Professional Documents
Culture Documents
TOPICS
The Number System - Number line and the real number system- properties - HCF, LCM of
numbers - Tests on divisibility - Indices - laws of indices - problems based on indices - Surds –
Distinction between Surds and irrational numbers - Logarithm – Laws of logarithm – common
logarithm - Modular Arithmetic - Networking and Linear Programming - Permutation and
combination - Binary operation.
Learning Outcome
At the end of the unit the student must be able to understand to
• use number line and understand properties of natural numbers, Integers and rational numbers
• prove axiomatically the laws of basic operations of addition and multiplication on these numbers
• work on problems relating to the above
• decimal representation of a rational number
• change numbers from one base to another
• understand various properties of divisibility
• understand and do problems in modulo arithmetic
• know facts about Greatest Integer Function
• find HCF using Euclid’s algorithm and expressing it as a linear combination
• simplify surds
• simplify expressions involving indices
• solve simple exponential equations
• simplify expressions using basic laws of logarithms
• simplify logarithmic expressions and solve simple logarithmic equations
•
1.11. Introduction
Now you are growing; Growing to be adults. The concepts you are learning also grow along with
you. Sure! You learnt your addition, multiplication in earlier classes. Now you study them in a
structural form. Here the operations turn into concepts (as follows); these topics lay foundation for
an important area in mathematics, Modern Algebra.
Let us first recapitulate some of the ideas we must have seen before. These ideas are
fundamental ideas needed for understanding the number system.
(a) A mathematical system consists of a set and one or more binary operations
(b) When we have a rule (or a way) for combining two numbers of a set and there is never more
than one ‘answer ’, we say we have an operation
(c) If, for any two numbers of a set, the result of an operation is in that set, we say, the set is
closed under that operation.
(d) If we add 0 (in the system of natural numbers (i.e., 1, 2, 3 . . . . ) to any number n, then the
result is also n only. Therefore we say that 0 is additive identity of the set.
(e) The multiplicative identity in the number system of arithmetic (i.e., 0, 1, 2, . . . ) is the number
one
(f) If we multiply two numbers and the result is 1, then we call the two numbers as “multiplicative
inverses” or “reciprocals” i.e., A multiplicative inverse is also called a reciprocal
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For example
(a) In the number system of arithmetic which of these numbers are names for the reciprocal of 3?
(a) 3 : 1 (b) 1/3 (c) 3 ÷ 1 (d) 1 ÷ 3 Ans: (b)
(b) Pickup the reciprocal of 3/4 from the following
1 1
4
(a) (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 4 ÷ 3 Ans: (a) or (b)
3
4 3
(c) (i) An example of the commutative property of addition is 5 + 3 = 3 + 5
(ii) The commutative property of addition allows us to change the order of the addends in a sum.
(d) An example of the commutative property of subtraction is nil
(e) An example of the commutative property of multiplication is 5 × 3 = 3 × 5
Does the order of multiplicands matter? No
(f) Does the commutative law hold for division? No
(g) Give an example to illustrate the associative property of (i) addition (ii) multiplication
(i) 5 + (8 + 7) = (5 + 8) + 7
The associative property is sometimes known as a “Shifting the Bracket” or “grouping”
property. Here the order of writing the elements is very important.
(h) Does the Associative property hold for
(i) Division? (No) (ii) subtraction? (No) Justify by giving example;
12 ÷ (6÷ 2) = 4 and (12 ÷ 6) ÷ 2 = 1
(i) If there are two operations in a statement, say multiplication and addition, then multiplication
is distributive over addition. For example, 7 × (3 + 8) = (7 × 3) + (7 × 8)
or (3 + 8) × 7 = (3 × 7) + (8 × 7)
Can we say that addition is distributive over multiplication? (No)
Consider this example: 8 ÷ (4 × 2) = (8 ÷ 4) × (8 ÷ 2) . What do you conclude?
Is division distributive over multiplication? No
Is subtraction distributive over multiplication? No
Properties of N
(i) N is closed under addition and multiplication. Why?
(ii) N is commutative under addition and multiplication
(iii) N is associative under addition and multiplication
(iv) There is no additive identity for N
(v) There is a multiplicative identity for N, namely, 1.
If we add 0 to the set N, then we have the set of whole numbers (W). The set of numbers has all
the properties of N and one more namely, the additive identity property as 0 ∈ W
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Odd and even numbers
Numbers which are multiples of 2 are called even numbers and numbers which are not multiples
of 2 are called odd numbers
Thus set E = {2, 4, 6, 8,. . . } is the set of even numbers and O = {1, 3, 5, 7, . . .} is the set of odd
numbers
In general we denote ‘2n’ for even numbers and 2n+1 or 2n – 1 (or 2n ± 1) for odd numbers
1.1.2. Conceptual Questions
(i) Is the sum of two even numbers even? (yes)
(ii) Is the sum of two odd numbers odd (No)
(iii) Is the power of an even number even? (yes)
(iv) what about the power of odd numbers ? odd or even? (odd)
(v) what number will you get if you multiply an odd number by an even number?
an even number by an odd number? (always even)
Take your own example to illustrate the above five properties.
1.1.3. Consecutive Numbers
Two numbers or more are consecutive if the difference between a number and its previous
number (predecessor) is unity.
Prime and composite number
A number which has only two distinct exact divisors is called a prime number.
Is the number 1 a prime? No. Why?
(It has no two distinct divisors)
Is 27 a prime? Is 31 a prime? Is 2 a prime?
A number which has more than two distinct divisors is called a composite number.
Thus 1 is neither prime nor composite; 8 is a composite number. Why?
The exact divisors of 8 are 1, 8, 2, 4 (more than 2). A composite number can be expressed as a
product of prime factors
Example:
It is given that p, p + 2, p + 4 are prime numbers. Find p.
Solution
Let us take the three consecutive numbers
p + 2, p + 3, p + 4
One of them must be divisible by 6 and so by 2 × 3
i.e., one of them is divisible by 3.
As p + 2 and p + 4 are each greater than 3 (as the least prime number is 2) and as p + 2
and p + 4 are not divisible by 3 because they are primes we can conclude
3 divides (p + 3) ; i.e., 3 divides p and 3 divides 3 (which is true)
∴ Least prime number dividing p is 3
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In general, the positive numbers (natural numbers), 0 and the negative numbers constitute a set
known as the set of integers,
Thus I = {. . . . –5, –4, –3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .}
The set I as the set N or W is also infinite that is why the symbol ‘ . . .’ is given to the left of –5 and
to the right of +5 to show that they are never ending.
Thus the set of integers possesses all the properties of N, W and also the additive inverse or the ‘
opposite ‘ property. We can say that a and –a are opposites as (a) + (–a) = 0
What is the opposite of 0? 0 itself (0 + 0 = 0)
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0
0 can be expressed as
1
1
Is a rational number? (No) Why?
0
(Division by 0 is not permitted in the definition; q must be a non- zero integer)
Is 2 a rational number? (No) why?
p
2 cannot be expressed as form
q
Another beauty with rational numbers is that it can be seen as an ending (i.e., terminating)
decimal or an infinite but cyclic decimal
2
= 0.4 (terminating decimal)
5
482 1
= 0.482 = 0.142857 i.e., 0.142857, 142857, 142857,. . . . (never ending decimal but
1000 7
repeating in blocks)
1
= 0.333...... (never ending but repeating)
3
(Cyclic decimal (or periodic decimal or repeating decimal) is denoted by the symbol
‘vinculum’ over the period (which repeats)
This leads us to the numbers, which cannot be expressed as a non-terminating and non –
cyclic (periodic) decimal
Example 0.1 0 1 0 1 1 0 11 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 . . . is one such number. There is no period by which
this number repeats. Such a number is called irrational (i.e. non- rational)
Familiar examples of irrational numbers are 2 , 3 , e, π etc.
These irrational numbers are usually denoted by Q 1 Irrational numbers do not obey the rule of
closure,
What is (5 + 2 2) + (3 − 2 2) ? Is it irrational? No. Why?
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24 23 22 2 1 Place value
1 1 0 1 1
16 8 0 2 1
= 16 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 1 = 27
What number does (1010101)2 represent?
26 25 24 23 22 2 1
Place value
1 0 1 0 1 0 1
26 0 24 0 22 0 1
= 64 + 16 + 4 + 1 = 85
What is the binary equivalent of 123?
Divide the number 123 successively by 2 till you get 1 < (2) i.e., 1 < 2 which is base here.
