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Journalism and
Mass Communication
Volume 1, Number 2, November 2011 (Serial Number 2)
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Journalism and
Mass Communication
Volume 1, Number 2, November 2011 (Serial Number 2)
Contents
Media and the Impact
What Preteen Girls Learn About Gender Roles From Celebrities
79
Kara Chan
Digital Game as a New Media, and Digital Game Playing Habits of Youngsters in Turkey
88
Deniz Yengin, Cem S. St

How Cyberspace Age Shaped the Political Partys Identity
98
Gatut Priyowidodo
Theoretical Research
Television Sports News Between Performance, Violence and Spectacle
106
Bianca Marina Mitu

New Program Projects Selection for TV Companies
115
LIAO Sen-kuei, CHANG Kei-teng, DUAN Wan-chun, CHANG Kuei-lun

Television Programs for Teenagers and the Use of Multimodality in Knowledge Popularization 123
Laura Santamaria, Margarida Bassols, Anna Torrent
Cultural Studies
Representing Islam in China: A Case Study on the Religious Motifs of Uyghur Sermon Poems 136
WANG Jian-xin
Journalism and Mass Communication, ISSN 2160-6579

November 2011, Vol. 1, No. 2, 79-87
What Preteen Girls Learn About Gender Roles From Celebrities

Kara Chan
Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, China
A face-to-face qualitative interview study was conducted to examine the perceived gender roles and gender
identities among 10 to 12 years old girls in Hong Kong. Sixteen girls aged 10 to 12 were asked to take pictures
from the media they consumed that illustrated What girls or women should or should not be; and what girls or
women should or should not do. Analysis of interviews and images captured found that celebrities and characters
in popular media play a significant role in socializing preadolescent girls on gender roles and gender identity
formation. Celebrities and media characters that caught the interviewees attention were mainly female adult
entertainers and media characters. Girls showed admiration of specific talents and personalities of the celebrities
and media characters. They paid much attention to the private lives of the celebrities. They learned from celebrities
and media characters that certain behaviors were not acceptable in the social arena.
Keywords: media images, socializing agents, preadolescent, qualitative method
Introduction
Tweens is a subteen consumer segment (Lindstrom & Seybold, 2003; Siegel, Coffey, & Livingston, 2004).
The segment is defined by age, and the concept is based on the idea that these children are in-be-tween
childhood and teen-hood (Cook & Kaiser, 2004; Siegel et al., 2004). In the present paper, we focus on the
10-12 years old girls. This phase of life is of particular interest because of the salience of sexuality during the
period among the young people themselves, as well as the adults who may impose advisory and disciplinary
practices on them (Ho & Tsang, 2002). Tweens are also considered to be powerful influencers of their parents
consumption as well as consumers with a considerable direct consumption of their own (Andersen, Tufte,
Rasmussen, & Chan, 2008). Lindstrom (2004) proposed that the global direct and indirect tweens consumption
was no less than 1.18 trillion U.S. dollars in 2003.
Young people, and particularly young women, adolescent girls and tween girls are exposed to messages
that tell them how they should act, how they should look, who they should idolize and the limits of their
aspirations. A qualitative study of U.S. adolescent girls using participant observation and personal interview
found that interviewees demonstrate intense interest in popular culture. They often discussed media contents of
television, consumer magazines, and movies (Durham, 1999). These girls often use mass media to reconstruct
the dominant ideology of femininity, such as emphasis of physical appearance, aspiration of getting married
and child-bearing, as well as rejection of homosexuality (Durham, 1999). Media learning research, including
Banduras Social Learning Theory (1986) and Gerbner and his colleagues Cultivation Theory (1994), suggests
that media messages have an effect on the individuals sense of self and behavior (Gerbner, Gross, Morgan, &
Acknowledgement: This study was fully supported by the Centre for Media and Communication Research of Hong Kong
Baptist University.
Kara Chan, professor, Department of Communication Studies, Hong Kong Baptist University, China.
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WHAT PRETEEN GIRLS LEARN ABOUT GENDER ROLES FROM CELEBRITIES
Signorelli, 1994). Using a qualitative interview methodology, the current study identifies how social learning of
gender roles and identities occurs in the Hong Kong.
Literature Review
Gender and Gender Equality
While sex is a biological phenomenon, gender is a psychological and social phenomenon that describes the
cultural associations and expectations relating to ones biological sex (Rice & Dolgin, 2005). Sex
differentiation takes place as children gradually learn to be masculine or feminine according to culturally
established gender identification expectations and their interpretation of them (Trepanier-Street, Romatowski,
& McNair, 1990). Gender roles refer to the behaviors in which men and women are expected to engage (Rice &
Dolgin, 2005). According to the social learning theory, a child learns sex-appropriate behaviors through a
combination of reward, punishment, direct instruction, and modeling (Bandura, 1986).
As a former British colony, Hong Kong has laws protecting women from gender bias in terms of education,
employment and pay package (Chan, 2000). Hong Kong provides nine-year free education to all children, both
males and females, between the ages of six and fifteen. The proportion of females with tertiary education is
similar to that of males (Census and Statistics Department, 2009). Because of improvements in education,
economic development, and the influence of the Western feminist movement, the status of women in Hong
Kong has achieved significant improvement in the last two decades (Lee & Collins, 2008). Hong Kong is
compatible with many western societies in terms of social economical development and availability of
education for women. The female labor participation rate for Hong Kong is 53% (Census and Statistics
Department, 2009), which compares to 56% in the U.S. (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2010).
As a Chinese society, Hong Kong is influenced by the Chinese paternal oriented culture that discourages
gender equality. Confucianism influences a majority of the population. Chinese culture accords greater esteem,
privilege, and status to males and there are more restrictive prescriptions for the roles of women. Women are
expected to submerge their individuality to the orders of the male members of the family. The virtues for a
woman are defined narrowly in her role as wife and mother (Cheung, 1996).
Young People and Celebrities
Advertisers and retailers often employ media celebrities as spokespersons for products and services that
target young people. This is because young people often form secondary attachments to media figures in
addition to relations with family and peers. These attachments facilitate adolescents transition to adulthood and
the formation of a mature adult identity (Erikson, 1968). Caughey (1984; 1985) found that young admirers
consider a celebrity idol as their idealized self-image. Admirers wanted to develop or refine personality traits
that were similar to those of their idols. Young people reported that they wanted to change their physical
appearance, abilities, values and attitudes in order to imitate those of their idols (Boon & Lomore, 2001).
Caughey (1985) concluded that peoples imaginary relationships with media figures will shape both their
own self-identities and their subjective evaluation of self-worth.
McCutcheon, Lange, and Houran (2002) proposed that consumers relationship with media celebrities can
be classified into three types, namely entertainment social, intense personal, and borderline pathological. A
survey found that young people who reported that they shared a bond with their idols (all of whom were media
figures) were more likely to attribute a role to their idols in guiding their choice of identity and shaping their
81
feelings of self-worth (Boon & Lomore, 2001).

Because of the booming pop music and film industries, Hong Kong enjoys an ever-changing list of
popular singers and movie stars (Chan, Cheung, Lee, Leung, & Liu, 1998; Leung, 1999). These popular idols
are admired by young people for ostensibly being wealthy, beautiful, young and hedonistic. Nearly all the
major newspapers in Hong Kong devote two to three pages to international and local celebrity gossip every day.
Next magazine, a weekly magazine with readership of 530,000, publishes a celebrity gossip supplement every
week with over 100 pages of articles and advertisements. A content analysis of television advertisements for
products target at young consumers found that 40 percent of the sample advertisements featured celebrities
(Chan, 2010). Idol worship is common among young people in Hong Kong. A survey of 2,000 secondary
school students found that close to 70 percent claimed to have at least one idol. Popular singers and movie stars
were typical favorites (So & Chan, 1992). Listening to popular music is a major form of entertainment for
young people, and pop music singers are often idolized (Wong & Ma, 1997). A survey of high school and
university students in Hong Kong found that the respondents favor to those celebrities who are talented,
attractive-looking, powerful, and extraordinary (Yue & Cheung, 2000). According to Yue (2007), idol worship
and model learning both involve admiration and identification. However, idol worship is characterized by
person-focused admiration and idol mystification, while model learning is characterized by attributes-focused
admiration and model identification. Idol worship leads to an idolization model demonstrated by romantic
attachment, high monetary and time investment, feelings of low self efficacy, illusory romance, vainglory and
confusion of self-identity. Model learning leads to an actualization model illustrated by identification, low
monetary and time investment, feeling of self efficacy, self inspiration, personal growth and identity
achievement (Yue, 2007). A survey of 631 young people aged 15 to 24 in Hong Kong found that imitation of
celebrity models was moderate to low with a score of 2.4 on a five-point scale (Chan & Prendergast, 2008).
Celebrities play a major role in young consumers development of self identity. Young people demonstrate
empathy and interest in celebrities social lives. Most of the studies reviewed above involve teenagers and
young adults. There is a lack of study on celebrities and gender roles among a younger age segment. A study of
young girls and celebrities enables us to understand how celebrities play a role in gender role formation. The
media socialization process is important for parents and educators to help young girls to adopt nonstereotypical
gender roles and facilitate girls to explore their full potentials.
Methodology
Qualitative interview methodology was adopted. Data for the study were collected in March 2009.
Altogether 16 interviewees were recruited through social network. Ten interviewees were studying at local
Chinese speaking schools and the remaining six interviewees were studying at international schools that use
English as the medium of instruction. Two interviewees were Caucasians and the remaining were Chinese. All
interviewees were asked to take seven to ten digital photographs each day for one week. The instruction is
Please take images from any media that are about what girls or women should be or should not be, and what
girls or women should do or should not do. You can take the images from all kinds of media, including
newspapers, magazines, outdoor posters, television programs, subway posters, web sites, books and so on. The
selected media should be the ones you are exposed to or sometimes use in your daily lives. The media can be
aiming at people like you or aiming at people who are different from you. Written permission from parents
was obtained before the study commenced.
82
Within a few days after the image collection week, the author conducted face-to-face interviews with the
interviewees. The list of questions asked is shown in the Appendix. The photos taken by each interviewee were
downloaded to the researchers computer. The interviews took place at private and public venues including
sports centers, and schools. The interviews were conducted in either Cantonese (a dialect used in Hong Kong)
or English. The interviews took 20 to 36 minutes. All interviews were audio recorded and later transcribed or
translated into English by a female graduate research assistant. The findings from the interviews were
compared across the sample. Marshall and Rossmans (1999) comparison analysis method was used throughout
the data analysis process to link data by constantly comparing and contrasting them (Strauss, 1987). Dominant
themes were identified through repetitions, as well as search for similarities and differences.
Findings
Finding 1: Celebrities and Media Characters Who Captured the Attention of 10 to 12 Years Old Girls
Were Mainly Adult Female Entertainers
Interviewees were asked what girls or women should be or should not be, with reference to the digital
images that they had taken. Altogether 32 celebrities and five media characters were reported by the
interviewees 45 times. Fourteen out of the 37 celebrities and media characters were nonChinese females and
the remaining 23 were Chinese females. NonChinese females celebrities reported included Selena Gomez,
Miley Cyrus, Anne Frank, Princess Diana, and Madonna. Nearly all the Chinese celebrities mentioned were
local actresses and pop singers. Five of the celebrities discussed were professionals such as authors (e.g., J. K.
Rowling) and medical doctors. According to public records, the ages of the celebrities and media characters
mentioned ranged from 10 years old to 76 years old. Nine of the celebrities and media characters were aged
below 20 while the remaining 28 characters were aged 20 or above. The mean age of the celebrities and media
characters reported was 30. Two of them (i.e., Princess Diana and Anne Frank) were deceased. One interviewee
discussed four characters from the book Pride and Prejudice. Another interviewee brought up a character from
a popular television drama. Surprisingly, no media characters from cartoons were reported as examples of what
girls or women should do or should be.
Finding 2: Celebrities and Media Characters Serve as Negative Role Models
Interviewees most frequently reported how these celebrities and media characters demonstrated to them
what girls or women should not do. This theme was brought up 18 times. The reasons for considering
celebrities negative role models included alcoholic abuse, having a plastic surgery, gossiping, being
promiscuous, performing hot dances, taking drugs, and being superstitious. Here are three illustrative quotes:
One of the pictures I took is Miley Cyrus. In some ways, in life, she made bad decisions so when people want her to
be their role models, they should think clearly. She has done stuffs that the media and lots of people disagreed with. For
example, she goes out at night and done stuffs she is not supposed to do, such as drinking. I think she is really bad as a role
model. (an interviewee from an international school, age 11)
In this quote, the girl identified drug abuse and underage drinking as the kind of inappropriate behaviors of
Miley Cyrus. At the same time, she perceived that her poor decisions in life would have negative impact on
those who follow her as role models.
Jill Vidal and Kelvin Kwan took drugs and were arrested. They should not take drugs. (an interviewee
from a local school, age 10)
83
The photo I took is Gillian Chung (a local pop singer). Her nude pictures were released on the internet. She should not
take such photos with Edison. Originally they did not think others would look at the photos and they took them just for fun.
But in the end, others could see those photos. Gillian Chung had to step down from show business after this incident. She
admitted that she was stupid to had loved Edison Chan. She admitted that she regretted it. I think she should have thought
it through in the first place. (an interviewee from a local school, age 12)
In this quote, the girl reported a media scandal and identified with the financial loss of the female celebrity
involved. She demonstrated identification with the celebrity in her strong emotions of regret.
Finding 3: Interviewees Showed Admiration of Specific Talents, Competency, or Personality of the
Celebrities and Media Characters
This theme was brought up 16 times. The list of virtues that interviewees admired include being clever and
smart, enjoying work and having fun, having self-confidence, engaging in charity work, being gentle and
well-educated, pursuing personal goals, showing persistence and bravery, being strong, expressing her own
feelings, achieving in career work, and comforting others. Here are two illustrative quotes:
The woman in the picture is J.K. Rowling. I think women should pursue their dreams. She was originally a badly off
single mother. Because she was poor for a period of time, people around her didnt support her to write. In the end, she
became successful. So I think even though the situation is bad, if a woman pursues her dream, her dream will eventually
come true. (an interviewee from a local school, age 12)
Yan Sheung is the chief editor of a fashion magazine in a television drama. Each issue of the magazine has to obtain
her approval before printing. She has achievements and I admire her. (an interviewee from a local school, age 12)
These two quotes showed that the girls were aspired to celebrities with successful career.
Finding 4: Some Celebrities and Media Characters Were Perceived as Positive Role Models
The theme was brought up seven times. This theme is similar to the previous one discussed above. The
difference denotes the fact that the interviewees specifically mentioned that the celebrities and media characters
serve as their role models in this theme. Interviewees reported what they learned from these celebrities and
media characters about facing adversity, saving the planet, helping others, being brave, being courteous, and
building friendship. Here are two illustrative quotes:
This is a picture of Heidi Klum. She is rich and famous, and she is contributing to different charities. She helped
others to relive their dreams. She hosted the show Project Runaway that comes up with really nice clothing design. She is
my role model. (an interviewee from an international school, age 12)
Here are Charlie Yeung and Gigi Leung. They wrote a book titled My grow-up journal. They shared the secrets of
growing up and they built mutual trust and friendship. They are my role models in building up friendship. (an interviewee
from a local school, age 12)
Finding 5: Interviewees Gave Detailed Accounts of the Social and Private Lives of the Celebrities
Girls were interested in the private lives of the celebrities. In particular, they were observant of the family
lives as well as sexual lives of the celebrities. One interviewee discussed the bright side and the dark side of
Madonnas adoption of children. This is what she said.
This is Madonna. She has adopted several children and she wants to adopt one more child. But it is not allowed
because she has already adopted too many children and has not been staying in a country long enough. People should stay
in a country for at least 7 months before they are allowed to adopt a child. I think Madonna is not fully right. She adopts
these children in order to help them. But since she has already adopted so many, she may not have time to take good care
of them. (an interviewee from a local school, age 10)
84
One girl discussed the sexual molestation of a female actress. Another interviewee discussed the spreading
of a rumor by a popular singer. Lets look at the following quote.
This is Ella Koon. She started a rumor that a male actor had molested sexually an actress. After investigation, there is
no such case. She attended a function and sang songs and suddenly the music stopped while she was singing. Audiences
saw that she was unhappy. The TV producer asked her to go backstage to avoid embarrassment. When she returned
backstage, the music came up again. Then she cried backstage. The TV station said that she had made a bad impact on the
image of the company and that they would not continue hiring her. She should find out the truth before telling people about
it. (an interviewee from a local school, age 12)
In this quote, the girl gave an almost eye-witnessed account of a trivial incidence that happened to a
celebrity. The quote portrayed the flow of the event, as well as the responses and the feelings of the celebrity
involved. She was also aware of the consequence of the event from the employers perspective.
A media sex scandal happened in February 2008 drew much attention of the tween girls. Nude photos of
Edison Chen, a popular Hong Kong singer, and his female sexual partners were leaked out. Among these
female partners, Gillian Chung is a popular singer among children and young girls. Interviewees altogether
took six pictures of the female celebrities involved in the scandal. While four interviewees perceived Gullian
Chung a negative role model, one interviewee perceived that she was strong. She stood up for her family and
moved on with her life.
Finding 6: Interviews That Were Critical of the Outfits of the Celebrities
This theme was brought up three times. Girls commented that they disliked some of the clothes the
celebrities wear. They criticized the outfits as too sexy, or too darkly colored.
Discussion
In this qualitative interview study, girls aged 10 to 12 were asked to take pictures from the media they
consumed that told them what girls or women should be or not be and what girls or women should do or not do.
Based on the images captured and the discussion of the images captured, we have the following four
observations about what these girls learned from celebrities and media characters about gender roles and
identities.
First, girls aged 10 to 12 very often select female adult media celebrities as models for gender roles and
gender identities. The selection of media celebrities was focused on certain admirable attributes. Some
interviewees reported explicitly that they adopted the celebrities as positive role models. Interviewees also
identified with the celebrities because they liked the way they behave, or their specific personality, or their
specific talents. In all the interviews, there is an absence of idol worship. No interviewees reported strong
emotional attachment with the media celebrities or demonstrated confusion of self-identity. None of the
interviewees perceived the celebrities and media characters as perfect. In fact, interviewees sometimes reported
inappropriate gender roles from these celebrities. Celebrities engaged in socially unacceptable behaviors such
as drinking and taking drugs were scorned by the interviewees. The findings support that interviewees
demonstrated entertainment social relationship with the celebrity. The findings do not show evidence of intense
personal nor borderline pathological relationship with the celebrities (McCutcheon, Lanage, & Houran, 2002).
Instead, the findings demonstrate that interviewees are able to evaluate the behaviors of the media celebrities
according to their moral standards.
The celebrities and media characters are highly visible for others to observe and to obtain information for
85
role modeling. Because of limited life experience, most of the 10 to 12 years old girls may not have an
extensive personal network. There is so much written about the celebrities and media characters on the
television, newspapers, and magazines that these girls found them familiar and accessible (Singh, Vinnicombe,
& James, 2006).
Girls studying at local schools were more likely to adopt Chinese local popular singers and actresses as
role models for gender identities. Girls studying at international schools were more likely to adopt nonChinese
popular singers and actresses as role models. This can be attributed to the different media interviewees used. It
is observed that girls studying at local schools most often took pictures from Chinese newspapers and Chinese
gossip-type weekly magazines.
Second, tween girls are inspired by the celebrities and media characters to pursue an identity that is
intelligent, achieving, independent, self-confident, and expressive. The result is similar to the study of young
working females in Hong Kong who generally consume women magazines in order to construct an idealized
image of modernity and outstanding beauty (Fung, 2002). The difference between the 10 to 12 years old girls in
this study and the young working females lies in the aspiration of achieving outstanding beauty. Interviewees
seem to put more emphasis on the talents and the competency of the celebrities and media characters. Whereas
in Fungs (2002) study, interviewees (female magazine readers) put much emphasis on the outfits of the
celebrities and models featured in the magazines. Tannen (1990) argued that men are socialized to be
aggressive, assertive, ambitious, and independent in order to survive in a hierarchical world, while women are
socialized to be submissive and cooperative. Fung (2002) suggested that Hong Kong females pursuit of beauty
was a socially acceptable way of to express their desire to be outstanding. In the current study, the 10 to 12
years old girls expressed their admiration of the achievements of the celebrities. Interviewees also admired the
gentleness and the caring acts of the celebrities and media characters. It shows that interviewees are inspired by
both masculine and feminine personality traits of the celebrities and media characters.
Third, the interviewees paid much attention to sexual lives of media celebrities. They often made reference
to them in defining standards for societal acceptance and moral decisions. Discussing sex is a taboo in the
Chinese society. Although premarital sex seems to have become more prevalent in the last two decades,
evidence suggests that Hong Kong youth retain traditional views on love, courtship, and marriage (The
Womens Foundation, 2006). Interviewees in the current study demonstrated conservative attitudes toward sex.
They disapproved of premarital sex of female celebrities involved in the media scandal.
Fourth, a majority of interviewees perceived celebrities and media characters as either positive or negative
role models. Only one interviewee reported the ambiguity and ambivalence of a celebrity (i.e., Madonna). It
suggests that the evaluation of celebrities and media characters by the interviewees is based on a narrowly
defined set of criteria.
As a qualitative study of a convenience sample, the current study does not allow for the generalization of
findings within and beyond Hong Kong. The small sample size also posted a limitation for generalization.
Future study should measure the emotional attachment and social learning involving media celebrities
using quantitative methodology. Studies can also be conducted among 10 to 12 years old boys and among older
boys on the perception of masculinity and media consumption.
Conclusion
To conclude, the analysis of interviews and images found that celebrities and media characters play an
86
important role in shaping 10 to 12 years old girls perceived gender roles and identities for females.
Interviewees often refer to adult celebrities for positive and negative gender roles. Interviewees learned from
celebrities and media characters that certain behaviors were not acceptable in the social arena. These girls
showed admiration of specific talents and personalities of the celebrities and media characters. Successes in
career as well as charity work of celebrities are most frequently mentioned as reasons of admiration.
Interviewees paid much attention to the private lives of the celebrities.
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Appendix: List of questions

1. From these pictures, what do you think about what girls or women should be or should not be?
2. From these pictures, what behavior(s) do you think are appropriate or inappropriate for girls or women?
3. Who create these images and why do they create them in this way?
4. Are you satisfied with the way the images of girls or women are created now?
5. If you were a media owner and/or a media producer, what would you do in constructing images of young girls or women?
* Answers to these questions are not included in this paper.

November 2011, Vol. 1, No. 2, 88-97
Digital Game as a New Media, and Digital Game Playing Habits

of Youngsters in Turkey
Deniz Yengin
Cem S. St
stanbul Kltr University, stanbul, Turkey
Marmara University, stanbul, Turkey
Today, individuals can effectively use all kinds of communication tools with digital transformation. This
transformation process is called The Network Society by Castells. According to Castells, people are living with
long cables or networks that connect each other. With the progressing and spreading technological advances,
entertainment sector is booming since 1950s even more dramatically than the computer sector. Digital games sector,
in this perspective, has been the intersection area of the entertainment sector and the computer sector. We can
include to these three sectors a fourth one: Communication (or Media) sector. With the convergence of these four
sectors, there is an enormous sea of possibilities, opportunities and problemles faced by humans. Our information
society is turning into games. Today, the traditional understanding of play has been replaced by digital games.
Digital games as an independent communication tool differ from traditional play in that they include a new
communication medium into action. There is a different communication process in these digital games, which
especially is an interest to younger generations. Digital games provide an interactive environment with individuals
as they allow electiveness, mobility and non-linearity. In an era of economic angst and where real and virtual
identities are being discussed, individuals of the information society are searching for something different other
than mass communication. They seek after individual experiences. The main focus in this study will be to analyze
the habits of play in digital games. The relationship between digital games and their users will also be examined.
The quantitative study of digital games will be a useful source for future studies and will bridge the gap in this area.
Keywords: game, new media, digital game
Introduction
In the 1950s with the introduction of computers in human life, the main elements of industrial society
changed and the information society was born along with processing of data, information, and knowledge. This
change has also brought about an important concept called New Media. This concept created different ways of
communication with increased interactivity. Digitization made it possible to clone things that are valuable.
Some say that this contributed to the rise of popular culture. On the contrary, others say that all these elements
become a human body part with the effects of technological developments. With the increase of means of
information, communication, and its over flow, people began to look for the accurate, timely and relevant
information. On the other hand, it also created disinformation and misinformation.
Deniz Yengin, assistant professor, Faculty of Communications, Department of Communication Design, Istanbul Kltr
University, Istanbul, Turkey.
Cem S. St, associate professor, Faculty of Communications, Department of Information Systems, Marmara University,
Istanbul, Turkey.
DIGITAL GAME AS A NEW MEDIA
89
The entertainment sector is fully benefitting from the new media technology, in terms of communication
and distribution networks of digital games and in terms of adding more interactivity into games. Digital games
are now encapsulating and drawing the gamer through virtual reality tools into a world of imagination. Besides
the entertainment sector, many sectors, such as automobile industry, marketing sector or drugs sector use digital
games as a means of attracting consumers and thereby increasing sales. Advergames are typical examples of
that. With many application areas of digital games, this subject is worth analyzing, in terms of its effect on
young generations, since they are the major demandants of digital games and entertainment.
The Concept of Game

The phrase of game is defined as a way of spending time with specific rules as entertainment, gambling,
exciting talents, performance style of actresses or actors in the theater or movies, a composition of movements
made in harmony with music, a work of art created to be performed with instruments or on stage, show,
play.Therefore, all kinds of competitions made to develop intellectual and physical skills relying on agility,
surprising moves to overcome the rival in wrestling, result of a game such as tennis and backgammon when a
player wins a point, trick, trap, fraud, machination (Turkish Language Association, 2011).
Concept of Game is a manner of thinking and acting designed according to the behaviors of others and
conditions of the situation in an acting and thinking system that is completely different from all aspects unlike
ordinary behavioral patterns. Briefly, concept of game is the realization of actions according to the conditions
of the environment that the human is present in. There are numerous different studies on game in literature.
In his work named Games People Play Berne defines game as an event that consists of well defined and
predictable consequences that are in continuous development (Berne, 1964, p. 56). Berne divides game in six
sub-classes. These are classified on the basis of number of players, usage of money, on clinic level, regional,
psychodynamic, instinctive (Berne, 1964, p. 44). Different characteristics of games makes it difficult to
categorize them under specific titles. Various similarities such as height, facial features, eye color, walking
style, character etc. are also found in games too (Wittgenstein, 2007, sf. 52). Therefore, instead of considering
common features in games, taking similarities and relationships into account is more helpful.
Huizinga defines game as something that is unreal but also fascinating which draws players inside
greatly while the freedom of working with awareness goes on around, while accustomed life, in other word
existing life goes on as is outside. It is an activity independent of any pecuniary advantage, i.e., it is without
any gain. The game has unique time and space limits and it is an activity that has unchanging specific rules and
a regular style within those borders (Huizinga, 1980, p. 13).
Caillois defines game as a doubtful, inefficient, rule based and a deceptive activity consisting of free
parts (Caillois, 2001, pp. 10-11). According to Suits, playing game is to take part in an activity, in a story in a
directed way, following only allowed rules that are effective in the decision of loosing, accepted rules are only
intended for realizing this activity (Suits, 1978, sf. 34). Definition of game for Avedon and Sutton is The game
is defined from the simplest level as a voluntary control mechanism and it is an opposition between forces in
this mechanism and imbalance limited with rules for the existence of the rules (Avedon & Sutton, 1971, p. 7).
According to Salen and Zimmerman, game All players are defined by the rules and they are all in an
artificial conflict. This official conflict is come to an end as digital (numeric) case (Salen & Zimmerman, 2004,
p. 96). Juul defines game as a transferable activity that consists of rules with variable and digital results,
different results being assigned with different values, players exerting effort to affect the result, result focused
90
in the emotional context (Juul, 2005, p. 36).

According to these definitions, game does not address a specific purpose, realized with or without rules,
but in all cases it is a basis for physical, cognitive, linguistic, emotional and social development where the child
takes part voluntarily and with enjoyment, a part of the real life and the most effective learning process for the
child. Game is an entertaining and optional activity generally outside the real world, indefinite and with unique
rules and cultures. In the concept of game, features of limitedness, orderliness and nonseriousness draw
attention. Within this context game is an event that puts the individuals into an activity that has rules, not
serious, with entry and exit limits, imposing a feeling that is not real but felt as if it is real. Game is reviewed
according to this definition.
Emphasizing that there are limits in game, Huizinga states that the game has a Magic Circle within this
context. It represents a world that contains rules regarding the game and having result, within Magic Circle that
can enter and exit the game and defines a circle with limits According to this theory, each game has a magic
circle. Players are required to enter and exit this invisible Magic Circle to start the game. Playing the game is
realized according to the rules that are established within this circle or already known. Mat wrestling and
Japanese Sumo wrestling are the most distinct examples to be given for the concept of magic circle.
Reinforcing the features of games, game is an event that puts the individuals into an activity that has rules,
not serious, with entry and exit limits, imposing a feeling that is not real but felt as if it is real. Features of
limitedness, orderliness and nonseriousness contained within this definition of game are transferred to media
which are considered as new. Within this context, the concept of new media gains importance.
Digital Game as a New Media

The term media itself poses a similar problem. If we take media to mean ways in which we
communicate with one another, then we must examine early cave paintings that date back at least ten thousand
years. New Media might not be an ideal term for such arrange of technologies, but it is one that is increasingly
recognized internationally and one that is generally associated with the technological transformations in
communication that have recently taken place. New communication concept creates rapid evolution.
McLuhans Global Village concept still remains, albeit with the effects of technological changes.
New communication media are analyzed under five principles indicated by Manovich: numerical
representation, modularity, automation, variability and transcoding (Manovich, 2001, pp. 27-48). Lister has
analyzed the characteristic features of new communication medias within frame of technological necessity:
digitality, interactivity, hypertext, dispersal and virtuality (Lister, 2003, pp. 9-44).
Digitalization is the common point of these principles. A digital universe is addressed. Objects contained
in the new communication media are expressed digitally. Objects which shift to digital from analog or in
different structures produced in digital, can be in digital, can be variable upon code transformation through
automation-thanks to their modular structure feature.
When new communication media are analyzed, digitalization stands as a basic feature. Digital universe is
completely expressed in numbers and digitalization feature is added to the communication media. Interaction
has an important role in the new communication media. Receiver being transmitter or increasing the control of
the source on the message in the communication process is interaction (Geray, 2003, p. 18).
Game generally includes qualities which require physicality. However, development of means of
communication has rendered the transformation of game necessary. Video game is a game where a visual user
91
interface is created using a video device. Released as a recreational tool on the market in 1971 for the first time,
video games have been developed and widespread within the last 40-year period. Development of video games
have enabled designing text-based adventure and role playing games in time. While video games are defined as
single, unique tool but they can also be defined as a world of images (Wolf, 2007, p. 14). Combination of
video and game gains a single quality just like the concepts of videotape, videodisc (Wolf, 2008, p. 3).
Video game can be defined as a game played with mechanical tools. Being a new communication media,
the video game is the transfer of a reading system to a world with the system of indicators and by adding coded
sounds. Video console system which is considered as the marriage of television and console drags the user to a
different position. Video game creates a more complex integrity. User integration develops quickly. There is no
standard in the game. Games with a dynamic structure require the users to get familiar with the interfaces again.
Working as an engineer in a television company, Ralph Baers idea of a game system that operates with
the television was the starting point of video games with the game named Chase Game. In these periods
games different from each other were being produced. Pong game which accelerated the development of video
games can be mentioned in them. Produced in 1972 by Nolan Bushnell as the owner of Atari company, Pong
game takes the game of tennis as basis with a two dimensional graphic design.
Game platforms derived from the video game culture that commenced with pong. Media such as arcade,
console, portable, mobile, computer, online games etc. are increasingly in use. Game consoles are recreational
devices with computer based databases offering the chance of playing games through an image (television,
monitor) (Forster, 2005). Game consoles are also named as video game console. The phrase video here is
used for electronic devices which display image in pixels. Today, concept of video game generally covers the
image systems in all varieties and formats. Birth of console gaming was realized with Magnavox Odyssey
company and today Microsoft Xbox 360, Nintendo Wii and PlayStation 3 consoles defined as seventh
generation are used. The game market, which is a part of the consumption society extensively reaches out to the
masses the masses through console systems. Usage frequency of console systems which reach to larger masses
have importance.
Conventional games are games which based on interpersonal communication, relying on physicality and
creativity. However, the concept of childrens games are gradually being erased from our minds. Even the
game of hide and seek played by Athenians is being lost from Children's repertory of games today. At this point,
childhood itself is consumed.
Transformed into fantasy today, game is sort of a tool for achieving a sort of entertainment against
relentless real life, a form perception and interpretation of life in an image that is not owned for classes and
segments which commoditized or adopting the fate of commoditization to see this relentless reality with
semi-awareness (Oskay, 1997, p. 168). Digital games create a more complex integrity. User integration
develops quickly. There is no standard in the game. Games with a dynamic structure require the users to get
familiar with the interfaces again. Each new technology bears the traces of the former one. Digital games
include Atari games, computer games, console games, mobile games and all different varieties (Binark & St,
2008, p. 93). Within this context, digital game is a personal communication media that contains digital,
interaction, virtuality, modularity features of the new communication media and adding such features to the
performance of gameplay. These media can contain and include concepts and features which are defined as old
or traditional within themselves.
Technological advancements and progression of digital systems which have an extended structure, that
92
occurs through the production of new media every other day requires the definition of digital game event to be
extended every other day. Containing the qualities of traditional game understanding, digital game gives birth
to a new understanding of game. Physical based understanding of traditional game with digital game approach
has left its place to digitally produced game media. Developed through physical applications and using a tool,
the game media is transformed into a medium that is realized with the participation of users relying on a visual
system. This process of transformation brings together new features. Digital game as a new communication
medium contains various game types such as computer, video, console, mobile games. Digital games are media
which have the features of the new communication medium. The study was carried out in line with this
definition.
Digital Games Industry

