16.06.

2015 TomNairnreviewsGramsciandMarxistTheoryeditedbyChantalMouffe,GramsciandtheStatebyChristineBuciGlucksmannandGramsci

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EuroGramscism
TomNairn
GramsciandMarxistTheoryeditedbyChantalMouffe
Routledge,288pp,9.50,November1979,ISBN0710003587
GramsciandtheStatebyChristineBuciGlucksmann
LawrenceandWishart,470pp,14.00,February1980,ISBN085315483X
GramscisPoliticsbyAnneShowstackSassoon
CroomHelm,261pp,12.95,April1980,ISBN070990326X

Asachildhewasalmostalwaysalone.Atinycoffinandshroudstoodinthehousein
Sardiniauntilhewas23,muteandawesomememorialstothetimehealmostbledtodeath,
attheageoffour.Thefrightfulinjurywhichhadcausedthehaemorrhagelefthimadwarf
andahunchback,inspiteofrepeatediodinerubs,andmuchfamilialpleadingwiththeHoly
Virgin.
Lateron,whenthefatherwasjailedforpettyembezzlement,theGramscissliddownhillinto
humiliatingpoverty.Antonuattendedavillageschoolintheremotehinterland,alongsidethe
childrenofthemostdirelyexploited,miserableandlittleknownpeasantryinEurope.They
keptsugobbu(thehunchback)outoftheirgamesandthrewstonesathim,withtheevilness
whichisfoundamongchildrenandtheweak,ashewastorecalllater.Thiscontinueduntil
hemusteredenoughragetoturnandhurlthemback,inaparoxysmofrebellion.
Thiswastheislandimpulsethatsavedhim,andallowedhimeventuallytostruggleoutofthe
sewerofmypast.Yetthedarknessalwaysremainedwithhim,bothafflictionand
nourishment.ThewholesocietyoftheCampidanowasriddledwithwitchcraft,spellcasting
andbeliefinthesupernatural,writesonebiographer.TheGramscichildrenwererearedtoa
knowledgeofwerewolves,bloodsuckingdemonsandotherterrorsofnighttime.Bydayas
welltheylearnedthelegendarySardlandscapeanditsarchaictongue,fromolderrelativesor
theitinerantstorytellerswhopassedthroughSorgonoandGhilarza.Antonusfirstadult
ambitionbeforehebecametheItalianrevolutionary,AntonioGramsciwastorediscover
thisfabulousworld,andjustifyitthroughscholarship.
Apassionforreadingdevelopedoutofhissolitudeanddeformity.Thiscountedina
countrysidewherefewpeopleknewItalianproperly,andborehimuptotheindispensable
thresholdofcivilisationandacareer:knowingall84ArticlesoftheConstitutionofthe
KingdomofItalybyheart.Fromherehegottoabetterschool,andfinallytouniversityin
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Turin.Inanessaywrittenattheageof20,worldhistoryisstillviewedverymuchastheSard
tragedyonabiggerscale.Thetruthofalltimesandplaceshasbeenaninsatiablegreed
sharedbyallmentofleecetheirfellows,totakefromthemwhatlittletheyhavebeenableto
putasidethroughprivations.Garibaldi,theliberatoroftheSouth,isgivenagoodword:but
generally,Menpossessnothingmorethanaveneerofcivilisationonehasonlytoscratch
themtolaybarethewolfskinunderneath,andthebestsolutionwouldbeauniversal
bloodbath,afterwhichtheoppressorswillfinditisabitlatetobesorrytheyleftthehordesin
thatstateofignoranceandsavagerytheyenjoytoday.
Sardismgavewaytothemorepositiveanduniversalcreedofsocialism,intheambienceofa
livelyurbanculturedevotedtoprogressandindustry.Yetthechangewasslow.Fiveyears
aftertheessay,in1916,hewrotethathestillfeltandlivedlikeatouchybearinacave.And
twoyearsafterthattheLiberalintellectualPieroGobettifoundhimstillseethingwith
resentment,anddiagnosedhissocialismasbeingfirstofallareplytotheoffencesofsociety
againstalonelySardemigrant.Theemergingpoliticalandintellectualleaderputthis
ferociousnationalismbehindhim:butnotthewry,pessimisticsenseoffateassociatedwithit,
ortheknowledgethatrealitywassuchastodemandunfathomablepowerofwillagainst
impossibleodds.
ItisalwaysimportanttorecallthisearlyphaseofGramscisastonishingbiography.Heisthe
greatestofWesternMarxists.Butitcannotbewithoutsomesignificancethathewasalsoa
productoftheWestsmostremoteperiphery,andofconditionswhich,halfacenturylater,it
becamefashionabletocallThirdWorld.NocomparableWesternintellectualcamefrom
suchabackground.Hewasabarbedgiftofthebackwoodstothemetropolis,andsome
aspectsofhisoriginalityalwaysreflectedthisdistance.
Asecond,moreparticularreasonforunderliningthatsideofthemanliesinthesebooks,and
thenewwaveofGramscianinterpretationtheystandfor.Mouffe,BuciGlucksmannand
Sassoonareallonbroadlythesametrack.Theyareinsearchofanewrevolutionaryideology
fortheEuropeanLeftasawholeandtheyareconvincedthatitsunderpinningscanbe
excogitatedfromthewritingsofGramsci,aboveallthePrisonNotebooks.Aleftwing
EurocommunismisseekingforitslegitimationandthisEuroGramscismisitsbasis.Some
yearsago,theAmericanMarxistPaulPiconnepredictedthatifMarxismistobecomea
meaningfulpoliticalforceintheWest,itwillhavetofollowaGramscianpath,andthat
becauseGramsciprovidesaformulationofMarxismfreefromallthetraditionaltrappingsof
orthodoxversionshewouldbecometheinspirationofleftoppositiontothemainCommunist
Partiesaswellasanobjectforritualobeisancesonthepartoftheirleaderships.The
predictioniscertainlybeingfulfilled.
Itsfulfilmentbringsnewproblems,however.Anewprophethasbeendiscovered.Inthese
pagesthetinymansgiantshadowisprojectedasapossiblefutureforEurope.Hebecomes
thekeytoanew,decentrevolutionaryphilosophyfreefromthetaresofreallyexisting
socialism,andvalideverywhere.Everythingisrecastinaheroicmouldchiselledoutofthe
dense,torturedseamsoftheNotebooks.TheSardinian,andeventheItalian,disappearsinits
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glow.Islandbristlesandpeninsularwartshavebeensmoothedaway,toproduceacuriously
cosmopolitanandabstractfigure.AnAlthusserianhalohasbeenbestoweduponthecountry
boy,asifhehadretrospectivelypassedtheagrgationandshedallmerelyhumanattributes.
Canthetransformationbejustified?Doubtonthisscoreisnotnecessarilysentimentality.
Noneoftheauthorsinquestioncouldbeaccusedofimpiety,inthesenseofwilful
indifferencetoGramscispersonalityorsufferings.Thepointconcerns,rather,theintellectual
substanceofGramsciswritings.Canthatreallybedisengagedandextolledasanewpolitical
revelation,asagospelforthe1980s?OrwasitirremediablyboundupwithcertainSardand
Italianatedilemmas,andcharged(therefore)withpersistentambiguitieswhichmustqualify
alleffortsatbroadphilosophicalinterpretation?Isitnotthecasethat,asAlastairDavidson
wroteinhis1977intellectualbiography,studyingGramscimakesonegrasphowmucheach
individualcanonlybeexplainedbyhispositioninaparticularhistoricalandsocialstructure,
whichishis...Thesocialandeconomicstructurewhichproducedhim...canonlybe
graspedstructurallyifitisgraspedhistorically?
TheEnglishlanguagereaderisnowmuchbetterequippedtotacklesuchquestions.
BeginningwiththesuperbannotatedSelectionsfromthePrisonNotebooksproducedby
QuintinHoareandGeoffreyNowellSmith(1971),agreatdealofGramscihasbecome
availableinfirstratetranslation.TherearetwofurthervolumesofPoliticalWritings,
coveringthewholeperiodfrom1910uptohisimprisonmentin1926:andtwoeditionsofthe
LettersfromPrisonbyHamishHendersonandLynneLawner(1974and1975).In1981
LawrenceandWishartplantopublishafourthvolumeintheirseriesofselections,thistime
fromGramscisabundantarticlesandnotesonliteratureandculturallife.Theimpactofthis
oughttobeconsiderable,giventhetraditionalcentralityofliterarycriticisminBritishculture.
Atthesametime,anescalatingdebateaboutGramscisideashasbeentakingplace,mainlyin
ItalyandFrance.ChantalMouffescollectionGramsciandMarxistTheorypresentsthe
phasesofthisargumenttotheEnglishlanguagereader.Unfortunatelyhertranslationsare
farbelowthestandardreachedwiththeGramsciwritings.Itwouldbeidletoblamethe
translators:nofewerthantenofthemarecreditedwiththedifferentchapters.Thefaultisan
editorialone.Ithasinterestingbutdisturbingimplications,MsMouffeopensbydeclaring
thatthereignofAlthusserianismisoverandthatofGramscismisbeginning.Ihopesheis
right.However,herownexamplesuggestsitmaynotbesoeasytobreakfreefromthegreat
websofEcoleNormalelibrarypasteandintellectualterrorism.ThesameistrueoftheBuci
GlucksmannandSassoonvolumes.ChristineBuciGlucksmannsstudy,especially,canbe
seenasamightystruggleforitsownemancipationfromthespiderousidiomandattitudes
whichinvadedMarxisminthe1970syetthestruggleisexpressed,inevitably,inthevery
termsshewishestotranscend.
Thisisthecontextoftheproblemofaccessibility.Thoughapermanentdilemmaofany
democraticormasspolitics,ithasbecomeimpossiblyaggravatedfortheLeftbythe
consolidationofacademicMarxismsincethelater1960s:bytheexistence,thatis,ofa
distinctsocialstratumnownumerousandestablishedenoughtopossessitsownidiolect.This
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speechmodeisgovernedbythekeyconceptofrigour,anotionsuitablycombining
professionalstrictnesswithquasiLeninistdisciplinarianism.Rigourinthenewtribalsenseis
counterposedforitsjustificationagainstwhatonemightcallnumbskullpopulism,anitem
neverinshortsupplyontheLeft.
RigoristsbelievethatMarxismisascience,inanexcitingnewsense,demandingnew
terminologyandconceptualtechniciansforitsdevelopment.Populistssticktotheconviction
thatanythingworthsayingmustbeaccessibletothehumblestIQintheland,and
translatableintoDailyMirrorrhetoric.Typicallyfixatedbymethodologyandlanguage,
rigorismperceivesdeparturefromitsowndiscoursecategoriesasmereslobberinghumanism
or(inthepoliticalversion)reformismandrevisionism.Populismanswers,naturally
enough,withimpatientdismissalofthenewpriesthood.Eversuspiciousoflites,socialists
couldhardlyavoidparanoiaoversuchablatantlyhermeticwegroup.
Fromoneangle,Gramscislifeandwritingswereafinaldemolitionofthispreposterous
polarity.Hisarduousscholarlybackgroundmadehimintenselyawareofcultural
differentiations,andoftheimpossibilityofpopulistshortcircuits:intellectualsareadefinite,
thoughvariegated,socialstratum,ofcrucialpoliticalsignificance,andwithirreducible
functions.Innovationisonesuchfunction,andisrarelycomprehensibletoeveryoneculture
spreadsinphases,throughthebywaysandreflectionsponderedonsocarefullyinhis
LetteraturaeVitaNazionalenotes.Yetatthesametimetheseconduniqueaspectof
Gramscislife,afterhisupbringinghewasinvolvedinorganisingandleadingagenuine
massrevolutionarymovement.Nootherintellectualinhisorthefollowinggenerationof
WesternMarxistswastoenjoysuchanexperiencedirectly.
Itimmunisedhimcompletelyagainstthatscepticismoforevencontemptforthemasses
which,later,infectedtheMarxistintelligentsia.Nobodyhadfewerillusionsaboutordinary
peoplethanGramsci.ButtheTurinexperienceof191920guaranteedhimagainstthe
supremeillusion:thatofbelievingintheirinevitableservitudeandmyopia.Asaresult,allhis
writingfromthatperiodforwardembracesawiderregister,perhaps,thanthatofanyother
politicalfigureofourcentury.Hewrestlesconstantlywiththemostdifficultoroutofthe
wayideas:yetthereisneveranythingatallarcaneabouthisargumentorattitude.Rather,he
washauntedbythesensethatthemostabstractphenomenasuchastheCroceanspirit
worldwhichdominatedtheItalianuniversitiesatthattimealwayshaveadesperately
practicalsignificance,ifonlyonecangetthemintotherightfocus.Conversely,themost
concretethingsapopularsaying,streetnames,modesofaddress,talkoftheweather
willbetrayahighlydialecticalmeaning,wheninterrogatedwithinsight.
Marxismshould,andcan,knoweverything.ButinsharpcontrasttotheneoMarxist
academyitisneverforpeopleintheknow.Hepointedoutofagreatpredecessorthat
Machiavellihadinmindthosewhoarenotintheknow,anditwastheywhomheintended
toeducatepolitically.Whoisnotintheknow,intherelevantsense?Therevolutionaryclass
ofthetime,theItalianpeopleornation,thecitizendemocracywhichgavebirthtomen
likeSavonarolaandPierSoderini(NotesulMachiavelli).Tokeepthedoorsopenisnoteasy,
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andnotallwillpassthroughthemtherearemanymansionsinMarxismshouse,whichonly
windbagPhilistinespretendisoneentity.Yetifopennessisabandoned,theentirepolitical
aimoftheprojectisenfeebled.Esotericismisaformofdivisionspellingdefeat.IfMarxism
becomesastructuralistalgebraononelevel,itisboundtoremaincloddishorthodoxyamong
thosenotintheknow,themajorityforeverinnocentofepistemologicalbreaksor(MsBuci
Glucksmannsrevelation)thegnoseologyofpolitics.
Thequestionoftranslationisrelevanthere.InanearlieressaywrittenwithAnneSassoon,
ChantalMouffecastigatedEnglishlanguagediscussionofGramsciasnaive,because
ignorantofFrancoItaliantheoreticaldevelopments.Thechargewasjustified,inspiteofone
dauntinglyimportantexception(whichIwillreturntolater).However,naivetymighthave
beendispelledmorereadilyhadthematerialbeenputintoEnglish,ratherthanthecurious
Volapkofthe1970s.
Anotherreproachmustbeaddedtothis,concerningtheItaliancontributionstoGramsci
andMarxistTheory.TheIntroductionplacesthemwithinadialogueaboutGramstiand
politicaltheory,wherethekeyquestioniswhathegavetointernationalpoliticalscience.It
doesnotstresssufficientlyhowmuchthesearticleswerealsoblowsinapoliticalwar,aimed
andreceivedassuch.Thisstrugglewasaroundthenewhistoriccompromisestrategyofthe
ItalianCommunistParty,anditsstakeshave,increasingly,becomeamatterofliterallifeand
death.Forexample,MassimoSalvadorisGramsciandthePCI:TwoConceptionsof
HegemonywaspartofaSocialistripostetotheCommunistassaultonthoseelementsinthe
intelligentsiasupposedlysoftonterrorismandreluctanttosoiltheirhandswithreal
responsibility.TheattackhadbeenledbyPCnabobslikeAmendolaandNapolitano,alarmed
bydwindlingsupportfortheinterminablecrablikemanoeuveringsthepartyleadershipin
Parliament.Salvadorisbrilliantanswer(oneofthedelightsofthecollection)calledforthin
turnanartilleryburstfromViadelleBottegheOscure,scandalisedbyaSocialistsmartass
whowasactuallywalkingoffwiththePartyschieffetishobjectunderhisarm:Gramsci.
OneoftheCommunistrepliesistheconcludingchapterofMsMouffesbook,Biagiode
GiovannisLeninandGramsci:State,PoliticsandParty.Theeditorsaysitisrichin
theoreticalimplications,andthatitisagaintheconceptofhegemonywhichisatstakein
SignordeGiovannisreconsecrationofGramscianthought.Whatwasalsoatstake(onemust
object)wasthatafternoonssancebetweenBerlinguerandAndreottiontheprecisenuances
ofthemannerinwhichthePCIwouldcontinuenotposingavoteofnoconfidenceinthe
ChristianDemocraticGovernment,andsomaintainthecompromessostoricoonits
serpentiformcourse.DeGiovannisthesisisthatallhistoricaldevelopmentsincetheGreat
DepressionsanctifiesBerlinguersstrategy,andthatGramscisegemoniawasapremonition
ofthewondertocome.Theparty...andthereadjustmentoftherelationbetweenintellectual
labourandthefinalityofdevelopment,havecreatedastructuralmultiplicity,organicin
pointsofaggregation,organised,unifiedbythereturnintotheforefrontoftheusevalueof
theproductiveforcesandofsocialwealth,musesProfessordeGiovanni,compressingseveral
epochsofmystificationintoonegiganticparagraphofapology.Quitebarrenoftheoretical
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implications,thisstuffsuggeststhatthoseoutflankingthePConitsleftwere,ifnotterrorists,
thenpoorerrantsoulswithoutaphilosophicalrag(letalonetheGramscianmantle)totheir
name.
Butthatisnotpoliticsinthesensetheseauthorsthinkimportant.TheyconceiveGramscias
thefounder(withorwithoutLenin)ofMarxistpoliticaltheoryinasensethattranscendsthe
sordidandthemerelynational.Thepoliticalrealmisautonomous,andGramsciissomething
likeitsGalileo.TheysayofhimroughlywhathesaidofMachiavelli:Thefirstquestion...ina
studyofMachiavelliisthequestionofpoliticsasanautonomousscience,oftheplacethat
politicalscienceoccupiesorshouldoccupyinasystematicconceptionoftheworld.Thisis
why(incidentally)allthreevolumesmustappearstrangetoanypreAlthusserianRipVan
WinklesstillconvincedthatMarxismisaneconomicdeterministcreed.Theywillfindthe
modeofproduction,thedecliningrateofprofitandotheroldacquaintances,heldsternlyat
armslength,whentheyarenoticedatall.
IsGramscitheMachiavelliofCommunistpoliticalthought?Hehimselfdevotedmuchtimeto
thegreatFlorentine,andconceivedtheMarxistrevolutionarypartyasilmodernoPrincipe,a
contemporaryequivalenttoMachiavellisPrincesaviour.Allthreeofthesewriterssubscribe
heavilytothisview,andmaintainthatthemodernPrinceproperlyunderstoodfromtheir
ownreadingsoftheGramscitextswillbeahistoricalforcefurnishing(inChantalMouffes
words)apossibleEurocommunismwhichavoidsboththeperilsofStalinismandofsocial
democracy.
Thealternativeinterpretationgoessomethinglikethis:Gramsciisindeedamodernversionof
Machiavelli,andatranspositionofcertainMachiavellianthemesandimpulsesontothestage
of20thcenturysocialmovements.However,farfromunderwritinghimasapropheticfigure,
thistruthdoesexactlytheopposite.Itcircumscribeshisthought,bydemonstratingthe
persistenceofcertainproblemsofpeninsulardevelopmentfromthe16thtothe20thcentury.
Peninsularisthecorrectterm,notItalian.Forthecruxofthepersistentdilemma,ofwhich
MachiavelliandGramscistandatoppositeends,hasbeenafailuretoconstituteoneItalian
nation,asdistinctfromtheItalianatestateoftheRisorgimentoandafter.
InMachiavellisdaytheItalianlandsweresuccumbingtoforeignconquestbytheembryonic
nationstatesbeyondtheAlps.There,greatunifyingdynastieshadconstructedbureaucratic
andmilitarymachinesdwarfingtheresourcesofthecitystatesandprincedoms.Fromthe
endofthe15thcenturyonwards,theyturnedavidlyuponthefabulousandalmost
defencelesspeninsula,whereRenaissancetreasurehouseswereprotectedbydimeadozen
condottieri.Thoughhimselfastaunchrepublican,Machiavellisawthattheonlyhopeof
repellingthetidelayintheformationofacentralItaliankingdomabletocompete.Without
itsownabsolutism,itsownequivalentoftheValois,TudororHapsburgmonarchies,Italy
woulddeclineintoacollectionofcolonisedprovinces.Thus,hewasforcedtohopethatthe
careerofthePapalbastardCesareBorgia(idealisedinIlPrincipe)would,miraculously,
inspiresomeotherprincelingtothetask.

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Itwastoolate.Italianfeudalitywastoofragmentedandsetinitswaystoaccomplishthe
transformation.Itdecomposedintothreecenturiesofenforcedquietism.Thepolitical
retardationMachiavellisformulawasmeanttocurebecamepermanent.Therearoseapetty
universeofchronicdependencyandcorruption,inwhichpolitics,divorcedfromthe
mainstreamofEuropeanstateformation,assumedtheformofpurelypersonalorfamilial
intrigueandadvancement.Reflectingbitterlyuponthecountryseconomichistoryinthenew
EinaudiStoriadItalia,RuggieroRomanopointsouthow,inItalymorethananywhereelse,
politicalpowerbecamethemeanstoeconomicsuccess:Withonlyrareexceptions,politics
haveforcenturiesofourhistorybeenthespringboardofeconomicprogress.Inshort,isnot
thathistorythestoryofonecolossaltheft,perpetratedwithassiduityacrossthecenturies?
Endemicretardationatonelevelmay,however,promoteadvanceatanother.Thishasbeen
strikinglythecaseasregardsItalianpoliticalthoughtandinitiative.Thatspecific
backwardnessrenderedpoliticsallimportant,bothintheMachiavelliansenseofasearch
foralternativesandinthesenseindicatedbyRomano,ofsottogoverno,duplicity,self
interestedmanipulationandsoon.TheItalianatelegendofMachiavellianismconflatesthe
twothingsintoonesinisterimage:politicsmayaccomplishmiraclesifsufficientvirtu
(cunningandwillpower)isputintoitor,ifnotanewworld,thenatleasttheminormiracle
ofnextyearscontractorUncleGinospension.
Theintractablepoliticalproblemsofthepeninsula,inotherwords,havefosteredadramatic
searchforanswers,andanunusuallyintensepreoccupationwiththepoliticalasaquasi
autonomoussourceofbothveritiesandopportunities.Italianperiodsofcrisis,aboveall,have
invariablyopenedthisfertilewomb.Heroffspringhavebeennowmarvellous,nowdisastrous:
butalwaysprodigies,insomewaysuperiortothetimidcontrivancesofthosemorestable
societieswhichtheItalians(forthemostpart)wishedtoresemble.Thefounderingofcity
stateItalyissuedinMachiavelli,stillthemostimportantfigureinthehistoryofpolitical
thought.TherenovationofItalyaftertheFrenchrevolutionaryinterludebrought,in
Mazziniannationalism,thearchetypeolthenewageofnationalities.AfterWorldWarOne,
thecrisisofthenewandprecariousnationalstateengenderedFascism,aninventionwhich,
lessthantwodecadeslater,threatenedtotakeovertheworld.ThecollapseofFascism
producedinturnthelargerthanlifeheroismoftheResistancemovements.Asthepastwar
statehasstumbledintodebilityandrecession,theinheritorofthesemovements,Italian
Communism,hascontrivedyetanotherepochalphilosophytoclotheitsdesigns:
Eurocommunism.
EarlierMouffcandSassoondidadmit,atriflenervously,thatonecouldsaythatitis
impossibletofindinLeninthesametypeofsensitivitytoculturalandmoraldirectionwith
whichtheItaliantraditionhadimbuedGramsci.However,neithertheynorBuci
Glucksmannseemwillingtocontemplatethepossibledepthsofthattradition.Theybelieve
theyarerescuingGramscifromtheItalians,andlayingbarehisuniversalsignificance.It
neveroccurstothemthatwhattheymightbeactuallydiscussing,andvigorouslycontributing
to,isonceagaintheItalianisationofEurope.
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ConcedingthatGramsciwasnomerephilosopherandthatonemustbegin,atleast,fromthe
actualcontextofhispoliticallife,ChantalMouffelistsinherintroductiontoGramsciand
MarxistTheorysomeoftherecentworkonthatcontext:theinfluenceofDeLeonandthe
EnglishShopStewardmovement,hisrelationshiptoLeninismandtheThirdInternational,
hisargumentsagainstAmadeoBordigaandtheSocialistleaderSerrati,andsoon.Important
asthisis,thereisacharacteristicleftwingweaknessattachedtoit.Thedeterminingcontext
ofGramscislifeandthoughtwasnotprovidedbythesegoodcausesandpersons.Itwas
furnishedbytheunprecedenteddefeatofallofthematthehandsoftheFascists.
Itisstillnoteasytograspthedimensionsofthatdefeat,becauseofourpost1945wisdom.
WeknowthattheLionsdayenduredonlyafewyearsandpeteredoutintheselfdevouring
farceofSalo.ButsavingforesightwasnotgrantedtoGramsciorhiscomradesinTuriprison
andtheotherdungeons.Theyfeltthemselveshurledlikestonesintothesea,adarknessso
uttertheonlyhopewastofeel,oneday,thatthebottommighthavebeenreached.Though
Gramscifacedthiswithhiscustomarytoughness,itmeantrecognisingthatonehadbeen
turnedfromawouldbeploughmanofthehistoricalfieldintomanure.Youdontliveasa
lionevenforaminute,farfromit:youlivelikesomethingfarlowerthanasheepforyears
andyearsandknowthatyouhavetolivelikethat.ImageofPrometheuswho,insteadof
beingattackedbytheeagle,isdevouredbyparasites...
AsaleaderoftheTorineseuprisingof191920,hefeltthelandslidemoreacutelythananyone
else.Itwashewho,atitshighpoint,hadwrittenareporttotheExecutiveCommitteeofthe
ThirdInternationalproudlydescribinghowtheproletarianarmyfelllikeanavalancheon
thecentreofthecity,sweepingthenationalistandmilitaristrabbleoffthestreetsbeforeit.
Yetonlytwoyearslaterthewolveshadreturned,torevengethemselvesonathoroughly
demoralisedworkingclass.Afterabloodstainedsummerandautumn,andthesurrenderof
thestatetoMussoliniinOctober1922,Turinhadstilltobetaughtalesson.Oneofthenew
ordersacademicspaniels,G.A.Chiurco,endedhispantingchroniclewithifattidiTorino:
Fascistbandsspeedilyaccomplishedreprisals,awakeningagreatdealofterror
amongthecommunists.Conflictsbrokeout,leadingtoanumberofdeaths.At
twointhemorningtheCameradelLavorowassetalightthenwhatwasleftwas
turnedovertotheauthorities,andthebodyitselfdissolved.ThelocalFascist
HighCommandtookpossessionoftheKarlMarxcentre.Afterthatthe
RailwaymensClubinViaRisaltawasoccupied,andtheeditorialandprinting
premisesofthecommunistorganLOrdineNuovo[Gramscispaper]weresetfire
toanddestroyed.
TheTurinindustrialiststhemselveswereappalledbytheviolence,andsentoffadelegationof
protesttoRomethefollowingday.
