Conflict and Conflict Resolutionn in Community Settings (Part I and II)

Conflict & Conflict Resolution
in Community Setting
Compiled by
S.Rengasamy
S.Rengasamy –Conflict in Community Setting (Part I)
Contents
Conflict in community Settings ............................................................................................................... 4
What is community conflict? ................................................................................................................... 5
Box: What is community? ....................................................................................................................... 5
Box: Community organizers & Conflict ................................................................................................... 5
What is Conflict ...................................................................................................................................... 6
Definitions .............................................................................................................................................. 6
1.............................................................................................................................................................. 6
Box: Stages & Signs of Conflict .............................................................................................................. 6
2.............................................................................................................................................................. 6
3.............................................................................................................................................................. 6
4.............................................................................................................................................................. 7
5.............................................................................................................................................................. 7
6.............................................................................................................................................................. 7
7.............................................................................................................................................................. 7
8.............................................................................................................................................................. 7
Box: Types of Conflict ............................................................................................................................ 7
Table: Five Types of Conflict .................................................................................................................. 8
Box: Conflict Staircase ............................................................................................................................ 8
A.Types of Conflict ................................................................................................................................. 9
B. Types of Conflict ................................................................................................................................ 9
Box: What do we mean by conflict .......................................................................................................... 9
C. Types of Conflict ................................................................................................................................ 9
Box: Conflict Stages & Types of community Disputes ........................................................................... 11
Types of Community Disputes............................................................................................................... 11
Dia: Levels of conflict ........................................................................................................................... 12
Box: Conflict is ever-changing: Stages of conflict .................................................................................. 13
D.Types of conflict ................................................................................................................................ 14
Box: Consequences of conflict............................................................................................................... 14
E. Types of conflict: .............................................................................................................................. 14
Box: Understanding Conflict as a Strategy in Social Change .................................................................. 15
Different kinds of conflict. ..................................................................................................................... 15
Understanding Conflict as a Strategy in Social Change .......................................................................... 15
Competition & Conflict ......................................................................................................................... 16
Box: Casual Pathway of Conflict over Natural Resources -& Fresh water Conflicts ............................... 17
Consequences of conflict ....................................................................................................................... 18
Positive and Negative Conflict............................................................................................................... 18
Types of conflicts arising in Natural Resource Management .................................................................. 19
Box: How is conflict resolution different than the legal approach? ......................................................... 19
Common development pressures fuelling conflict .................................................................................. 20
Community situations where conflict resolution may be useful .............................................................. 20
Box: Model Conflict Analysis Mapping ................................................................................................. 20
Box: Types of conflict ........................................................................................................................... 21
Box: Conflict mapping & Community Conflict ...................................................................................... 22
Conflict - Careers and education ............................................................................................................ 22
Box Examples of Types of conflicts arising in Natural Resource Management. ...................................... 23
What are community-based conflicts?.................................................................................................... 24
Why to resolve Conflicts ....................................................................................................................... 26
Different types of strategies in approaching to Conflicts ........................................................................ 26
Diagram: Conflict Management ............................................................................................................ 27
2
Conflict Resolution - Strategies of Community Organization ................................................................. 28

Confrontation Negotiation Co-operation Co-optation ............................................................................. 28
A. Steps in Managing Conflict ........................................................................................................... 29
Step 1: Analyze the conflict. .................................................................................................................. 29
Step 2: Determine management strategy. ............................................................................................... 29
Step 3: Pre-negotiation .......................................................................................................................... 29
Step 4: Negotiation. ............................................................................................................................... 29
Step 5: Post-negotiation. ........................................................................................................................ 30
Key features of conflict analysis ............................................................................................................ 31
Tips for Transforming Conflict .............................................................................................................. 31
Tips for Transforming Conflict .............................................................................................................. 31
Cycle of Conflict & Conflict Resolution ................................................................................................ 32
Methods of Conflict Resolution ............................................................................................................. 32
Different options for managing conflict ................................................................................................. 33
Different options for managing conflict ................................................................................................. 33
Box: Managing Conflict ........................................................................................................................ 34
Managing Conflict ................................................................................................................................. 34
Box: Process & Types of Conflict Resolution ........................................................................................ 36
Table: Strengths and limitations of various methods of conflict resolution ............................................. 37
Diagram: The ten steps of conflict management ..................................................................................... 38
Table: The major elements we need to understand before deciding a strategy ......................................... 38
Box: Resolving Conflict - Making a community to perform ................................................................... 39
Diagram: Thomas and Kilmann Conflict Modes .................................................................................... 40
Table: Basic Causes, Causes that Escalate and Institutional Capacity to handle conflict ......................... 41
Problems in Negotiation: ....................................................................................................................... 43
Tactics used by the Community Organizations to get into the negotiating table: ..................................... 43
3
Conflict in community Settings
Conflict in Community Settings
"Not all conflict is bad and not all cooperation is good"

Conflict is inevitable, but combat is optional.
"Peace is not the absence of conflict but the presence of creative alternatives for responding to
conflict - alternatives to passive or aggressive responses, alternatives to violence."
This compilation is not talking about

• Conflicts caused by criminals. These are for the police to deal with.
• Conflicts that occur within families or between individuals - that are unrelated to
our work as community organizers/ development workers/ or as livelihood
promoters. These are for social services to deal with.
• Conflict caused by individuals who need medical help. These are for health care
professionals to deal with
This compilation won‘t provide instant answers to complex questions / solutions
for violent conflict /or Instant project security
• This knowledge won‘t replace the ground work the community organizers are
expected to do. This may help in understanding the communities and the context
and building relationships and trust.
This material may help how to proceed our work in a careful manner and
designing strategies in an appropriate manner
4
What is community conflict?

Conflict situations appear with frequency in daily, public, and private life. These conflicts may
be on a small or large scale; they may occur within and among groups, communities, or nations;
and, they may be triggered by ethnic, racial,
What is community?
religious, or economic differences, or arise The typical image of a community in a Community
from differences in values, beliefs, and Based Development (CBD) program is a village com-
attitudes regarding issues. Local communities posed of people from similar backgrounds who have
are constantly faced with issues such as lived together a long time. In a conflict-affected
setting, the reality may be very different. A
sharing of water, dumping of waste, temple ‗community‘ in a conflict-affected area may include
rights, and zoning that have the potential of members of different warring groups, internally
leading to community conflict. Workers in displaced persons (IDPs), refugees, ex-combatants,
and victims of violence along with and among the
community organizations are (or should be) original inhabitants. In countries affected by prolonged
aware of issues and value differences that violence, it may be primarily composed of women or
may cause conflict within or among groups. children and old people. In some programs,
Unmanaged conflict is a threat to the survival communities may be groups of individuals united by
similar interests, such as businessmen, farmers or
of the group and, at the least, tends to make health workers. A CBD community may be an urban
the group less effective. slum or a rural village. For the purposes of
Box: What is community? understanding conflict, a community is a group of
What causes conflict to emerge in people sharing some common interests and needs and
who have to work together to solve problems.
communities and community groups? How
can one minimize, deal with, "manage", or
resolve community and group conflict? How is conflict used by groups as a strategy to bring
about desired changes?
Box: Community organizers & Conflict
Community organizers & Conflict

Community organizers should be prepared to confront issues and deal with them, and they should not
be not intimidated by conflict and the emotions that accompany it. Community Organizers should not
feel that conflicts are to be avoided and that if they occur, they are a sign of failure; that reasonable
people can always find a middle ground, a compromise that avoids unpleasantness. But there are
things that need to be challenged. There may be low level casteism and sexism, officials who appear
to be acting unreasonably, organizations that find it difficult to adapt to new and changing realities.
Challenging these, in positive ways, is part of working towards change.
Beware of Iceberg Conflicts occur because of historical, cultural and economic

changes that can make people anxious. If people feel
excluded from the decisions being made about their
communities, they will often react angrily. If they are
repeatedly excluded, the anger will grow and may escalate
into a major conflict.
Many community organizations work with people who feel

excluded, who feel that they have no say in what is going
on. If you and your organizations are introducing change, it
will, by definition, disturb “the way things are done around
here”. Changes will force people to think and act
differently, and often affect the way resources are allocated
5
to different uses. None of this is likely to happen without conflict. The feelings and emotions, the
hopes and aspirations, the anger and the frustration that the changes bring up will often be
carried into your organization and affect your work. It can show up in disagreements between
organizations and in disagreements within organizations. This is not anyone‟s fault: it is what
happens in any highly charged change situation. Our task is to learn from it… not to pretend it
isn‟t there, or just hope that it will go away
What is Conflict
The potential for conflict exists whenever and wherever people have contact. As people are
organized into groups to seek a common goal, the probability of conflict greatly increases. Since
only the most serious conflicts make headlines, conflict has a negative connotation for many
people. All conflicts are not the same. We face conflicts on all levels. We have disagreements
with family, friends, and co-workers. "Conflicts are rarely resolved easily. Most conflicts are
managed as individuals work out differences...."
Individuals may dislike certain people with whom they come into frequent contact, but may
tolerate their behavior on a day-to-day basis until a situation arises where strong feelings are at
issue. Such situations almost inevitably turn up, sooner or later, within any long term community
project or program. Conflict can occur within groups (intra-group conflict) or among groups
(inter-group conflict).
'CONFLICT ENTREPRENEURS', stand to
gain a great deal of power and
Definitions wealth from instability and conflict.
1
Conflict is defined in many ways. The Latin word

conflictus, a striking together with force implies disagreement, discord, and friction among
members of a group; interaction where words, emotions, and actions strike together to produce
disruptive effects
Box: Stages & Signs of Conflict
Signs of Conflict The word ‘conflict’ carries

Gossip negative connotations. It is often
Avoidance thought of as the opposite of co-
Resistance operation and peace, and is most
Exclusion commonly associated with
Absenteeism violence, the threat of violence or
Mood change disruptive (nonviolent) disputes.
Silences, or a drop in the amount of This view of conflict as negative is
communication not always helpful. In non-violent
Inappropriate communication settings it can often be seen as a
Negative body language force for positive social change,
Continual complaining or arguments its presence being a visible
Change in work and decision-making demonstration of society
styles adapting to a new political,
Change in social patterns, and economic or physical
Recurring problems. environment.
Conflict. Conflict is usually defined as a social situation in which incompatible goals and
activities occur between two or more parties (individuals or groups) who hold antagonistic
feelings towards each other and attempt to control each other.
3
Conflict exists whenever incompatible activities occur.
6
Conflict occurs when an individual is motivated to make two or more mutually incompatible
responses.
5
Conflict is a tension between two or more entities (individuals, groups or larger organizations),
which arise from incompatibility of actual or larger responses.
6
Conflict is the energy that builds up when individuals or groups of people pursue incompatible
goals in their drive to meet their needs and interests
7
Conflict is a perceived divergence of interests or the belief that the current aspirations of the
parties cannot be simultaneously met
8
Conflict is defined in many ways. The Latin word conflictus, a striking together with force
implies disagreement, discord, and friction among members of a group; interaction where words,
emotions, and actions strike together to produce disruptive effects. Conflict is an unavoidable
outgrowth of group life, for by entering into relations with others we must negotiate and
renegotiate our undertakings and our outcomes
Box: Types of Conflict
• Clarify perceptions
• Control emotions through procedures
• Block negative behavior by changing structure
• Encourage problem solving attitudes
• Read agreements on what data are important