Constructing an accurate picture of the size of the global games industry in terms of software and
hardware is a difficult task. The information released by government, consultancy and press reports fails to give
a global persepective and also have contradictory information. In 2002 the digital games industry was worth
more than the film industry in the USA (i.e., compared to $10.3 billion to $9.3 billion) respectively.
Figure 1. Digital Game Production Lifecycle (Source: Kerr, 2006, p. 42)
When we look at the key segmentation of the digital games industry we see that there are four segments.
93
The first one is console games, the second one is standard PC games, the third one is massive multiplayer
online games and emergent games (MMOGs) and fourth one is mini casual games. The four market segments
are grouped according to the following four characteristics (Kerr, 2006, p.45-48) :
1. Market concentrationmonopoly, oligopoly or numerous companies.
2. The revenue modelshop sales, online sales, subscription, pay per-play, free, advertising.
3. Degree of openness in hardware systemopen, mixed, closed.
4. Characteristics of the software production processcost, length, team size.
Segment 1 includes games developed for both handheld and console platforms and is clearly the most
significant in terms of market share at least according to current industry reports. Segment 2 includes offline
and multiplayer/networked PC games butnot MMOGs. Current statistics suggest that this segment has a much
smaller market share than segment 1, particularly in Japan and the USA. However, developers do not need
specialist development kits to develop for a Windows or Apple personal computer given that they are based on
common standards and open architecture. In addition, developers do not have to pay a licence fee to a hardware
manufacturer. These facts are reflected in a cheaper retail price than console games. The downside of this
openness is that there are a greater number of games competing for shelf space and sales. Segment 3 is strongly
vertically integrated and a small number of large companies control development, publishing and distribution.
However, the underlying technologies are open platform, as in segment 2, and currently based on PC and
Internet common standards. Developing a persistent world requires significant investment not only in initial
development but also in ongoing costs including maintenance, expansions and customer/community support.
The final segment, segment 4, covers the development of mini or casual games for platforms like i-TV, mobile
phones, PDAs and the Internet. This sector is embryonic but in general is characterized by shorter development
cycles and lower production costs than other segments. There are numerous players and a mixture of open and
proprietary technologies. There are also many revenue models: payper-download, pay-per-play, and advertising
(Kerr, 2006, pp. 48-49).
Ben Sawyer of Digitalmill observes that the game industry value chain is made up of six connected and
distinctive layers (Flew, Humphreys, 2005, pp. 101-114):
1. Capital and publishing layer involved in paying for development of new titles and seeking returns
through licensing of the titles.
2. Product and talent layer includes developers, designers and artists, who may be working under
individual contracts or as part of in-house development teams.
3. Production and tools layer generates content production tools, game development middleware,
customizable game engines, and production management tools.
4. Distribution layer or the publishing industry, involved in generating and marketing catalogs of games
for retail and online distribution.
5. Hardware (or Virtual Machine or Software Platform) layer or the providers of the underlying platform,
which may be console-based, accessed through online media, or accessed through mobile devices such as the
iPhone. This layer now includes non-hardware platforms such as virtual machines (e.g., Java or Flash), or
software platforms such as browsers or even further Facebook, etc.
6. End-users layer or the users/players of the games.
Digital games have brought computer forms such as simulation, artificial intelligence and interactivity into
homes through popular entertainment. They are virtual reality and cyberspace in the here-and-now and the
94
everyday. Colliding with established media forms and cultural economies they have generated new forms, new
modes of consumption, muddying commonly accepted boundaries between media consumers and producers,
between the subjects and objects of new media. The study of digital games illuminates not only the specific forms,
practices and cybernetic pleasures of digital game play, but also offers a unique insight into the nature of
contemporary media culture and subjectivity more generally, asking profound questions about the material, political
and libidinal relationships between the human and the technological (Giddings & Kennedy, 2006, p. 145) .
Methodology
According to Watkins, young men have consistently been among the early adopters, explorers, and users
of new communication technologies (Watkins, 2009, p. 105). Mentioning about his research on digital game
habits of youngsters, Watkins states that when we sit and talk with young people today about media and
communication technology and a fascinating generational ethos comes into clear view: the idea that they are
not simply consumers of media but also creators and participants in media. Peter, a 21 years old college student,
described games this way: It is more than just sitting in front of a screen just having stuff thrown at you. You
are interacting in a story (Watkins, 2009, p. 106). This description from a youngster is important for us too. It
shows the level of interactivity reached by digital games, which cannot be reached by any other media such as
TV or cinema.
Digital game environments allow users to gather ideas by allowing them to gain virtual experiences as
opposed to real life events. Due to their rich visual content, digital games have the characteristic to shorten the
learning period of individuals. Digital games offer users fantasy worlds where they can lose themselves in
different identities. This way, through modeling, users are able to free themselves.Alongside surveys, the
study will also make use of literary sources. In this research we began studying young peoples digital game
media behaviors up close. Turkish students are the universe of the study. The data collection method is through
conducting survey.
Our survey was organized into four parts. The first section of the survey, Part One, collected some basic
personal demographic data. Part Two, General Media, asked young people questions related to which media
they own, use, and spend the most time with. Part Three of the survey addressed the New Media with a
particular focus on how often they use the Internet, the range of activities and experiences they seek out on the
Web, and degrees of happiness and satisfaction with their web-based experiences. A subset of questionson
frequency of use, intensity of use, and attitude; focused specifically on social-network sites. Digital Games
Media was the central focus of Part Four. The questions in this section addressed how young peoples
consumption of game was evolving in the age of digital downloads, consoles, and tools that make
movement-sensing easy. Data collection is selected from Marmara University, 400 students and all details
collected between March and April 2011 to do this survey. The answers to the questions in the survey have
been transferred to a Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) environment, where descriptive and
inferential analyses will lead us to understand the habits of play in digital games in Turkey.
Findings
In this study which focuses on digital games, the data have been gathered through the survey method. The
demographic data (gender, age, education and income level) and data acquired through the survey have been
collected from the students who are the respondents of the study.Four hundred students have been directed
95
questions through the survey portal of Marmara University. The survey consists of 14 closed end questions.
Two of the questions are about the demographic features and the other two are about playing conditions and the
remaining ten are about digital game playing habits. The last ten questions have been prepared according to the
likert scale (ordinal scale). Likert scale is about to measure persons approach to evaluate their adhere level to a
sentence. They can answer as entirely agree or disagree.
Data have been collected from 400 students based on the survey method by means of internet environment.
The male and female students are 65% (260 students) and 35% (140 students) respectively.
Table 1
Distribution According to Gender
Gender
Frequency
Percentage
Female
140
35
Male
260
65
Total
400
100
Table 2
Distribution According to Ages
Group of ages
Frequency
Percentage
13-18
3
0.75
19-24
302
75.5
25-30
68
17
31-36
25
6.25
37-uper
2
0.5
Total
400
100
Distribution questions have been directed to the participants of five different age groups. Distribution is
measured for the age groups 13-18, 19-24, 25-30, 31-36 and 37-over. The participation rate of those in the
19-24 age group is higher than the others with 75.5%. It is observed that the participation rate of the age group
37-over is the lowest (Table 2) .
Table 3
Distribution According to Playing Digital Games
Play
343
85.75
Frequency
Percentage
Not play
57
14.25
Total
400
100
Almost 86% of the participants play digital games (Table 3). The platform where the participants play
digital games vary. 41.75% of the participants play digital games on mobile, 23.25 % play on computer and
19.5% play on console platforms (Table 4).
Table 4
Distribution According to Platforms of Playing Digital Games
Platforms
Frequency
Percentage
Computer
93
23.25
Video
24
6
Console
78
19.5
Mobile
167
41.75
Tablet
34
8.5
Other
4
1
Total
400
100
Other questions are intended for learning the other users digital game playing habits. Five point likert
scale is used in respect to the questions below for learning digital game playing habits. The results derived from
these questions are given in Table 5.
Cronbach alfa () coefficient is calculated to test the reliability of the scales. The lower value of Cronbach
coefficient (close to 0), which is the most common reliability method, has shown that the variables are not
96
reliable. A general review of the Cronbach alpha value of the 10 questions which are directed to the users
according to the five point likert scale presents alpha coefficient of 0.820.
Table 5
Distribution of Assessment the Game Playing Habits of Younsters
Strongly
disagree
f
%
Playing digital games is a waste of time.
Playing digital games is a leisure activity.
I feel relieved while playing a digital game.
I learn a lot while playing a digital game.
Digital games provide interaction.
Digital games take me to a different
environment.
Digital games have virtual applications.
Digital games are integral part of my life.
I spend a lot of time playing digital games.
I express myself with digital games.
Disagree
f
Neither agree
nor disagree
f
%
Agree
f
Strongly
disagree
f
%
120
118
21
31
20
30
29.5
5.25
7.75
5
184
82
58
66
44
46
20.5
14.5
16.5
11
68
21
78
187
154
17
5.25
19.5
46.75
38.5
18
73
103
68
94
4.5
18.25
25.75
17
23.5
10
106
140
48
88
2.5
26.5
35
12
22
65
16.25
23
5.75
172
43
67
16.75
73
18.25
40
179
11
97
10
44.75
2.75
24.25
25
127
18
108
6.25
31.75
4.5
27
30
48
74
120
7.5
12
18.5
30
103
23
174
35
25.75
5.75
43.5
8.75
202
23
123
40
50.5
5.75
30.75
10
The majority of the participants (76%) believe that playing digital games is not a waste of time. They were
undecided about considering the digital games as a leisure activity and they gave uniform responses. Almost
61% of the participants felt relaxed while playing digital games whereas 47% were indecisive about learning
with the digital games. Those participants who argue that digital games provide interaction are both involved
and not involved in different environments with digital games. The users who are aware of the virtual aspect of
the digital games consider the digital games as integral part of their lives (76%). 74% of the participants spend
a lot of time at digital games. In light of such data, the participants are aware that digital games are virtual and
they spend excessive time with them. However, digital games are of minor imporatance to their lives.
Conclusions
Interaction takes place at the centre of the digital games as a new communication media. As a result of
interaction (electiveness, variability, nonlinearity), users become the essential part of the game and guide the
games and thereby affect the result of the game. The environments of such games have their own rules. Within
this context, Huizingas Magic Circle Theory applies not only to traditional understanding but also to the digital
games. Magic Circle suggests that the users are drawn into different worlds with these games outside their real
worlds and they become a part of this simulation.
Users act in fictitiuos games and this fictitious activity spreads out widely every day. Users reenact the
characters in the games through modelling and a relation is established between the user and character. Users
assume any character they like in the fictious world through digital games. By this means purgation process
starts. However, social learning process is also realized as a reult of purgation. Social learning process enables
the users to get used to many applications which they practise easily in real life.
Digital games as new media advance interactively and effects masses. Therefore, it creates a dependency.
The young users who spend time in this limited game field seize the opportunity to express and satisfy
themselves interactively. Digital games are used as the most common instrument of todays environment as
leisure activity and they continue to be indispensable for the youth.
97
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November 2011, Vol. 1, No. 2, 98-105
How Cyberspace Age Shaped the Political Partys Identity

Gatut Priyowidodo
Petra Christian University (PCU), Surabaya, Indonesia
The objectives of this study are: first, to obtain a description that a political party website is an effective means of
communication to carry out socialization programs to members of the party or the partys virtual public; second, to
obtain a description that website is a useful means to give political education about peoples political rights; third,
to explore the implication of webs content for strengthening the political partys identity. The research approach
used was interpretive approach to qualitative-descriptive methods. Interpretive method emphasizes culture from the
perspective of social construction theory (Papa, Daniels, & Spiker, 2008). Data collection (Mann & Stewart, 2000)
conducted through site analysis of the People Justices Party (Parti Keadilan Rakyat) Malaysia website from
January 16 to March 31 2010. The findings of this study are the website is an effective means to disseminate
political partys program. Although, the virtual public or party members were preferring a direct face-to-face
interpersonal communication. The People Justices Party, Malaysia has 14 MPN (Majelis Pimpinan
Negeri/Regional Board) in the state-level. Regarding the political atmosphere in Malaysia, the website was an
efficient tool. The costs required were very cheap. Second, the presence of party website opened a space for
providing political education to more people. Third, the public responses stimulated improvement and
strengthening the political partys identity.
Keywords: political rights, organization, identity, cyberspace
Introduction
Stephen Lax (2004) in his article The Internet and Democracy, he started with statement that ICT
(Information Communication and Technology)s enable novel, democratic practices to take place: People can
use the internet to access government document or to visit campaigning organizations, group of people can
engage in discussions through email networks. But to draw the conclusion that this means society at large will
become more democratic is questionable.
The opinion of Lax is correct. Although penetration of world-level internet use now (2009) reaches 26.6%
and even 76.2% in North America, the countries located in such region are not automatically more democratic.
We can not justify that Asia is more democratic than countries of North America although Asias internet users
reached 764.4 millions at growth rate 568.8% compared to North America with growth rate only 140.1% for
nine years.
I would like to acknowledge the support provided by Ms Ary Noerhayati, Langga Populinanda and Grace Pangentasan, as
inspiring persons to this research. I thank all informants for their supporting and cooperation. And I also thank some participants
who give useful comments and enthusiasm to share their perspective on the AMIC conference in Singapore. Finally, thanks for all
collegians in Communication Department Petra Christian University, Surabaya.
Gatut Priyowidodo, associate professor (Lektor Kepala), Department of Communication Studies, Faculty of Communication
Science, Petra Christian University, Surabaya, Indonesia.
HOW CYBERSPACE AGE SHAPED THE POLITICAL PARTYS IDENTITY
99
Based on above fact, individual, institution, organization, or even state has equal opportunity to utilize
such facilities on information and technology improvement. Spill over of information can not be protected
anymore. Whoever, even without capital, can use and utilize any sources of information. Political parties are
not excepted. Political parties in current cyberspace era will, in fact, be left behind their electors if they do not
follow technological development.
Literature Review
Studies on organizational identity have been conducted by communication scholars or political scientists
(Cheung, 2004; Roper, 2005). However, that through organizational identity then forms citizens awareness and
political engagement (ONeill, 2010) or political knowledge (Albright, 2009), further exploration may be
required. It is because having political knowledge will be able to determine someones political orientation and
political attitude (Zettler & Hilbig, 2010). However, political knowledge, orientation, and attitude even
behaviors will be results of intervention process. People with certain knowledge and then having orientation to
something is result of educational intervention or learning process. Education must not be formal but it can also
be obtained nonformally.
During current information technology (IT) or cyberspace era, so much information can be obtained not
only from conventional media (printed newspaper, radio, and television) but also various websites on virtual
world. Any information can be easily read and downloaded. However, freedom on accessing information
through internet will also depend so much on political system of a country. In China, for example, since the
spirit to make three major Golden ProjectsGolden Card, Golden Custom and Golden Taxsuccessful, any
information regarded as causing bad impacts coming from foreign countries will be censored by Chinese
government (Martinsons, Ng, Wong, & Yuen, 2005), meaning that information received by Chinese people
must be firstly censored by their government.
Internet, although it is as if wild forest or jungle, still needs rules of game. Political system or ruling
regime, by any reason whatsoever, should not emphasize their citizens so much to obtain freedom on
information (Park, 2009). It is what to do by politicians of Malaysia. When the kingdom of Malaysia strictly
censored printed and electronic media, politicians from opposition parties still found a room for expressing
their political ideas and thoughts through webblog (Gong, 2009). On such repressive political system, web
media/internet was an alternative tool for politicians or political parties to socialize their ideas, programs, even
for political campaigns.
According to Gauntlet (2004) there are five main issues if we discuss web. First, the Web allows people to
express themselves. The Webs offers people an opportunity to produce creative, expressive media products (or
texts, or art works, if you prefer) and display them to a global audience. Second, the Web brings people
together, building communities. Now, regardless of where they are in the world, people with similar interest, or
with similar backgrounds, or with similar attitudes, can joint communities of like minded people, and share
views, exchange information, and build relationships. Third, anonymity and identity play in cyberspace. Since
the early days of the internet there have been bulletin boards and chat spaces where users can interact online
and, today, many websites include chat or discussion rooms where visitors can interact in real time. Fourth, the
Web and big business. Nowadays, the bigger panic run in the opposite direction-big businesses are scared that
the internet will ruin them. Fifth, the Web is changing politics and international relation. Here, according to
Gauntlet, the internet has the potential to create links between people and groups with shared political
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interests-and for them to promote their ideas to others. By increasing access to information or propaganda, it is
thought that the internet may bring about a greater engagement and interaction between the individual and
larger political processes.
At point five, it is clearly mentioned that web is media for interaction. It is why useful or useless
interaction will be determined by media contents. Media is a tool describing an organization. Media is also
identity of organization. It means that people may get knowledge on any organization through the media. If the
media has good performance, peoples perception on the organization is expected to be positive. It is why
media can also be called identity construction (Cheung, 2004) or organizational identities (Roper, 2005).
This study will focus on the use of political parties webs as a tool for strengthening political parties
organizational identity and strengthening political rights of the people/citizens. Categories by Melewar and
Jenskin (2000) are borrowed as approach for describing implementation of organizational identitys
strengthening including five sub-constructs of communication and visual identity; behavior; corporate culture;
market conditions; firm, product and services.
Of course, by considering limitation, the researcher will only observe one of the five components, namely
communication and visual identity. It is assumed that that one component is sufficient to represent how
organizational identitys strengthening construction is conducted. For further study, we can develop it by
exploring four other components. Selected website is www.keadilanrakyat.org owned by Peoples Justice Party
(PKR) claiming itself as one of three Pakatan Rakyat members. The study focuses on function and use of
media towards organizational identitys strengthening and peoples political rights.
Methodology
Research approach used was interpretive approach to qualitative-descriptive methods (Papa, Daniels, &
Spiker, 2008). Data collection conducted in the website of the People Justices Party (Parti Keadilan Rakyat)
Malaysia from January 16 to Marc 31, 2010. Data analyses have been done through site analysis (Mann &
Stewart, 2000) especially for political news on PKR website.
Finding and Discussion

