PQ

P Q
cos
2
2
Properites of Integrals
b
b
b
PQ
PQ
cos P cos Q 2 cos
cos
a ( f g )( x)dx a f ( x)dx a g ( x)dx
2
2
b
b
Logarithms Laws
If is
(

f
(
x
)
dx
)

f
(
x
)
dx
a
a
x log b N Only if b x N
constant
a
log b xy log b x log b y
f ( x)dx 0
Integration Summary
Is it a known integral? Can it be simplified to a known
integral ? Can you use the Integral Table ? Substitute.

a
b

a
b
a

f ( x ) dx

f ( x ) dx f ( x ) dx

x
log b x log b y
y

if p:

log b x p p log b x , log b x

f ( x ) dx f ( x ) dx
b

f ( x) dx

1 b
2 f ( x) dx
2 a

f ( x ) dx 0

if f is an odd function

x n 1
c
n 1
a

f ( x ) dx 2 f ( x ) dx
0

if f is an even

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

If a is constant:

d x
f (t ) dt f ( x) Or more generally
dx a
d g ( x)
f (t ) dt f ( g ( x )) g ( x )

dx a
Where f(g(x)) is f evaluated @ g(x), and g(x) is the derivative
of g(x) remember the 5th property of Integrals.
Integration by Substitution
Is there and obvious substitution:
ie: let u=f(x) (where f is in the integral)
let du/dx =f(x) (where f is in the integral)
Then substitute in, solve the integral then substitute back out.

Trigonometry
sin = opp / hyp
cos = adj / hyp
tan = opp / adj
tan = sin / cos
cot = cosec / sec
sec = cosec (/2 - )

cosec = 1 / sin
sec = 1 / cos
cot = 1 / tan
cot = cos / sin
sin = cos (/2 - )
tan = cot (/2 - )

/6
/4
/3
/2

1/rt(2) rt(3)/2
1
rt(3)/2 1/rt(2)

0
1/rt(3)
1
rt(3) Undef.

0
-1
0

To get the magnitude find the angle with the nearest

horizontal. The sign is found from which quadrant it is in ASTC.
Identities
cos2 A + sin2 A=1, 1 + tan2 A = sec2 A, cot2 A + 1 = cosec2 A
Sum-of-Angle

cos( A B ) cos A cos B sin A sin B

sin( A B ) sin A cos B cos A sin B
tan A tan B
tan( A B )
1 tan A tan B

Double-Angle
sin2 = 2sincos, cos2 = cos2-sin2 = 2cos2-1 = 1-2sin2
Half-Angle

sin 2

1 cos
1 cos

cos 2
2
2
2
2
1 cos
sin
tan

2
sin
1 cos

Products as Sums
2cosAcosB = cos(A+B)+cos(A-B), 2sinAsinB = cos(A-B)cos(A+B)
2sinAcosB=sin(A+B)+sin(A-B), 2cosAsinB = sin(A+B)-sin(A-B)
Sums as Products

PQ
PQ
cos
2
2
PQ
PQ
sin P sin Q 2 cos
sin
2
2
sin P sin Q 2 sin

log c x
log c b

1
log b b 1 , log b 1 0
log c b
1
log b b p p log b n x log b x
n
1
log b log b x
x
log b c

function

Sin
Cos
Tan

log b

n
x dx

cos P cos Q 2 cos

Polar Co-ordinates
Cartesian co-ordinates: (x, y)
Polar co-ordinates: (r, ), where r is distance from the origin &
is the angle with the +ve x-axis.
Polar representations are not unique as:
(r, ) = (r, + 2 ) = (r, - 2 ) = (r, + 2 k ) (k = 0, 1,)
Also, (r, ) = (-r, + ) = (-r, - )

Relation between Polar & Cartesian

To convert from Polar to Cartesian:
x = r cos
and
y = sin
To convert from Cartesian to Polar;
r = sqrt ( x^2 + y^2) and = tan^-1 (y / x) in the correct
quadrant.
Polar Curves
To sketch polar curves, first check to see if it may be easier to
sketch as a Cartesian (use above equations).
Sketching in Polar Form
1.
Test for symmetry (Remebember A S T C):

Replace with in the equation. If unchanged,

curve is symmetric about x-axis

Replace with in the equation. If unchanged,

curve is symmetric about y-axis.

Replace with + in the equation. If

unchanged, curve is symmetric about the origin.
2.
Make a table of values (in order from 0 2.
NB: If curve is symmetric:

About x-axis: need only 0

About y-axis: need only /2 3 /2

About origin: need only 0

Identifying Polar Curves
Cardioids & Limacon:
Lemniscates
1.
r = a + b cos
1.
r^2 = a^2 cos 2
2.
r = a b cos
2.
r^2 = -a^2 cos
3.
r = a + b sin
3.
r^2 = a^2 sin
4.
r = a b sin
4.
r^2 = -a^2 sin
If a = b
Cardiod
Rose Curves
Else if a < b
r = a sin n & r = a cos n
Limacon w/ Inner Loop
switch n
Else if b < a < 2b
case 1:
Dimpled Limacon
circle
Else if a 2b
case odd:
Convex Limacon
n equally spaced
End if
loops (petals)
case even:
Spirals
2n equally spaced
r=a
as , r
loops (petals)
r=a/
as , r
r = r ^ (a )
Differentiation
f(x)
f(x)
f(x)
f(x)
sin^-1 x
1/(sqrt(1 x^2))
c
0
cos^-1
x
-1/(sqrt(1
x^2))
x^n (n )
n * x ^ (n-1)
tan^-1 x
1/ (1 + x^2)
sin x
cos x
sinh x
cosh x
cos x
-sin x
cosh x
sinh x
tan x
sec ^ 2 x
tanh x
sech^2 x
cot x
- cosec^2 x
sinh^-1 x 1/(sqrt(1 + x^2))
e^(f(x))
f(x) * e^(f(x))
cosh^-1 x 1/(sqrt (x^2 - 1))
tanh^-1 x 1/(1 x^2), |x|<1
ln f(x)
f(x) * (1 / f(x))
Derivative of an Inverse Function

dy
1

dx dx

dy
Logarithmic Differentiation
Note that you cannot normally differentiate 2^x. So you do it
as such

d x
d ln 2 x
d x ln 2
2
e

e
dx
dx
dx
Then solve using the normal differential rules.
Differentials
If for a given function we know y = f(x) and want f(x + x) we
can approximate y which is really:
y = f(x + x) f(x) by using y f(x) * x
But this is only valid if x is small, in which case:
f(x + x) = f(x) + y f(x) + f(x) * x
eg:
Want (2.98)^4
which is eqn: f(x) = x^4
We know 3^4, so write: .98 = 3 + -0.02
which is (x + x) so
f(2.98) f(3) + f(3) * (-0.02) which is f(x) + f(x) * x
= 3^4 + 4*3^3 * -0.02 = 78.84
so (2.98)^4 78.84
The relative error in x is (x / x) and the percentage error
in x is (x / x) * 100%
Implicit Differentiation
In general, if y = f(x) and we need d/dx g(y), then

d
dg
dg dy
g ( y)

dx
dx
dy dx
If y = f(x), what is d/dx (y^3)

d 3
d 3 dy
y
x
dx
dx
dx
If y = f(x), what is d/dx e^(3y)^2

d
d 3y2
d 3 y 2 dy 3 y 2 d
dy
f ( x) n n f ( x) n 1 . f ' ( x)
e

e
e
(3 y 2 )
dx
dx
dx
dx
dx
Hyperbolic Functions
sinh
x = (e^x e^-x) / 2
dy
3y 2
cosh x = (e^x + e^-x) / 2
6 ye
tanh x = sinh x / cosh x =(e^x - e^-x)/(e^x+e^-x)
dx
cosech x = 1 / sinh x