Then write all the remainder starting from the below:
2 123
2 61 −1
2 30 −1 ∴ (123)10 i.e., 123 = (1111011)2
2 15 −0
2 7 −1
2 3 −1
2 1 −1
0 −1
Draw a number line for the real number system
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| x | = x if x is positive
or zero
| x | = – x if x is negative
For e.g. | 5 | = + 5 ; | –4 | = 4 ; | 0 | = 0
Note: From the above definition it is clear that absolute values are never negative
i.e., if x > 0, | x | = x and if x < 0, then | x | = – x
x 3 x
x 2 x
x 1 x
x' x
−3 −2 −1 O 1 2 3
−1
−2
−3
y'
Note: The distance between two points on a line is the absolute value of the difference between
the Co- ordinates of the points.
Divisibility An integer ‘a‘ is said to divide an integer b if there exists an integer c such that
ac = b. If a divides b, we also say that a is a divisor of b or b is a multiple of a, we write this in
symbolic notation as a/b.
Note: a メ b means “a does not divide b ”
1.3.4. Properties
The following properties of numbers can be easily checked with any numbers and can be proven
using the divisibility definition above.
Let a, b, c, p, q be any integers. Then
1. a/a (any integer divides itself)
This is called reflexive property
2. If a/b and b/c , then a/c (transitive property)
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7. a/0 (property of zero)
Structure
For example, 57 in decimal system has the value (5 × 10) + (7 × 1) = 57
But (57) in binary system will have a different value as follows:
Divide 57 by 2 successively, till we get a quotient less than 2 (i.e., 1)
2 57
2 28 − 1
2 14 − 0
2 7−0
2 3 −1
1− 1
Then write the number stating from the last quotient and remainders as shown by the around
i.e., (57)10 = (111001)2
Check
25 24 23 22 2 1
1 1 1 0 0 1
32 16 8 0 0 1
= 32 + 16 + 8 + 1 = 57
Writing the number 1435 in denary means
(1 × 1000) + (4 × 100) + (3 × 10) + 5 which is the same as (1 × 103 + 4 × 102 + 3 × 101) + 5
The same number in different bases will mean:
(1435)6 = (1 × 63) + (4 × 62) + (3 × 6) + 5
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(1435)7 = (1 × 73) + (4 × 72) + (3 × 7) + 5
(1435)8 = (1 × 83) + (4 × 82) + (3 × 8) + 5
and so on.
Note that 1435 cannot be a number in any base less than 6 as digit 5 occurs in base 6 and
above.
[x + y] = [x] + n, ∀ x ∈ R and n ∈ Z
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Note: We see that the HCF is obtained by multiplying the lowest power of each common prime
factor of the given numbers.
Example: Find the HCF of 84, 126 and 245.
Solution 84 = 22 x 3 x 7
126 = 2 x 32 x 7
245 = 5 x 72
7 is the only prime factor common to all the three numbers.
HCF = 7
24 and 48 are the common multiples of 6 and 8. The smallest common multiple of 6 and 8 is 24.
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Example
Find the LCM of 24 and 90.
Solution
We find the prime factorisation of each number.
24 = 23 x 3
90 = 2 x 32 x 5
We can visualise process of taking all the different factors as the shown
below.
24 = 2 x 2 x2 × 3
are relatively prime,
90 = 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 they have no
LCM = 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 × 5 common factors
greater than 1.
LCM = 23 x 32 x 5 = 360 23 is of a higher power than 2 and
32 is of a higher power than 3.
Note: We see that the LCM is obtained by multiplying the highest power of each prime factor of
the given numbers.
Example
Find the LCM of 26 and 99
Solution
26 = 2 × 13
99 = 32 × 11
∴ LCM = 2 × 32 × 11 × 13 = 2574
Note : When two numbers are relatively prime, their LCM is the product of the two numbers
Example
Find LCM of 20, 24 and 70
Solution
20 = 22 × 5
24 = 23 × 3
70 = 2 × 5 × 7
∴ LCM = 23 × 3 × 5 × 7 = 840
Let a and b any two non-zero integers. Then H.C.F of a, b denoted by (a, b) exists and is unique.
Also there exists integers m and n such that (a, b) = am + bn
This theorem helps us to determine the HCF of a, b and also to express the HCF of a, b as a
linear equation involving a and b.
For e.g. to calculate the H.C.F of 143, 247 we use the above algorithm as follows:
Now 247 = 143 (1) + 104
143 = 104 (1) + 39
104 = 39 (2) + 26
39 = 26 (1) + 13
26 = 13 (2) + 0
∴ HCF of 143, 247 is 13.
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Exploratory Exercises
1. Is – 12 a divisor of 144? (Yes)
2. Is 18 a divisor of (i) 324? (yes) (ii) – 288? (No) (iii) 0? (yes)
3. Every integer of the form 2n – 1 is odd. Can we conclude that every integer of the following
forms are also odd? Why?
(i) 2n2 + 3 (yes) (ii) 2n + 7 (yes)
(iii) 2n2 + 2n + 1 (yes) (iv) 4n + 1 (yes)
(v) 2n – 9 (yes) [even + odd = odd]
4. Every integer of the form 2n + 4 is even. Can we say that every integer of the following forms
are also even? Why?
(i) 2n + 6 (yes) (ii) 2 – 2n (yes)
(iii) 4n + 2 (yes) (iv) n2 + 2 (yes)
(v) 2n – 2 (yes)
5. Express the rational number 1/3 in rational form a/d in infinitely many ways,
1 2 3 4 5
3 = 6 = 9 = 12 = 15 = ........
6. If β is a rational number, then β 2 is also rational. Does this amount to proving that, if β 2
is
irrational then β is irrational? (Yes)
7. 9.999…… as a terminating decimal will be ………
11. Is 3
2 rational or irrational? (Yes) Can you prove it?
12x − 10
13. Is there any solution for 12x ≡ 10 (mod 15)? ∈ k = 12x – 10 = 15k or 12x – 15k = 10
15
∴ 3 = 15.(1) – 12.(1)
i.e., 3 = 15x + 12y where x = 1, y = –1
∴ c2 = (ak) (b l ) = (ab) (k l )
= (ab) m where k l = m ∈ I
i.e., c2 / ab
17. Find (741, 1079) and express it as a linear combination of 741 and 1049
or (Find the H.C.F of 741 and 1079 and express this HCF as 741x + 1079y where x and y are
integers which are to be determined)
1079 = 741.(1) + 338
741 = 338.2 + 65
338 = 65.5 + 13
65 = 13.5 + 0 ∴ HCF is 13
Now 13 = 338 – 65.5
= 338 – (741 – 338.2) 5
= 338.11 – 741.5
= (1079 – 741) 11 – 741.5
= 1079 (11) + 741(–16)
∴ 741x + 1079 (y)
∴ 741(–16) + 1079 (11)
Check: 1079 × 11 = 11869
741 × 16 = 11856
∴ 11869 – 11856 = 13
∴ x = –16 ; y = 11
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Let us Explore Magic squares
1. What makes a magic square?
Magic square is the name given to a figure in which the sum of the numbers in every row,
every column and in the two diagonals is the same. The common sum is called the Magic
Number.
For example:
2 9 4
7 5 3
6 1 8
Probing questions
1. Construct an order three magic square in which the numbers are not in sequence.
2. Construct an order five magic square
3. Construct an order four magic square using the numbers 0, 4, 8 and 12. The numbers must
not be repeated in any row.
4. Complete the magic square below using the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. What is the magic
number?
1 a b c d 6
e 2 f g 5 h
i j 3 4 k ℓ
m n 3 4 p q
r 2 s t 5 u
1 v w x y 6
5. Find the error in the following magic square. (where column–wise totals are equal)
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47 56 34 22 38 7
24 67 44 26 15 75
29 52 3 99 18 48
17 49 89 4 53 37
97 6 33 11 76 28
35 19 46 87 9 54
ANSWERS
1.
16 2 12
6 10 14
8 18 4
Magic sum is 30
2.
8 1 24 17 15
5 23 16 14 7
22 20 13 6 4
19 12 10 3 21
11 9 2 25 18
0 8 4 12
12 4 8 0
12 4 8 0
0 8 4 12
magic number is 24
4. a = 5 b=4 c=3 d=2 e=6 f=4
g=3 h=1 i=6 j=5 k=2 ℓ=1
m=1 n=5 p=2 q=6 r=6 s=3
t=4 u=1 v=2 w=4 x=3 y=5
magic number is 21
5. The error is in the last row. The number should be 49 instead of 9
Exercise
1. Find the value of the following in scientific notation
That is base – exponent form of a number is called the ‘power’ of that number.