Political Party Websites as Media for Program Socialization
Malaysia is one of many Asian countries experiencing very rapid democratic transitions (Friedman &
Wang, 2008; Ufen, 2009). Political transformation created many opportunities as well as new challenges
demanding solutions for democratization problems immediately. It is what experienced since 1998 when
reform era was opened in this country. Reformation wave is like sea wave rolling over sand on the beach.
It is correct that as a democratic-monarchy country, political life of Malaysia has been sufficiently
managed. Existence of political parties consists of the ruling party and the opposition party. The ruling
party is always dominated by UMNO (The United Malays National Organization) from the first time of its
establishment in 1946. Far before Malaysia was established as country in 1957. In 1951, when Malaysian
Islamic scholars (ulama) had different political ways from UMNO, they established their own political party
named PAS (Parti Islam Se-Malaysia (Islamic Party of Malaysia). General Election (Pilihan Raya UmumPRU
I) was held in 1955 when Malay or Malaysia was still under the British control.
It means that the history of Malaysian politics had been started from political differences supporting them
to be on their own choices. UMNO supported by majority of Malay people reaching more than 50% or PAS
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with Islamic ideology that was also supported by majority of Islamic Malay people. Perceiving to be
unrepresented in existing political organization, Indian ethnics then established MIC(Malaysian Indian
Congress) and the Chinese people established MCA( Malaysian Chinese Association)
Due to its persistence and non-compromise attitude, PAS became a party always in contradictory to
UMNO supported by MIC, MCA and many other political parties in one group named Barisan Nasional
coalition. As an opposition party, PAS only got an ally when Chinese ethnics those did not join MCA
established DAP (Democratic Action Party) in 1965. In general election of 1969, DAP that participated for the
first time in general election got 13 seats of parliament and 31 Dewan Undangan Negeri or 11.9 % votes.
Reform movement of Malaysia in 1998 had brought political changes again. If for more than 40 years,
PAS and DAP had struggled on opposition group (Ujen, 2009), their power was again added with that of Parti
Keadilan Rakyat as a merger of two parties, namely Parti Keadilan Nasional and Partai Rakyat Malaysia. Partai
Keadilan Rakyat (Peoples Justice Party) that was officially established on April 4, 1999 is a party claiming
itself as open and multi-racial political party.
In fact, the existence of many political parties benefits people. People will have many choices to channel
their political aspirations. However, in other party, the ruling party will feel worried and fearful since supports
provided to it will reduce. People will elect political party regarded as relevant and following their aspirations.
On that context, the ruling party will attempt special strategies for continuously defending its power. One
of its strategies is defending ISA (Internal Security Act). It is a rule that had been used as basis for imprisoning
Anwar Ibrahim 30 years ago in 1974 during the administration of PM (Prime Minister) Tun Hussein Onn when
Anwar was struggling the fate of poor people in Baling and Sik (Musa, 1993). Second, the media was strongly
controlled by State (Gong, 2009; Freedom House, 2010)
Such controlled media was actually a big challenge for political party. Wherever they are, political parties
always need media for their communication and socialization tools. If they do not have this tool, political
partys struggles, of course, are not easy. Therefore, in this information and technology era, political parties
have also to be creative in creating online media. Website becomes vital instrument for communication and
socialization of partys programs. Special for Malaysia, a country with its internet user penetration reaching
65.7% of total population 25.7 million people (2009), internet is not a luxurious matter.
It is such opportunity that is optimally taken by PKR as communication media. Conventionally, PKR also
published Suara Keadilan newspaper twice a week. However, due to its limited circulation, not all people can
access information of this political partys activities and programs. Then, PKRs website becomes
communication tool possible to explore whole region of Malaysia without any border. It means that
constituents of this political party can freely access anything conducted by this party. Consequently, of course,
partys page appearance must stimulate visitors to continuously get information from it.
Considering the home page of www.keadilanrakyat.com, any visitor will be invited to learn whole
contents of this political organization. Partys identity is presented along with all supporting organizations or
wing organizations, officers in all areas as well as their activities. Just like appearance of this website:
Utama-Kalender, Keadilan-Pusat Media, Pakatan Rakyat-Sertai Kami, Berita-Hubungi Kami, Isu-RSS,Blog.
Of course, this website is mainly aimed at creating formal socialization and communication media. It is
clearly found in the prakata (preface) of home website that this partys website is a tool for partys
communication and information media.
This choice is relatively easier to do than printed media that must involve many components. However,
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political party must also be aware that influence and level of documentation for online media is not as strong as
printed media. It is the reason why other than using online media, the Peoples Justice Party also published a
newspaper named Suara Keadilan twice a week. However, according to an informant, this newspaper is only
distributed in any area where many members of party live. This fact also shows that political partys media,
especially that owned by opposition party of PAS with Harakhiah daily, PKR with Suara Keadilan and DAP
with its Roket must carefully pay attention to its reader segments. Printed media of the three political parties
joined in alliance Pakatan Rakyat can be freely bought in five areas where Pakatan Rakyat rule the region,
namely Pulau Pinang, Kelantan, Kedah, Selangor, and Perak. It also applies in other big cities but at limited
edition. However, Perak (2010) was no more ruled by Pakatan Rakyat but by the kingdom and had been taken
over by Barisan Nasional (BN).
Of course, such limitation is not found in online media. Socialization through online media is like a
highway. It is the strategic method conducted by PKR in examining very strict media control. Here, political
party provides any information related to party and its members freely.
Media for Peoples Political Education
Socialization function means delivering messages. Members of political party spread all over states
(Negeri) are expected to understand contents of the messages. The most protruding issue in JanuaryMarch
2010 reports were related to Anwar Ibrahim and members leaving the party. These two issues actually
dominated. There are two issue categories successfully collected to facilitate data analysis, namely political and
legal categories. Special for political category, it is divided into international politics where Anwar case got
serious attention from international parties and domestic internal political cases. It is interesting that domestic
political issues reached 45.45%.
It means that almost half of total reports publicized in www.keadilanrakyat.org are preparation for Pilihan
Raya Kecil 13 (Local General Election) that will be held on April 25, 2010. It also contained strong response to
General Election Committee (Suruhanjaya Pilihan Raya) to keep the confidentiality of voters. It was exclaimed
by PKR since there was possibility that employees of hospital, airline, nurse, and journalist would be prioritized.
For election via post, confidentiality is not guaranteed. It was also a confirmation for the position that through
partys website, PKR invited all party members to support General Election Committee to do such matter in
making precise and wise decisions so that the people would respect them.
Other political education provided via website (March 8, 2010) included calls of three leaders of Pakatan
Rakyat, YB Dato Seri Anwar Ibrahim (General Chairman of Keadilan), YB Salahuddin Ayub (Vice President,
PAS), and YAB Lim Guan Eng (General Secretary, DAP), that policy was fair to issue permits for political
speeches. It is regretted that issued permits were annulled. If the problem was not solved, the three
representatives would lodge a complaint to International Human Rights Council, European Union Human
Rights Council, and ASEAN.
Position of the parties was clear towards members of parliament from PKR intentionally jumping to party
and being supporters of other party. They were marked as disobedient in executing the parties mandates.
Moreover, when leaving his party, YB Mohsin Fadzli Samsuri, a member of the Parliament Bagan Serai (Perak)
did not discuss his reasons of leaving his party. The leaders of the PKR would take any measures to punish a
member of the parliament who is suspected to commit some actions, such as 1) Disobedient to the mandate of
the partys leadership, 2) Ignoring the principles of struggles 3) Betraying the mandates of the voters and
103
people of the Parliament Bagan Serai, 4) Neglecting the peoples interests, 5) Ignoring the PKR self identity by
flattering the UMNO/BN (Barisan Nasionl) (Berita, March 6, 2010).
Such action of leaving the party, in fact, followed the actions taken by the MP Bayan Baru, Zahrain
Hashim and MP Nibong Tebal, Tan Bee Beng, whose actually have been designed by Barisan Nasional (BN)
to prevent peoples will for joining PKR and destroying PKR (Press release, March 4, 2010). However, leaders
of PKR still convincing its members that although such incident has occurred, the people of Malaysia will still
trust and vote for PKR in the next 2013 general election.
Such online media, according to the informants direct information, is a proper tool for providing political
enlightenment, especially for them with good educational level. However, for those living in villages, speech,
or collective activity programs are more suitable.
Implication for Strengthening of Organizations Identity
It is undeniable that there are many methods for strengthening organizational identity. But, observing
penetration of internet users in Malaysia reaching more than 60%, the party valued such opportunity has
sufficient prospect to use. Visualization of partys activities and programs through website is much more
attractive than that through pamphlets. It is because that also measures partys capacity and competence. In
several states (Negeri) having been ruled by Pakatan Rakyat, they have their own television stations. For
example, Selangor has TV Selangor and TV Antara. But, of course, their coverage do not as good as main
media owned by kingdom administration or Barisan Nasional like TV3, TV1, RTM, and a number of popular
printed media like Utusan, Berita Harian, and the Star.
Legal issue currently faced by Anwar Ibrahim also implicated on strengthening organizational identity
although a number of informants the researcher interviewed thought it was not so significant. It had been
proven by execution of PRK (Pilihan Raya Kecil/Local General Election) 13 in Hulu Selangor. Although
Anwar Ibrahim case was continuously reported, in fact, during PRK 13 held on last April 25, 2010, candidate
from Partai Keadilan Rakyat Dato Zaid Ibrahim was defeated, but based on total votes, there voters increased
(175 votes) compared to that of 2008. The winner was P. Kamalanathan (Barisan Nasional-MIC) with
difference 1,725 votes.
Legal news category and international support for Anwar Ibrahim case are respectively (27.27%). It means
that there is sufficiently great attention within the last three months. Supports got from Paul Marthin, former of
Prime Misnister Canada, Senate Foreign Relations Committee Chairman John Kerry (USA) and also 50
members of Australian parliament also proved that Anwar case was not domestic issue but being concern of
other Countries.
Of course, for strengthening organizational identity, high supports of International world and publication
via partys website are very valuable. At least, all members of the party have new concept that their partys
leaders have network in international forum. In addition, if we quoted opinion of Paul Marthin, the former
Prime Minister of Canada on his article that was published in Canadas the Globe and Mail on Thursday, 25
February 2010 he clearly said:
The presence of so many foreign embassies attending Mr. Anwar's show trial is a clear expression of international
concern. This is an issue on which the world must speak out. If his country is to take its place among the progressive
nations of the world, it is crucial that the politically motivated charge against Mr. Anwar be dropped and that he be free to
pursue his vision of a democratic Malaysia, properly respectful of human rights and international law.
104
Description on abovementioned facts becomes real evidence that online media, especially for political
party, is a communication and transformation tool relatively easy to be done. Some supportings of the
international community given to PKR will be difficult publicized through the media possessed by the
government. Of course, the reason is the publishing of simpathy and moral supporting will reduce kingdoms
credibility before the people. No other choices, as oposition party, PKR must have innovation spirit to find new
relevant methods in the cyberspace era. If they are too conservative to response IT advance, it can be ensured
that political partys organization will be left by its constituents.
Conclusion and Limitation of the Study

Conclusions of this study cover three points. (1) That political partys website is an alternative
communication media that is very prospective to develop in the atmosphere of strictly controlled media
freedom. Political party must be brave to make improvisation on media so that principles of struggle, partys
programs, and any partys agenda can be accepted by the people and conducted by people. (2) Partys website
is also a media for political party to conduct political education. There are no spatial and area limits so that each
member of party is possible to access information on political education. In turn, political knowledge of partys
members gets better so that awareness on political rights and responsibilities as citizens increases. (3) Increase
on awareness and access to information create opportunities to strengthen organizational identity. Members are
aware that correct information on their organization is partys media and not from other sources.
Limitation of this study only focused on one political party website. For comparative studies should be
done with the other opposition parties websites such as PAS and DAP or the ruling partys website.
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Individual Differences, 48(3), 338-342.