Parametric Equations
Curves, which are not graphs of functions can be often written
as:x = x(t) y = y(t), for a parameter t, which we can think of
as time.
To find the curve in Cartesian form (only x & y), you must
eliminate t from the equations. Do this by solving for t in one
of the equations and substituting into the other.
Derivatives of Parametric Curves

dy

x x (t ) dy dt
Given {
,

y y (t ) dx dx

dt
d dy

2
d y dt dx

dx 2
dx

dt

and

sech x = 1 / cosh x
coth x = 1/ tanh x
One to One (1-1) Functions
A function is 1-1 if for each y value there is at most one x
value. Check: draw a horizontal line should only cross it
once.
If you restrict the function to in between two x values, we can
make it 1-1.
Inverse Functions: If y=f(x) made of ordered pairs (x,y) the
inverse function f^-1 will be made of ordered pairs (y,x). The
graph of the inverse function can be generated by reflecting
the f(x) about the line x=y. NB: Only 1-1 functions have
inverses, for those that arent 1-1, the domain has to be
restricted.
y=f(x), x = f^-1(x)
f^-1(x) is the inverse of f(x) if:
f(f^-1(x)) = x; x Dom f^-1 AND
f^-1(f(x)) = x; x Dom f
To find the inverse:
Make sure the function is 1-1
Let y=f(x)
Make x the subject so x = f^-1(y)
Swap x & y
The inverse may not be possible to find.

Domain: dom. of f(x):

Make y = f(x) (determine values of x that make sense cant /
0 or sqrt(-ve)
Range: rng of f(x):
Any obvious values y cannot be? Make x the subject x=f(y)
and determine values of y that make sense (cannot /0 or
sqrt(-ve)
Combining Functions
(f g)(x) = f(x) g(x), if x is in both Dom g & Dom f
(fg)(x) = f(x)g(x), if x is in both Dom g and Dom f
(f / g)(x) = f(x) / g(x), if x is in both Dom f and Dom g, and if
g(x) 0
(a f)(x) = a f(x), if x is in Dom f
Dom (f g) = Dom f Dom g
Dom (f g) = Dom f Dom g
Dom (f / g) = (Dom f Dom g) {x: g(x) = 0 }
Dom (a f) = Dom f
Inverse Trig Functions
Dom sin^-1 x = Rng sin x = [-1,1]
Rng sin^-1 x = Dom sin x = [-/2, /2]
Dom cos^-1 x = Rng cos x = [-1, 1]
Rng cos^-1 x = Dom cos x = [0, ]
Dom tan^-1 x = Rng tan x =
Rng tan^-1 x = Dom tan x = [-/2, /2]
sin(sin^-1 x) = x; if x [-1, 1]
sin^-1(sin x) = x; if x [-/2, /2]
cos(cos^-1 x) = x; if x [-1, 1]
cos^-1(cos x) = x; if x [0, ]
tan(tan^-1 x) = x; if x
tan^-1(tan x) = x; if x [-/2, /2]
Composition of Functions:
FoG = f(g(x)) GoF = g(f(x))
Limits:
xc as x approaches c.
sub c in for x
switch result
{
k finite (constant)
k/0
k > 0 as xc, f Does Not Exist
k < 0 as xc, f- Does Not Exist
k = 0 as xc, indeterminate change form of equation
to get answer
k/ k , limit = 0
k = , indeterminate change form of equation to get
answer
}
NB: if get poly/poly then div top & bottom by highest power of
x.
Product Rule

d
[ f ( x).g ( x )] f ( x).g ' ( x) f ' ( x ).g ( x )
dx
Quotient Rule

g ( x ). f ' ( x) g ' ( x ). f ( x)
d f ( x)

dx g ( x)
g ( x) 2
Chain Rule

The sum of k2 where k=15 in integer steps

(a
k 1
n

k 1

k 1

k 1

bk ) a k bk

ca

c a k

k 1

j 1

i 1

j 1

(2i j ) (2i j )
i 1

Do the bit in the square braces, then do the outer sum on the
result.
Transpose
AT the transpose matrix of Z is created by swapping the row
and columns.
Matrix Multiplication
If Amn & Bnp are to be multiplied: Check n=n, if = then the
resultant matrix R will be Rmp. If n n, then the matrices
cannot be multiplied.
C = Amn x Bnp, then cmp = sum of products of mth row in A
& pth col in B.
Eg:

A 3
5

7
4 xB
9
6

10

(1 7) ( 2 9)

R (3 7) (4 9)
(5 7) (6 9)

