
Pressure
Time
Pressure
Time
Pressure
Time
Pressure
Time
Pressure

Time

12/07/94
12/07/94

12:04
14:32

12/07/94

04:10

13/07/94

09:00

13/07/94

15:43

14/07/94

10:20

14/07/94

11:25

Compressor
BroomWade VM1000 Alley
On
Off
Maximum Minimum
13
15
13
12
100
85
Off
Full
100
17
100
28
100
6
97

BroomWade VM1000

On

Off

13
12

12
13

Meter

Off

On
Maximum

Off
Minimum

Off

18
85
32
85
22
85

4
95
4
97
5
100

6
90
12
90
5
90

Note: Time is measured in seconds and pressure measured in psi

have also been considered such as the importance of

available parts and the availability of a 24-hour
breakdown service if the worst case scenario arose. The
latter two factors may be specific to the Birmingham
geographical area.

Figure 3. Daily mean air consumption

1,200

Scfm

1,000
800
600
400
200
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 1819 20 21 22 23
Time

the plant characteristics. For the Walsall site the

machine which gave the optimal purchase cost, running
cost and capacity performance trade-off was the
Ingersol Rand ML90 compressor. Several other factors

In order to remove the requirement for water, the new

system would require air cooling. The three compressors are cycled for equal use during the year, but are
currently located at two areas in the factory. The
logistics of the compressors should be changed so that
all the compressors would feed one air dryer, thus
reducing the running and purchase costs. The new
scheme would also allow for the automatic rotation of
compressors and automatically turn the compressors
on/off when required.

Table IV. Compressed air model data

Monday to Friday
0:00 to
08:00
Air consumption (scfm)
Electricity cost
(p/kWh)b
a
b

08:00 to
12:00

12:30 to
13:00

Saturday

13:00 to
16:30

16:30 to 00:00
excluding Fridays
14:45 to 00:00

00:00 to
14:00

352

901

658

1024

352a

352

2.3746

3.6167

3.8887

3.2814

3.5393

2.9286

This value may increase significantly, dependent on production

This does not include the fossil fuel levy

16

INDUSTRIAL MANAGEMENT & DATA SYSTEMS 95,9

Economic analysis
The historical cost of parts, labour and oil for the current
system has also been compared against the estimated
cost of parts for the new system. The direct savings
calculated are approximately 4,000 per annum and the
indirect costs associated with stoppages should be
reduced to zero, since there is the spare capacity to cope
with one compressor breakdown.
Conclusions
The analysis showed that the optimal solution would be
three, 590 cfm, compressors, two would be used from
08:00 to 16:30, one used through the night, leaving one
compressor spare for emergencies or for use when and if
demand increases. The third compressor also enables the
compressors to be rotated on a time basis so that over a
year they are all used equally.
Significant annual running cost savings of approximately
20,000 were realized against a total cost of 61,000 for
the three compressors, one air dryer and one sequencer.

Further methods of cost reduction

The method in which air is used at the site enables further
cost reductions to be made. The greatest waste of air at
the site has been through air leakage and applications
that use air for blow off or cleaning.
Automatic solenoid valves
The installation of solenoid valves goes some way, due to
the production and air pipe layout, towards reducing the
cost of air. Each area is to be switched off when
production finishes with a solenoid valve and 24V
actuator and with the aid of the model the optimal
number of valves may be found to reduce the leaks. The
installation of valves would enable the pressure to be
reduced once certain areas are closed off.
Nozzles
Nozzles are a cost-effective method of further reducing air
consumption at the site. The test nozzles have reduced the
direct consumption of air and have been designed to use
atmospheric air to magnify the compressed air that is
used. The nozzles that are being considered will reduce
air consumption of blow off nozzles by one third, and the
cost savings are able to be calculated by using the model
that has been developed.

Conclusions
The article discussed the application of operations
research to produce accurate models of real systems. The
methodology developed has been used to predict how

standard energy conservation techniques, published by the

Energy Efficiency Office, would reduce operating costs
and energy consumption. The cost of implementing these
techniques has been analysed. The analysis has shown
that such systems are economically justified. The
approach proposed in this article adds to the encouragement that industry has had from the British Standards
committee for the adoption of the new environmental
standard, which has been shown to be effective in
achieving the reduction of energy usage and costs.
The article also considered the purchase of electricity in
todays competitive environment and concluded that,
when a sites demand profile has been identified,
significant cost savings can be achieved.

Note and reference

1. Good Practice Case Study 137 Compressed Air Costs
Reduced by Automatic Control System, Energy Efficiency
Office, West Midlands Region, Birmingham, 1994.
2. Scfm (standard cubic feet per minute) and cfm (cubic feet
per minute) are the standard units used by compressed
air system manufacturers and are not part of the
International System of Units (SI).

Further reading
Best Practice Programme New Practice Final Profile 66,
Energy Efficiency Office, West Midlands Region,
Birmingham, 1994.
Coker, A.J., Electric Motors, Midlands Rewind Group,
Heinemann, London.
Davidson, NC., Air Compressors Condensed Air Power Data,
Ingersol Rand, 1988.
Fuel Efficiency Booklet 4 Compressed Air and Energy Use,
Energy Efficiency Office, West Midlands Region,
Birmingham, 1994.
Future Practice R&D Profile 50 Higher Efficiency Induction
Motors, Energy Efficiency Office, West Midlands Region,
Birmingham, 1994.
Good Practice Case Study 136 Cost and Energy Savings
Achieved by Improvements to a Compressed Air System,
Energy Efficiency Office, West Midlands Region,
Birmingham, 1994.
Good Practice Guide 14 Retrofitting AC Variable Speed
Drives, Energy Efficiency Office, West Midlands Region,
Birmingham, 1994.
Good Practice Case Study 88 Variable Speed Drives on Water
Pumps, Energy Efficiency Office, West Midlands Region,
Birmingham, 1994.
Good Practice Case Study 89 Variable Speed Drives on
Cool ing Water Pumps, Energy Efficiency Office, West
Midlands Region, Birmingham, 1994.

T.J. Hughes is an Industrial Engineer at Crabtree Electrical Industries Ltd, Walsall, UK, and G.A. Bohoris is a Lecturer at
the University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK.