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FrA14.4
I. I NTRODUCTION
The problem considered in the paper is the control of
a platoon of vehicles such that there is a constant spacing
between consecutive vehicles and with all following a leader
vehicle that moves independently. As a result of applications
in automated highway systems the problem has received
considerable attention by the control community. A major
complication, however, in the analysis comes from the fact
that on the one hand the control law needs to be decentralized
and at the same time vehicle/controller dynamics contain
a double integrator. The latter can lead to ill-conditioned
behaviours when issues of scalability become important. For
example, in the simplest decentralized scheme where each
vehicle tracks a certain distance from its predecessor, it has
been shown in [1] that for any linear control law disturbances
are amplified as they propagate along the vehicle string.
This follows from a Bode like fundamental limitation for the
complementary sensitivity function [2], which holds when a
double integrator is present in the return ratio, thus forcing
the transfer function relating successive distance errors to
have infinity norm greater than one.
It is known that such error propagation can be avoided if
the distance from the leader is also used as part of the control
law, provided the coupling with the leader is sufficiently
strong such that the infinity norm of the error propagation
transfer function is less than one. It has also been shown in
[3] that for certain classes of systems and controllers, string
instability can be avoided without the use of leader following,
at the expense of successively more aggressive control laws
with linearly increasing gains.
In the paper we focus on symmetric bidirectional schemes,
i.e. control laws where each vehicle tracks the average
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FrA14.4
where
E(s) = [E1 (s), . . . , EN (s)]T , D(s) = [E1 (s), . . . , EN (s)]T
RN , 1 = [1 0 . . . 0]T ,
1
1
xi (0)
s
for 1 i N
(1)
...
1 2 1 0
0 1 2 1
L=
..
..
...
.
.
..
B. Problem Setup
We adopt the same formulation as in [1]. We consider an
array of N + 1 vehicles with positions denoted by xi (t), 0
i N, (x0 (t) is the leader position), and their Laplace transform Xi (s). In this section we assume that all vehicles have
identical dynamics with single-input-single-output transfer
function H(s) and use the same control law. The vehicles
want to maintain a fixed spacing distance > 0 and we also
assume that they start from rest with x0 (0) = 0, xi (0) = i .
In the Laplace domain the model of each vehicle is given
by
...
1
M=
So
1
..
.
..
..
...
...
..
.
..
.
1
0
..
.
(5)
1
1
where Ui (s) is the control input and Di (s) the input disturbance. We also denote the spacing error as ei (t) = xi1 (t)
xi (t) and its Laplace transform
(2)
N
UN (s) = Kp (s)EN (s) + Kl (s) X0 (s) XN (s)
s
(4)
for 1 i N ,
Ei (s) =H(s)Kp (s)[Ei1 (s) 2Ei (s)]
H(s)Kl (s)Ei (s) + H(s)[Di1 (s) Di (s)]
for i = N , or in matrix form this can be written as
E(s) = H(s)Kp (s)LE(s) H(s)Kl (s)E(s) + H(s)MD(s)
+ 1 X0 (s)
1 The
1
1+
loopgains H(s)K p (s), H(s)Kl (s) are assumed to have a double pole
at s = 0 and this is assigned to H(s) as in [1], for convenience in the
presentation.
H(s)K p (s)
1+H(s)Kl (s)
H P,
H(s)
H
1 + H(s)Kl (s)
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FrA14.4
Proof: From Lemma 1 the conditions in the Theorem imply that the interconnection is stable N. Hence
Gx0 e , Gde H and for given L.
1
2 (I + P( j )L)
R
1
= sup
[(I
+
P(
j
min
)L)(I
+ P ( j )L )]
i
i
R
1
= sup
2 2
R mini i [I + (P( j ) + P ( j ))L + |P( j )| L ]
1
= sup
( j )) (L) + |P( j )|2 (L)2 ]
min
[1
+
(P(
j
)
+
P
i
i
i
R
1
= sup
2
R mini |1 + P( j )i (L)|
1
H (P + (0, ))
1 + H(s)Kp (s)
(6)
H(s)K p (s)
1+kH(s)K p (s)
1 + kH(s)Kp (s)
H
1 + ( + k)H(s)Kp (s)
P,
H(s)
H
1 + kH(s)Kp (s)
Such a k always exists from the following argument. The
smallest eigenvalue of L , 1 (L) 0 as N [4]. So by
choosing k = 1 (L) k can be made arbitrarily small for a
large enoughn N. A suitable
o k = 1 (L) is one that satisfies
xi (0)
s
for 1 i N
(7)
N
UN (s) = KpN (s)EN (s) + KlN (s) X0 (s) XN (s)
(9)
s
Hi (s)Kpi (s)
1 + Hi (s)Kli (s)
P2i (s) =
P1i (s) =
Hi (s)
,
1 + Hi (s)Kli (s)
Hi (s)Kli (s)
,
1 + Hi (s)Kli (s)
i
N T
X 0 (s) = X0 (s) , . . . , X0 (s) , . . . , X0 (s)
s
s
s
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FrA14.4
Lemma 3: ([8]) Let Q Cnn , Q = Q 0 and G =
diag(gi ), gi C, i {1, . . . n}. Then
1/2
1/2
:= {v Q GQ v : v C , kvk = 1}
(Q){w Gw : w Cn , kwk 1}
n
i=1
i=1
1
(Xi1 + Xi+1 )
1 + Hi (2Kpi (s) + Kli (s)) 2
|
{z
}
P3i
Hi (s)
Di (s) + P5i (s)Kli (s)(X0 i )
| {z }
1 + Hi (2Kpi (s) + Kli (s))
|
{z
}
Pi
4
P5i
HN KpN
XN1
XN (s) =
1 + HN (KpN + KpN )
s
|
{z
}
P3N
HN (s)
DN (s) + KlN (s)P5N (s)(X0 N )
{z
}
|
1 + HN (KpN (s) + KlN (s))
|
{z
}
PN
4
P5N
or in matrix form
h
i
X(s) = diag(P3i (s))(Din )1 AX(s) + 1 X0 (s) N
s
+ diag(P4i (s))X 0 (s) + diag(P5i (s))D(s)
where
A=
0
.