(1 8) (2 10)

(3 8) (4 10)
(5 8) (6 10)

Properties of Matrix Multiplication

A(BC) = (AB)C
A(B + C) = AB + BC
(A + B)C = AC + BC
(kA)B = A(kB) where k is scalar
IA = AI = A (I identity matrix)
Linear Equations
For any linear system there is only one of the following results
possible:
1.
1 Unique solution
2.
Infinite solutions
3.
No solutions.
A system with more variables than equations cannot have a
unique solution.
Process for Solving Equations

Write the equation in Ax = b form (A is the matrix of the

co-efficients, x the vector of unknowns and b vector of
constants).

Then get the augmented matrix (A | b) in Row Echalon

Form. (AE is the matrix A in Row Echalon Form)

Reduce to REF using Elementary Row Operations (hint

-finish with col 1 before moving through the rest in
order).

When in REF then re-write the equations and solve.

Elementary Row Operations
R1 k * R1 (k 0)

R1 R2

R1 R1 + k * R2

Elementary Matrixes

You can get an Elementary Matrix by performing an

Elementary Row Operation on the Identity Matrix.
Rank of Matrix A
1.
Reduce to REF (AE)
2.
The rank is the number of non-zero rows in AE.
Solutions of Equations
1.
Re-write in Ax = b form.
2.
Reduce (A | b) to REF.
If (Rank A = Rank A | b)
{1
If(Rank A = # Columns in A)
Unique Solution
Else
Infinite # Solutions
}
else
No solution.
Eg: A | b
is
in REF.
Rank A=3, Rank (A | b) = 3
Rank A=3, # Cols in A = 3

Unique Solution
Inverse Matrix (A-1)
Inverse matrixes only exist
for square matricies.
Not all square matrixes are invertable.
A matrix that is invertable is called non-singular, if it is not invertable it
is called singular.
A * A-1 = A-1 * A = I
A*x = b x = A-1 * b
Convert (A | I ) to RREF: (A | I) (AR | IR)
If AR = I, then IR=A-1
If AR I, then A-1 does not exist.
You can also solve for x and A-1 by creating the following
argumented matrix and reducing: (A | I | b) to RREF.
Properties of A-1
A-1 exists if rank A = # rows in A
A-1 is invertable: (A-1) -1 = A

0
0

2
1

3
4

5
4

AB is invertable: (AB) -1 = B-1 * A-1

The transpose AT is invertable: (AT) -1 = (A-1) T
The power An is invertable: (An) -1 = (A-1)n
Determinants

To get det(A) you can use any of the rows or column

but it is easiest to use the one with the most 0s.

0s can be introduced by performing elementary row

operations on the rows and columns.

The elementary row operations can modify the

determinant.
R1 k * R1 (k 0)
1.
det(A) det(B)
then det(B) = k *det(A)
R1 R2
2.
det(A) det(B)
det(B) = -det(A)
R1 R1 + k * R2
3.
det(A) det(B)
det(B) = det(A)
Properties of Determinants
For a square matrix A:

det(A) = det(AT)

det(A) = 0 (which is singular) if:

1.
A has a zero row or column
OR
2.
2 rows or columns are the same
OR
3.
One row or column is a multiple of another row or
column.

|AB| = |A|*|B| (eg: |A| =2, |B|=3, |AB| = 6)

|A-1| = 1 / |A|, if A-1 exists (if |A| =0, then A-1 does not
exist)

If A is n*n, then det(cA) = cn det(A)

Cramers Rule
If A is square and |A| 0 then A-1 exists. From this we can say
that A*x = b is unique (we can also say x = A-1 *b ) and we
can use Cramers rule to find it.
Substitute the constants in for the column of the variable you
are working out and divide the resulting determinant by the
determinant of the normal matrix.
Eigenvalues
A is a square maxtrix & is a real number:
Ax = x
for a non-zero vector x. is the eigenvalue of A and x is the
eigenvector.
A n*n matrix will have at most n eigenvalues.
To evaluate the eigenvalues of A:
M = A *I (I is the identity matrix)
Then solve the resulting determinant (|M| = 0). The
polynomial you get is the characteristic equation of A, solve to
get exact eigenvalues of A.
Example:

Eigenvalues of A =

4
16

0
6

15

= A I
M=

3
4
16

0
6

15

0
1

2 0
0
5

0
6
15

0
2
0 Expand along Row
5

1 (it has the most 0s in it)

(3 )

6
15

2
0
5

(3 ) {(6 )(5 ) 30} 0

which is the characteristic equation.