November 2011, Vol. 1, No. 2, 106-114
Television Sports News Between Performance, Violence and

Spectacle
Bianca Marina Mitu
University of Bucharest, Romania

Visiting Scholar University of Westminster, London
The purpose of this paper is to analyze todays construction of sports news, and to see the way that media present
the live sports events and how do live sports events become global breaking news. We started with the theoretical
background and we analyzed the audiences of the TV channels dedicated to sports. Media and violence is a
well-known subject, and many theorists have analysed it but little research has been conducted about the effects
that violence in sport news may have on people or society. Therefore, the aim of this study is to provide insights
into these effects, to try to demonstrate that todays sports news does not focus on performance any more, but they
have become a spectacle of violence and gossip. After reviewing the literature in order to gain a perspective on this
topic, we focused on the complex reconstructive and subjective nature of news reception, the different ways the
audience constructs meaningful interpretations from the news, exposure to news and the construction of violent
images of reality.
Keywords: violence, sports news, television, society, mega-events
Introduction
Todays television privileges the events with the strongest impact on viewers sensibility. Sports news
concentrate mainly on the types of sport that people prefer, or have played sometimes at school, or high-school.
Maybe that is why the main sport in Europe is football and the main sport in the USA is basketball. Analyzing
the TV channels dedicated to sport, we can notice that football is the main topic of sports news in Europe. But
besides the football match, we also enjoy many interviews with players and other personalities, conflicts
between players, commercials with players, and so on. The purpose of this paper is to analyze todays
construction of sports news, and to see the way that media emphasis the live sports events, and how do live
sports events become violent breaking news.
Assumption
Contemporary society is characterized by a considerable development of the media. News is becoming an
element of spectacle that has to attract, to shock the viewers. The main content of the news is not the sport itself,
but the show. Over the last 20 years, many changes in the playing of sports have been implemented to make
them a more marketable commodity for television. Television and, significantly, the financial support it can
Bianca Marina Mitu, visiting scholar, Ph. D., teaching assistant, School of Media, Arts and Design, University of Westminster,
UK.
TELEVISION SPORTS NEWS
107
offer have become so important to professional sports that they have molded, adapted, and changed their rules
in order to meet the desires and needs of television. Similarly, television has become dependent upon sports to
fulfill many of its programming needs.
Taking into consideration that the sports news are becoming a constant presence of our lives, our purpose
is to demonstrate that, fighting for rating, the TV sports news is becoming a spectacle of violence and gossip
that might generate negative effects for audiences or society. Basing on this assumption, we analyzed the main
Romanian TV sports news audiences between 2006-2008 and 2010.
Television and the Need for News

Media system evolution over time has caused major changes to both individual and society wide. When
important events are broadcasted (such as results of elections, or the Olympics), the television news is preferred
by the viewers, exceeding the radio or printed press.
The need for news is also an artificial need, constructed, acquired through socialization. The need for news
would reflect not so much the need to be informed, as the need for communication, the need to be informed
through communication. People try to maximize the relevance of the information they process, the co-text is
best considered as a set of more or less precise evidence or clues pointing to contextual factors (Sperber &
Wilson, 1995, p. 134).
Differences in interpretive complexity should be related to the subject matter reported in the news.
Viewers tend to ignore parts of the news, therefore, interpretations of the same reports news differ greatly in
complexity. Knowledge is interconnected while interpreting the news (Mitu, 2010, p.132). Most analysts who
dedicated their studies to news theory seem to favor either an informational modle or a cultural one, some of
them have a critical perspective, and others praise the media, but all of them seem to agree, when it comes to
the essential role of news, news is an accessible form of public knowledge.
The sports news is becoming the main subject of the global public discussions, because, as Thussu also
asserts, Live coverage of a prestigious football league match is a much a media event in Cameroon as it is in
the Czech Republic (2006, p. 115). A major factor in the expansion of satellite and cable television
internationally has been televisions unique ability to transmit live sports events. As a genre, sports news
contributes to the growth of global social life. People discuss the reactions, the actions of the players, and so on.
Todays television sports materials include not only the live transmission of sports events, but also discussions
among experts and former players during breaks, so that the people can feel included in an assessment of the
action from the playground. Live sports materials are built to invite the viewer to get involved, to become a
social person, and they encourage the people to practice a sport or to discuss about sports events that they see
every day on sports news.
Watching TV is passive and relatively private, while playing a sport is active and public. Sports
mega-events are able to make the traditional journalistic objectivity disappear, the distance between the
journalist and the event usually fades, and the journalistic discourse becomes affective. Therefore the
journalistic discourse of the reporters makes people enjoy the action as if they were active participants to the
public action, they live the event through the eyes of the television and they are made to think that they can
participate in expert evaluation of what players do, or they share feelings of satisfaction or disappointment with
the athletes.
108
Live Sports NewsSpectacle or Violence?

We encounter violence everywhere, everyday, in the family, on the streets, at school, so on, but mostly on
television news. Sports journalism is a specialized form of journalistic writing as it is fragmented into several
smaller sections. Being aware of recent developments, sports journalism is a full-time job. Few journalists are
able to choose the sports and the events they have to write about. Writing about sports means more than
covering the important events, means to know how to appreciate and present performance. Principles of sports
journalism are actually the same as for general journalism: objectivity, impartiality, fairness, and speed. Of
course that sports materials have a unique style, appropriate language, but this does not mean that sports
journalism is just for athletes, it must be written on the benefit of all people. The quality of the sports
journalists as part of a television channel is a significant factor in maintaining market share in a competitive
market. Standards drafting sports sections have increased considerably in recent years therefore sports media
today is considered the best form of journalism.
Researchers have designed numerous studies to understand violence in the media. Some researchers have
concentrated on showing a direct link between incidents of violence in media and in real life, other have
concentrated on denying the connection between media violence and real life and many of them consider that
media researchers have exaggerated the effects of media and violence (Ferguson & Kilburn, 2009; Freedman,
2002; Pinker, 2002).
In the last decades, with the transformation of wars from the weapons confrontations into confrontations of
influence and financial interests, sports arenas began to be the place where the people need to unleash violence.
Battlefields have moved to stadiums, and stadiums have moved on the TV small screens. And because todays
world is increasingly becoming a world of symbols, the old battles with the enemy from the real battlefields
were brought into the sports and thus into the media programs dealing with sports. The public of such events
acquired attributes of army, commando, gang, or squad, which survives only in action. And the action can only
be violent, because nobody willingly leaves defeated from the playground. Violence is becoming increasingly
desirable as a means to solve problems and interests or to gain respect. People are acting violent on behalf of
the teams that they support, forgetting that sport is afterall just a game. Numerous examples of violence in
professional sports exist today, in countries like the United States, England, Canada, Spain, Greece, Italy,
Romania and Germany.
Sports violence can be defined as a behavior which causes harm, occurs outside of the rules of the sport,
and is unrelated to the competitive objectives of the sport (Terry & Jackson, 1985, pp. 27-37). Leonard
identifies two forms of aggression in sports. Instrumental aggression which is non-emotional and task-oriented
and reactive aggression with an underlying emotional component and harm as its goal. Violence is therefore an
outcome of reactive aggression (Leonard, 1988, p. 165).
John Schneider states that the reason for violence in sports is due to six theories. The violence in sport
mirrors the violence found in society, violence as the result of economic incentives, the influence of crowd
actions on player violence, genetic causation for player aggression, learning theory and player aggression, and
psychological stress and player violence (Lapchick, 1986, p. 230).
The aggressive language is also present in every sports competition. It is common for todays sports TV
reports to contain metaphorical language that glorifies and promotes violence and conflict language that
enthusiasts usually enjoy because its exciting and funny. Sports football teams are often marketed through
109
aggressive logos depicting ferocious animals that not only identify teams, but tap into or create the audiences
interest for more and more violence. Most of the time, the aggressive language becomes an important
journalistic subject, it even blurs the performance or the sport event itself. We cannot ignore the linguistic
analysis of the aggressive forms of language. The violence of language is less explored from linguistic
perspectives. The linguistic researches prefer to bypass the issues of violent conflict and communication as
Windisch also states, In linguistics, the conflict is often ignored, deleted (1986, p. 17). Most of the times, the
language is considered the first step towards violence. Sometimes the curses are followed by violent fights
between fans. Unfortunately the language and the aggressive actions are increased by media who enjoys major
subjects at any price.
The acceptance of violent acts seems to be based on the idea that sports is an area of life in which it is
legal to suspend usual moral standards or rules. Through graphic visual and sound images provided by todays
television, people see and hear violent logos and aggressive counter exchange every day. Television has the
power to increase audience excitement and entertainment by focusing on violent elements in sports. Such
images and language can be a powerful influence on those who experience them, and may be easily imitated by
adults and children.
Currently, athletes are some of the most well-known and well-paid people on the planet. They are always
hunted by the media. People want to read and hear about them. Taking into consideration that sports and sports
media appeal to adults as well as children, people of all ages, the mediatization of violent actions can cause
serious damages in society. Cheering on a team is an activity that even very young children can enjoy together
with parents and friends. Sports media representations frequently focus on and promote violence and conflicts
that are inherent in some sports or, sometimes, in some cases, have been staged to increase audience appeal.
Therefore, young people might have a false representation of reality and perceive football games as a place
where anything is possible, where there are no boundaries and no ethics.
The violence in sport is dangerous also because the athletes are role models. But the sponsors and the
media often refuse to discourage the violence, because it attracts the viewers. Sometimes the players who do
not participate in the violent actions endanger their jobs. Therefore, while most occurrences of violence
emanate from players, others, including coaches, parents, fans, and the media, also contribute to what has been
described as violence in sports today. The striking factor and the danger of violence in sports is the fact that
sports have largely gone global. More and more sports events are broadcasted on television as it has become a
universal phenomenon. Sports should be a celebration that brings people together and allows them to relate to
one another. But because of the violent images and facts promoted by television, todays sports become a
theatre of violence and gossip. It is not sport itself that incite people to violence, but rather what people make or
seek to make of it.
Sports fan violence results from a series of intrapersonal, environmental, and social conditions. If potential
violence can be predicted, proactive steps may be taken in accordance with the presenting factors. Appropriate
proactive steps may include banning alcohol and increasing security between opposing fan groups. An
experimental design crossed scripted (vs. unscripted) sport with violence (vs. nonviolence) to investigate the
effects of both variables on violent outcomes and enjoyment. After viewing one of four clips, participants
responded to three incomplete story stems, and responses were coded to measure hostile expectancy bias as a
form of violent outcome.
110
Table 1
People Who Watched Violent Sport Clips
Age
18-34 years old
35-55 years old
Over 55 years old
Violent attitude/outcomes (%)

70
55
40
Enjoyment (%)
30
20
10
Table 2
People Who Watches Nonviolent Sport Clips
Age
18-34 years old
35-55 years old
Over 55 years old
Violent attitude/outcomes (%)

10
5
3
Enjoyment (%)
80
70
90
Analyses showed a main effect that consuming sports violence increased participants hostile expectancy
bias. Results suggest that violence in sports may be interpreted differently. We can also notice that the violent
attitude from sports clips had great impact on the young people rather than people over 55 years old.
As an international language, sport should be considered as a practical means to communicate messages of
peace and help, find nonviolent solutions to problems, but from our comparative study on the evolution of the
crime capitals of Eastern Europe (London, Paris, Prague, Budapest, Bucharest, Sofia, Moscow) we can notice
that of the 22 subjects investigated the main reasons presented for anxiety were: violence during sports
competitions, as well as crime organized, who occupy the first two places, at a rate of 75% and 70%, compared
to 55% degradation of social status, or the threat of war 57%, or 48% unemployment. Leonard states that the
media occupies a paradoxical position regarding violence in sport. On the one hand, it affords ample exposure
to sports-related violence via television, magazines, newspapers, and radio. On the other hand, the exposure
given to sports violence by the media has stimulated increased efforts to control and prevent such behavior
(Leonard, 1988, p. 166).
Sports TV News, New Technologies and Global Entertainment