• Agree on process to collect data
• Allow parties to agree or disagree • Develop common criteria to access data
• Search for super-ordinate goal • Jointly collect, jointly assess data
• Clearly define roles

• Establish fair decision making process
• Change time constraints • Focus on common interests
• Address 3 types of interests differently
Resource Scarcity and Ingenuity

To maintain ―constant-satisfaction requirement‖, humans will need to run resource systems every more efficiently
requiring ―ever greater amounts of (technical and social) ingenuity.‖ ―Some societies are locked into a race between
a rising requirement for ingenuity and their capacity to supply it‖ and that create conflicts
7
Table: Five Types of Conflict

Five types of conflicts
Types Causes Explanation
Relationship Miscommunication Relationship conflicts are breaks in our ability to relate to
Conflict Strong Emotions one another. They are usually caused by
Stereotyping miscommunication, strong emotions, preconceived opinions
Repetitive negative Behavior (stereotyping), or repetitive negative behavior.
Data Conflicts Lack of Information Data conflicts are caused by a lack of information (e.g. not
Misinformation knowing the market value of a small business),
Differing views on data relevance misinformation (e.g. belief in a false rumor about a job
Different interpretations of data applicant), or different ways of looking at the same
information (e.g. whether crime statistics indicate a safer
or more dangerous neighborhood).
Interest Perceived or actual competition over In values conflicts, different ideologies, worldviews, and
Conflicts interests lifestyles are at the heart of the conflict. Disputes over
Procedural interests universal healthcare, withdrawal from Iraq, same-sex
Psychological interests marriage, and increasing taxes on tobacco likely stem from
a difference in values.
Structural Unequal authority Interest conflicts are typically about resources — for
Conflict Unequal control of resources example, three cities in competition for an urban
Time constraints revitalization grant, or roommates who want to watch
different TV shows.
Value Conflict Different ways of life, ideology, Structural conflicts are mostly caused by actual or
world view etc perceived power inequality. Disputes between corporations
Different criteria for evaluating ideas and labor unions are usually structural. A dispute between
a manager and the CEO's administrative assistant might
also be structural.
Box: Conflict Staircase
8
The more our lives overlap with others, the more likely it is that there will at times be conflicts.
So one can identify different types of conflicts.
A.Types of Conflict
There are different ways to classify the conflict based on the need to intervene. Some are
A. Three basic types of conflict: task conflict, interpersonal conflict, and procedural conflict.
B. Types of Conflict Positive Conflict Can . . .

Help define issues
Man vs. Man Introduce new perspectives
Man vs. Man occurs when a character (man or Make groups consider a wide range of options
woman!) has an argument, disagreement, or Energize creative thinking
other kind of “argument” with another Keep groups alert to member‘s interests
character.
Man vs. Society
The conflict between Man and Society occurs when a character disagrees with societal values,
laws, or beliefs.
Man vs. Nature
A conflict of Man vs. Nature occurs when a character has a problem with outside forces:
weather, animals, land, etc.
Man vs. Self
Man vs. self occurs when a character develops an internal struggle between his thoughts and
ideas. This can be a result of the other conflicts mentioned.
Box: What do we mean by conflict
C. Types of Conflict What do we mean by conflict?

Interpersonal Conflict, Intrapersonal Conflict is tension or disagreement between people
or institutions. It can manifest itself in a number of
Conflict and Intergroup Conflict.
ways:
Interpersonal conflict Through violent attacks on people or property;
Pseudo-Conflict:- This type of conflict • Through peaceful demonstration and blockades;
happens when people have misunderstandings • Through local antagonisms resulting in the inability
of groups to work together productively;
with each • Through kidnappings of company staff;
other. Sometimes two people perceive their • Through inter-communal tensions with state
goals as incompatible, but in fact the goals are security forces or armed militia; or
compatible. That is known as a pseudo conflict. • Through low productivity.
Conflict can be social or political, or both. It might
Pseudo conflict can be easily solved by be:
clarification of information or meaning. pre-existing (e.g. between groups, tribes or
Simple Conflict:- This type of conflict occurs outright civil war);
when people disagree about certain issues. This • latent (e.g. festering tensions which need a small
catalyst to erupt such as in a post-conflict
can occur when each of two individuals knows environment where there are large groups of
what each other want, but neither can achieve unemployed youth with nothing to do, or in an area
their own goals without preventing the other where there is already competition over natural
resources); or
from achieving theirs.
• caused directly by a project (e.g. anger over
Ego Conflict:-This type of conflict is caused construction impacts, unmet expectations or
when personalities within a group clash. It is perceived inequality over a community development
essentially a struggle between two people that program, loss of livelihoods or access to land and
resources).
is characterized by name calling and blaming.
Ego conflict puts the other on the defensive and tends to ignore the original issue.
9
Intrapersonal conflict- Conflict within the individual.

Approach conflict: an individual must choose among alternatives, each of which is expected to
have a positive outcome.
Avoidance conflict: an individual must choose among alternatives, each of which is expected to
have a negative outcome.
Avoidance conflict: an individual must decide whether to do something that has both positive
and negative outcomes.
Links between livelihoods
and conflict
Conflict can result from a wide range
of factors, including competition for
scarce resources, ethnic or religious
tensions, competition over political
power, dissatisfaction or desperation
on the part of marginalized groups, or
deliberate attempts by the state to
subjugate particular groups or extract
resources from areas where there are
competing claims.
Intergroup conflict- An overt expression of tensions between goals or concerns of one group
or those of another group. There are opposing interests, group boundaries or group differences
involved. The conflict is directly or indirectly related to culture group identities. Sources of this
type conflict includes: Competing Goals; Competition of Resources; Cultural Differences; Power
Discrepancies; Assimilation vs. Preservation of micro cultural identity.
Vulnerability/context Environmental/political/economic/climatic/military shocks and trends
Affects
Affects Affects Affects
Transforming structures
& processes
Livelihood infrastructure Livelihood
assets of a strategies
state/government institution
particular • agriculture
household/ kinship networks
group/ markets Influencing
• labour
Affects engagement
community/ civic institutions • trade
with
population traditional authority • migration
private sector • smuggling
ethnic institutions • predation and
Relative power /
wealth / religious institutions asset- stripping
Vulnerability / laws • external aid
poverty of
Affects policies
particular determining/ achieving
and access to culture
household/ group
/ community / ethnic & religious identity
population conflict and violence Livelihood outcomes
war economy • income
F= financial assets displacement • food security
H= human assets Determines environmental degradation • health and education
and impacts
N= natural assets asset transfer • economic vulnerability
of/significance of
P= physical assets aid inputs • political vulnerability
S= social assets foreign investment • vulnerability to violence
Pol= political assets
militarization • use of natural resources
foreign intervention
trading
10
Box: Conflict Stages & Types of community Disputes
Types of Community
Disputes
Small Claims - property
damage, accidents, vandalism,
small debts, harassment, etc.
Neighbor problems - such as
noise, pet, neighbor relations,
parking, etc.
Domestic problems - involving
family members, friends, or
roommates.
Juvenile disputes - conflicts
between youth, as well as
between youth and adults,
schools, merchants, or the law.
Consumer/merchant -
product or service satisfaction.
Landlord/tenant - security
deposits, repairs, damages, etc.
Worksite - employer/employee,
among workers.
Property division - personal or
business relationships disputes.
11
Intragroup Conflict: This type of conflict is conflict between the group members. There are
two types of conflict:
Relationship conflict-Relationship conflict exists when there are interpersonal incompatibilities
among group members, which typically includes tension, animosity, and annoyance among
members within a group.
Task conflict-Exists when there are disagreements among group members about the content of
the tasks being performed, including differences in viewpoints, ideas, and opinions.
Dia: Levels of conflict
12
Box: Conflict is ever-changing: Stages of conflict
Conflict is ever-changing: Stages of conflict

Conflicts are best thought of as dynamic (ever-changing), interactive social processes. No two conflicts
are the same. However, conflict analysis makes it possible to examine the structure and dynamics of
conflicts in a systematic way. From this, it becomes clear that conflicts often share similar patterns
and stages of development. Conflicts can generally be thought of a cycle from emergence to
resolution. However, they do not always progress in a strictly linear fashion, from stage A, to B, to C,
and so on. Instead, conflicts sometimes unfold in non-linear ways, moving backwards and forwards
between different stages, skipping a stage altogether, or stopping at one stage for a long time before
suddenly moving on.
When conflict is not open but is a potential threat, it is described as being latent; there may be
smoke, but there is no visible fire. Latent conflict refers to social tensions, differences and
disagreements that are hidden or undeveloped. This is the stage at which incompatible goals may
exist, but parties may either not be acutely conscious of them or not be willing to reveal themselves or
their interests in the conflict. They may allow conflict to remain latent because of fear, distrust, peer
pressure or financial reasons. In such situations, conflicts may show up through what Scott calls "the
ordinary weapons of relatively powerless groups: foot dragging, dissimulation, desertion, false
compliance, pilfering, feigned ignorance, slander, arson, sabotage, and so on". In such situations
tensions build up.
Conflict can emerge gradually and steadily, or develop rapidly in response to a few significant events.
As differences increase and intensify, conflict becomes manifest, expanding into a full-blown public
issue that cannot be avoided. In the manifest stage, opponents' differences become more prominent
and more central to group dynamics. As incompatibilities become clearer, they become the defining
issues: debate revolves more and more around differences. Opponents begin to define themselves
and their groups on the basis of such cleavages, in terms of "us versus them". These differences
might then be used to mobilize sections of the population on behalf of a "cause". Manifest conflicts
can escalate and become violent. When a conflict reaches this stage, violence often produces counter-
violence, leading to further escalation.
Ideally, conflicts should be managed at the latent stage, before they emerge or escalate. When a
conflict reaches the manifest stage, it may either become blocked in a stalemate or impasse in which
the conflict parties refuse to modify their positions, or fall out of control through tensions and violent
actions.
CONFLICT STAGES
13
D.Types of conflict
economic conflict, power conflict, value conflict –
Conflict due to personality clashes, conflict due to different needs, roles, goals, interest.
different needs,
Economic Conflict:
It arises due to competing motives to obtain scarce resources. Each
group wants to maximize its gain at the cost of other party. Economic
conflict will not be resolved by improving communication, but by
difficult and detailed negotiations among the parties.
Power Conflict:
Power conflict arises when each party wishes to maximize the
influence it has. This type of conflict usually ends in a victory for one
party and a defeat for another, or in a standoff that involves a
continuing state of tension. The crucial issue is not resource scarcity
or differences in basic values, but simply a question of control and
related matters such as pride, recognition and future material rewards
that power may bring.
Value Conflict:
It involves incompatible principles and practices that people believe
in- their ideology, religion, political system and culture. E.g. Marxist Vs Capitalist, Religious
conversion etc.Since the value conflicts lie at the very heart of a person / peoples identity, they
are extremely difficult to resolve.
Most conflict involve a mixture of realistic economic, power or value differences as well as
unrealistic ingredient of misperception and miscommunication. Usually a conflict may begin
from one source but broaden to include other elements.
Box: Consequences of conflict
Consequences of conflict Conflict Risk Factor -Institutional

