Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 62 (2008) 8086

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Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s e v i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / p e t r o l

Modeling unsteady-state gravity-driven ow in porous media

Josh-Qiang Xu
CRC for Greenhouse Gas Technologies, Curtin University of Technology, GPO Box U1987, Perth, WA, 6845, Australia

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 1 March 2007
Accepted 13 July 2008
Keyword:
gravity
drainage
uid ow
capillary

a b s t r a c t
This paper presents an investigation of gravity-driven ow in porous media using angular capillary tubes.
Gravity is important in many uid transport processes, such as ground water ow, oil ow in reservoir, and
water ow in subsurface in CO2 sequestration processes. In these processes, density contrast of the uids is
generally large, e.g., water vs. gas, or oil vs. gas. Gravity-driven ow of the denser uid largely takes control in
these processes. In particular, gravity-driven ow falls into two regimes in regarding to the denser uid: the
bulk ow (steady-state) and the lm/corner ow (unsteady-state) that follows. The geometrically
complicated ow channels in a porous medium are represented by shaped capillary tubes. As far as the
author knows, this work models for the rst time the unsteady-state laminar ow of Newtonian uids in
angular channels.
The uid distribution or the tail of the ow above the uid contact (Fig. 1) is governed by the uid dynamics.
Theoretical and numerical simulations of the lm/corner ow are conducted for the corner-shapes. The
results of this study provide basis for more detailed network models, which describe rock-uid systems at
microscopic level with deterministic solutions. The modeling procedure and results are useful for modeling
the performance of gravity dominated improved oil recovery processes, ground water ltration, and water
movement in a CO2 plume in CO2 sequestration processes.
2008 Published by Elsevier B.V.

1. Introduction
Gravity drainage is an important oil recovery mechanism in steamassistant-gravity-drainage (SAGD) processes (Butler, 1998; Canbolat
et al., 2004; Nabipour et al., 2007) and also in fractured oil reservoirs
(Jacquin et al., 1989; Nabipour et al., 2007). Gravity stable gas injection
processes have been applied successfully in elds for many years
(Bangla et al., 1993; Langeberg et al., 1995). In gas injection gravitydrainage processes, maintaining gravity stable displacement mode is
vital for success. Therefore, the general practice in a gas injection
gravity-drainage process is to inject gas at low rate (pressure), such
that the gravity dominates over capillary force. Gravity-dominated
processes are often modeled experimentally and theoretically
(Grattoni et al., 2001; Donato et al., 2006) as free gravity drainage,
which implies that no external pressure is applied between the top
and bottom of the reservoir. Capillary effects, wettability, interfacial
tension may have important impact on gravity-drainage processes
and performances (Schechter et al., 1994; Zhou and Blunt, 1998;
Shahidzadeh-Bonna et al., 2003). However, in gravity-dominated
conditions, naturally, gravity would be the most important factor.
Several proposed predictive models (Cardwell and Parsons, 1949;
Nenniger and Storrow, 1958; Dykstra, 1978; Pavone et al., 1989) have
been found to be unsatisfactory (Schechter and Guo, 1996) in
predicting the production response of a reservoir. More detailed and
Tel.: +61 8 9266 4994; fax: +61 8 9266 7063.
E-mail address: Q.Xu@exchange.curtin.edu.au.
0920-4105/$ see front matter 2008 Published by Elsevier B.V.
doi:10.1016/j.petrol.2008.07.006

deterministic models, e.g., network models, may offer a way to

improve the modeling and predictive capability for gravity-drainage
processes.
A network is comprised of many individual ow channels. Gravitydominated uid ow in such channels is assumed for the entire
network. In oil reservoir, two-phase oilgas ow is much more
common and is considered in this work. Oil is the denser and wetting
phase and gas is the non-wetting phase in oilgas systems. The
denser-phase free gravity drainage in a single channel takes place in
two steps bulk liquid (oil) ow below the gas/liquid interface and
lm/corner ow above the interface. Micromodel studies (Chatzis
et al., 1988) of free gravity drainage suggest that both ow
mechanisms are inuenced by the presence of dynamic wetting
lms left behind the gas/oil interface. The ow behaviors are sensitive
to the geometry of the ow channels. In channels with circular crosssection shape, the liquid in the lm-owing regime exists as a
continuous lm along the wall. In channels with angular crosssectional area, the wetting uid occupies the corners in addition to the
wetting lm. Ransohoff and Radke (1988) numerically solved the
steady-state corner ow problem, and dened resistance factors to the
ow for various corner congurations. Patzek and Kristensen (2001)
investigated two-phase steady-state ow in polygon geometries by
studying the corner ow and proposed a universal curve for ow
conductance in the corners of an arbitrary angular capillary with
variable contact angles. Ransohoff et al. (1987) proposed corner ow
model based on the concept of hydraulic diameter and thin-lm ow
approach. Zhou et al. (1997) improved the hydraulic diameter and

