The essay exam consists of fifteen questions. All questions must be answered in full sentences.

Each
question requires at least one reference, and should be cited within the paragraph. Each question
must have an answer of at least 150 words
1.

Explain the classification system used in biology to organize living creatures. Pick two organisms
from each Kingdom and explain why they are placed in that kingdom.
The biological system used is the Linnean system of classification, where each organism is assigned two
names, a genus name and a species name. This system therefore, also goes by the term Bionomial
Nomenclature. A group of organisms which are able to breed amongst themselves are grouped as species.
A genus is a group of closely related species. The taxonomic categories higher than genus are family,
order, class, phylum and kingdom.(Systemics, Taxonomy and Classification- http://ridge.icu.ac.jp/gened/classif.html)
The Five Kingdom classification was put forth by Whittaker and can be depicted as-

Example- mango tree ( Mangifera indica) and man (Homo sapiens).

Kingdom- Plantae
Kingdom- Animalia
Characteristics multicellular
Phylum - Chordate
Non motile
Characteristics- multicellular
Cell walls with cellulose
motile
Autotrophic
heterotrophic
(http://utahscience.oremjr.alpine.k12.ut.us/sciber00/7th/classify/sciber/5king2.htm)
2.

There are four unique properties of water that make it central to life on earth. Explain, in detail,
each of these four properties.
Water molecule is made of two hydrogen atoms and a single oxygen atom. Though, the molecule by itself
is neutral, the oxygen atom holds a slight negative charge and the hydrogens, slight positive charge. This
polar nature of water bestows water with certain remarkable properties.
As a universal solvent Water can dissolve any substance. This property is very vital in transport
of nutrients in plants and animals.
Surface tension after mercury, water has the highest surface tension which can hold weight
which normally would sink. This property helps most animals to surf on water. Surface tension is
also required to create waves by transfer of energy from wind to water. The waves help in oxygen
diffusion in water bodies.
Adhesion and Cohesion water molecules stick to each other and other substances. The cohesive
property is responsible for the surface tension. Due to the adhesive property, substances can move
along with water, sticking to it. This is of advantage in plant and animal life for transport of
nutrients.

Thermal properties Specific heat the high specific heat of water requires high heat loss or input to decrease
or increase the temperature of water which makes the temperature constant in water bodies
and also the internal body temperature in terrestrial organisms, as most of their body is
composed of water.
Heat of vaporization- high heat of vaporization also helps maintain temperature
fluctuations by loss of excess heat as sweat in terrestrial animals and as evaporation in
plants.
Density - water is most dense at 40C and expands when temperature decreases further.
This causes ice to float on water. This helps as a lid on the surface of water bodies to
facilitate life under the ice.
(http://mvhs.shodor.org/riverweb/jigsaw/PoW.pdf)
3.

Explain the forces and mechanisms that are at work making a Staphylococcus infection an
increasingly serious health threat.
Antibiotic resistance or antimicrobial resistance was first reported with Staphylococcus aureus resistant
to penicillin. The infections of staph range from urinary tract infections to bacterial pneumonia.
Methicillin, the strongest in the arsenal of drugs to combat staph infections is now considered ineffective
because of the resistance developed by staph to it.
Some of the forces that act to develop resistance to antibacterial agents are Naturally occurring resistance - some of the bacteria acquire resistance gradually.
Mutation changes that occur in the genetic material which allow the bacteria to become resistant
by fighting or inactivating the antibiotic.
By exchange resistance can be acquired by exchange of genes from other bacteria.
(http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/ResourcesForYou/Consumers/ucm143568.htm)
All these factors have given rise to highly resistant bacteria such as methicillin resistant Staphlyococcus
aureus (MRSA) which contribute to the highest percentage of nosocomial infections.
(http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs194/en/)

4.

Explain why an individual organism is not able to evolve, but may contribute to evolution.
The entire genetic makeup of a population can change over time leading to an evolutionary change.
Individuals in a population share a common gene pool. Changes in an individual may be developmental
or by environmental effects. But these changes are not incorporated in the gene.
(http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/misconceptions_teacherfaq.php)
Evolution can occur in one of the following ways Gene flow from another population changing the gene frequency
Genetic drift where gene frequencies in small populations are changed by random sampling.
Mutation pressure
Non-Mendelian segregation or meiotic drive
Natural selection.
(http://www.zo.utexas.edu/courses/Thoc/Natural.Selection.html)

5.

Explain the difference between an ionic bond and a covalent bond.

Covalent bonds are formed by sharing of electrons between two atoms and atoms are bound in fixed
orientation. A very high energy is required to break a covalent bond. If the difference in the
electronegativities of the atoms is very high, then one atom will lose electrons to the other atom resulting
in formation of ions and hence ionic bonds.