Interrupting food access or production Executive branch domination
Restricting access to agricultural or grazing land Compliant judiciary
Restricting access to water and other natural resources Weak independent media
Causing the labor market to collapse
Divided, ineffective political parties
Preventing markets from operating, causing price spikes, or
Limited minority representation
destroying or blocking market and trade routes
Disrupting banking systems and government services, either as a Corruption and lack of
result of capacity failure or deliberate action accountability at local and national
Stripping, burning or looting assets of marginalized or targeted groups levels
Displacing civilians Weak, ethnically segmented civil
Destroying infrastructure society
Encouraging or enabling sexual violence against women and girls Corrupt, ineffective police force
The breakdown of law and order
E. Types of conflict:
Personality clashes:
It occurs when two people who have to see each other frequently cause negative feelings and
reactions in one another. Often these people share common goals, but they cannot get along. E.g.
he hurts me
Different needs:
Roles: Role expectation can cause conflict
Goals: lack of clarity or disagreement about the goals of the program
Conflict of interest: e.g. higher wages
14
Box: Understanding Conflict as a Strategy in Social Change
Understanding Conflict as a Strategy in Social Change

Conflict, as a strategy, is an attempt to coerce power after understanding and reason fail. There are
individuals and groups who use conflict as a strategy to achieve their goals and change existing
conditions. They may instigate conflict to gain recognition and call attention to their message. They
usually want people higher in the power structure to address their problem. In effectively approaching
in such situations, it is necessary to understand how conflict can be used as a strategy in social
change. One of the necessary "tools" in conflict management is an awareness and understanding of
the strategies that agitators use in generating conflict.
Saul Alinsky was one of the major advocates of using conflict to achieve group goals. His basic
strategy was to organize community and neighborhood groups to "establish a creative tension within
the establishment". Whether the tension was creative or not, tension was frequently "created".
Those who utilize the conflict approach may use disruptive tactics to call attention to their position.
These tactics may range from non-violent protests - boycotts and sit-ins - to violence.
Community development professionals appear to be divided on the use of conflict. Some community
development workers feels: "Conflict itself...of some kind or degree is a major determinant of change
and far from moving to avoid or immediately dissolve it, it may often be entirely appropriate even to
stimulate it." Many reject conflict because they feel that decisions reached through community
consensus and cooperation is the best method to achieve social change. Conflict, it is argued, may
stimulate participation in the decision making process but provide only a temporary stimulus and
prevent the development of a permanent foundation for participation. Many individuals who find
conflict distasteful may be repelled states that although benefits often accrue when conflict is properly
used, there are risks involved in using conflict in community organizations. Nonviolent conflict may
turn violent, and conflict may produce unexpected results. Conflict may also result in the identification
of the wrong "enemy." As Robinson and Clifford (1974) notes, "Alinsky demonstrated that his
approach would bring change. Sometimes his methods generated great unrest and created much
stress within communities. At other times, significant advances and social change occurred."
While many community development workers may not promote the use of conflict to bring about
change, it is necessary to understand how it may be used by groups in order to deal with conflict
situations more effectively when they arise.
Different kinds of conflict.

There are as many different meanings of conflict as there are books written about it. Here are
some useful ideas:
• Conflict is a serious disagreement or argument, a clash, a strike, a breaking, a confrontation, a
collision, a fight, a struggle.
• It can break out instantly or, more typically; it can build up over a long period of time.
• People in conflict talk of not being heard or not being listened to or not being understood. It is
as if we are each talking a different language. The more we try to explain, the worse the
disagreement becomes.
• Conflict feels like a threat to us: a threat to our needs or desires or beliefs. Sometimes it can
feel like a threat to who we are as a person.
15
Competition implies an opposition in the goals of the interdependent parties such that the
probability of goal attainment for one decreases as the probability of other increases.
Aggression is a form of behavior intended to inflict injury to a person
or object.
Conflict Theory. A theory that views community and society as an
arena in which various groups compete to attain maximum gain for
themselves.
Conflict (or alienation) approach. A theory of society, which argues
that fundamental tensions or built in contradictions exist between the
powerful and the powerless – and these problems, can be resolved only through radical changes
in society.
Conflict handling modes / conflict resolution. Settlement of disputes that are mutually
satisfactory and that receive a long-term commitment from both the parties.
If there is a possibility to enjoy social justice without recourse to physical violence in any society then
there will be less conflict in that society. Systems that handle conflict openly and productively can
maximize the benefits while reducing the conflicts
One has to examine both the goals and the means of conflict in order to judge its acceptability.
Functional Vs Dysfunctional Conflict
Positive Vs Negative Conflict
Competition & Conflict
Competition Conflict
No direct action of one party to interfere with the ongoing Conflict interferes
activities of another e.g. track and field events
Competition occurs within a set of agreed upon rules. There is no agreed upon rules. All is
E.g.hockey fair in conflict
Effective livelihood programming in pre-conflict, conflict, and post-conflict situations require

creative thinking, flexibility, an understanding of the dynamics of the particular conflict, and
recognition of its local impact. Suggested measures to resolve conflicts
1. Promote resilience at the local level Utilizing local resilience-based strategies
2. Promote peace building and reconciliation
3. Use livelihood support to identify and counteract state weakness
4. Where state legitimacy is absent, work with trusted local actors
5. Develop gender-focused programming
6. Build economic linkages through the informal economy
7. Support livelihood efforts for populations displaced by conflict
8. Build flexibility into the planning and budgeting process
16
Box: Casual Pathway of Conflict over Natural Resources -& Fresh water Conflicts
Causes of Freshwater Conflicts
17
Consequences of conflict
Widespread, deadly violence now affects nearly 60 percent of the countries. While conflict can be an
inherent and legitimate part of social and political life, in many places the costs and consequences of
violent conflict, extremism, and state failure have become unacceptly high. By the year 2000, internal
conflict and repression had generated 14.5 million asylum seekers worldwide and nearly 25 million
persons were displaced within their own countries. Child soldiers, gender-specific atrocities, extremist
ideologies, and the targeting of aid workers are all part of "new war" scenarios. Violent conflict also
dramatically disrupts development. It discourages investment, destroys human and physical capital,
undermines the institutions needed for political and economic reform, redirects resources to non-
productive uses, and causes a dramatic deterioration in the quality of life.
Conflict is an inherent and legitimate part of social and political life. Democratic institutions, for
example, are not meant to eliminate conflict, they are designed to manage it and channel it in
productive directions.
Also, conflict is often a precursor to positive change, and one certainly should not try to avoid all
conflict if in so doing we eliminate protests that lead to democratic elections, or positive changes
status of women, or increased economic growth, or more sound environmental practices.
While there are many different causes of conflict, there is an emerging consensus that certain broad
clusters or categories of causes need to be in place for conflict to emerge. These are:
1) Causes that fuel incentives or motives for participation in violence;
2) Causes that facilitate the mobilization and expansion of violence;
3) Causes found at the level of state and social capacity to manage and respond to violence; and
4) Regional or international causes. If all of these are in place, there are also likely to be windows of
vulnerability — moments when events such as highly contested elections, natural disasters,
economic shocks, or riots — can trigger the outbreak of full-scale violence.
Positive and Negative Conflict
Positive and negative conflict.

Conflict can be extremely negative, but not all conflict is negative: it can also be very useful and productive. In
today‘s complex communities many people and organizations are working to bring about change – tackling poor
health, low educational achievement, rundown environments, high unemployment – and to manage the
challenges of cultural diversity. But changing things usually brings about conflict because there will be different
views between different groups involved: within and between statutory organizations; within and between
different communities; between young and old, men and women; between people of different cultures and faiths.
Expressing these different views is an essential part of the process of negotiation and change. Disagreeing with
the way things are is an important part of being a responsible member of society, and it is important for people
to have an opportunity to express their views in a safe space, without fear of condemnation or reprisals. Not
feeling you have that right is a sure way of generating conflict, but speaking different views will also lead to
conflict in the robust discussions that they cause.
This is positive conflict if it:
• is channeled into building trust and confidence between people.
• is channeled into finding positive solutions that meet people‘s needs.
• is contained within a set of rules which protect those involved and ensure no one is damaged by them.
• ensures that no one with the right to speak is excluded from the debate.
The key principle is that:
POSITIVE CONFLICT DOES NO HARM
It may be hard work, demanding, infuriating at times, but it does no harm to the participants. Indeed, the
reverse is true. Positive conflict can build trust and confidence between people if it means that important,
uncomfortable or opposing views are being spoken and not excluded. Sometimes it feels so uncomfortable that
we try to avoid or suppress positive conflict. We hope this Resource Pack will make you feel more robust about
positive conflict. We have all dealt with positive conflict many times. It is all a matter of confidence, patience and
belief in yourself.
18
Types of conflicts arising in Natural Resource Management
Types of conflicts arising in Natural Resource Management

Intra micro–micro conflicts:
1. Disputes over land and resource ownership, e.g. between private and communal land owners;
2. Disputes over land boundaries between individuals or groups;
3. Latent family and relationship disputes;
4. Disputes due to natural resource projects being captured by élites and/or those who happen to
own resources of a higher quality;
5. Breaking of CPR constitutional or operational rules, such as protection agreements for grazing
areas, fish net sizes, forests, or misappropriation of funds, etc.;
6. Disputes over the unfair distribution of work and profits.
Inter micro–micro conflicts:
1. Conflict between land-owners and resource users;
2. Conflict between indigenous CPR groups, and more recent settlers;
3. Disputes generated by jealousy related to growing wealth disparities;
4. Lack of co-operation between different community groups;
5. Disputes over renewal arrangements for leased land;
6. Internal land ownership disputes ignited by the speculation activities of commercial companies;
7. Resentment built up due to lack of representation on village committees.
Micro–macro conflicts:
1. Contradictory natural resource needs and values, e.g. between wildlife habitat protection and local
livelihood security;
2. Cultural conflicts between community groups and outsiders;
3. Disputes over project management between community groups and outside project-sponsors;
4. Disputes caused by political influence (national, provincial or local);
5. Disputes arising from differences between the aspirations of community groups and expectations
of
6. NGOs or commercial companies;
7. Off-site environmental impacts affecting unintended third-parties.
Box: How is conflict resolution different than the legal approach?
How is conflict resolution different than the legal approach?

