Lecture II Outline: August 27, 1999

Introduction to cells and tissues of the plant body

Goal: to introduce some of the simple and complex tissues of the plant
body.
Plants have fewer organ types than higher animals. For example, a mature
vegetative plant may have only three organ types (leaves, roots, and stems).
There are about 40 cell types in plants (as compared to 100's in animals).
However, at a molecular level, the number of genes expressed in a specific
organ type is as complex as that found in animal systems.
A very nice web site: http://mumu.life.uiuc.edu/anatomy-98/
How does a plant grow?
Unlike animals, plants continue to grow and produce new organs continuously.
This growth is initiated by cell divisions in the meristems. Meristems are tissues
whose cells have the capacity to divide and produce new cells. Some of the cells
produced by the meristem will differentiate and become new organs of the plant
(leaves, for example). Other cells in the meristem remain meristematic. These
cells are present in the central zone of the meristem. An important aspect of the
meristem is the ability to balance cell division and differentiation.
Meristem = initials (cells that remain in the meristem) and immediate derivatives
(these cells divide one or more times before differentiating into specific cell
types). Whether a cell acts as an initial or a derivative depends on its position.
Primary vs. secondary growth and meristems involved:
primary growth - from primary meristems: growth in length of the shoots and
roots. Also production of branches of shoots and roots. The meristems involved
are the protoderm (precursor to the dermal tissue system), the procambium
(also called the provascular meristem; precursor to the vascular tissue system)
and the ground meristem (precursor to the ground tissue system). The
protoderm, procambium and ground meristem are established during embryo
development. After germination, primary growth is from the apical meristems
(root and shoot apical meristem).
secondary growth - from lateral meristems: growth in thickness of stems and
roots. Not all plants undergo secondary growth. The meristems involved are the
vascular cambium and the cork cambium.
Determinate vs. indeterminate growth:
determinate structure - grows to a size and then stops. Eventually will senesce
and die. Includes leaves, flowers, and fruits.

indeterminate structure - Stems and roots can be examples of this. The meristem
can continually replenish itself in indeterminate growth. Some fruit trees, for
instance, have been vegetatively propagated for centuries. This is possible
because the meristems giving rise to the stems and roots are in a sense
immortal.
Growth is by cell division and expansion (discussed further next lecture)
Morphogenesis: Greek "morphe" = form and Latin "generare" = to create.
Differentiation: the process by which cells become different from one another
and from the meristematic cells from which they originated.
Tissue systems: initiated during embryogenesis. After germination, from the
apical meristems.
1. Ground tissue system (fundamental tissue system)
2. Vascular tissue system
3. Dermal tissue system

Simple tissues
(one cell type)
Parenchyma
Collenchyma
Sclerenchyma

and

Complex tissues
(2 or more cell types)
Xylem
Phloem
Epidermis

Parenchyma: "para" is Greek for "beside"

-ground tissue
-alive at maturity
-can divide
-primary cell wall, although can have a secondary wall.
-generally polyhedral shape, but can be elongated or other shapes
-sometimes tightly packed, sometimes large air spaces (aerenchyma)
Functions include:

photosynthesis (chlorenchyma, "green tissue")

storage (tubers and seeds)
secretion (nectaries)
water and food movement
wound healing
initiation of adventitious roots
transfer cells
meristematic activity

Collenchyma: "kolla" is Greek for "glue"

-alive at maturity
-unevenly thickened non-lignified primary walls (thicker walls at the corners)
-generally elongated shape
-present beneath the epidermis in stems and petioles. Border veins in dicot
leaves and are the "strings" on celery stalks (petioles).
-support of growing tissues
Sclerenchyma: "skleros" is Greek for "hard"
-often dead at maturity
-thick, often lignified secondary walls
-strength
-fibers and sclerids:
-fibers - are usually very long, and are present in cortex of stems, often
associated with xylem and phloem. Also in leaves of monocotyledons.
Involved in support.
-sclerids - shorter, variable shape. Present throughout the plant. Involved
in support and protection.
Xylem: a complex tissue; "xylon" is Greek for "wood"
-water and mineral conducting
-support
-forms vascular system along with phloem
-primary and secondary xylem
-conducting cells are tracheary elements:
- two types of tracheary elements: tracheids and vessel members
-vessel members:
-dead at maturity, lignified wall
-angiosperms only
-pits and perforations in the walls, perforation plate is at end walls.
Vessel members are joined at perforation plates to form long
continuous tubes called vessels.
-tracheids:
-dead at maturity, lignified wall
-more primitive than vessel members
-only water conducting cell in seedless vascular plants and
gymnosperms
-present in angiosperms as well
-pits in wall, but no perforation plates
-"safer", but less efficient
-parenchyma cells, fibers and sclereids are also present in xylem.

Phloem: a complex tissue; "phloos" is Greek for "bark"

-food conducting
-primary and secondary phloem
-conducting cells are called sieve elements. "Sieve" refers to the clusters or
pores through which protoplasts are connected. Sieve elements are living at
maturity but lack nuclei, ribosomes, Golgi, and microtubules. There is also a loss
of a distinct vacuole. Sieve elements do have some smooth endoplasmic
reticulum, plastids and mitochondria. The walls are primary, and there is not
lignification as seen in tracheary elements.
-two types of sieve elements: sieve cells and sieve tube members
-sieve cells are the only sieve element in seedless vascular plants and
gymnosperms. The pores are narrow and uniform in size on all walls of
the cell.
-sieve tube members are only in angiosperms. Larger pores are present
on some wall than on others. These areas are usually at the ends of the
cell and are referred to as sieve plates. The sieve tube members are
connected end-to-end to form sieve tubes. Sieve tube members in some
plants have P-protein (slime).
-Companion cells - a specialized form of parenchyma that is densely cytoplasmic
with lots of mitochondria and ribosomes. Also have nuclei. Associated with sieve
tube member. Companion cells are a special kind of parenchyma involved in
loading and unloading sieve tubes and in providing the sieve tube member with
proteins and energy (ATP). A companion cell and sieve tube member are
derived from the same mother cell. There are lots of plasmodesmata between
these two cells.
-Albuminous cells- a specialized form of parenchyma that is associated with
sieve cells in gymnosperms and that perform the same kinds of roles as
companion cells. The albuminous cell and sieve cell are not derived from the
same mother cell.
-When a sieve element dies, so does the associated companion cell or
albuminous cell.
- other cell types in phloem include parenchyma cells involved in storage, as well
as fibers and sclerids.
Epidermis:
-outermost layer, until there is considerable secondary growth.
-mechanical protection, aeration, protection from invasion, protection from water
loss
-vacuolated cells
-alive at maturity
-typically one cell thick, but there are exceptions
-thick cell wall, tightly packed cells
-ground cells, stomata with guard cells, trichomes, root hairs, secretory cells
-cuticle = cutin and waxes

Periderm:
-replaces the epidermis in stems and roots with secondary growth.
-forms the secondary dermal layer
-usually multilayered (in contrast to the epidermis which is usually one-cell layer
thick).
-the cork cambium is the meristem that produces the periderm