PSYCHOLOGY

Trephination: Stone Age human carving holes through the skull to release
evil spirits. Plato and Democritus theorized about the relationship between
thought and behavior. The beginning of scientific psychology dates back to
the year 1879; Wilhelm Wundt set up the first psychological laboratory in
Germany near the University of Leipzig. He trained subjects into
introspection: subjects were asked to record accurately their mental
reactions to simple stimuli; Wundt hoped to examine basics mental
structures. He described his theory of structuralism: the idea that the mind
operates by combining subjective emotions and objective sensations. In
1890, William James published The principles of psychology; the
sciences first textbook. James examined how Wundts structures function on
our lives; his theory called functionalism. Introspective theories do not
significantly influence current psychological thinking, although they were
important in establishing the science of psychology.
Max Wertheimer argued against dividing human thought and behavior into
discrete structures, unlike Wundt and James. Gestalt psychology tried to
examine a persons total experience because the way we experience the
world is more than just an accumulation of various perceptual experiences.
Gestalt theorists demonstrated that the whole experience is often more than
just the sum part so the experience. A painting can be represented as rows
and columns of points of color, but the experience of painting is much more
than that. Therapists later incorporated Gestalt thinking by examining not
just the clients difficulty but the context in which the difficulty occurs.
Although Gestalt psychology contributed to specific forms of therapy and the
study of perception, it has little influence on current psychology.
Sigmund Freud revolutionized psychology with his psychoanalytic theory.
While treating patients for various psychosomatic complaints, he believed he
discovered the unconscious mind; a part of our mind over which we do not
have conscious control, and which determines in part how we think and
behave. He believed that this hidden part in ourselves builds up over the
years through repression; the pushing down into the unconscious event and
feeling that cause so much anxiety ad tension that our conscious mind
cannot deal with them . He believed that to understand human thought and
behavior and thought truly, we must examine the unconscious mind through
dream analysis, word association and other. This has been criticized for being
unscientific and for creating unverifiable theories. Freuds theories were and
are widely used by various artists, and his terms moved from being
exclusively psychological to day-to-day speech.
John Watson studied the conditioning experiments of Ivan Pavlov. Watson
then declared that for psychology to be considered a science, it must be

limited to observable phenomena, not unobservable concepts like the

unconscious mind. Watson along with others wanted to establish
behaviorism as the dominant paradigm of psychology. Behaviorists maintain
that psychologists should look at only behavior and causes of behavior;
stimuli, and responses and not concern themselves with the elements of
consciousness. B.F. Skinner, included reinforcement: environmental
stimuli that either encourage or discourage certain response. Skinners
influence lasted for decades and behaviorism was the dominant school of
thought in psychology from the 1920s through the 1960s.
Currently there is no specific way of thinking about human thought and
behavior that psychologists share. They consider themselves eclectic;
drawing from multiple perspectives.
Contemporary perspectives can be placed into seven broad
categories:
Humanist perspective: The humanists including Abraham Maslow and
Carl Rogers, after a reductionism of the behaviorists, tried to describe some
mysterious aspects of consciousness again. They stressed free will and
choice, this contrasts with deterministic behaviorists; who theorized that all
behaviors are caused by past conditioning. Humanists believe that we choose
most of our behaviors and these choices are guided by psychological,
emotional and spiritual needs. Humanistic theories are not easily tested by
scientific methods.
Psychoanalytic Perspective: Psychologists using this perspective believe
that the unconscious mind (a part in our mind that we do not have conscious
control over or access to) controls much of our thought and action. This
perspective thinks that to understand human thought and behavior we must
examine our unconscious mind. (This is similar to psychoanalysis).
Biopsychology Perspective: This perspective explains human thought and
behavior strictly in terms of biological processes. Human cognition (reasoning
and thought) and reaction might be caused by the effects of our genes,
hormones, neurotransmitters in brain or all three. It is a rapidly growing field.
Evolutionary (Darwinian, sociobiologists) Perspective: examine human
thoughts and actions in terms of natural selection. Some psychological
traits might be advantageous for survival, and would be passed down to the
next generation.
Behavioral Perspective: Behaviorists explain human thought and
behavior in terms of conditioning. The look strictly at observable behaviors
and what reactions get in response to specific behaviors. (Reward or
punishment)