In the past few years, alternative dispute resolution methods, like conflict resolution, have
taken their place in the justice system along side of more traditional methods like talking
with a lawyer or going to trial.
Often differences between two or more parties can be resolved through the assistance of a
trained mediator. Community Conflict Resolutions encourages people to try this method of
resolving conflict or disputes before making a formal complaint to the authorities or
considering legal action.
19
Common development pressures fuelling conflict
Common development pressures fuelling conflict over

Community Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM)
• The introduction of productivity enhancing technologies (e.g. synthetic fertilizers, agricultural
mechanization, permanent irrigation, joint management regimes, etc.) if poorly managed can place a
strain on the regeneration capacity of renewable natural resources.
• Growing awareness within rural communities and the private sector that commercial value can be
attributed to common property resources (wildlife, land, minerals, forests, fish, etc.) and that these
benefits can be accessed through the exertion of ‗private‘ property rights.
• Increasing importance of the cash economy to rural people and rising local aspirations for consumer
products.
• Lack of incentive for resource users (community groups and private organizations) to prevent
environmental and social impacts that adversely affect unintended third parties.
• Declining government public expenditure on essential rural services, e.g. health, education, water
and
electricity supplies, transportation, etc.
• New conservation policies, e.g. wildlife protection legislation.
• Government policies providing autonomy to communities to manage state-owned natural resources.
• Continuing rural-to-urban migration reducing the available labour for sustainable resource
management.
• Changes in rural employment activities resulting from the arrival of rural-based industries, e.g. crop
processing, manufacturing, extractive industries, oil and gas, construction projects, etc.
Conflicts arising from poor enforcement of natural resource management regulations
include:
• Private companies avoiding compliance and sanctions by threatening to withdraw their investment or
by manipulating the courts.
• A general lack of understanding of environmental laws and regulations by industries, governmental
agencies and the general population.
• Non-compliance arising from unrealistic requirements for pollution control technology and poor
implementation of environmental impact mitigation plans.
• Failure of the courts to enforce regulations because of prolonged legal processes, with the outcome
often unsupported by one or more parties.
• Perverse incentive structures promoted by conventional cost-benefit analysis.
Community situations where conflict resolution may be useful

Clients typically originate from within the following groups:
Neighbors (e.g. noise, pets, parking, fences, garbage, trees, communication)
Communities (e.g. land-use, water, community leaders)
Schools (e.g. teacher/student, student/student, parent/teacher)
Not-for-profit groups (e.g. social service groups, churches, cultural support groups)
Other community-based organizations (e.g. recreational sporting or hobby groups)
Volunteer organizations/ societies
Families (e.g. parent/child, couples, child/child)
Referrals from our collaborative partnership agencies
Referrals from municipal services departments
Box: Model Conflict Analysis Mapping
20
Box: Types of conflict
Types of Conflict
* Community conflict * diplomatic conflict * economic conflict * emotional conflict*
environmental resources conflict * external conflict * group conflict* ideological conflict
* international conflict * interpersonal conflict * inter societal conflict * Intrastate conflict
(for example: civil wars, election campaigns) * intrapersonal conflict * organizational conflict*
intra-societal conflict * military conflict* religious-based conflict * workplace conflict * data
conflict* relationship conflict * racial conflict
21
Box: Conflict mapping & Community Conflict
Community Conflict
The potential for community conflict exists
whenever and wherever people have contact.
Communities faces increasing community
conflicts due to the cultural, linguistic and
ethnic diversity associated with its changing
population. Communities and government
services are being redefined and, at the same
time, neighbors are facing unfamiliar lifestyles
in their neighborhoods. Stresses caused by
economic or social change can impact
community resources, leaving groups feeling
that they are being denied government
services at the expense of other groups. Law
enforcement, schools and local government
officials are increasingly affected by resulting
tensions and need to be prepared when serious
conflict erupts.
Community conflict also can occur when
individuals or groups perceive or experience
discriminatory behavior directed at them by an
agency or its representative, by members of
another group, or by members of their own
group. For example, a high-profile case of
police misconduct, an incident of violence on a
college campus, a hate crime or case of
discrimination can polarize a community. All of
these events can produce stress on community
residents, often resulting in disagreements
over what should be done to solve these
problems. This stress can even lead to open
conflict within the community.
Conflict - Careers and education

Conflict resolution is an expanding field of professional practice, both in the U.S. and around the
world. The escalating costs of conflict for both organizations and individuals has led to the
increased use of arbitrators, mediators, and other neutrals, including fact-finders, facilitators, and
ombudsmen to resolve such conflicts. The expansion of the field has also resulted in the need for
managers, union representatives, attorneys and advocates, administrators, and consultants to
acquire the skills and expertise necessary to handle disputes effectively.
Several universities offer programs of study pertaining to conflict management. The Cornell
University ILR School houses the Scheinman Institute on Conflict Resolution, which offers
undergraduate, graduate, and professional training on conflict resolution.
Furthermore, the Pax Ludens Foundation based in the Netherlands is an organization that puts
together conflict resolution simulations set in an International Relations scenario to help students
learn about the intricacies of where conflict emerges in the world of international politics.
22
Conflict resolution is a growing area of interest in UK pedagogy, with teachers and students both
encouraged to learn about the mechanisms which lead people towards aggressive actions, and
those which lead them towards peaceful resolution.
In many schools in the UK, conflict resolution has now become an integral part of the SEAL
(Social and Emotional Aspects of Learning) programme, chiming, as it does, with the SEAL
principles of developing social skills and an understanding of one‟s own feelings.
Box Examples of Types of conflicts arising in Natural Resource Management .
Examples of Types of conflicts arising in Natural Resource Management.

Intra micro–micro conflicts:
• Disputes over land and resource ownership, e.g. between private and communal land owners;
• Disputes over land boundaries between individuals or groups;
• Latent family and relationship disputes;
• Disputes due to natural resource projects being captured by élites and/or those who happen to own
Resources of a higher quality;
• Breaking of CPR constitutional or operational rules, such as protection agreements for grazing areas,
fish net sizes, forests, or misappropriation of funds, etc.;
• Disputes over the unfair distribution of work and profits.
Inter micro–micro conflicts:
• Conflict between land-owners and resource users;
• Conflict between indigenous CPR groups, and more recent settlers;
• Disputes generated by jealousy related to growing wealth disparities;
• Lack of co-operation between different community groups;
• Disputes over renewal arrangements for leased land;
• Internal land ownership disputes ignited by the speculation activities of commercial companies;
• Resentment built up due to lack of representation on village committees.
Micro–macro conflicts:
• Contradictory natural resource needs and values, e.g. between wildlife habitat protection and local livelihood
security;
• Cultural conflicts between community groups and outsiders;
• Disputes over project management between community groups and outside project-sponsors;
• Disputes caused by political influence (national, provincial or local);
• Disputes arising from differences between the aspirations of community groups and expectations of NGOs or
commercial companies;
23
What are community-based conflicts? groups over resource ownership, rights and
(Example. Natural Resources) responsibilities.
People normally use resources like forests, water, Community-based conflicts (natural resource) are
common property resources and land, and want to often very complex. There are usually many causes
manage them in different ways. Knowing about and many interconnected issues, making it hard to
these different uses and management can help to identify the key issues in the conflict.
inform successful management so that everyone It is sometimes helpful to think of conflict as
benefits as much as possible. However, such having the following three elements:
differences can also lead to conflict when: People: how people think about and relate to the
there is competition over material goods, conflict; their feelings, emotions and perceptions
economic benefits, property or power; of the problems and of the other people
parties believe that their needs cannot be met; involved;
parties perceive that their values, needs or Process: the way decisions are made, and how
interests are under threat. people feel about this. The decision-making
Sometimes it is best to monitor a conflict without process is often overlooked as a key cause of
intervening. Such conflicts are problematic, but are conflict. However, resentment, feelings of being
unlikely to become disputes and are not treated unfairly and a sense of powerlessness
dangerous. At other times, however, if a conflict is are often rooted in this area.
ignored, or attempts to manage it fail, it can grow Problems: the specific issues and differences
into a dispute or some other form of confrontation. among the people, groups and agencies
A dispute occurs when a conflict over a specific involved. These often include different values,
issue or event becomes public. A dispute can be a incompatible interests and needs, or concrete
fight, an appeal to authorities, or a court case. The differences regarding the use, distribution or
difference between disputes and conflict is accessibility of scarce resources. They are often
important. All disputes reflect conflict, but not all referred to as the "root causes" of conflict, about
conflicts develop into disputes. which people tend to take clear and strong
Some conflicts may develop into disputes quickly. positions.
Others remain latent for a long time until triggered There are several factors that lead to conflicts
or aggravated by something new, such as a Growing competition over natural resources
development project or the arrival of outside Natural resources are increasingly subject to
interests. intense competition. In most cases, several factors
Community-based conflicts may occur at the local are responsible for this, including:
level, but often involve regional, national or even demographic change (e.g. population growth,
global actors. They range from conflicts among migration and urbanization);
local men and women over the use of land, to market pressures (e.g. increased
conflicts among communities disputing control over commercialization, intensification and
common resources, or fishers disagreeing about privatization of local economies, growing
the devices used for fishing. Community-level integration of national and global economies,
conflict might involve government agencies, economic reforms);
domestic and multinational businesses, politicians, Environmental changes that force people
international development agencies and non- to alter their livelihood strategies (e.g.
governmental organizations (NGOs). floods, recurrent droughts, altered river flows,
A dispute may also break out at different levels. At changes in wildlife migration).
one level, the main issue could be access to or However, increased competition is not always the
control over the resources that people depend on. only cause of conflict. Four important conditions
At another, the dispute could relate to more deeply influence how access to resources could become
rooted issues such as recognition, rights, identity contested. These are:
or the ability to participate. the scarcity of a natural resource;
The intensity of conflict also varies greatly - from the extent to which the supply is shared by two
confusion and frustration among members of a or more groups;
community about poorly communicated the relative power of those groups;
development policies, to violent clashes among
24
the degree of dependence on this particular when they are acknowledged legally, so State law
resource, or the ease of access to alternative may continue to come into conflict with custom.
sources. Different authorities using different rules can then
Of course, increased demand for resources can make decisions that are contradictory - one
result in responses other than conflict. For decision in customary law, another in statute law.
example, it can lead to agricultural intensification Socio-economic change fuelling conflict
(using fertilizer, terracing, irrigation, multiple When society and the economy undergo change, it
cropping, stall-feeding livestock, tree planting, is not surprising if the interests and needs of the
etc), increased reliance on non-farm/off-farm community also change. Economic development
income, or increased commercialization of often increases pressures on natural resources,
production. These new adaptations may in turn and this can trigger conflict or make existing
generate conflicts, as resource use patterns are conflicts worse. The following are some examples:
altered. Introduction of new technologies, synthetic
Structural causes of conflict fertilizers, agricultural mechanization or
Established organizations and patterns govern how permanent irrigation
the law works, how education and health services Commercialization of common property
are provided, and how women and men, old and resources:
young people live as families and communities. Migration
These could be described as the way in which Perverse incentives:
society is organized or structured. Conflicts are Policies, programmes and projects (Natural
often underpinned by this structure. resource management) as sources of conflict
A conflict may involve one issue - for example, a New policies of decentralization, devolution and
boundary dispute between two villages. This collaborative management increase the decision-
could be addressed by local people using making power and influence of local communities,
customary law. But if someone wants to use State households and individuals. Such policies
law, the conflict becomes more complicated. A encourage communities to become more involved
structural conflict may arise because customary in decisions affecting their own livelihoods and the
law and State law are organized differently; one resources on which those livelihoods are based.
is local and the other national. State law is usually Although such policies are helpful for sustainable
stronger, and the conflict may then move from a livelihoods, the successful introduction of greater
boundary dispute to one about people's rights and power sharing among different groups is often
identity. challenging.
Deeper, structural issues such as this often have Policies, programmes and projects themselves can
roots in long-standing conditions, such as the way serve as sources or arenas of conflict, even though
in which wealth or power is produced, distributed their intention is to reduce conflicts or improve
or controlled in society. Broader social, political, livelihoods. Reasons include the following (FAO,
economic or legal frameworks within a society may 2000):
be perceived as unjust, ineffective or exclusionary. Policies imposed without local participation:
This makes it harder to solve the problem. Poor stakeholder identification and consultation:
Structural conflicts often lie dormant until Uncoordinated planning:
awakened by other factors. Inadequate or poor information sharing:
Conflicts between official/statutory and customary Limited institutional capacity:
tenure systems cause major concern. Even if the Inadequate monitoring and evaluation of
great majority of rural people obtain their rights to programmes:
land through customary means, local land tenure Lack of effective mechanisms for conflict
arrangements often have an uncertain or insecure management:
position within national policy frameworks.
Customary land rights often remain unclear, even
25
S.Rengasamy-Conflict Resolution in Community Settings (Part II)
Why to resolve Conflicts