Definition

Compound type
Process

Covalent bond
Chemical bonding between two
compounds by sharing electrons
between them.

Ionic bond
Also called electrovalent bond,
characterized by electrostatic
attraction between two
oppositely charged ions.
A metal and a non metal
Non metal atoms are stronger
and attract electrons from the
metal atom. The oppositely
charged ions attract each other to
form a bond.

Generally non metallic

Formed between two compounds
which have similar
electronegativities. Neither is
strong to attract the electrons
from the other and hence end up
sharing the electrons between
them.
Shape
Definite shape
No definite shape
Polarity
Low
High
At toom temperature
Liquid or gaseous
Solids
Example
Methane (CH4)
Sodium Chloride (NaCl)
(http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Theoretical_Chemistry/Chemical_Bonding/Covalent_Bonds_vs_Ionic_Bon
ds)
6.

Compare the inputs and outputs of photosynthesis with the inputs and outputs of cellular
respiration.
Photosynthesis Occurs in chloroplasts
Inputs are water, carbon di oxide and light energy.
When the concentration of carbon di oxide increases, rate of photosynthesis increases.
With increase in intensity of light, the rate of photosynthesis will increase to a saturation level
after which there would not be any effect on the rate.
The outputs are glucose and oxygen.
6CO2 + 6H2O (in the presence of sunlight) C6H12O6 + 6O2
The outputs of photosynthesis serve as inputs for cellular respiration.
Cellular respiration Occurs in mitochondria
Inputs are glucose and oxygen.
The energy stored in the glucose molecules are broken down and converted to the energy currency
called ATP. The breakdown of phosphate bonds releases energy.
The outputs are water and carbon di oxide.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy in form of ATP.
The processes of photosynthesis and cellular respiration work together to prove the law of conservation
of energy.
(http://www.polytechpanthers.com/ourpages/auto/2013/10/3/35777885/I%20Can%20%20Photosynthesis%20and%20Cellular%20Respiration%20-%20Key.pdf)

(https://teacher.ocps.net/steven.knox/2nd9weeks/Photosynthesisnotes.htm)
7.

What are the sex chromosomes and how do they differ between male and female?
Sex determination and differentiation are two processes by which the biological differences between men
and women result. The two processes are also interconnected as sex determination controls the process of
sexual differentiation pathway to be followed. This pathway involves many hierarchial developmental
steps which are genetically regulated. ( http://www.who.int/genomics/gender/en/index1.html)
In humans and other mammals, sex is determined in the embryo by a pair of sex chromosomes. They
originated in a pair of autosomes which differentiated and the Y chromosome degenerated progressively.
Females have two copies of X chromosome and males have a single X and a single Y chromosome.
The X chromosome
is a medium sized chromosome with 1300 genes.
The genes have varied functions.
The Y chromosome
is a small heterochromatic chromosome with few active genes and largely repeated simple DNA
sequences.
Majority of the Y chromosome is male-specific.
A single copy of the Y chromosome is able to induce testicular differentiation of the embryonic
gonad.
Is a dominant inducer of the male phenotype
In the absence of both a Y chromosome and the influence of a testis-determining factor (TDF),
ovaries develop.
The sex determining genes SRY are also present on the Y chromosome.
http://www.usfca.edu/fac-staff/dever/sex_chrom_review.pdf

(http://www.just.edu.jo/~mafika/733_Reproductive%20Endocrinology/Sex
%20Determination_2_733.htm)
8.

Compare the products of mitosis with the products of meiosis.

Mitosis
Diploid cells are divided to result in diploid cells
Same number of chromosomes in parent and
daughter cells
Daughter cells are identical

Meiosis
Diploid cells are divided to form haploid cells
Half the number of chromosomes in daughter cells
as of the parent cell.
Non identical daughter cells due to crossin over
event.
No complicated events.
Includes events like homologous chromosome
pairing, crossing over.
No genetic variation in daughter cells
Introduces genetic variability because of crossing
over.
Equational division
Reduction division
(https://www.boundless.com/physiology/textbooks/boundless-anatomy-and-physiology-textbook/thereproductive-system-27/meiosis-254/meiosis-and-mitosis-1238-11633/)

9.

What are five methods of cancer prevention?

Lifestyle choices- the choice of lifestyle may help prevent cancer which includes avoiding
smoking, chewing tobacco, consumption of variety of healthful foods which are low fat and plant
based, regular exercise and maintaining a healthy weight. Skin cancers can be particularly
prevented by limiting exposure to sun and wearing a sun block.
Sleep patterns- the disruption of normal duration of sleep creates an imbalance in hormones
which may affect the bodys defense measures. Hence it is advisable to follow a regular pattern
and adequate duration of sleep.
Medical care- regular visits to the hospital for a mammogram, pap smear for women and
colonoscopy for both men and women should be encouraged.
Personal examination as a routine to check for moles, outgrowths which either change in size or
colour.
Familial history awareness which should encourage participation in cancer screening
programmes.
(http://www.mcancer.org/cancer-prevention)
10.