Thisreversaloffortunehadtakenplaceitiscertainlynotirrelevanttorecallunderthe
ideologicalbannerofantistatism.ThesubsequentevolutionofFascistcorporatism,withits
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newandextensivemodesofstatecontrol,wastocancelthefactinmostmemories.However,
fromearly1920untilhegotintopower,Mussolinisoughttoingratiatehismovementwiththe
propertyowningclasses.HisaddresstothesecondFascistCongresswasaninvocationofthe
veritiessoprized,today,byKeithJosephandothermembersofMrsThatchersgovernment.
Ayearlater,hisfirstparliamentaryspeechsoundedthesamenote.TheSardiniansocialist
EmilioLussuwroteafamousmemoiroftheevent:Hehadtakenuphisseatattheback,on
theextremerighthighupandseparatedfromtherestofhisdeputies,heseemedlikea
vulture,crouchinguponarock.Imustdeclareatonce,hebegan,thatmyspeechwillbe
reactionaryincharacter.ItwillbereactionarybecauseIamantiParliamentarian,anti
DemocraticandantiSocialist.Whatwasthegistofthisreaction?Areturntosimple
mindedManchesterism.ItwastimetodeprivetheStateofallthefunctionswhichrenderit
dropsicalandvulnerable,heasserted.LettheStateprovideapoliceforcetoprotectdecent
peopleagainstvillains,properlyorganisedcourts,anarmyreadyforanything,andaforeign
policyintunewithrealnationalneeds.Everythingelseeventhesecondaryschoolsystem
oughttobelefttoprivateenterprise.TosavetheState,wemustfirstabolishthecollectivist
state.Evidently,Lussuconcludeswithduesarcasm,theCorporativeStatewasnotyetworked
outinsufficientdetail.
LongbeforeProfessorFriedmanthiskindoffoolsgoldwasemployedtorotthecivicsense
andreplaceitwithamoreatomised,manipulableclimateofresentment.Thecitizengaveway
toamythical,illdonebysmallman,repositoryofthebetrayednationalvirtuescausesand
argumentsweresubmergedbyscapegoats(firstathome,thenforeignogres),chiromantic
radicalismandeditorialfrothing.ThoughantiparliamentaryinItaly,wheresecular
cynicismhadbeentransferredtoalltheinstitutionsofthenewbourgeoisstate,thevirusis
perfectlycompatiblewithvotingdemocracy.Providedthelatterisaddledandincompetent
enough,thatis.Thenwhenthepatientislaidoutitisdiscoveredinevitablythatthecrisis
demandsmorestateoperation,notless.Theonlyrealproblemishowmuchmore,andhow
painful.
WhereasinGreatBritainsuchconvulsionsproducedmerelyaparodicformofparliamentary
rule,theNationalGovernment,inItalythestategaveway.Theweaknessinpolitical
formationdiagnosedbyMachiavelliremained.ThenationalunificationofRisorgimental
timeshadbeen(inGramscisphrase)passiverevolution,achangestagemanagedandco
optedfromabove,andnotaremakingofsocietyfrombelow.Thesemblanceandimpulseof
revolthadbeentransformedintocounterrevolution,protectingthevitalsoftheoldsystem.
Now,afterthewarsdisapointmentsandtheleftwingthreatof191920,itwashappening
again.Withfargreaterviolenceandingenuity,asouredmiddleclasswasdiscardingthe
stateformofPiedmonteseLiberalismandhalfblindlyforginganother.Theformof
hegemonywasdrasticallyremade:andyetitwouldonlybetoredeemtheoldinterestsand
lendnewlifetotheancient,festeringailmentsofthecountry.
RevolutionfromabovehadagaindefeatedtheLeftsrevolutionfrombelow.Ithaddonesoby
weldingtogetherunderlyingsocioeconomicconservatismwiththehighest,mostruthless
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politicalintelligencebyexploitingtothelimittheautonomyofthepolitical,understoodas
aselfactingmotorofhistoricalchange.Festoonedwithstolenliberalandsocialisttrappings,
thechariotofcounterrevolutionrolledoverthelabourmovement,theCatholicleft,the
Freemasonsandallotherorganisedresistance.ThroughBarnumandBaileypatriotismits
principalweakness,theabsenceofahomogeneousnationalreality,wasconvertedintoshort
termadvantage.
Thedefeatseemedendless.SevenyearsaftertheMarchonRome,andthreeafterGramscis
imprisonment,LussuescapedfromtheLipariIslandprisonwithtwootheropponentsofthe
regime.Asdawncameuplandwas,atlast,sightedfromtheirsmallboat.Buteventhis
prospectcouldnotlifttheirspirits,herecalls.IsFascismgoingtolastforever?asked
someonesuddenlydespondent.Itlookslikeit...saidanother,andwefellintoapessimistic
discussiononthegeneralstateofEurope.Reactionisgaininggroundeverywhere,thefirst
speakerwenton.Theworldisgoingtotheright.Theonlyconsolation(theyagreed)was
thatthetidesandsolarsystemseemedimmunetothetrend,sofar.