Conflict Resolution
It is a new field (dating from the 70‟s, bringing together various other disciplines, such as
Political Science, Psychology and Sociology. Different cultures have different approaches to
conflicts. Some cultures choose to address the dispute
directly and some choose to avoid facing the clash. In Why to resolve Conflicts
some cultures, voicing frustrations is regarded as be harmful to individuals or groups
have positive results
normal, and yet in others it is rude to do so. help define and sharpen
Even the word „conflict‟ itself might have diverse community issues to improve
connotations in different languages. decisions
help gain recognition for a group
Conflict resolution is a range of methods for alleviating increase bitterness, alienation, and
or eliminating sources of conflict. The term "conflict divisiveness
resolution" is sometimes used interchangeably with the increase unity, cohesion, and
solidarity within a group
term dispute resolution or alternative dispute strengthen group boundaries
resolution (ADR). Processes of conflict resolution aid in the formation of a new
generally include negotiation, mediation & diplomacy. group
The processes of arbitration, litigation & formal weaken or destroy a group
complaint processes such as ombudsman processes are increase tension within or between
usually described with the term dispute resolution, groups
although some refer to them as "conflict resolution." result in restructuring a group
lead to alliances with other groups
Processes of mediation & arbitration are often referred
disrupt normal channels of
to as alternative dispute resolution. cooperation
Different types of strategies in approaching to Conflicts
become violent
Different types of strategies in
There are many ways to resolve conflicts - surrendering, approaching to Conflicts
running away, overpowering your opponent with Conflict Prevention: An approach that
seeks to resolve disputes before violence
violence, filing a lawsuit, etc. The movement toward breaks out.
Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR), sometimes Conflict Management: Aims to
referred to simply as conflict resolution, grew out of the prevent the eruption of destructive
belief that there are better options than using violence or conflict by facilitating a move from
violent to spoken conflict
going to court. Today, the terms ADR and conflict Conflict Transformation: Enabling a
resolution are used somewhat interchangeably and refer transformation from conflict to lasting
to a wide range of processes that encourage nonviolent peace by addressing root causes and
dispute resolution outside of the traditional court system. effects of conflict.
Peacemaking: Peacemaking transforms
The field of conflict resolution also includes efforts in the conflict from violent to spoken, and
schools and communities to reduce violence and further, toward the definition of a
bullying and help young people develop communication common peaceful solution.
Peace keeping: Peacekeeping missions
and problem-solving skills. are often required to halt violence and
Common forms of conflict resolution include:* preserve peace once it is obtained.
Negotiation *Mediation * Arbitration * Mediation- Peace building: It is utilized to prevent
Arbitration * Early Neutral Evaluation * Community the recurrence of violence, by addressing
the root causes of conflict and creating a
Conferencing * Collaborative Law * Negotiated stable and durable peace.
Rulemaking * Peer Mediation
26
Diagram: Conflict Management
27
Conflict Resolution - Strategies of Community Organization

A strategy is the general framework of or orientation to the activities undertaken to achieve a
goal. It is not a particular action but rather a series of actions that take in to account, the
anticipated maneuvers of people. [Supporters as well as opponents]
A strategy is an orchestration of individual attempts‟ that brings together and consciously blends
Methods of Conflict Resolution a variety of different
Strategies of Community Organization components of action.
‘Thou shalt have the situation dictate the strategy’ A strategy takes in to
account the actions and
reactions of key allies and adversaries as they bear upon achievement of the proposed goal.
There are four strategic approaches pursued in community organization
Confrontation Negotiation Co-operation Co-optation
Confrontation Negotiation Co-operation Co-optation
It involves bringing the It is a process of bringing It exists when parties It results when parties share
demands of one party to parties with different share resources to common beliefs about
the attention of another needs and perspectives to accomplish a common matters and when success
and forcing compliance an agreement goal or failure of one party
produces similar feelings
Situation for which a particular strategy may be appropriate
Target refuses to meet Unable to sustain The respondents have Opposite group is
with us. confrontation effectively. resources we need and uncooperative and is not a
Target is unresponsive. Unable to neither convince from which we can good target for
Need to crystallize or nor force the respondent benefit. confrontation.
dramatize the issue. into full compliance with When we have resources Key individuals in the
Need to energize the our demands. to offer. opposite group are
issue. To see progress toward Situation of mutual amenable to some sort of
Need to attract the accomplishing some gain. benefit. affiliation. Weakening the
allies. When the opponents have Want to increase the opposite by putting them in
recognized the legitimacy respondents‘ dependence our agency where their
of the demands. on us. opinion is silenced.
When both sides want to Respondent is O.K and we
gain or build relationship. want to work together.
Strengths of a Particular strategy
* Fighting with an * Likely to end up more *Combined resources * Silencing a potentially
external opponent may favorable condition, even if * More people to work harmful critic
strengthen group you don‘t get everything * More dependence of * Gain some insights into
cohesion you want others may alter the the working of the
* Winning provides * Other sides ability to gain balance of power competition
tremendous emotional some thing makes them * Gaining access to a
uplift more accepting of your community that has been
* Mere threat of gain closed to you
confrontation may be * Positive relationship may
sufficient to accomplish develop
our purpose
Limitations of the strategy
* Loss can be * Settle for to little that * More energy is needed * Letting a fox in the hen
discouraging may weaken the future to maintain the house
And may lead to internal demands relationship * Co-opted members may
puckering * Loss of autonomy manipulate your
* Non cooperation from * Others may take credit transparency
the other side for the success
28
A. Steps in Managing Conflict

There are five steps to managing conflict. Avoiding….doesn‗t deal with the issue
These steps are: Accommodating …just smoothes things over
1. Analyze the conflict Competing … divides groups and creates win/lose
2. Determine management strategy Compromising … helps find the middle ground
3. Pre-negotiation Collaborating….helps people to work together to
4. Negotiation find best solution for everyone
5. Post-negotiation
Step 1: Analyze the conflict.

Conflict Analysis Exercise
Groups involved Who are the groups involved? Who do they represent?
How are they organized?
What is their power base? Are the groups capable of What are the historical relationships
working together? among the groups?
Substance How did the conflict arise? How are the main and secondary issues
described?
Can negative issues be Are the issues negotiable? Have positions been taken and, if so, are
reframed positively? there common interests?
What information is available What values or interests are
and what other information challenged?
is needed?
Possible strategies Would consensus serve all Are there external constraints or other
interests? influences that must be accommodated?
What are the past What is the timeline for a How will the public and the media be
experiences (if any) of the decision? involved and informed?
groups working together?
Will an outside negotiator be
needed?
Step 2: Determine
management strategy.
Collaboration Compromise
Competition Accommodation
Avoidance
Step 3: Pre-negotiation
Initiation Assessment
Ground rules and agenda
Organization Joint fact-
finding
Step 4: Negotiation.
Interests, Options,Written
agreement
29
Step 5: Post-negotiation.
Ratification Implementation
30
Key features of conflict analysis
Key features of conflict analysis

What is the conflict about?
A conflict is often more complex than it seems. How do the participants frame the conflict? To what
extent are their views alike, and how do they differ? How do others frame the conflict? What seem to
be the immediate or proximate factors behind the conflict? Are there deeper livelihood, institutional,
political or other structural factors behind the conflict? Trying to manage a conflict as a single, isolated
event may be of little use if it is intertwined with wider problems or issues.
Who is involved in the conflict?
Effective consensus building depends on engaging all the stakeholder groups that are relevant to a
conflict. It is therefore important to identify stakeholders accurately. Are there any groups who are not
present but who have a direct or indirect role in the conflict, such as administrators, resource users
from neighboring communities or migratory populations (herders, farmers or laborers)?
What motivations or incentives exist for the parties to settle their conflict?
Trying to get people to settle their conflict through ACM or other means may be difficult if the parties
do not feel or perceive a need to manage or resolve it. In addition, there may be economic, political,
cultural or other incentives that influence the parties' willingness to engage in conflict management.
Equally important is to find out whether there are people who would benefit from continuation of the
conflict, or who would resist attempts to stop conflict (do some people have an interest in
perpetuating the conflict?).
What conflict management strategies have been tried in the past?
It is very important to consider what strategies have already been tried to resolve the conflict. What
were the results of these efforts? What are the advantages or disadvantages or pursuing the same
strategy or strategies for the present conflict?
Tips for Transforming Conflict
Tips for Transforming Conflict