Cognitive Perspective: Cognitive psychologists examine human thought

and behavior in terms of how we interpret process and remember
environmental events. In this perspective, the rules that we use to view this
world are important to understanding why we think and behave the way we
do. (You do things because they make sense to you)
Social Cultural Perspective: psychologists look at how our thought and
behaviors are from people living in other cultures. They emphasize the
influence culture has on the way we think and act. The importance of
cultural norms are and their effect on our thought and behavior.
Hindsight bias: The tendency of people upon hearing about research
findings (And other things) to think that they knew it all along. After an event
occurs its relatively easy to explain why it happened. The goal of scientific
research is to predict what will happen in advance.
Applied research has clear practical applications (Comparing two methods
of teaching children to read). Basic research explores questions that are of
interest to psychologists but are not intended to have immediate real-world
applications. (Studying how people form their attitudes about others and how
people in different cultures define intelligence)
Hypothesis expresses a relationship between two variables. Variables are
things that can vary among participants. Dependent variable depends on
the independent variable. A change in independent will produce a change
in dependent variable. Theory aims to explain some phenomenon and allows
researchers to generate testable hypotheses with the hope of collecting date
that support the theory (Not prove it). Operationalizing a variable means
explaining how you will measure it. This raises issues about the validity and
reliability of the research. Research is valid when it measure what the
researcher set out to measure; it is accurate. Reliable: when a researcher
can conduct it in the same way, and get similar result; consistent.
Participants (subjects) are the individuals on which the research will be
conducted. Sampling is the process by which the participants are selected
from the population (anything or anyone that could possible se selected in
the sample. The sample must be a representative of the larger population.
Random selection is when every member of the population has an equal
chance of being selected; this increases the likelihood that the sample
represents the population and that one can generalize the findings to the
larger population. Random selection is best done using a computer, a table of
random numbers or the names out of the hat method. Using a very large
sample takes money and time, so for research using large, but not
prohibitively large samples is considered optimum. Stratified sampling is a
process that allows a researcher to ensure that the sample represents the

population on some criteria, (Categorizing them into certain groups before

selecting).
Laboratory experiments are conducted in the lab, a highly controlled
environment (can be controlled to great extent). Field experiments are
conducted out in the world (More realistic). Confounding variable is any
difference between the experimental and the control conditions, except for
the independent variable. Assignment is the process by which participants
are put into groups. Random assignment means that each participant has
an equal chance of being placed into any group. This reduces participant
relevant confounding variables. [Random sampling is the process of
choosing subjects, while random assignment is the process of
dividing the subjects into groups] Group matching is used if one wants
to ensure the experimental and control groups are equivalent in some
criteria. The situations into which the different groups are put must also be
equivalent except for the difference produced by the independent variable;
this reduces Situation relevant confounding variables (SRCV).
Experiment Bias is a kind of SRCV; its the unconscious tendency for
researchers to treat members of the experimental and control groups
differently to increase the chance of confirming their hypothesis. Double
blind procedure is when neither the participants nor the researcher are able
to affect the outcome of the research. (Have someone who doesnt know of
the participants conditions interact with them). Demand characteristics
are signs about the purpose of study; participants use such signs to try to
respond appropriately. Response or subject bias is the tendency for
subjects to behave in certain way. Social desirability is a kind of response
bias; the tendencies to try to give politically correct answers. Experimental
group gets the treatment operationalized in the independent variable; control
group gets none of the independent variable.
Hawthorne Effect: when selecting a group on people whom to experiment;
it will affect the performance of that group, regardless to what is done to
them.
Placebo Method: method which allows researchers to separate the
psychological effects of the drug from the psychological effects of people
thinking they took the drug. (Giving the experimental group a drug, and the
control group a drug that looks the same but is inert).
Correlations: expresses a relationship between two variables, without
ascribing cause.
Survey method: involves asking people to fill out surveys. (Using this method
means you can no longer control for participants confounding variables.)
Naturalistic observation: Observing participants in their natural habitats
without interacting with them.
Case study method: it is used to get a full, detailed picture of one
participant or small group of participants, it gives the richest possible picture

of what is studied but cannot be generalized, as the focus is on an individual

or small group.
Descriptive statistics: describe a set of data.
Frequency Distribution:
Measures of central tendency: attempt to
Extreme scores (outliers):
Positive skew
Negative skew:
Measures of Variability:
Z score:
Normal Curve:
Correlation coefficient:
Scatter Plot:
Line of best fit:
Regression line:
Inferential statistics:
Sampling Error:
P value:
Statistical significance:
Institutional Review Board:
Coercion:
Informed consent:
Anonymity:
Confidentiality:
Debriefing:
CHAPTER 3
Neuroanatomy: the study of the parts and function of neurons.
Neuron: individual nerve cell.
Dendrites: root like parts of the cell that stretch out from the cell body.
Dendrites grow to make synaptic connections with other neurons.
Cell Body (soma): contains nucleus and other parts of the cell needed to
sustain its life.
Axon: wire-like structure ending in the terminal buttons that extends from
the cell body.
Myelin sheath: a fatty covering around the axon of some neurons that
speeds neural impulses.
Terminal buttons (end buttons, terminal branches of axon, synaptic
knobs): branched end of the axon that contains neurotransmitters.
Neurotransmitters: chemicals contained in terminal buttons that enable
neurons to communicate. They fit into receptor sites on the dendrites of
neurons like a key fits into a lock.
Synapse: the space between the terminal buttons of one neuron and the
dendrites of the next neuron.
Receptor sites:

Threshold: when enough neurotransmitters are received, and the cell

membrane of neuron B becomes permeable and positive ions rush into the
cell.
Action Potential: the change in charge mentioned above spreads down the
length of the neuron, this electric message firing is called action potential.
All-or-none principle: Neuron either fires of not fire. (Also impulse is the
same every time; no a lot or little.)
Neural Firing: electrochemical process, where electricity travels within the
cell (from dendrites to terminal buttons) and chemicals (neurotransmitters)
travel between the cells in the synapse. Electricity doesnt jump between the
neurons.
Excitatory neurotransmitters: neurotransmitters that excite the next cell
into firing.
Inhibitory neurotransmitters: neurotransmitters that inhibit the next cell
from firing.
Acetylcholine: responsible for motor movements and the lack of it is
associated with Alzheimers disease.
Dopamine: responsible for motor movements and alertness, the lack of it is
associated with Parkinsons diseases and an overabundance of it is
associated with schizophrenia.
Endorphins: responsible for pain control, involved in addictions.
Serotonin: responsible for mood control, lack of it is associated with clinical
depression.
Afferent neurons (sensory neurons): neurons that take the information from
the senses to the brain.
Interneurons (relay): once information reaches the brain or spinal cord,
interneurons take the messages and send them elsewhere in the brain or on
to efferent neurons.
Efferent neurons (motor neurons): take information from the brain to the
rest of the body.
Central nervous system: consists of our brain and spinal cord-all the nerves
housed within bone (skull and vertebrae).
Spinal Cord: bundle of nerves that run through the center of the spine. It
transmits information from the rest of the bod to the brain.
Peripheral nervous system: consists of all the other nerves in your bodynerves not encased in bone. It is devided into two categories: somatic and
autonomic nervous systems.
Somatic nervous system: Controls our voluntary muscle movements.
Motor cortex of the brain sends impulses to the somatic nervous system,
which controls the muscles that allow us to move.
Autonomic nervous system: controls autonomic functions of our body:
heart, lungs, internal organs, glands, and so on. These nerves control our
responses to stress (fight or flight response that prepares out body to respond

to threat. It is divided to two categories: sympathetic and parasympathetic

nervous systems.
Sympathetic nervous system: it mobilizes our body to respond to stress. It
carries messages to the control systems of the organs, glands and muscles
that direct our bodys responses to stress. Its the alert system of our body. It
accelerates some functions (heart rate, blood pressure and respiration) but
conserves resources needed for a quick response by slowing down other
functions such as digestion.
Parasympathetic nervous system: Responsible for slowing down our body
after a stress response. Think of it as the brake pedal that slows down the
autonomic nervous system.
Reflexes: sensory information is processed by the spine, and the spine
commands the body of what to do, and the brain is informed only after the
reflex has taken place. (adaptive value)
Accidents: damage part so the brain, which causes behavior and personality
changes.
Lesions: removal or destruction of part of the brain. Sometimes, its the best
treatment for a certain condition.
Electroencephalogram (EEG): it detects brain waves. By examining the
type of waves the brain produces during different stages of consciousness,
researchers generalize about brain functions; used to identify different stages
of sleep and dreams.
Computerized axial tomography (CAT): sophisticated x ray. Uses several
x ray camera that rotate around the brain and combine all images into a
detailed three dimensional picture of the brains structure; Only structure,
nothing about function.
Magnetic resonance Imaging (MRI): similar to CAT, uses magnetic fields
to measure the density and location of brain material. MRI does not expose
the patient to carcinogenic radiation as it does not use x ray; again nothing
about function, only structure.
Positron Emission tomography (PET): lets researchers see what areas of
the brain are most active during certain tasks. Its measure how much of a
certain chemical parts of the brain are suing. The more used, the higher the
activity.
Functional MRI: combines elements of MRI and PET; shows details of brain
structure with information about blood flow, tying brain structure to brain
activity during cognitive tasks.
Hindbrain: consists of structures in the top part of the spinal cord. It is our
life support system; it controls the basic biological functions that keep us
alive. It includes pons, medulla and cerebellum.
Medulla (medulla oblongata): involved in the control of our blood
pressure, heart rate and breathing, located about the spinal cord.