Note that the base has restrictions to be meaningful. That is (i) It is not 0; (ii) It is not 1 (Why?)
(ii) am ÷ an = am–n
Example: a5 ÷ a3 = a5–3 = a2 (m > n)
a3 ÷ a5 = a3–5 = a–2 (m < n)
n
a an
(vi) = n
b b
4
x2 x 2×4 x8
Example: 4 = 4×4 = 16
y y y
−n 1
(vii) a =
an
−4 1 1
Example: 5 = 4
; = 10 −3
5 103
1.4.3. Surds
An expression which is expressible in the form n n
a where a is rational and a is irrational, is
called a surd.
The symbol ‘ n ’ is called the radical sign. n is called the order of the surd (or radical) and ‘a’ is
called the radicand.
For example 2 appears to be not a surd because 2 is irrational but 2 can be expressed
as 4
2 and therefore it is a surd.
Example: 2
3 = (3)1/ 2 ; 5 7 = (7)1/ 5 etc.,
( a)
n 1
( )
n n ×n
(i) = a1/ n = a n =a
1 1 1
(ii) ( n
)
a . n b = n ab ; a n b n = (ab)n = ab
n
n
a a
(iii) n
= n
b b
n
(iv) ap = (ap )1/ n = ap / n
m
( a)
m
(v) a n = n am = n
( 8)
2
Example: 82 / 3 = 3 (8)2 = 3
=4
Examples
1
( ) ( )
3 3 ×3
(i) 3
5 = 51/ 3 = 53 =5
(ii) 4
625 = 4 25 × 25 = (25)1/ 4 × (25)1/ 4 = 51/ 2 × 51/ 2 = 5
1
(iii) 5 3
3 = (31/ 3 )1/ 5 = 315 = 15 3
3
(iv) Express 32 as a surd
4
2
3 2 9
Expression: 4 × ( 32) = 16 × 32 = 18
rational parts
The ‘conjugate’ idea will be very important for problem solving while we have a surd in the
denominator. It is conventional to rationalise the denominator always, i.e. not to leave the
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denominator in surd form. So we may have to multiply and divide by the conjugate of the
denominator wherever possible
(i) a means the positive square root of a, while – a means the negative
square root of a.
(ii) An irrational number involving a root is called a surd
1.4.5. Logarithms
Definition: The logarithm of a number x to a given base ‘a’ is equal to the exponent of the power
to which the base is raised to equal the number i.e. ay = x; logarithm of x to the base a is y.
For example, 23 = 8; we say logarithm of 8 to the base 2 is 3 and we write log28 = 3
1 1
Examples: 3-2 = ∴ log3 = − 2
9 9
2x = 49 ∴ log2 49 = x
1 1
log2 = x ∴ 2x = 2 = 2−2 ∴ x = − 2
4
2
Laws of logarithms
Product rule
(i) loga (mn) = logam + logan (m, n > 0, a > 0, a ≠ 1)
(i.e.) logarithm of a product of two positive numbers is the sum of their logarithms)
Proof
Let logam = x ∴ ax = m (1)
Let logan = y ∴ ay = n (2)
∴ log mn = a × a = a
x y x+y
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Quotient rule
m
(ii) loga = loga m − loga n (m, n > 0, a > 0, a ≠ 1)
n
(The logarithm of a quotient is the logarithm of numerator minus logarithm of denominator)
Let logam = x ∴ ax = m (1)
Let logan = y ∴ a =n
y
(2)
x
m a
∴ = y = ax − y
n a
m
∴ loga = x − y = loga m − loga n
n
Power rule
(iii) loga mn = n . loga m
(The logarithm of a power of a number is the product of the exponent and the logarithm of that
number)
Reciprocal rule
1
(v) logb a × loga b = 1 or logb a =
loga b
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Let loga b = y ∴ ay = b (2)
From (1) and (2)
a1 = b x = (a y )x = a xy
∴ xy = 1
1 1
∴ x= or y =
y x
1
ie logb a =
loga b
Common Logarithms
Logarithms that have a base of 10 are known as common logarithms. We use log x to denote
log10x.