When conflicts arise, many of us automatically fall into adversarial ways of thinking—you vs. me.
Doing so typically means there is a winner and a loser. However, in reality both sides usually lose
something because the relationship is damaged and the problem is often not truly resolved.
Most of us are aware that there is a more constructive way to deal with conflict. Typically called a win-
win, collaborative or cooperative approach, it can be applied to all kinds of conflict, from small
everyday disputes between individuals to large ones that divide communities. This strategy is called as
the common ground approach, where the parties involved understand and honor their differences and
find a mutually beneficial agreement based on shared interests—their common ground.
Here are a few tips that might help to achieve common ground:
1. Accept that conflicts are a natural part of life
2. Treat conflict as an opportunity to grow, learn and improve relationships
3. Be aware of your initial reaction and take a deep breath
4. Choose your approach
5. Listen and learn
6. Discover what’s important
7. Respect each other
8. Find common ground
9. Be creative
31
Cycle of Conflict & Conflict Resolution
Methods of Conflict Resolution
Methods of Conflict Resolution

Promoting pro-social behavior:
Human beings have at least as much potential for caring, sharing and cooperating as they do for aggression,
competing and destroying. Pro social behaviors are activities that have positive social consequences for others.
Approaches to managing conflict:
Ones approach to manage conflict differ as per ones assumptions 1) people, 2) about conflict, 3) characteristic
attitudes, 4) behaviors and typical outcomes.
The Win-Win approach is a conscious and systematic attempt to maximize the gains of both parties through
collaborative problem solving.
1. Forcing- an antagonistic, competitive approach that pushes for an all or nothing solution
Lose-Lose approach is characterized in many ways
1. Avoidance of conflict is preferred to open competition and half loaf is better than one loaf.
2. Withdrawing- avoiding conflict by retreating or remaining silent
3. Smoothing- playing down differences, emphasizing commonalities and avoiding discussions on contentious
issues
4. Compromising- a simple splitting of differences through negotiation
Two-dimensional model of conflict management:
This model states that assertiveness (to satisfy others concerns) and cooperativeness (to satisfy others concerns)
are both necessary to understand peoples approach and behavior towards conflict. This model yields five conflict
modes
Third Party Consultation:
Arbitration: Involves a third party judgment that is arrived at by considering the merits of the opposing cases
and their imposing a settlement.
Mediation: Involves a skilled third party who attempts to help clients reach a compromise on specific issues that
are amenable for negotiation
32
Different options for managing conflict
Different options for managing conflict

There are number of options to manage conflicts. One must carefully consider the pros and cons of
each possible option to decide which approach provides best advantage. No approach for managing
natural resource conflicts works in all situations. Each has its own strengths and limitations. Deciding
on the most appropriate and legitimate means of addressing the conflict will depend on the situation.
The following discussion of the various options is to assist people to make informed decisions. The
various conflict management options vary in terms of
the legal recognition of process and outcome;
the privacy of the approach;
the specialization required of the third party that might be assisting in conflict management;
the role and authority of any third party that might be involved;
the type of decision that will result;
The amount of coercion that is exercised by or on the disputing parties.
The diagram shows a continuum of conflict management approaches. These range from conflict
avoidance at one extreme to physical violence at the other. In between these two extremes, there are
many different approaches and options for managing conflict. Moving from left to right in the diagram,
the approaches become progressively more directive and coercive in terms of decision-making. The
further towards the right of the diagram, the less the influence that the conflict parties have on the
process and outcome of conflict management.
Informal Decision Informal third Legal Extra legal coerced
party decision authoritative decision making
Making making third party
by Conflict Parties decision making
Conflict Negotiation Mediation Arbitration Adjudication Non Violent Violence

Avoidance Direct Action
Increased coercion & Likelihood of Win –Lose

outcome
Continuum of conflict
management approach
33
Box: Managing Conflict

Boulding's third method of ending conflict -
Managing Conflict procedural resolution by reconciliation
and/or compromise - is generally the
Robinson and Clifford (1974) advocate method most appropriate in community
"managing conflict toward constructive action development programs. There are several
since a conflict can seldom be completely means to reach a compromise. Various
resolved." When conflict arises, we need to be practitioners and academies theorize as to the
able to manage it so that it becomes a positive best means available. In reality, the means for
force, rather than a negative force threatening conflict resolution by reconciliation is
to disrupt the group or community. As Parker dependent on the situation. No one type can
(1974) notes: Conflict not managed will bring apply to all situations.
about delays, disinterest, lack of action and, in
extreme cases, a complete breakdown of the There are always risks involved when dealing
group. Unmanaged conflict may result in with hostilities or conflict. Research indicates
withdrawal of individuals and unwillingness on that accepting these risks will result, when the
their part to participate in other groups or conflict is managed (even in varying degrees),
assist with various group action programs. in stronger, more cohesive groups. Ignoring or
openly fighting the opposition can greatly
Boulding discusses several methods of ending weaken group structure and group action.
conflicts: (1) avoidance; (2) conquest; and
(3) procedural resolution of some kind, Compromise involves adjustments and
including reconciliation and/or compromise modifications with regard to the territories,
and/or award. As stated previously, avoidance values, goals, and/or policies of the involved
of conflict often leads to intensified hostility parties. For example, a possible strategy for
and may later cause greater problems for the reducing conflict over how to reach an agreed-
group. Therefore, one of the first steps in upon goal might be to redefine the situation in
conflict management is to recognize that a terms of new means toward the acceptable
conflict situation exists. Don't ignore it and goals - a new bond issue rather than depleting
count on it disappearing by itself. As Boulding existing funds. Territories may also be
(1962) notes: "The biggest problem in redefined and made less exclusive in order to
developing the institutions of conflict control is diminish conflict.
that of catching conflicts young. Conflict
situations are frequently allowed to develop to An outline of suggestions for use in managing
almost unmanageable proportions before conflict within and among community groups is
anything is done about them, by which time it presented below:
is often too late to resolve them by peaceable 1. Recognize and Acknowledge that
and procedural means." Conflict Exists.
2. Analyze the Existing Situation.
Avoidance in a particular situation might Know exactly what the conflict is about. Does
conceivably be the best answer, but this step it involve values, goals and means to goals,
should be made only after conflict is explicitly territory, or a combination of these?
recognized and alternative ways to manage it Analyze behavior of involved parties:
are examined. members of the groups(s)).
Determine if the conflict approach is being
Conquest or the elimination of all other points used by the concerned party (as discussed in
of view is an approach seldom applicable to previous section).
community development programs. It is Find out how other, similar conflicts have
mentioned here only as a recognized approach. been resolved.
Find out how other, similar conflicts have
been resolved.
34
5. Facilitate Communication. to convert divergent interests into channels of

Enhance communication. Open the lines for common desires. In exploring these channels,
free discussion and involve all members. both parties to the negotiation may be stimulated
Encourage accurate communication and by the idea of sharing common goals. These goals
feedback because negotiation (discussed are reached by finding mutual interests and needs
below) depends on good communication. by emphasizing the matters that can be agreed
Listen and raise questions. upon, and by not dwelling on points of difference.
Allow free expression. Constructive
disagreement should not be suppressed. 3. Make necessary Adjustments, Reinforce
Supply information and facts. and Confirm.
Maintain an objective level (not emotional).
Stay on issues, not people. 4. Live with Conflict. All conflict cannot be
Provide the tact needed to "save face" for resolved.
parties. Sometimes, individuals or groups do not feel it is
to their collective interest to resolve a conflict. The
6. Negotiate. price is too high. Resolution involves compromise
"Techniques used in labor disputes offer or capitulation. If a party is unwilling to
potential in community problem-solving." compromise or to capitulate, then the conflict is
Some useful principles based on negotiations likely to continue.
between labor and management, and in Many social analysts believe that the middle class
business affairs may be applied in conflict in Western industrial nations has embraced an
management in community groups. As anti-conflict, anti-violence value orientation. This
Nierenberg (1968) states, "Whenever people has resulted in rule by consensus and conflict
exchange ideas with the intention of changing avoidance. Some or most community leaders find
relationships, whenever they confer for conflict both embarrassing and distasteful. This
agreement, they are negotiating." He adds, attitude is especially useful to those who use a
"The satisfaction of needs is the goal common conflict strategy - that is, they exploit peace at
to all negotiations," and that "negotiation is a any price. But, it may not always be in
cooperative enterprise; common interests must communities' interest to compromise or capitulate
be sought; negotiation is a behavioral process, on these terms. Learning to live with conflict may
not a game; in a good negotiation, everybody be a real community service. As close knit groups
wins something." have demonstrated for centuries, communities
can live with conflict when they collectively
The importance of discovering common determine it is necessary.
interests, or "points of common agreement," is
stressed by Nierenberg: Always he on the alert
35
Box: Process & Types of Conflict Resolution
Conflict resolution is a range of processes aimed at alleviating or eliminating sources of conflict. The term "conflict
resolution" is sometimes used interchangeably with the term dispute resolution or alternative dispute resolution. Processes
of conflict resolution generally include negotiation, mediation and diplomacy. The processes of arbitration, litigation are
usually described with the term dispute resolution, although some refer to them as "conflict resolution." Processes of
mediation and arbitration are often referred to as alternative dispute resolution.
Conflict management refers to the long-term management of intractable conflicts. It is the label for the variety of ways by
which people handle grievances — standing up for what they consider to be right and against what they consider to be
wrong. Those ways include such diverse phenomena as gossip, ridicule, lynching, terrorism, warfare, feuding, genocide, law,
mediation, and avoidance. Which forms of conflict management will be used in any given situation can be somewhat
predicted and explained by the social structure. Conflict management is often considered to be distinct from conflict
resolution
Negotiation is a dialogue intended to resolve disputes, to produce an agreement upon courses of action, to bargain for
individual or collective advantage, or to craft outcomes to satisfy various interests. It is the primary method of alternative
dispute resolution. Negotiation occurs in business, non-profit organizations, government branches, legal proceedings, among
nations and in personal situations such as marriage, divorce, parenting, and everyday life. The study of the subject is called
negotiation theory. Those who work in negotiation professionally are called negotiators. Professional negotiators are often
specialized, such as union negotiators, leverage buyout negotiators, peace negotiators, hostage negotiators or may work
under other titles, such as diplomats, legislators or brokers.
Mediation, a form of alternative dispute resolution (ADR) or "appropriate dispute resolution", aims to assist two (or more)
disputants in reaching an agreement. The parties themselves determine the conditions of any settlements reached— rather
than accepting something imposed by a third party. The disputes may involve (as parties) states, organizations, communities,
individuals or other representatives with a vested interest in the outcome.
Advocacy is the pursuit of influencing outcomes — including public-policy and resource allocation decisions within political,
economic, and social systems and institutions — that directly affect people’s current lives.
Advocacy can be seen as a deliberate process of speaking out on issues of concern in order to exert some influence on behalf
of ideas or persons. Based on this definition, Cohen states that “ideologues of all persuasions advocate” to bring a change in
people’s lives. However, advocacy has many interpretations depending on the issue at stake, which can be different from this
initial value-neutral definition.
Diplomacy is the employment of tact to gain strategic advantage or to find mutually acceptable solutions to a common
challenge, one set of tools being the phrasing of statements in a non-confrontational or polite manner.
Activism, in a general sense, can be described as intentional action to bring about social or political change. This action is in
support of, or opposition to, one side of an often controversial argument.
The word "activism" is often used synonymously with protest or dissent, but activism can stem from any number of political
orientations and take a wide range of forms, from writing letters to newspapers or politicians, political campaigning,
economic activism (such as boycotts or preferentially patronizing preferred businesses), rallies, blogging and street marches,
strikes, both work stoppages and hunger strikes, or even guerrilla tactics.
In some cases, activism has nothing to do with protest or confrontation: for instance, some religious, feminist or
vegetarian/vegan activists try to persuade people to change their behavior directly, rather than persuade governments to
change laws. The cooperative movement seeks to build new institutions which conform to cooperative principles, and
generally does not lobby or protest politically.
Critical pedagogy is a teaching approach that attempts to help students question and challenge domination, and the beliefs
and practices that dominate. In other words, it is a theory and practice of helping students achieve critical consciousness.
Critical pedagogue Ira Shor defines critical pedagogy as "Habits of thought, reading, writing, and speaking which go beneath
surface meaning, first impressions, dominant myths, official pronouncements, traditional clichés, received wisdom, and mere
opinions, to understand the deep meaning, root causes, social context, ideology, and personal consequences of any action,
event, object, process, organization, experience, text, subject matter, policy, mass media, or discourse."
36
Table: Strengths and limitations of various methods of conflict resolution