.
0
..
.
1
..
.
..
.
.
0
...
..
0
..
.
..
.
1
...
1
0
where
P := {x : x2 P}
S(P) := (Co( P))2
1
Now
0.5
(11)
Im[z]
R Co {2di Pi ( j ) : i = 1, . . . , N} 0
0.5
1
0.5
Fig. 1.
0.5
Re[z]
1.5
2.5
The convex hull and Shull of four points (denoted with circles).
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FrA14.4
figure 1). Its importance lies in the fact that it can be used to
bound the spectrum of a product of matrices with a particular
structure by means of non zero elements of those matrices.
Lemma 4: ([9]) Let R Cmn satisfy (|R|T |R|) 1, and
G = diag(g1 , . . . , gn ), F = diag( f1 , . . . , fm ), gi , f j C i, j
then
(Gde ( j ))
N=50
15
10
N=6
5
N=2
0
2
10
(Gde ( j ))
10
(rad/s)
10
10
k=0.5
N=50
N=6
1.5
N=2
1
0.5
0
2
10
10
(rad/s)
10
10
k=1
N=6
N=50
(Gde ( j ))
0.8
N=2
0.6
G2 (s)
and
2.5
0
G1 (s)(D1in )1 A1
|
{z
}
G
(s)
1
G2 (s)(D2 )1 AT
0
in
1
|
{z
}
k=0.1
20
0.4
hence
0.2
1
/ (kG1 ( j )AG2 ( j )A ) k [0, 1]
0
2
10
1
/ (kL( j )) k [0, 1]
10
(rad/s)
10
10
Fig. 2. (Gde ( j )) for a control law Kl (s) = kK p (s) for k = 0.1, 0.5, 1
and with N = 2, 6, 10, . . . , 50.
V. E XAMPLES
R+
Co
i:i{1,...,N},i even
4682
0.4
0.2
0
Im[z]
Im[4Pi ( j )]
FrA14.4
2
3
0.4
0.6
0.8
5
6
2
0.2
Re[4Pi ( j )]
1.2
1
0.5
Im[4Pi ( j )]
0.5
Re[z]
2
3
4
5
6
2
Re[4Pi ( j )]
Fig. 3. R+ Co {4Pi ( j ) : i = 1, . . . , 5} 0
with = 13 , 21 , 1, 2, 3
2s+1
for each i respectively. In plot on top K p (s) = 0.05s+1 and in second plot
2 s+1
K p (s) = 12 0.05
s+1 .
1
s2 (0.1 s + 1)
, >0
VI. C ONCLUSIONS
It has been shown in the paper that arbitrarily weak
coupling with the leader makes a symmetric bidirectional
scheme for the control of a platoon of vehicles scalable,
i.e. the response to disturbances is uniformly bounded with
the size of the platoon. In addition the symmetry of the
interconnections can be exploited to relax the homogeneity
assumption on the dynamics and derive local conditions,
which, if satisfied, guarantee stability of an arbitrarily long
heterogeneous interconnection. This is an example that illustrates how by incorporating symmetries in underlying
protocols can lead to large scale heterogeneous networks
which are robust and scalable.
R EFERENCES
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Unified approach. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1990.
[3] M. E. Khatir and E. J. Davidson, Bounded stability and eventual
string stability of a large platoon of vehicles using non-identical
controllers, in Proceedings of IEEE Conference on Decision and
Control, 2004.
[4] P. Barooah and J. P. Hespanha, Error amplification and disturbance
propagation in vehicle strings with decentralized linear control, in
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[5] R. Srikant, The mathematics of Internet congestion control.
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196, 1980.
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