J.-Q. Xu / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 62 (2008) 8086

thin-lm ow approximation based on the concept that the ow is

explained by thin-lm theory with an effective lm thickness
obtained as the ratio of the ow area to the length of the non-ow
boundary. They concluded that the new solution is valid for a wide
range of geometry and contact angles with error signicantly less than
50%. The assumption in the previous works that the liquid distribution
is uniform along the ow direction away from the advancing front
(interface) may be accurate for capillary dominated displacement
(small capillary number, ca = v/) as concluded by Bretherton (1961).
However, in gravity-dominated processes, the lm/corner ow is
not steady-state. In the gas injection gravity-drainage processes,
unsaturated oil ow from fractures contributes to the production after
the early stage. Such unsaturated unsteady-state lm ow has not
been sufciently addressed previously. Bird et al. (1960) provided a
solution for thin-lm (2D) ow using analytical approaches. Goodwin
and Homsy (1991) presented a boundary integral technical to obtain
numerical solution to the 2D problem in which a contact angle
boundary condition is imposed. For the rst time, this work models
the gravity-dominated unsteady-state laminar ow of Newtonian
uids in angular channels using numerical and theoretical methods.
2. Methodology
As the rst step, the relevant steady-state ow problem is solved.
Based on the steady-state solutions, the unsteady-state problem is
solved analytically in the three dimensional space for region above the
liquid/gas interface for ow in an angular geometry. Mass conservation principle is invoked to obtain the governing partial differential
equation, which is then solved using the method of characteristics.
Dimensionless form of the solution provided a convenient method for
calculating the production curve. In addition to the detailed derivation
of the unsteady-state corner ow, it has been shown that the problem
in other geometries can be solved in a similar manner.

viscosity. For a particular uid system, the right-hand side term of

Eq. (1) is a constant, thus Eq. (1) can be transformed into Laplace's
equation (Happel and Brenner, 1973).
Depending on boundary conditions and the geometry, many
techniques may be used to solve Eq. (1). Analytical solutions are
available for circular, rectangular, and equal-lateral triangle shapes
(Happel and Brenner, 1973). However, even for a case that analytical
solution does exist, e.g., rectangular, the mathematical expression of
the solution is so complicated that a numerical solution is still needed
to evaluate that expression.
In this study, MATLAB pdetool (a nite element method) was
used to solve Eq. (1). For the corner ow problem (Fig. 2(a)), the
parameters are: interfacial radius, a = 0.001 m; half angle, = /6;
density, = 1000 kg/m3 ; gravity constant, g = 9.81 m/s2 ; and
viscosity, = 0.001 Pa s, respectively. Two types of boundary
conditions are specied: the Dirichlet boundary condition (nonslip condition, zero velocity) at the walls and the Neumann
boundary condition, zero normal derivative of velocity, on the
interfacial boundary, where liquid is adjacent to the gas phase.
These boundary conditions are appropriate as concluded by Zhou
et al. (1997) for corner ows. The solutions are achieved by stepwise mesh renement until the ow rate converges at a
predetermined small error (less than 0.01% of the average velocity).
Numerical integration of the velocity distribution over the owing
area gives the volumetric ow rate, q (m3/s),
Z Z
q

ux; ydxdy

As shown in Fig. (1), a constant ow potential gradient acts in the

vertical direction, z, aligned with the direction of the ow. For singlephase liquid ow, obtaining the velocity prole, u(x,y), is the primary
goal in this part of the study.
The NavierStokes equation can be simplied in the cases under
investigation. For a steady-state slow motion, the inertial term can be
neglected and the ow is in the laminar regime. The uid is assumed
to be Newtonian and incompressible. The NavierStokes equation
reduces to a simple form,
j2 ux; y

1 d
dz

where A is the cross-sectional area. For a particular geometry shape

and boundary condition, buN is linearly proportional to the driving
force in a laminar viscous Newtonian ow. For the circular-shape, we
have,
hui

r 2 p r 2 jp r2 g

8L
8
8

which is the HagenPoiseuille equation (Bird et al., 1960). Eq. (4) states
that the average velocity is linear to the pressure gradient. For other
cross-sectional shapes, the Newtonian uid assumption leads to
linearity of the average velocity and pressure gradient as well,

where u(x,y) is the velocity in z direction; d/dz is the potential

gradient. In the case of gravitational force only, d/dz = g; is liquid

this was done by mapping the nodal solution to a Cartesian grid

system, because the velocity values are available at nodes of the nite
elements. After obtaining q, the average velocity, denoted as, buN is
obtained as,
hui q=A