3 42 3 0 , which then
(3 )( 1) 0 Eigenvalues

Exanding we get:
simplifies into:
are: 0, 3, 1.

Vector Summary
CB = B C; If (a, b, c) = k(x, y, z) then ||.
a (length of a) = sqrt (a1 ^2 + a2 ^ 2 + a3 ^ 2). Unit vector
() = a / a

a . b = (a1b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3), a x b =

a1
b1

a2
b2

a3
b3

a x b = -b x a; a x a = 0, If a || b then a x b = 0
If a b then a . b = 0;

cos

a.b
ab

If v = a x b then

va&vb
Projection of a onto b
= ( a . b ) b = projb a. The length is the component of a on b =
a.b

Symmetric Equation of Line

x x 0 a1 x x0 y y0 z z0

a2
a3
L y y 0 a 2 t a1
z z a
0 3

NB: 2 pts A & B, then use vector AB or BA and one point. If

given a || vector, then can copy the direction #s.
Relation amongst Lines & Points
Lines may intersect ( or not), be ||, or be skew (not || or
intersect).
Point of Intersection of 2 Lines
Solve simultaneous equations for the lines get both lines in
parametric form, then create simultaneous equations (should
be 3) solve using the first 2 equations for the t values (use t
& t for the 2 lines) then sub into equation 3. If it doesnt
satisfy (not equate) then the two lines do not intersect. If it
does, the substitute the respective t variable into their
originating line to find the point.
Distance between Point & Line
The shortest distance between a point and line is the
distance. Determine the point on the line where the a line
from the other point would intersect it - use the dot product
to get this. Then can solve when have the two points.
Distance between 2 skew lines

x
x


L1 y S a t & L2 y T b t '
z
z


( a b)
ST .
ab
Plane in Space

x x 0 a1
b1

P y y 0 a 2 t b 2 t '
z z a
b
0 3
3
To generate a plane you need a point and two direction
vectors. A normal vector ( n ) to the a plane is to the plane.
For a Plane P(x0, y0, z0) and normal n(a, b, c) the Linear
equation (form) for a Plane: (x-x0, y-y0, z-z0).(a,b,c) = 0
This expands to ax+ by + cz+ d = 0, where the coefficients of
x,y & z are the normal( n ) to the plane.
To find the normal: If we know 2 vectors a & b that are on the
plane or || to it, then n = a x b.
Intersection of Planes & Lines
P1: 2y + 3z + 4 = 0
P2: 2x y z 5 = 0
Find the plane of intersection of P1 & P2 that goes through
point (1,1,2).
Sub the two planes into P: P1 + P2= 0*, Then sub the point
into this equation (replace the x, y & z with the coordinates of
the point). Solve for . With this now go back and substitute it
back into the equation *. This gives the plane.
(Using the same planes P1 & P2) Find the plane that is the
intersection of P1 & P2 and has normal n = (2, 1, 2):
Sub the two planes into P: P1 + P2= 0* , and generate the
coefficients to x, y & z (should have values in it). These
coefficients are the normal to the plane generated the
coefficients should = the normal given. Solve for (should be
same for all 3 variables), then substitute back into * which
gives the plane.
Direction Angles
The direction angles are: . A unit vector is (cos , cos ,
cos ). To determine the vector angles first determine the unit
vector, then solve.
Scalar Triple Product result is a Scalar
The scalar triple product of a, b & c: [ a, b, c ] = a . ( b x c)
If [a, b, c] = 0, they are all co-planar (all on same plane)
Vector Triple Product result is a Vector
The vector triple product or a, b & c: a x ( b x c), the result is a
vector in the plane of b & c.

0
3

0 4
16
1

0
1

Now solve |M|=0

3
4
16

Parametric Equation
of Line

0
6
15

0
2