The aim of todays sports news is not to inform the public but how to guide the people, to attract attention
on what is happening. News have the ability to capture public attention, news are particularly concerned about
what is unusual and unexpected. In a position of related forms, violent news, gossip, rumors, transmit signals
on environmental changes, orienting the individual in the real world and in relation to others. A news story is a
reality just as a rumor is a story of reality, not reality itself, but a transcript. News addresses a fundamental
human need, which is to always know what is happening in the environment. According to interpretations that
can be framed by the cultural determinism, the news is a relatively recent creation, a different particular form of
news, updates, announcements, messages broadcasted live. Printed word became an opponent of live
broadcasted events, as a support of news transmission because of the need to spread the news in large
geographical areas. The moment of consecration of the media as a system that controls information gathering,
processing and spreading them around is spotted by Melvin DeFleur and Sandra Ball-Rokeach in 1830.
Today, television increasingly informs us about how the world should be. Television creates an artificial
world between man and reality, leading over time to a loss of interest in reality. Sport is a major industry,
therefore, it is important to see what violence could do to the perception of sports and how violent can the sport
111
language become.
The show is interwoven in the fabric of everyday life, dominating leisure time, shaping peoples political
opinions and social behaviors and providing materials in which people build their own identity. Television, film
and other products of culture industries create patterns. New technologies such as satellite broadcasting allow
global audiences to access the television news and current affairs coverage, offering a new open and democratic
access to information. This openness to information, this movement without borders may have both positive
and negative effects. News focuses on isolated events, news do not seek to establish links between the events.
The reporter wants just to record the event. News currently handle the present, so they are a perishable
merchandise, the news just keep their character till they reach the audiences. So news is ephemeral and fleeting.
But, once published, once their significance is understood, the news become history. Even if the news present
an illusory world, they build a very real world for those who are watching. The news must be published, that
gives them character, weight, the authority and the credibility of a public document and maked them subjects of
the public discussions. Only the critical examination of the public is the one that differentiates between news,
gossip and rumor. The public is the one that empowers the TV news.
Technology has been the principal driver of globalization. The information technology, in particular, has
dramatically transformed our economic life. Technology has now created the possibility and even the
likelihood of a global culture. The Internet, fax machines, satellites, and cable TV are sweeping away cultural
boundaries. Therefore, the development of technology creates the image of the globe as a single place, the
generative frame of unity within which diversity can take place (Featherstone, 1990, p. 3). Global
entertainment companies shape the perceptions and dreams of ordinary citizens, wherever they live. This spread
of values, norms, and culture tends to promote Western ideals of capitalism. The current digital technology has
caused many changes in all areas of television. It depends only on the producers of culture, they have to choose
the future direction for these technologies and how these new technologies can be used and developed in a
better way for the society. The neo-television, i.e., keeping the viewer in front of the TV by any means, brings
two major changes in televisual device: a changing relationship with the model viewer and a new way of
structuring programming. We want humor at any price. Television is intended to inform and educate as well as
entertain. But lately television constantly sells us a forced humor. All the TV stars want to be funny, they
always wish to create a funny scenario for the public, or to present a funny situation every day. Much of the
content of television sports programming is now entertainment. We live in a world where the volume, diversity,
speed and free flow of information are basic indicators of development progress of a society. These factors
have come to express the economic performance of states, and their degree of democracy. TV appearance has
changed everything. For the first time in the history of mass communication, a channel broadcasting news just
like newspapers, but more quickly, can provide all types of show, from music to sports.
Television has become the main means of entertainment of modern society, the cheapest, most diverse,
most convenient, and most affordable. Television plays a crucial role in forming and reflecting public opinion,
connecting the world to individuals and reproducing the self-image of society. Television is an absorbing and
fascinating medium. The media has a strong social and cultural impact upon society. This is predicated upon
their ability to reach a wide audience with a strong and influential message. Television is fantastically
entertaining as McDonald also asserts Televisions sensational ability to capture our attention has reached the
point that it is the number one leisure time pursuit in much of developed world with people giving it increased
time with each passing year. The absorption that television commands clearly involves a withdrawal from
112
intimate social connectedness but this disruptiveness is not just limited to the home, it is clearly visible in
broader patterns of community vitality, or what has become known in western parlance as social capital
(2004, p. 71).
What gives the media power, what legitimizes it as a basic social institution is the credibility. Today the
entertainment has become more important than just information. The absence of a coherent vision of the world
leads to credibility and the easy acceptance of others ideas, which leads to the subculture. Understanding television
means remembering that the familiar is not necessarily the known, and must therefore first be made known.
Sports mega-events had an important contribution to the changing nature of radio and TV broadcasting in
recent years, they led to the decline of the authoritarian model, and to a linear process of tabloidization.
Developments in new technologies of mass communication, especially the development of satellite television,
have created unprecedented global audiences for events like the Olympics and the Federation Internationale de
Football Association (FIFA) World Cup. Innovation in television sports journalism is a question of developing
new TV formats, new dramaturgical solutions and aesthetics for the TV channels dedicated to sports. Therefore,
the broadcasting of live sports mega-events led to the expansion of new radio stations and television channels.
In turn, the television has raised many sports clubs and many footbal players. In some cases, the television
has even changed players equipment just to encourage excessive advertising logos. In other cases, the rules of
the game have changed. American football matches, for example, are played on small segments now, just to
comply with the television channels who need to insert commercials.
Finding that news is coming increasingly more and more closely to entertainment has become common in
the researchers speech that analyzes the mass/contemporary media, especially television. Historical research
shows that this feature of news has been discovered before television appearance. According to this
interpretation, the mixture of news and entertainment is inevitable, and it has influenced the news morphology.
Continuous pressure to publish, (which initially in the XVI-XVII centuries meant once a week, not 24 hours per
day as today) has led to this mix of news and entertainment. Sports news could not ignore this trend, and they
had to become a show in order to gain the attention.
To argue my conclusions above, I consider it appropriate to continue this paper with a study of the main
television channels in Romania, offered by the Sports Press Association in Romania. According to this study
almost all TV stations focus on gossip or scandal. However, this type of program is preferred by both
Romanian and European people. The study examines the way television station in Romania apportion their
main sports news in terms of show and gossip We selected the bulletins with the highest audiences. The
bulletins vary considerably in length, ranging from 15 minutes for PrimaTV to 30 minutes to ProTV.
Table 3
Sports News AudienceJanuary 1st - March 10th 2010
TV Channel
Viwers/Minute
TV Channel
Viewers/Minute
Pro TV
955.000
Sport.ro
150.000
Antena 1
571.000
GSP TV
104.000
TVR1
439.000
EuroSport
98.000
Prima TV
150.000
DigiSport
90.000
Kanal D
102.000
Note.Figures represent the average for the urban audience.
113
Looking at the total number of news items for all stations, a majority, 68%, deal with purely spectacle
issues, 25% of news items are international sports events, while 7 % of the TV news deal with the national
sports events.
Table 4
Total Number of News Items for all Stations
TV channels
Antena1
TVR1
PrimaTv
ProTv
EuroSport
KanalD
Violence/spectacle/gossip issues
68
57
67
70
37
57
International sports events

25
31
28
15
47
15
National sports events

9
11
14
10
40
13
The main evening bulletins gave far less coverage to news from the local, national sports events than to
either international sports events or gossip stories. At this moment in time, there are more reasons than ever for
people to be informed about events and attitudes around the world. Today, when there are more opportunities
for people to encounter news from around the world, people seem to prefer the show. Global entertainment
companies shape the perceptions and dreams of ordinary citizens, wherever they live. The man should be
encouraged to realize his national identity and the need to protect his national culture. As Tomlinsons suggests,
globalization might dispose us towards an ongoing dialogue within both ourselves and with far away cultural
others (Tomlinson, 1999, p. 195). Still when it comes to sports mega-events people prefer local TV channels.
Analysis of major TV audience in 2009 and 2011 also show the same preference for the spectacle, gossip
and sports as show. The TV shows structure show the peoples preferences: football, film, entertainment, news.
Table 5
Major TV Audience in 2009 and 2011
Football (%)
TV channel
62.2
ProTV
Antena 1
TVR1
PrimaTV
KanalD
54
42.2
24.8
18
Film (%)
37.2
34.3
22.5
22.4
20.4
Entertainment (%)
34.9
26.9
25.5
31.6
17.8
News (%)
41.7
25.4
19.2
23.3
17
Conclusions
Television, film and other products of culture industries create patterns. New technologies such as satellite
broadcasting allow global audiences to access the television news and current affairs coverage, offering a new
open and democratic access to information. This openness to information, this movement without borders may
have both positive and negative effects even when we reffer to sports news. TV sports news focuses on isolated
events, news do not seek to establish links between the events. The reporter wants just to record the event.
News currently handle the present, so they are a perishable merchandise, the news just keep their character till
they reach the audiences. Much of the content of television sports programming is now entertainment. We live
in a world where the volume, diversity, speed and free flow of information are basic indicators of development
progress of a society.
114
The TV entertainment is the primary means of humor for the modern society, the cheapest, most versatile,
most comfortable, and most affordable. Television entertains and amuses, it has the power to transform
everything into a show. Television should actively contribute to highlighting the old and new creations from
various fields of culture, and it should promote the value, the quality and originality, should bring people
together when watching sports. Television should be used to bring people closer to human values, performance
and culture. In the rush for ratings, cultural, educational and sports television broadcasts are totally ignored.
The sports news had become a show, emphasizing the emotional instead of the game and ignoring the real
performance. News is becoming an element of spectacle that has to attract, to shock the viewers. The main
content of the news is not the sport itself, but the show. Sports narrative consists today of a series of
confrontations between different discourses: those of athletes, football coaches, sports journalists. The narrative
processes, the construction of the discourse, the choice of image and sound fund participate in the construction
of some sensational sports news. The package matters. That is why the new trend of the TV channels dedicated
to sports is broadcasting the live sports events, because they are a show of verbal and visual impact, of how to
tell and to show a story with great impact on detail, increasing the size of emotional empathy of the people who
watch the show from home. With new technical developments, the emergency of information was pushed to a
new frontierthat of the mainstream coverage of live sports events. The viewer is proposed to be a part of the
emotional vibration caused by the event. From the comparative audience analysis, we can assert that the TV
sports news is becoming a live show and the people are enjoying the show, ignoring the real performance. The
TV Channels that develop an accurate style, such as Euro-Sport for example, are loosing the viewers interest.
Also, we can notice that people would rather watch the sports news on generalist TV channels rather than on
TV channels dedicated to sport. A first analysis of the main TV sports news bulletins shows that the number of
news stories that contain gossip or scandal subjects is far more than the national/international sports events
news. A great deal of further work needs to be undertaken to assess the role of television in the emergence of
violent sports news and its role in the society and more countries should be included in a future new study to
test the assumptions of this paper.
References
Featherstone, M. (1990). Global culture. Nationalism, globalization and modernity. London: Sage Publications.
Ferguson, C., & Kilburn, J. (2009). The public health risks of media violence: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Pediatrics.
154(5), 759-763. Available at http://www.tamiu.edu/~cferguson/MVJPED.pdf
Freedman, J. L. (2002). Media violence and its effect on aggression: Assessing the scientific evidence. Toronto: University of
Toronto Press.
Leonard, W. M. (1988). A sociological perspective of sport (3rd ed.). New York: Macmillan Publishing Company.
McDonald, R. (2004). Television, materialism and culture: An exploration of imported media and its implications for GNH.
Journal of Bhutan Studies, 11, 68-89.
Mitu, B. M. (2010). Media credibility and ethics in television news. Contemporary readings in law and social justice. New York:
Addleton Academic Publishers.
Pinker, S. (2002). The blank slate: The modern denial of human nature. New York: Penguin.
Sperber, D., & Wilson, D. (1995). Relevance: Communication and cognition. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Terry, P. C., & Jackson, J. J. (1985). The determinants and control of violence in sport. Quest, 37 (1), 27-37.
Thussu, D. K. (2006). International communication: Continuity and change. London: Hoddler Arnold.
Tomlinson, J. (1999). Globalization and culture. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Windisch, U. (1986). Le K-O verbal (K-O Verbal). La communication conflictuelle (The Conflict Communication). Lausanne:
LAge dHomme.

November 2011, Vol. 1, No. 2, 115-122
New Program Projects Selection for TV Companies

LIAO Sen-kuei
CHANG Kei-teng
National Taipei University of Technology, Taiwan
Kunming University of Science and Technology, China
DUAN Wan-chun
CHANG Kuei-lun
Kunming University of Science and Technology, China
Hsuan Chuang University, Taiwan
Selecting new program projects plays an important role for TV companies. Balanced scorecard (BSC) which links
financial and non-financial, tangible and intangible, inward and outward factors can provide an integrated
viewpoint for decision makers to select optimal new program projects. This study combines BSC with analytic
hierarchy process (AHP) to help Taiwanese TV company managers make better decisions in new program projects
selection. Moreover, the practical application of the proposed approach is generic and also suitable to be exploited
for Taiwanese TV companies.
Keywords: analytic hierarchy process, balanced scorecard, TV industry
Introduction
In order to survive in todays extremely competitive environment, enterprises need to create and maintain
competitive advantages. For enterprises, one determinant of maintaining competitive advantage is the ability to
develop and launch successful new products. Differentiation through new product development (NPD) is one of
the most effective ways to achieve success (WANG, 2009). Moreover, CHANG and Cho (2008) pointed out
that NPD was one of the key to get competitive advantage and maintain growth of the firm. Liao, Hsieh, and
HUANG (2008) also stated that NPD is vital for long-term performance and competitive advantages. However,
NPD is a risky process (Ozer, 2005). The vital issue in NPD is how to evaluate the future success of new
products (Balachandra, 1984; Benson, Sage, & Cook, 1993).
In Taiwanese TV industry, the product is its program. The rating would be influenced by programs. The
amount and fees of advertising obtained by TV companies would be affected by the rating. The TV companies
depend largely on advertising to maintain their operation. In other words, evaluating and selecting new program
projects plays an important role for TV companies.
Nevertheless, most of the evaluation approaches for NPD merely focus on the effect of financial benefit,
quality, and possible amount of potential customers and so on (Oh, Suh, Hong, & Hwang, 2009). The decision
makers need a comprehensive evaluation model for the future success of new program projects. Eilat, Golany
and Shtub (2008) use balanced scorecard (BSC) for research and development (R & D) projects evaluating. Oh
et al. (2009) utilize the concept of BSC to estimate the feasibility of a new telecom service. BSC proposed by
LIAO Sen-kuei, associate professor, Department of Business Management, National Taipei University of Technology, Taiwan.
CHANG Kei-teng, Ph. D. candidate, College of Management and Economics, Kunming University of Science and Technology,
China.
DUAN Wan-chun, professor and Ph. D. supervisor, College of Management and Economics, Kunming University of Science
and Technology, China.
CHANG Kuei-lun, assistant professor, Department of Mass Communication, Hsuan Chuang University, Taiwan.
116
NEW PROGRAM PROJECTS SELECTION FOR TV COMPANIES
Kaplan and Norton (1992) is widely applied to evaluate business performance. BSC links financial and
non-financial, tangible and intangible, inward and outward factors can provide an integrated viewpoint for
decision makers to evaluate the new program projects. Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) proposed by Saaty in
the 1970s, allows factors to be compared, with the importance of individual factors being relative to their effect
on the problem solution (Saaty, 1980). AHP has been widely applied for decision-making problems. We
combine BSC with AHP to help Taiwanese TV company managers make better decisions for new program
projects selection.
In this paper, we firstly present BSC. Next, AHP as selection tools is described. The proposed approach
within the context of selecting the optimal new program projects is shown in Section 4. The conclusion is given
in Section 5.
Financial
To succeed financially, how should we appear to
our shareholders?
Objectives
Measures
Targets
Initiatives
Customer
To achieve our vision, how should we appear to
our customers?
Objectives
Measures
Targets
Initiatives
Vision and
strategy
Internal business process