2.1. Steady-state single-phase ow

81

hui

a2 p a2 jp a2 p

BL

where a is a characteristic dimension, and is a constant representing

a particular geometric shape. This parameter is similar to the
resistance factor dened in Ransohoff and Radke's (1988) work. We
obtain = 30.09 for the corner ow problem, which compares to
Ransohoff and Radke's (1988) result of = 31.07.
Eq. (5) suggests that the average velocity is proportional to the
interfacial radius to the second power. Eq. (5) is sufcient in describing
the steady-state ow behaviors in shaped owing channels. However,
for the unsteady-state ow, the volumetric ow rate q changes over
time, the equation is not applicable directly. Nevertheless, Eq. (5) is
useful in the unsteady-state modeling.
2.2. Unsteady-state lm ow

Fig. 1. Gravity drainage in an angular cross-sectional shaped tube.

Many physical processes, including drainage ow in a duct, involve

dynamic lm drainage along a wall. In drainage in cylindrical

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J.-Q. Xu / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 62 (2008) 8086

Fig. 2. FEA results: velocity prole in the corner (a = 0.001 m; = /6, g = 9810 Pa/m, = 0.001 Pa s). (a) Geometry of the corner, a = 0.001 m, = /6. (b) Velocity prole.

capillaries occupied by a non-wetting phase, wetting liquid ow

occurs in a lm, too. In a gravity-drainage process, a lm (Fig. 3) is
retained on the wall due to the non-slip liquidsolid interface as the
liquid drains. The thickness of this liquid lm, (z,t), changes with time

(t) and position (z), it becomes thinner over time at any particular
position and it becomes thicker downwards as the uid drains down.
The drainage is a free-surface problem, which can be solved using
numerical approaches, e.g., nite element method, nite boundary
element method. Goodwin and Homsy (1991) addressed this problem
with a boundary integral technical. Bird et al. addressed this problem
with a theoretical approach. Excluding evaporation effect, mass
conservation law applies and can be used to derive a partial
differential equation that governs the lm ow. Solution to the
problem is (Bird et al., 1960),
= gz=t 1=2

the detailed derivation for Eq. (6) is omitted since a similar derivation
for corner ow is presented in next section.
2.3. Unsteady-state corner ow

Fig. 3. The lm drainage problem.

In angular capillaries, the wetting phase occupies the corner

regions as shown in Fig. (4). Volume of liquid lm along the straight
wall is much smaller compared to the volume of liquid in the corner.
Therefore, the liquid is considered in the corners only (Fig. 4(a)). In the
equal-lateral triangle shaped channel, ow in one corner represents
the ow in the entire channel.

J.-Q. Xu / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 62 (2008) 8086

83

With this analytical solution, the thickness (indicated by the

radius, a) of the liquid corner is known everywhere in all times.
However, the solution is not derived and intended to apply for very
early time, t 0, when Eq. (10) blows up. Furthermore, in order to
apply Eq. (10), we need to know where the advancing interface is. The
advancing velocity and shape of the meniscus is very complex in a
non-circular ow channel (Wong et al., 1992). As far as we know, the
advancing velocity in non-circular tube has not been addressed
satisfactorily. It is assumed that the interfacial radius a is a0 (Fig. 4) at
the liquid/gas advancing front, in other words, the liquid occupies the
entire corner but without merger with adjacent corners. This
assumption is consistent with the assumption that the ow only
occurs at corners above the interface. With this, the interface
advancing velocity is,
v z=t 2ga20 =

11

to obtain dimensionless form of Eq. (10), let aD = a/a0, zD = z/L, tD = t/t,

where t = L/v, thus, we have,
aD zD =tD 1=2 :

12

This dimensionless solution is plotted in Fig. 5(a). A value of zD/

tD =1.0 represents the interface advancing front. This characteristic
corner drainage ow curve represents ow in a corner for any uid
properties.

Fig. 4. The corner drainage problem: (a) Drainage in one corner. (b) Fluid distribution in
the cross-sectional area of the ow channel.