TheproblematicconditioningallGramscisthemesandresearcheswasessentiallytodowith
Italiancatastrophe:notStalinism,workerscontrol,thenatureoftheParty,Leninisms
SeventhSealortheotherpreoccupationsoftheEurocommunists.Thesourceofhislong
journeyintonightwasthissocialexplosioncontradictingalmosteveryrationalexpectation,
andposingthemostfundamentalquestions.Whathistoricalpathologyhadallowedtwosuch
passiverevolutionstosucceedandsweepeverything(politicallyspeaking)beforethem?The
relationshipbetweenstateandcivilsocietyhadbeenabnormal,clearly.Yetitsveryexistence
showedsomethingamisswiththehabitualmodels,Marxistandother,andthedeficiencywas
notconfinedtothelevelofpoliticaltacticsororganisation.Thechronicallybrokenand
deformedcrystalofItalianhistoryhadbecomeastandingaccusationofthewiderphilosophy
oftheLeft,ofitsstereotypedworldview.And,withinthatworldview,aboveallofitspolitical
ideasandtheories.
ThisisthefirstpartofadiscussionofGramscibyTomNairn.Thesecondwillbepublished
inthenextissue.
Vol.2No.133July1980TomNairnEuroGramscism
pages1315|5248words

Letters
Vol.2No.1621August1980
SIR:TomNairnsreviewofworksonGramsci(LRB,3July)containsaverysmallbut
disturbingconfusionofterms.Earlyinthereviewhewritesoftheauthorsunder
consideration:allareonbroadlythesametrack.Theyareinsearchofanew
revolutionaryideologyfortheEuropeanLeftasawhole.Intheverynextcolumnwe
read:accessibilityhasbecomeimpossiblyaggravatedfortheLeftbytheconsolidation
ofacademicMarxismsincethelater1960s.Andconcludingthesameparagraph:
Rigourinthenewtribalsenseiscounterposedforitsjustificationagainstwhatone
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mightcallnumbskullpopulism,anitemneverinshortsupplyontheLeft.Rigorists
believethatMarxismisascienceTheproblemisthatNairn,likemanyothers,
conflatestheLeftwithMarxism,implying,ifnotdirectlystating,thattheentireLeftis
MarxistorthattheonlyseriousportionoftheLeft,thenonnumbskullportion,is
Marxist.WhydoesanewrevolutionaryideologyhavetobeMarxist?Itisabouttime
thattheLeftbefreedfromtheMarxistalbatross.
TheLeft,ifthetermisnotsovagueastobetotallymeaningless,isinformedbya
collectionofphilosophieswhichstandfortheliberationoftheindividualwithina
liberatedsocietyitstandsforliberationfromeconomicoppressionandfrom
ideologicalsuppressionitstandsforundistortedperception.Thefundamentalvalueof
theLeft,inshorthand,ishumanemancipationinitsmultifariousmanifestations.The
philosophiesoftheLeftvaryastheirunderstandingsofemancipationdifferandastheir
emphasesontheformofemancipationdiffer.Marxismisonlyonephilosophyofthe
Left.Marxists,asiswellknown,argueforeconomicliberation,thedestructionofthe
bourgeoissclassdominationovertheproletariatthroughdestructionofthecapitalist
system,asthebasisofemancipationinallotheraspectsoflife.
Thisishardlytheonlyconceptionofemancipationpossible,nordoesitseemvery
accurate.Marxisttheoryhasnotmadeonecorrectpredictioninthepasthundredyears
abouttheprognosisofcapitalism,andnotforwantoftrying.Erroneouspredictions,
suchasfreedomunderthedictatorshipoftheproletariat,haveledtoreforms,
modificationsandrejectionoflargeportionsofMarxismbyMarxists.Evenself
declaredMarxistsHabermas,forinstancehavegonesofarastorejectfundamental
Marxistconcepts:thattheeconomicbasedeterminesthecharacterofpolitical,cultural
andintellectualsuperstructure,andthatmancreateshimselfthroughhisphysical
labours.ItisabouttimepeopleacceptedthatMarxismhasnomonopolyonthetruthit
iswrong,andnomodificationwillmakeittrue.Therearemanyilluminatingand
meaningfulideasinMarxismwhichmustberetained.Buttobesalvagedtheymustbe
incorporatedintoanewtheorywhichavoidsthemistakesofMarxism.
EzekielEmanuel
DepartmentofBiochemistry,UniversityofOxford
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