The common logarithm is a number consisting of an integral part and a decimal part. The
integral part is called the characteristic and the decimal part is called the mantissa. Mantissa is
always positive.
The characteristic of a logarithm is 1 less than the number of digits in the integral
part or one more than the number of zeroes immediately after the decimal point, if
the number is less than 1 and in this case it is negative.
Example:
(i) Characteristic of the number 172 is (3 – 1) = 2
(ii) Characteristic of the number 0.0054 is – 3
(iii) log 0.04382 → has characteristic –2 or 2
(iv) log 4438.9 → has characteristic (4 – 1) = 3
2. Formula for finding the sum of all divisors (including itself and one) of a natural number
Let us take the number as 144.
24 +1 − 1 32 +1 − 1 25 − 1 33 − 1
Now 144 = 24 × 32 ∴ S(D) = × = ×
2 −1 3 −1 1 2
= 31 × 13 = 403
In usual practice, the sum of all the divisors (including itself and one) of 144 is
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 9 + 12 + 16 + 18 + 24 + 36 + 48 + 72 + 144 = 403
Thus the general formula for the sum of all factors (including itself and one) of a natural
number is given by
xa+1 − 1 yb+1 − 1 zc +1 − 1
SD = × × ....
x −1 y −1 z −1
where x = xa . yb . zc .., x, y, z etc are prime numbers and a, b, c ∈ N
3. Formula for finding the sum of all proper divisors of a natural number n.
Let us take the natural number 42
∴ 42 = 21 × 31 × 71
The proper divisors of 42 are 2, 3, 6, 7, 14, 21 ∴ Sum is 53
(Note 1is a trivial divisor and 42 is improper divisor) and therefore both are excluded in the
formula but added separately.
The formula for finding the sum of all proper divisors is given by
21+1 − 1 31+1 − 1 71+1 − 1
SD = × × − (42 + 1)
2 − 1 3 −1 7 − 1
= (3 × 4 × 8) – 43 = 53
In usual practice the sum is
2 + 3 + 6 + 7 + 14 + 21 = 53
(1 and 42 are omitted from the sum)
In general the formula is given by
xa +1 − 1 yb +1 − 1
Sd = × × .. − [n + 1]
x − 1 y −1
where n = xa yb …, x, y, z … ∈ prime numbers and a, b, c, … ∈ N
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1.4.5. Modular Arithmetic
Introduction: The above topics are distinct but kept as part of syllabus in various State boards
for Std X only. Fundamentals are to be stressed and simple applications to be solved
Nevertheless, the above topics are extremely important from the competitive examination point of
view and as such students are advised to learn.
Books for reference: Standard text books on number theory, statistics and Algebra – Books
prescribed by State boards in southern states.
Example: 9 ≡ 4 (mod 5)
∴ 9 – 3 ≡ 4 – 3 (mod 5)
(iii) a x = b x (mod m)
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Example 12 ≡ 3 (mod 9)
∴ 12 × 2 ≡ 3 x 2 (mod 9)
Let a ≡ b (mod m) and c ≡ d (mod m). Then
(a) a + c ≡ b + d (mod m)
(b) a – c ≡ b – d (mod m)
(c) ac ≡ bd (mod m)
(d) pa + qc = pb + qd (mod m)
(e) am ≡ bm (mod m) for all integers m
(f) If ca = cb (mod m) and (c1 m) = 1, then a ≡ b (mod m)
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12 21 31 41
13 23 32 42 (12 in all)
14 24 34 43
Let us tabulate the above results (i) (ii) (iii) and observe a pattern.
2 3 3 3P 6 3× 2× 1=
3
6
3 4 2 4P
2
12 4 × 3 = 12
Then, the two events together can occur in “m × n” i.e. “m n” different ways.
(ii) The number of permutations of m things taken ‘n’ at a time is given by the formula.
mPn = m (m – 1) (m – 2) (m – 3) ………(m – n − 1 )
i.e. m(m-1
)(m-2
)(m-3
).............(m -n+1)
(iii) The product of first n natural number is denoted by n! or n ! and it is read as factorial n.
Thus 5 ! = Factorial 5 = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
= 120
m!
Also mPn =
(m − n) !
(iv) mp1 = m
(v) mpm = m!