Initially, the angular capillary is lled completely with the wetting

phase. Once the gravity-drainage process starts, the corner ow
regime is formed above the two-phase interface. We assume two
boundary conditions for this corner ow. One is that at the top of the
capillary tube, the lm thickness is zero instantaneously. The second
condition is at the bottom of the corner, it is assumed that the
interfacial radius a is a0 (Fig. 4) at the liquid/gas advancing front. In
other words, the liquid occupies the entire corner but without merger
with adjacent corners. With these assumptions, we start the
derivation as following.
First, mass (volume) conservation law is used to derive (Appendix A)
the governing partial differential equation Eq. (7) for the liquid column
along the corner,
2huia=z ahui=z 2a=t 0

using the steady-state solution Eq. (5) obtained from FEM numerical
simulation, which states,
hui ga2 =

in place of buN in Eq. (7), we have,

2ga2 =a=z 2ga2 =a=z 2=t 0
combine the rst two terms,
2ga2 =a=z a=t 0:

Eq. (9) is a rst order quasi-linear partial differential equation.

Method of characteristics is used to solve Eq. (9) (Appendix A),
a = 2g z=t 1=2 :

10

Fig. 5. (a) Characteristic drainage curve for corner ow. (b) Recovery versus dimensionless
time in an equal-lateral triangle shaped tube.

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J.-Q. Xu / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 62 (2008) 8086

From Eq. (12), it is easy to compute the fractional recovery (as a

fraction of initial uid/oil in place, IOIP) in an equal-lateral triangle
shaped channel for tD b 1,
Z
Np

tD 

Z

A3caD dzD
2

A dzD
0

13

where A is the dimensionless cross-sectional area of the equal-lateral

triangle (inner circle radius aD = 1), equals 3 31/2; c(aD)2 is the liquid
occupied area in one corner at a particular value of zD; the constant, c,
equals (31/2 /3) for a half angle of /6. With these values and
Eq. (13),
Np 0:80tD :

14

For tD N 1, we have,
Np

Z 1
0

Z

A3caD 2 dzD

A dzD

Np 10:2=tD 1=2 :

15

Plot Eqs. (14) and (15) in Fig. 5(b) for a full range of tD, the
breakthrough oil production is about 0.80 IOIP, and the production
increases after breakthrough at a slower rate as described in Eq. (15).
Results show a low retention feature of the equal-lateral triangle
owing channel, indicating high efciency of gravity-drainage
process.
3. Discussions
3.1. Apply the analytical approach to other geometries
The above approach can be extended to other geometries. For
example, in a circular-shaped tube, the uid forms a uniformthickness lm in a cross-section. The relation Eq. (5) of average
velocity of the liquid lm and the lm thickness can be obtained
theoretically or numerically, and it can then be applied in the
derivation to obtain the partial differential equation. For other
geometries such as square, since the corner (90) does not restrict
the ows as much as the corner (60) in an equal-lateral triangle, the
lm along the wall may be more signicant and need to be taken into
account. Thus, the corner ow results would not be applicable directly.
A combination of corner and lm ow pattern has to be considered.
With lm and corner ow problem solved in this study, the
combination of lm and corner ow can also be solved in principle.
The methodology developed in this work may be incorporated
into network models for more complicated modeling of ow in
porous media.

term, which can be treated as an upwards force acting at the

interface,
jW GLzpc =Lz
jW gpc =Lz:

17
18

It is clear that the effect of capillary force is relatively small in the

early stage when z is small, thus ow rate is nearly constant as
conrmed in experiments (Blunt et al., 1995), until (L z) becomes
sufciently small. Previous studies on the interface advances based on
force balances have been conducted and are referred as WRL theory
(Van Remoortere and Joos, 1991). From the force balance analyses, as
long as Pc is small or L z is larger, the effect of capillary force to the
ow can be neglected.
The effect of capillary force is limited in the dynamics of drainage ow
in conditions where Bond number is large, for instance, in relatively long
or larger channels, such as in a fracture. In addition, in conditions where
the interfacial tension is low, capillary force is insignicant anyway. Thus,
the uid dynamics approach is appropriate for ow in conditions with
large Bond number and low interfacial tension conditions.
4. Conclusions
With the results and the discussion, we conclude,
4.1 FEA numerical method is used in solving velocity prole for
steady-state ow in a corner geometry.
4.2 An analytical approach is developed for the unsteady-state corner
ow problem and lm ow problem. The analytical approach for
the triangular geometry can be extended to other geometries.
4.3 Results of uid production (oil recovery) from a single capillary
tube can represent the trend of oil recovery process in a porous
media. The high recovery efciency of gravity-drainage processes is demonstrated.
Nomenclature
Consistent (e.g., SI) units are assumed in all equations in the text.
a
c
D
g
L
Np
Nb
t
buN
v
x, y, z

interfacial radius in the corner, m

constant, dimensionless
subscript, dimensionless
gravity constant, m/s2
length of the ow channel, m
dimensionless production
Bond number, dimensionless
time, s
average velocity, m/s
interface advancing velocity, m/s
coordinate, m