Pons: connect the hindbrain with midbrain and forebrain, involved in the
control of facial expression; located just above the medulla and toward the
front.
Cerebellum: means little brain, it coordinates some habitual muscle
movements such as tracking target with our eyes or playing the saxophone,
located on the bottom rear of the brain.
Midbrain: is very small but controls important functions. Between the
hindbrain and forebrain; it integrates some types of sensory information and
muscle movements.
Reticular formation: its a netlike collection of cells throughout the
midbrain that controls general body arousal and the ability to focus our
attention, if it doesnt function; we fall into a deep coma.
Forebrain: areas of the forebrain are very important and they control what
we think of as thought and reason. It includes: thalamus, hypothalamus,
amygdala and hippocampus.
Thalamus: located on top of the brain stem, responsible for receiving sensor
signals coming up the spinal cord and sending them to appropriate areas in
the rest of the forebrain.
Hypothalamus: small structures next to the thalamus. It Controls several
metabolic functions, including body temperature, sexual arousal (libido),
hunger, thirst and the endocrine system and controls biological rhythms.
Amygdala:
Hippocampus:
Limbic system:
Cerebral cortex:
Hemispheres:
Left hemisphere:
Right hemisphere:
Brain lateralization (hemispheric specialization):
Corpus callosum:
Lobes:
Association area:
Frontal lobes:
Brocas area:
Wernickes area:
Motor cortex:
Parietal lobes:
Sensory cortex:
Occipital lobes:
Temporal lobes:
Brain plasticity:
Endocrine system:
Adrenal glands:
Monozygotic twins:

CHAPTER 4
Transduction:
Sensory Adaptation:
Sensory habituation (perceptual adaptation):
Cocktail-party phenomenon:
Sensation:
Perception:
Energy senses:
Chemical senses:
Vision:
Cornea:
Pupil:
Lens:
Retina:
Feature detectors:
Optic nerve:
Occipital lobe:
Visible light:
Rods and cones:
Fovea:
Blind spot:
Trichromatic theory:
Color blindness:
Afterimages:
Opponent-process theory:
Hearing:
Sound waves:
Amplitude:
Frequency:
Cochlea:
Pitch theories:
Place theory:
Frequency theory:
Conduction Deafness:
Nerve deafness:
Touch:
Gate-control theory:
Taste (gustation):
Smell (olfaction):
Vestibular sense:
Kinesthetic sense:
Absolute threshold:
Subliminal messages:
Difference threshold:

Webers law:
Signal detection theory:
Top-down processing:
Perceptual set:
Bottom-up processing:
Gestalt rules:
Proximity:
Similarity:
Continuity:
Closure:
Constancy:
Size constancy:
Shape constancy:
Brightness constancy:
Depth cues:
CHAPTER 5
Consciousness:
Level of consciousness:
Conscious level:
Nonconscious level:
Preconscious level:
Subconscious level:
Unconscious level:
Sleep:
Sleep cycles:
Sleep stages:
REM sleep:
Sleep Disorders:
Insomnia:
Narcolepsy:
Sleep apnea:
Night terrors:
Dreams:
Freudian dream interpretation:
Activation-synthesis dream theory:
Information processing dream theory:
Hypnosis:
Posthypnotic amnesia:
Posthypnotic suggestion:
Role theory of hypnosis:
State theory of hypnosis:
Dissociation theory of hypnosis:
Psychoactive drugs:
Agonists:

Antagonists:
Tolerance:
Withdrawal:
Stimulants:
Depressants:
Hallucinogens (psychedelics):
Opiates:
CHAPTER 6
Learning:
Acquisition:
Extinction:
Spontaneous recovery:
Generalization:
Discrimination:
Classical conditioning:
Ivan Pavlov:
Unconditioned stimulus:
Unconditioned response:
Conditioned response:
Conditioned stimulus:
Aversive condition:
Second-order conditioning (higher-order conditioning):
Learned taste aversion (Garcia effect):
Operant conditioning:
B.F Skinner:
Law of effect:
Edward Thorndike:
Instrumental learning:
Skinner box:
Reinforcer:
Reinforcement:
Positive reinforcement:
Negative reinforcement:
Punishment:
Positive punishment:
Omission training:
Shaping:
Chaining:
Primary reinforces:
Secondary reinforcers:
Generalized reinforcers:
Token economy:
Reinforcement schedules (FI, FR, VI, and VR):
Continuous reinforcement:

Partial reinforcement effect:

Instinctive drift:
Observational learning or modeling:
Albert Bandura:
Latent learning:
Insight leaning:
CHAPTER 7
Memory:
Three-box/information processing model:
Levels of processing model:
Sensory memory:
George Sperling:
Iconic memory:
Selective attention:
Echoic memory:
Short-term memory (working memory):
Chunking:
Mnemonic devices:
Rehearsal:
Long-term memory:
Episodic memory:
Semantic memory:
Procedural memory:
Explicit memories (declarative memories):
Implicit memories (non-declarative memories):
Eidetic or photographic memory:
Retrieval:
Recognition:
Recall:
Primary effect:
Recency effect:
Serial position effect:
Tip of the tongue phenomena:
Semantic network theory:
Flashbulb memories:
State dependent memory:
Mood congruent memory:
Constructed memory (reconstructed memory):
Relearning effect:
Retroactive interference:
Proactive interference:
Anterograde amnesia:
Retrograde amnesia:
Long term potentiation:

Phonemes:
Morphemes;
Syntax:
Language acquisition:
Overgeneralization: (over-regularization):
Language acquisition device:
Linguistic acquisition hypothesis:
Prototypes:
Images:
Algorithm:
Heuristic:
Representativeness heuristic:
Belief bias (belief perseverance):
Functional fixedness:
Confirmation bias:
Convergent thinking:
Divergent thinking:
Availability heuristic:
CHAPTER 8
Motivations:
Instincts:
Drive reduction theory:
Need:
Drive:
Primary drives:
Secondary drives:
Homeostasis:
Arousal theory:
Yerkes Dodson law:
Opponent process theory of motivation:
Incentives:
Maslows hierarchy of needs:
Self-actualization:
Lateral hypothalamus:
Ventromedial hypothalamus:
Set point theory:
Bulimia:
Anorexia:
Obesity:
Achievement motivation:
Extrinsic motivators:
Intrinsic motivators:
Management theory:
Approach-approach conflict:

Avoidance-avoidance conflict:
Approach-avoidance conflict:
James Lange theory of emotion:
Cannon brad theory of emotion:
Two factor theory:
General adaptive syndrome (GAS):
CAPTER 9:
Developmental psychologist:
Nature versus nurture:
Cross sectional research:
Longitudinal research:
Teratogens:
Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS):
Newborn reflexes:
Attachment:
Harry Harlows attachment research:
Mary Ainsworths strange situation:
Secure attachments:
Avoidant attachments:
Anxious/ ambivalent attachments:
Authoritarian parents:
Permissive parents:
Authoritative parents:
Sigmund Freud:
Oral stage:
Anal stage:
Phallic stage:
Genital stage:
Erik Eriksons psychosocial developmental theory:
Trust versus mistrust:
Autonnomy versus shame and doubt:
Initiative versus guilt:
Industry versus inferiority:
Identity versus role confusion:
Intimacy versus isolation:
Generativity versus stagnation:
Integrity versus despair:
Jean Piagets cognitive developmental theory:
Schemata:
Assimilation:
Accommodation:
Sensorimotor stage:
Object permanence:
Preoperational stage:

Egocentric:
Concrete operations:
Concepts of conservation:
Formal operations:
Metacognition:
Lawrence Kohlbergs moral developmental theory:
Pre-conventional stage:
Conventional stage:
Post conventional stage:
CHAPTER 10
Personality:
Type A:
Type B:
Stage theory:
Freuds psychosexual stage theory:
Oedipus crisis:
Unconscious:
Id:
Ego:
Superego:
Defense Mechanisms:
Womb envy:
Personal unconscious:
Collective unconscious:
Complexes:
Archetypes:
Trait theorist:
Big five traits:
Factor analysis:
Heritability:
Temperament:
Somatotype theory:
Triadic reciprocal determinism:
Self-efficacy:
Locus of control internal and external:
Self-concept:
Self- esteem:
Self-actualization:
Unconditional positive regard:
Projective tests:
Rorschach inkblot test:
Thematic Apperception Test:
Self-report inventories:
MMPI:

Reliability:
Validity:
Barnum effect:
CHAPTER 11
Standardized test:
Norms:
Standardization sample:
Psychometrician:
Split-half reliability:
Test-retest reliability:
Equivalent form reliability:
Face validity:
Criterion related validity:
Construct validity:
Aptitude test:
Achievement test:
Intelligence:
Fluid intelligence:
Crystallized intelligence:
Spearmans intelligence theory:
Gardners intelligence theory:
Sternbergs intelligence theory:
Emotional intelligence:
Stanford-Binet IQ test:
Weschler tests:
WAIS:
WISC:
WPPSI:
Normal distribution:
Heritability:
Flynn effect:
Chapter 12