Explain how reproductive barriers result in the development of different species.

There are two types of reproductive barriers Prezygotic
Barriers that prevent fertilization.
Species may be prevented mating which may be due to anatomical differences or
incompatibility of gametes.
Temporal isolation- species which may be similar and inhabit same habitat but breeding
schedules differ.
Behavioral isolation- behavioral aspects of two compatible species are unique to prevent
mating.
Post zygotic Barriers occurring after zygote formation such as still born organisms or sterile organisms.
Hybrid inviability and hybrid sterility where either the zygote formed does not survive
post embryonic stage or zygote formed is sterile.

If the above mentioned barriers are overcome, the resulting species will be a new and different one from
the parents that created them.
(https://www.boundless.com/biology/textbooks/boundless-biology-textbook/evolution-and-the-origin-ofspecies-18/formation-of-new-species-125/reproductive-isolation-504-11730/)
11.

How does Basilosaurus provide evidence of evolution?

The earliest mammal fossils represent terrestrial species. This led to a speculation that the ancestors of
whales were terrestrial. As a support to this idea, some modern whales have vestigial pelvis and leg
bones. This gives to a plausible existence of an intermediate form with functioning limbs and with
characteristics which identify them aquatic.
One such traditional fossil is that of Basilosaurus isis , analyzed by Philip Gingerich and colleagues
(1990) whch lived approximately 38 million years ago (mya). It was an aquatic anima with tiny but fully
formed hind limbs. These may have served as grasping organs for copulation because they were too
reduced to function in swimming.
( http://esminfo.prenhall.com/science/ucriversideevolution/pdf/FreemanHerron02.pd)

12.

Explain how excavating sediments reveals an ordered series of fossils.

The analysis of geologic column reveals the pattern of fossil deposition. This further points out that
different layers show different communities of organisms than the gradual transformation of one kind of
organism to another. The geologic column comprises of three layers Paleozoic- communities of marine animals like tiny shelled animals, trilobites and transition to
fishes and further up to amphibians and repltiles.
Mesozoic- first fossils of small mammals and first dinosaurs, further up of different dinosaurs and
first birds. The appearance of flowering plants and disappearance of dinosaurs.
Cenozoic- communities dominated by mammals and in the uppermost layers first human fossils
are found.
(https://www.southern.edu/faithandscience/resources/Pages/origins4.aspx)
.
13.
Explain why taking antibiotics helps cures Strep throat, but does not help cure the common cold
or the flu.
Strep throat is caused by a bacterial infection. Antibiotics are compounds which destroy the growth and
division of microbes like parasites and bacteria. They do not affect viruses which are the causatives of
common cold and flu. Viruses have complicated life cycle which cannot be combat with the use of
antibiotics. The genetic material of viruses are also evolving rapidly to find a single and potentiall cure
for the common cold and flu.
14.

Explain how natural selection drives evolution.

15.

Genetic variation in a population gives rise to natural selection which operates by allowing the
species to adapt over time and leaving an offspring of variants. This genetic variation may be due
to random mutation. In bacteria, resistance is not developed as a result of trial by the bacteria but
by a random mutation which gives rise to individuals better suitable to resist the antibiotic. These
individuals then reproduce leading to offspring with the same genetic variation of resistance.
Natural selection does not favorably select fit individuals to survive; instead, the individuals
which are fit enough survive the process of elimination by various physical, environmental and
behavioral changes.
Over the course of time not only the better adapted individuals survive, there may be individuals
with lesser capabilities too that have survived simply because they resisted elimination forces.
Hence by the process of natural selection, which is the driving force of evolution, there may have
been an organism which is completely or partially different from the ancestor by either a
convergent or adaptive radiation.
Describe the force that allows a "water strider" or "water walker" insect to stay on top of the

water.
The forces of floatation and propulsion of water walkers are critical to the rough surface of water. Their
legs are waxy and hairy which ensures them to be in a water repellent state and at the same time the bulk
of the leg is not wetted but only the individual hairs are in contact with the water. This also in turn
influences the speed of the driving legs to an optimum or does not exceed a critical wetting speed. In
excess speed, the curvature forces deform the surface and help in striding like on a trampoline. At slower
speeds, the legs do not deform the surface but brush through it and the resulting viscous forces on the leg
hairs propels the creature forward.
Hu, David L., and John W. M. Bush. The hydrodynamics ofwater-walking arthropods. Journal of Fluid
Mechanics 644(2010): 5. Cambridge University Press 2010