3.2. Capillary force effects

The relative strength of capillary force and gravitational force is
often represented with the dimensionless Bond number, Nb. For ow
in a capillary tube, a Bond number,
Nb gLr= cos

16

is considered appropriate. In Eq. (16), is the density difference; L is

the length and r is the radius of the tube; is the interfacial tension;
and is contact angle. The larger the Bond number is, the less the
effect of the capillary force is. For the case of ow in equal-lateral
triangle shaped tube studied (Fig. 4), assuming g = 9810 Pa/m,
L = 1 m, taking r = 0.001 m, = 0.025 N/m, and = 0 (perfect wetting),
then Nb = 392.4, indicating the dominance of gravity force.
Based on force balance (Fig. 1) of the liquid in capillary tubes,
the potential gradient is comprised of gravity term and capillary

Greek symbols

half angle of a corner

shape factor

lm thickness, m

viscosity, Pa s

interfacial tension, N/m

characteristic function

density, kg/m3

uid potential, Pa
Appendix A. Derivation of equations for the unsteady-state
corner ow
In angular capillaries, most of the wetting phase ow occurs in
the corner regions as show in Fig. (4). First, use mass (volume)

J.-Q. Xu / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 62 (2008) 8086

conservation to derive the governing partial differential equation for

the liquid column along the corner (Fig. 4(a)). At a particular time and
position, t N 0 and z N 0, take a control volume with thickness of z as
the shell element and t as time increment. The in-ow to this control
volume at z is,

85

0, da/d = 0 holds, i.e., (z,t) represents characteristic curves on which a

does not change. We have,
da=d a=t dt=d a=zdz=d 0

A:7

comparing Eqs. (A.6) and (A.7) leads to the following two ordinary
differential equations,

huiz ca2z t
where buNz is the average velocity over the area at z; c =(1/tan()/2+),
is a constant only related to the half angle ; az is the interfacial
radius; caz2 is the cross-sectional area of the liquid occupied corner; t
is a small time interval. Similarly, the out-ow at position z +z, is,

dt=d
dz=dt 2ga2 =

A:8
A:9

combine Eqs. (A.8) and (A.9),

huizz ca2zz t

dz=dt 2ga2 =

and the accumulation within this shell element is,



ca2tt ca2t

for a xed a (on a character line), perform integration on Eq. (A.10),



z 2ga2 = t z0

where cat2+ t and cat2 are the average cross-sectional area at time t + t
and t. Using mass (volume) conservation principle, we have,


huiz ca2z thuizz ca2zz t ca2tt ca2t z

A:1

the constant c is cancelled out from Eq. (A.1). Then use the relations
azz az a=zz

A:2

huizz huiz hui=zz;

A:3

to substitute buNz + z and az + z in the second term in Eq. (A.1), it

becomes:



2
huiz hui=zz az a=zz t

expand the above term, we have,

hui a

2
z z

huiz 2az a=zz huiz a=zz hui=zza2z

2

hui=zz 2az a=zz hui=zza=zz

 t

as z 0, neglect the three higher order terms, drop the subscript, z, the
left side of Eq. (A.1) becomes,


2huiaa=z a2 hui=z z t:
Similarly, the right-hand side,



a2tt a2t z




a2t 2 a=t at t a=t t 2 a2t z

2aa=t tz
thus, Eq. (A.1) becomes,
2huiaa=z a2 hui=z 2aa=t 0

A:4

using the steady-state laminar lm drainage results Eq. (5) obtained

from FEM numerical simulation, which states,
buN = ga2/() in place of buN in Eq. (A.4), we have,
2ga3 =a=z 2ga3 =a=z 2a=t 0

A:5

combine the rst two terms and cancel-out 2a,

2ga2 =a=z a=t 0:

A:10

A:6

Eq. (A.6) is a rst order quasi-linear partial differential equation.

Method of characteristics is used to solve Eq. (A.6). Suppose for a (z,t) =

A:11

apply the boundary condition,

a 0;

z 0; t N 0

A:12

we get, z0 = 0. Thus, from Eq. (A.11),

a = 2g z=t 1=2 :

A:13

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