(vi) O! = 1
1.4.7. Combinations
The number of combinations of ‘n’ things taken ‘r’ at a time is denoted by nCr
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Mathematics
Examples:
(i) How many groups of objects be selected from amongst A, B and C?
Number of selections = AB, AC, BC (only 3)
Note that AB and BA is the same selection.
(ii) There are three objects A, B and C. In how many different ways can all the three objects be
chosen?
(A B C only – ie only one)
(iii) Consider 4 objects A, B, C, D. In how many different ways (i) 2 objects (ii) 3 objects (iii) 4
objects be selected?
(i) AB, A C, A D, B C, B D, C D (6 in all)
(ii) A B C, A C D, A B D, B C D ( 4 in all)
Example:
There are 8 non-collinear prints. How many straight lines can be drawn by joining these points?
Solution:
A straight line is obtained by giving any two points on a plane.
∴ Number of straight lines formed = 8C2
8 (8 − 1) 8 × 7
= = = 28.
2! 1× 2
Algebraic structure:
Binary operation
Definition: A binary operation on a set, is a rule which assigns to each ordered pair of
elements of the set, a unique element of the set
The word “ordered” in the definition is very important for the element assigned to the pair (a, b)
Why? This is different from the element, assigned to the pair (b, a)
The following notations are used for varying sets of numbers:
Z – The set of all integers (whole numbers, positive, negative and zero)
Z + – Also equal to N – The set of all positive integers or natural numbers (0 excluded)
Q – The set of all rational numbers
∗
Q – The set of all non – zero rational numbers
Q+ – The set of all positive rational numbers
R – The set of all real numbers
∗
R – The set of all non – zero real numbers
R+ – The set of all positive real numbers
C – The set of all complex numbers
∗
C – The set of all non – zero complex numbers
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Mathematics
1.4.8. Properties of Binary operation:
(i) If ∗ is a binary operation, then a * b ε S for all a, b ε S – we say that S is closed under the
operation.*
Example: Show that the operation of subtraction is not a binary operation on the set N.
N o 5, 8 ε N and 5 – 8 = –3, ∉ N
∴ Subtraction is not a binary operation on N.
(ii) The operation ∗ is associative if
(a ∗ b) ∗ C = a ∗ (b ∗ C) for all a, b, c ε S
(iii) An element e of S which satisfies
e ∗ a = a ∗ e = a . for all a ∈S.
Is called the identity element for the binary operation ∗ on S
(iv) A binary operation ∗ on S iS Commutative if a ∗ b = b ∗ a for all a, b, ∈ S
(v) For each element a ∈ S, if there is an element b ε S such that a ∗ b = b ∗ a = e; then the
element b is called the inverse of a under the binary operation. *
The element b, “inverse of a” is usually denoted by a”
The following symbols are used in this topic (in pulling)
Symbols Meaning
∀ for all
∈ belong to
∉ does not belong to
∃ there exist
: or / Such that
We have thus learnt to examine the given set with respect to a given operation is an algebraic
structure i.e A non – empty set equipped with certain Binary operation. is called an algebraic
structure and is denoted by (S,∗)
Example:
a+b
Given set Z, operation ∗ and r defined by a ∗ b = , a, b, ∈ z
2
Verify whether (z, ∗) is an Algebraic structure.
a+b
Now a ∗ b =
2
1+ 2 3
Let a = 1, b = 2, Then 1 ∗ 2 = =
2 2
3
But ∉z
2
∴ z is not closed under ∗ in Z
∴ ∗ is not a binary operation
i.e. (z , ∗) is not an Algebraic structure.
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Mathematics
ab
Example: Verify whether (Q, ∗) defined by a * b = where a, b, ∈ Q is an
2
Algebraic structure. If it is so verify whether the operation ∗ is associative.
1
1 1× 1
Let a = 1, b = so that a * b = 2 = ∈Q
2 4
2
∴ (Q, ∗) is an Algebraic structure as
∗ is a binary operation in Q.
ab
Also (a, ∗ b) ∗ C = ∗ (C)
2
ab
c
= 2 abc
=
2 4
bc abC
a ∗ (b ∗ c) = a ∗ =
2 4
∴ a ∗ (b ∗ c) = (a ∗ b) ∗ c
∴ The operation is associative
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