Strengths and limitations of customary systems for managing conflict
Strengths Limitations
Encourage participation by community members, and Have been supplanted by courts and administrative laws.
respect local values and customs. Are challenged by the increasing heterogeneity of
Are more accessible because of their low cost, their communities resulting from cultural change, population
flexibility in scheduling and procedures, and their use of movements and other factors that erode the social
the local language. relationships supporting customary conflict management.
Encourage decision-making based on collaboration, with There may also be long-standing problems of access on
consensus emerging from wide-ranging discussions, the basis of gender, class, caste or other considerations.
often fostering local reconciliation. Often cannot accommodate conflict among communities
Contribute to processes of community empowerment. or between a community and the State.
Informal and even formal leaders may serve as Local leaders may use their authority to pursue their own
conciliators, mediators, negotiators or arbitrators. self-interest, or that of their affiliated social groups or
Long-held public legitimacy provides a sense of local clients.
ownership of both the process and its outcomes. Decisions and processes may not be written down for
future reference.
Strengths and limitations of national legal systems
Use of official legal systems strengthens the rule of State Are often inaccessible to the poor, women, marginalized
law, empowers civil society and fosters environmental groups and remote communities because of cost,
accountability. distance, language barriers, political obstacles, illiteracy
Are officially established with supposedly well-defined and discrimination.
procedures. May not consider indigenous knowledge, local institutions
Take national and international concerns and issues into and long-term community needs in decision-making.
consideration. May involve judicial and technical specialists who lack the
Involve judicial and technical specialists in decision- expertise, skills and orientation required for participatory
making. natural resource management.
Where there are extreme power imbalances among the Use procedures that are generally adversarial and
disputants, national legal systems may better protect the produce win - lose outcomes.
rights of less powerful parties because decisions are Provide only limited participation in decision-making for
legally binding. conflict parties.
Decisions are impartial, based on the merits of the case, It may become more difficult to reach impartial decisions
and with all parties having equity before the law. if there is a lack of judicial independence, corruption
among State agents, or an elite group that dominates
legal processes.
Use the highly specialized language of educated elite
groups, favoring business and government disputants
over ordinary people and communities.
Strengths and limitations of alternative conflict resolution methods
Can help overcome obstacles to participatory conflict Often fail to address structural inequalities, and may
management that are inherent in legislative, serve to perpetuate or exacerbate power imbalances.
administrative, judicial and even customary approaches. May encounter difficulties in getting all stakeholders to
Promote conflict management by building on shared the bargaining table.
interests and finding points of agreement. May not be able to overcome power differentials among
Involve processes that resemble those already existing in stakeholders, so vulnerable groups such as the poor,
most local conflict management systems, including women and indigenous people remain marginalized.
flexible, low-cost access. May result in decisions that are not legally binding.
Foster a sense of ownership in implementation of the May lead some practitioners to use methods developed
solution process. in other contexts and cultures without adapting them to
Emphasize capacity building within communities so that local contexts.
local people become more effective facilitators,
communicators, planners and managers of conflict.
37
Diagram: The ten steps of conflict management
The ten steps of conflict management
Table: The major elements we need to understand before deciding a strategy
Elements Things to know

Issues Basic facts; causes and effects of problems; solutions applied in other places; rights
and obligation of parties
Target Probable reaction to specific tactic; principal decision makers; degree of rationale for
support or opposition; strengths and vulnerabilities; cohesion
Your Troops Degree of commitment; numbers; probable reactions to opponent‘s tactics; cultural
norms; strengths and vulnerabilities; cohesion
Other Resources Awareness of needed additional resources; availability and location of resources;
steps required to gain additional resources
38
Box: Resolving Conflict - Making a community to perform
Resolving Conflict - Making a community to perform
39
Diagram: Thomas and Kilmann Conflict Modes
40
Table: Basic Causes, Causes that Escalate and Institutional Capacity to handle conflict
BASIC CAUSES OF CONFLICT •Do elites compete over the control of valuable
1. ETHNIC AND RELIGIOUS DIVISIONS natural resources (both renewable and non-renewable), scarce
•Is the relationship between ethnic/religious groups or not?
characterized by dominance, potential dominance, or high levels •Are certain resources (such as land) used as a tool in political
of fragmentation? competition?
•Where do these groups live and in what numbers? Are they 4. DEMOGRAPHIC TRENDS
concentrated in regional pockets or dispersed? If they are •Do population growth rates differ across distinct, adjacent
concentrated, do they form a majority or a minority in the area? communities?
•What is the history of relations between groups? Is there a •Are there other factors (e.g. economic migration) that are
pattern of systematic discrimination or have relations been tipping the demographic balance toward one group?
relatively peaceful and inclusive? •Is the rural population expanding? If so, is there access to land
•Do other divides, for example political exclusion or economic or are there other safety valves for population pressures (e.g.
inequality, reinforce ethnic divisions? migration to adjacent states/economic opportunity in urban
•Are there elites who face an economic or political incentive to centers)?
mobilize violence along ethnic lines? CONFLICT ASSESSMENT FRAMEWORK
•Is extremist ethnic or religious rhetoric increasing? Are elites •What are rates of urbanization? Is the urban population
beginning to create or promote ethnic 'myths'? expanding in a period of economic growth or decline?
2. ECONOMIC CAUSES •What is the size of the youth cohort relative to the adult
•Is the economy (of the country/region) growing, stagnant, or population?
declining? By what percent? •Are there particular areas (urban centers, distinct regions)
•Is the country (or region) low income? where the youth cohort is disproportionately large?
•Are there large socio-economic disparities? Do these reinforce •Are young people radicalizing? If so, around what issues? If
other lines of division, such as ethnicity? not, what is keeping this from happening?
•Is the economy heavily dependent on primary commodities? •Are there rapid increases in young, educated professionals who
Are these commodities easily 'lootable'? have no opportunities for political or economic advancement?
•Is economic power tied to political power? 5. INTERACTION EFFECTS
•How pervasive is corruption or patronage? Does it flow along •Are there many incentives for violence (both greed and
ethnic or other lines of division? grievance) or only a few?
•If there is a large informal economy, is it legal or illegal (i.e. •Are they longstanding and chronic or of fairly recent origin?
based on drugs, trafficking in humans)? •Do incentives for violence overlap and reinforce each other or
3. ENVIRONMENTAL CAUSES cut across lines of division? For example, does access to
•Are there major resource scarcities? economic opportunity overlap with ethnic difference or cut
•What are the primary causes of scarcity? across ethnic difference?
•Has scarcity led to resource capture? •Is there an alignment between grievance and greed? Are elites
•Has scarcity led to population transfers? with a political or economic incentive to mobilize violence well-
•Do the effects of scarcity (resource capture, population positioned to tap into a strong grievance?
transfers) reinforce other divides (ethnic, religious, economic)
and/or generate competition between groups?
CAUSES THAT ESCALATE CONFLICTS
II. MOBILIZATION: ACCESS TO CONFLICT RESOURCES •Are resources available through government corruption or
1. ORGANIZATIONAL RESOURCES patronage networks?
•Do organizational structures bridge or reinforce differences in a •Can sufficient resources be gained through smuggling,
society? For example, are civil society groups mono-ethnic or kidnapping, banditry or other activities on the black or gray
multi-ethnic? market?
•Are there well-established ethnic or religious associations that 3. HUMAN RESOURCES
could be used to mobilize violence? • Is there a population of ready recruits (e.g. unemployed
•Have these structures stepped in to provide important services, young men in urban or semi-urban areas) available to actors
such as access to employment or education, in the context of a motivated to engage in violence?
weak state? 4. GENERAL QUESTIONS
•How closely do organizational resources (e.g. ethnic groups or • Do groups with incentives for violence have access to all
patronage networks) align with incentives for violence? conflict resources organizational, financial, and human - or only
•If incentives and organizations are aligned, are these a few?
organizations capable of monitoring group behavior and • What level of resources do groups have and what level do
punishing 'defectors' from group goals? they need to achieve their goals? Is there a match?
2. FINANCIAL RESOURCES This section is intended to help the conflict assessment team
•Are groups with an incentive to mobilize violence affiliated with diagnose the conflict 'problem' in particular country context.
foreign support groups (e.g. diaspora, foreign governments, • Where do these resources come from (e.g. natural resources,
transnational religious or ethnic groups) that could provide corruption/patron-age networks, diasporas, foreign recruits,
funding? local/international sources) and what does this imply about ease
•Can those motivated to engage in violence obtain control of of access and sustainability?
"lootable" primary commodities?
41
III. INSTITUTIONAL CAPACITY AND RESPONSE •Do government institutions/civil society groups effectively
1. REGIME TYPE AND LEGITIMACY monitor and enforce financial transparency and accountability?
•Is the regime democratic, authoritarian, or mixed? •Is the government able to exert economic control over the
•How long has it existed in its current form? territory of the state or are there large pockets of autonomous
•Is it in a period of transition or erosion? economic activity?
•Are there generally accepted rules for political competition? •Does government policy encourage a good match between
•What is the overall level of respect for national authorities? available skills and the demands of the market?
2. INCLUSION/EXCLUSION •Do state economic policies favor one group at the expense of
•Do government policies favor one group over another? For another?
example, are government services provided equally across •Are local governments able to encourage local economic
different ethnic or religious groups, are exclusive language growth and investment and respond to local economic
policies in place? problems?
•Has the collapse or erosion of state institutions led groups to •Do grassroots and/or national institutions constructively
turn to more immediate forms of identity for survival? engage underrepresented and marginalized groups in economic
•Do civil society groups reinforce or bridge lines of division? development activities?
•How robust are multi-ethnic or multi-religious organizations? • Do government programs constructively engage potential
Do they have a mass base (e.g. trade unions, business recruits, such as unemployed youth?
associations) or are they limited to a narrow elite layer? 5. NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
•How are issues of ethnicity/religion taught in schools? •Does government policy seek to improve the sustainable
•Does the press promote ethnic or religious intolerance? management of natural resources?
3. RULE OF LAW/PROVISION OF SECURITY •Are there institutions in place that effectively mediate
•How strong is the judicial system? competing claims to natural resources such as land or water?
•Are civil and political freedoms respected? •Do local/national elites earn significant off-budget income from
•Are other basic human rights respected? the exploitation of natural resources?
•Does unlawful state violence exist? •Do government institutions effectively regulate trade in
•Does civilian power control the security sector? "lootable" commodities?
•Is the government able to exercise effective control over its •Are natural resources viewed by state elites as a useful tool or
territory prize in a larger political competition?
•Does the security sector (police/ justice sector) effectively and •Are state institutions able to respond to environmental shocks
impartially settle disputes between groups or is there a or natural disasters?
perception of bias? 6. DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS
•To what extent is the security sector involved in 'shadow' •Are government policies causing demographic shifts, for
economic activity? example through govern-ment-sponsored transmigration or
•Do government institutions effectively regulate legal arms trade agricultural programs?
and prevent illegal arms trades or do they participate in it? •Are government institutions able to respond to new demands
4. ECONOMIC GOVERNANCE created by demographic change? For example, are voting rights
•Does economic policy encourage economic growth or impose tied to place of residence or birth (meaning will uprooted
obstacles? populations be able to voice demands through political
•Is policy conducive to macro-economic stability? channels)?
•How pervasive is corruption in state institutions?
REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL FACTORS

IV. REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL FACTORS •Is economic activity (both legal and illegal) closely tied to
•Are ethnic and/or religious divisions reinforced by parallel regional or global dynamics?
relations in neighboring countries? •Is the economy highly vulnerable to global economic shocks?
•Does environmental degradation have cross-border causes or •Are demographic shifts tied to regional events?
effects? •Is mobilization facilitated by support from other governments
or ethnic and religious groups outside the country?
V. WINDOWS OF VULNERABILITY
V. WINDOWS OF VULNERABILITY responding to political and economic crises?
1. PREDICTABLE •Do local governments effectively and constructively respond to
•Are major government reforms planned that could result in local instability?
shifts in political or economic power (e.g. decentralization, anti- •What is the capacity of the formal/informal economy to absorb
corruption, security sector reform)? new entrants?
•Are contentious elections approaching? •What is the unemployment rate, particularly for young men in
2. UNPREDICTABLE urban areas?
•Is the country vulnerable to natural disasters? •Is there a match between the skills of new entrants and the
•Does the government effectively respond to mitigate the needs of the economy?
damage done by natural disasters? •Are these economies heavily dependent on access to global
•Is the economy highly vulnerable to global economic shocks? markets? How susceptible are they to economic shocks?
•Do government institutions have a history of effectively
42
Negotiation
In trying to solve certain problems, Community Organizations often find it necessary to negotiate
with other parties. “Negotiation is an attempt to hold discussion with
those who evidence varying degrees of resistance, in the hope of
ultimately arriving at an agreement. This is the essence (i.e.
arriving at an agreement through discussion) and the end point of
the negotiating process. In this context a negotiant is anyone whom the
community organization is trying to influence. A negotiant can be
undecided, neutral or hostile.
E.g. Strike by the govt. staff. Activism against lock up deaths.
Negotiation is the process of searching for an agreement that satisfies various parties. An
agreement may be reached either through barter or through real negotiation. A barter allows only
one party - the party in a position of power - to "win"; the other party is forced to accept
something of lesser value. A real negotiation implies a "win-win" situation, in which all parties
are satisfied.
The common element in all these examples is that the
community organization attempts to hold discussions with
those who evidence varying degrees of resistance in the hope
of ultimately arriving at an agreement. Thus negotiation
implies a conflict and the promotion of a cause or certain
interests.
In successful negotiation both parties ideally perceive that they

have given up something of limited value to gain something of
major value. If one party feels defeated then that party won‟t
show any interest in making the agreement stable and may be
provoked into laying plans for future retaliation.
Problems in Negotiation:
Many community organizations do not always heave within
their capacity the power to gain success to decision- makers.
Unlike in industrial negotiation, community groups lacking
power frequently find themselves prevented from the
negotiation process. So community organizations have to
develop their position and power that allows them to sit at the
negotiating table
To gain access to negotiations and enhance their bargaining
positions, community organizations use a variety of tactics.
Tactics used by the Community Organizations to get into the

negotiating table:
1. Supporting Survival Needs
Eg.Helping politicians in their campaigns: Supporting local
43
departments to get more budget allocations. Assisting in find raising campaigns.
2. Demonstrating public support and sympathy:

It means demonstrating the decision- makers that they espouse a cause, which has widespread
community support
E.g. Holding mass rallies.
Conducting letter-writing campaigns.
Circulating petitions.
Increasing membership.
Obtaining editorial support.
Organizing leading citizens to contact their legislators.
Signature campaigns.
3. Forming Alliances:
Alliances can be formed with other organizations
whose members have similar values. Broader the
base of the alliance more power can be exerted in
the negotiating process.
E.g. – Net working and mutual support between
NGOs; Solidarity Groups; Coalition
4. Conducting Behind – The Scenes
Discussions
In most of the political situations certain people
bear major responsibility for what happens.
Through quite discussions with these persons, the
key decision- makers can be convinced to carry
out a course of action promoted by the community organization. In fact these key leaders
sometimes become the crusaders of the cause, and the initiating community organization may
have to be satisfied with little credit even through their objective is achieved.
5. Targeting pressure points:

Selecting targets that are vulnerable to the special kinds of pressure a community organization
can bring to hear.
Eg. – Road Blockade
Agitation during assembly session
Wearing Black Badge.
6. Threatening:
Negotiation often involves a degree of threat.
The fact that rewards can be with held or
punishment inflicted constitutes a threat.
E.g. – Threat of a Lawsuit.
Threats to withdraw support or boycott.
7. Waging campaigns against persons or

institutions:
Direct action.
44
References
1. www.usaid.gov
1. A. Community-Based Development in Conflict-Affected Areas Guide
1. B. Conducting a conflict assessment
1. C. Livelihoods & conflict
1. D. Conflict-Related Publications http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/cross-
cutting_programs/conflict/publications/index.html
2. Community Conflict: A Resource Pack. The Tavistock Institute www.tavinstitute.org
3. Overseas Development Institute www.odi.org.uk
3. A. Community Development and Local Conflict: A Resource Document for Practitioners in
the Extractive Sector
3. B. Conflict Management in Community-Based Natural Resource Projects: Experiences from
Fiji and Papua New Guinea
3. C. Power, livelihoods and conflict: case studies in political economy analysis for humanitarian
action
4. Alternative dispute resolution http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_dispute_resolution
5. Conflict http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict
6. Frequently Asked Questions about Conflict Resolution http://www.acrnet.org/
7. Negotiation and mediation techniques for natural resource management
http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/a0032e/a0032e04.htm
8. Conflict Management In Community Organizations Ohio State University Fact Sheet
http://ohioline.osu.edu/cd-fact/index.html
9.Managing Conflict A Guide for Watershed Partnerships
http://www2.ctic.purdue.edu/KYW/nwn/nwn.html
45

Conflict and Conflict Resolutionn in Community Settings (Part I and II)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Conflict and Conflict Resolutionn in Community Settings (Part I and II)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Conflict & Conflict Resolution

Conflict Resolution - Strategies of Community Organization ................................................................. 28

Conflict in community Settings

Conflict in Community Settings

"Not all conflict is bad and not all cooperation is good"

This compilation is not talking about

What is community conflict?

Community organizers & Conflict

Beware of Iceberg Conflicts occur because of historical, cultural and economic

Many community organizations work with people who feel

Conflict is defined in many ways. The Latin word

Signs of Conflict The word ‘conflict’ carries

Conflict exists whenever incompatible activities occur.

• Read agreements on what data are important

• Clearly define roles

Resource Scarcity and Ingenuity

Table: Five Types of Conflict

Box: Conflict Staircase

B. Types of Conflict Positive Conflict Can . . .

C. Types of Conflict What do we mean by conflict?

Intrapersonal conflict- Conflict within the individual.

Vulnerability/context Environmental/political/economic/climatic/military shocks and trends

Box: Conflict Stages & Types of community Disputes

Box: Conflict is ever-changing: Stages of conflict

Conflict is ever-changing: Stages of conflict

Consequences of conflict Conflict Risk Factor -Institutional

Box: Understanding Conflict as a Strategy in Social Change

Understanding Conflict as a Strategy in Social Change

Different kinds of conflict.

Effective livelihood programming in pre-conflict, conflict, and post-conflict situations require

Causes of Freshwater Conflicts

Positive and negative conflict.

Types of conflicts arising in Natural Resource Management

Types of conflicts arising in Natural Resource Management

How is conflict resolution different than the legal approach?

Common development pressures fuelling conflict

Common development pressures fuelling conflict over

Community situations where conflict resolution may be useful

Box: Model Conflict Analysis Mapping

Box: Types of conflict

Box: Conflict mapping & Community Conflict

Conflict - Careers and education

Box Examples of Types of conflicts arising in Natural Resource Management .

Examples of Types of conflicts arising in Natural Resource Management.

Why to resolve Conflicts

Diagram: Conflict Management

Conflict Resolution - Strategies of Community Organization

A. Steps in Managing Conflict

Step 1: Analyze the conflict.

Key features of conflict analysis

Key features of conflict analysis

Tips for Transforming Conflict

Tips for Transforming Conflict

Cycle of Conflict & Conflict Resolution

Methods of Conflict Resolution

Methods of Conflict Resolution

Different options for managing conflict

Different options for managing conflict

Conflict Negotiation Mediation Arbitration Adjudication Non Violent Violence

Increased coercion & Likelihood of Win –Lose

Box: Managing Conflict

5. Facilitate Communication. to convert divergent interests into channels of

Box: Process & Types of Conflict Resolution

Table: Strengths and limitations of various methods of conflict resolution