To satisfy our shareholders and customers,
what internal processing must we excel at?
Objectives
Measures
Targets
Initiatives
Learning and growth

To achieve our vision, how will we sustain our
ability to change and improve?
Objectives
Measures
Targets
Initiatives
Figure 1. The perspectives of BSC.
Balanced Scorecard (BSC)

BSC proposed by Kaplan and Norton (1992) is widely applied to evaluate business performance. BSC has
shown its suitability to support decision making in management (Bobillo, Delgado, Gmez-Romero, & Lpez,
2009). BSC is with the intent to keep score of a set of measures that maintain a balance between financial and
non-financial measures, between internal and external performance perspectives. Of the BSC four perspectives,
one is financial and the other three involve non-financial performance measurement indexes: customer, internal
business process and learning and growth. The financial perspective is about how the strategic action
contributes to the improvement of revenue. In customer perspective, customers are the source of business
117
profits. Hence, satisfying customer needs is the objective pursued by companies. The objective of internal
business process perspective is to satisfy shareholders and customers by excelling at business processes. The
goal of the last perspective, learning and growth, is to provide the infrastructure for achieving the objectives of
the other three perspectives and for creating long-term growth and improvement through systems, employees
and organizational procedures (Kaplan & Norton, 1996). Based on the concept of BSC and executives
opinions, we construct the hierarchy for evaluating the new program projects.
Method: Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP)

AHP, proposed by Saaty in the 1970s, is designed to structure a decision process in a scenario affected by
independent factors (Saaty, 1980). AHP allows factors to be compared, with the importance of individual
factors being relative to their effect on the problem solution. Priorities are established using pairwise
comparisons. The weight assigned to each perspective and criterion may be estimated from the data or
subjectively by decision makers. It would be desirable to measure the consistency of the decision makers
judgment. AHP provides a measure through the consistency ratio (C.R.) which is an indicator of the reliability
of the model. This ratio is designed in such a way that the values of the ratio exceeding 0.1 indicate inconsistent
judgment. AHP comprises four major steps (Saaty, 1980).
Step 1. Hierarchy construction and problem structuring
The problem should be clearly stated and construct the hierarchy structure. The hierarchy can be
determined by decision makers opinion via brainstorming or other appropriate methods such as literatures
reviewing.
Step 2. Determine the perspectives and criteria weights
A series of pairwise comparisons made by a committee of decision makers are made to establish the
relative importance of perspectives and criteria.
Step 3. Determine the composite weights of AHP
According to the weights of perspectives, criteria and alternatives with respect to criteria, the study can get
the composite weight of each alternative.
Step 4. Final decision making
We rank the alternative according to their priority weights.
Application
The sample company consists of a family of five major channels and own almost 980 staff. There are three
new program projects in the case study. The decision committee includes three managers. We depict AHP
selecting process as follows.
Step 1. Hierarchy construction and problem structuring
Reviewing literatures about BSC, we collect criteria for new program projects selection of Taiwanese TV
companies. The Likert 9 point scale questionnaires based on criteria of BSC are sent to 48 executives to obtain
the importance of criteria for selecting the new program projects. According to the geometric mean values, we
choose top four criteria under each perspective to structure the hierarchy for new program projects selecting, as
shown in Figure 2.
Step 2. Determine the perspectives and criteria weights
A series of pairwise comparisons made by a decision committee are applied to establish the relative
118
importance of perspectives. In these comparisons, a 1-9 scale is applied to compare two perspectives. The
pairwise comparison matrix and the development of each perspective priority weight are shown in Table 2.
Subsequently, we apply pairwise comparisons again to establish the criteria weights within each perspective,
showing in Tables 3 to 6.
Table 1
Definitions and Literatures of Selecting Criteria
Criteria
Definition
C1: Profit
The profitability of new program.
C2: Cost
The cost of new program.
C3: Budget
Budget management.
C4: New market
New market expansion.
C5: Audience
The satisfaction index of audience.
C6: Brand
The reputation of brand.
C7: New audience
New audience acquisition.
C8: Market
Market sharing.
C9: Lead time
Lead time of new program.
C10: Risk
C11: New technology
C12: Facility
C13: Well-being
Risk minimization.
New technology adoption.
Facility utilization.
Employee well-being.
C14: Capability
The capability of employee.
C15: Training
Employee training.
C16: Satisfaction
The satisfaction index of employee.
Literatures
Cebeci (2009); CHEN et al. (2009); LIAO and CHANG
(2010); WU et al. (2011).
CHEN et al. (2009); LIAO and CHANG (2009a); LIAO and
CHANG (2009b); Tseng (2010).
LIAO and CHANG (2009a); LIAO and CHANG (2009b);
LIAO and CHANG (2010).
Hubbard (2009).
CHEN et al. (2009); LIAO and CHANG (2009a); LIAO and
CHANG (2009b); WU et al. (2009); LIAO and CHANG
(2010); Tseng (2010); Yksel and Dadeviren (2010); WU
et al. (2011).
Cebeci (2009); Liao and Chang (2009a).
CHEN et al. (2009); Hubbard (2009); Tseng (2010); Yksel
and Dadeviren (2010); WU et al. (2011).
CHANG et al. (2008); CHEN et al. (2009); Hubbard (2009);
WU et al. (2009); LIAO and CHANG (2010); Tseng (2010);
Yksel and Dadeviren (2010).
Cebeci (2009); Chen et al. (2009); Hubbard (2009); Tseng
(2010).
CHEN et al. (2009); LIAO and CHANG (2009a).
Yksel and Dadeviren (2010).
LIAO and CHANG (2009b); Tseng (2010).
McPhail et al. (2008).
McPhail et al. (2008); Tseng (2010); Yksel and Dadeviren
(2010).
Lee et al. (2008); Cebeci (2009); Chen et al. (2009);
Hubbard (2009); LIAO and CHANG (2009b); WU et al.
(2009); Yksel and Dadeviren (2010).
Cebeci (2009); CHEN et al. (2009); LIAO and CHANG
(2009a); LIAO and CHANG (2009b); WU et al. (2009);
LIAO and CHANG (2010); Tseng (2010); Yksel and
Dadeviren (2010); WU et al. (2011).
Step 3. Determine the composite weights of AHP

The weight of each alternative with respect to the criteria is shown in Table 7. According to Tables 2 to 7,
we can aggregate the composite weights of AHP shown in Table 8.
Step 4. Final decision making
According to Table 8, the ranking is Project 1, Project 3, and Project 2. We provide the result to the case
company for consultation. The case company executes Project 1, according to our conclusion.
Conclusion
NPD is one of the key to get competitive advantage. However, NPD is a risky and complicated process.
The vital issue in NPD is how to evaluate the future success of new products. In Taiwanese TV industry,
119
evaluating and selecting new program projects plays an important role. The decision makers need a
comprehensive evaluation model for the future success of new program projects. BSC links financial and
non-financial, tangible and intangible, inward and outward factors can provide an integrated viewpoint for
decision makers to evaluate the new program projects. AHP, proposed by Saaty in the 1970s, has been widely
applied for decision-making problems. We combine BSC with AHP to help Taiwanese TV company managers
make better decisions for new program projects selection.
Most optimal new program project
Financial
Customer
Learning and growth
C1: Profit
C5: Audience
C9: Lead time
C13: Well-being
C2: Cost
C6: Brand
C10: Risk
C14: Capability
C3: Budget
C7: New audience
C11: New technology
C15: Training
C4: New market
C8: Market
C12: Facility
C16: Satisfaction
Project 1
Project 2
Project 3
Figure 2. Hierarchy for new program projects selecting.
Table 2
The Pairwise Comparisons and Priority Weights Of Perspectives
Financial
Financial
Customer
Learning and growth
Customer
max4.0877 C.R.0.0295
1.0000
1.4422
0.6934
1.0000
0.3218
1.0000
0.7937
0.7937
Internal business Learning

process
growth
Priority
weights
3.1072
1.0000
1.0000
1.2599
0.3703
0.2322
0.1708
0.2267
1.2599
1.2599
0.7937
1.0000
Table 3
The Pairwise Comparisons Within Financial Perspective
Profit
Cost
Budget
New market
Profit
Cost
max4.0554 C.R.0.0187
1.0000
2.1544
0.4642
1.0000
0.2554
1.0000
1.0000
1.8171
Budget
New market
Priority weights
3.9149
1.0000
1.0000
3.6342
1.0000
0.5503
0.2752
1.0000
0.3759
0.1568
0.1136
0.3536
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Table 4
The Pairwise Comparisons Within Customer Perspective
Audience
Brand
New audience
Market
Audience
Brand
max 4.0271 C.R. 0.0091
1.0000
1.3572
0.7368
1.0000
0.2154
0.4409
0.2513
0.2811
New audience
Market
Priority weights
4.6416
2.2680
1.0000
1.0000
3.9791
3.5569
1.0000
1.0000
0.4595
0.3206
0.1140
0.1059
New technology
Facility
Priority weights
4.8203
4.6416
1.0000
2.2894
5.2415
3.6342
0.4368
1.0000
0.4901
0.3287
0.0704
0.1109
Training
Satisfaction
Priority weights
2.4101
2.7144
1.0000
2.2894
3.6342
2.2894
0.4368
1.0000
0.4136
0.3161
0.1115
0.1589
Table 5
The Pairwise Comparisons Within Internal Business Process Perspective
Lead time
Risk
New technology
Facility
Lead time
Risk
max 4.0989 C.R. 0.0333
1.0000
1.8171
0.5503
1.0000
0.2075
0.2154
0.1908
0.2752
Table 6
The Pairwise Comparisons Within Learning and Growth Perspective
Well-being
Capability
Training
Satisfaction
Well-being
Capability
max 4.1435 C.R. 0.0483
1.0000
1.4422
0.6934
1.0000
0.4149
0.3684
0.2752
0.4368
Table 7
The Weight of Each Alternative with Respect to Criteria
Project 1
Project 2
Project 3
C1
0.4366
0.2500
0.3134
C2
0.4145
0.2618
0.3237
C3
0.4718
0.2886
0.2396
C4
0.5769
0.1973
0.2258
C5
0.2995
0.3503
0.3503
C6
0.1907
0.2932
0.5161
C7
0.3244
0.2693
0.4063
C8
0.1989
0.2962
0.5049
C9
0.4416
0.2391
0.3193
C10
0.3689
0.2633
0.3678
C11
0.5324
0.1228
0.3447
C12
0.3034
0.5412
0.1554
C13
0.6027
0.2554
0.1418
C14
0.4630
0.2435
0.2935
C15
0.4967
0.1979
0.3054
C16
0.6494
0.2054
0.1452
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Table 8
The Composite Weights of AHP
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
C6
C7
C8
C9
C10
C11
C12
C13
C14
C15
C16
Composite weights
Project 1
0.0608
0.0241
0.0198
0.0755
0.0320
0.0142
0.0086
0.0049
0.0370
0.0207
0.0064
0.0057
0.0565
0.0332
0.0126
0.0234
0.4353
Project 2
0.0348
0.0152
0.0121
0.0258
0.0374
0.0218
0.0071
0.0073
0.0200
0.0148
0.0015
0.0103
0.0239
0.0174
0.0050
0.0074
0.2619
Project 3
0.0436
0.0188
0.0101
0.0296
0.0374
0.0384
0.0108
0.0124
0.0267
0.0206
0.0041
0.0029
0.0133
0.0210
0.0077
0.0052
0.3028
In this paper, we firstly review literatures about BSC to collect the selecting criteria. The Likert 9 point
scale questionnaires based on criteria of BSC are sent to 48 executives to obtain the importance of criteria for
selecting new program projects. According to the geometric mean values, we choose top four criteria under
each perspective including: Profit, Cost, Budget, New market, Audience, Brand, New audience, Market, Lead
time, Risk, New technology, Facility, Well-being, Capability, Training, Satisfaction to structure the hierarchy
for new program projects selecting.
We employ specialized EXCEL software to process the data provided by the decision makers to derive the
optimal alternative. In this paper, we find that the C.R. of each pairwise comparison is less than 0.1, which
means that the reliability of data is accepted. Moreover, a practical application to select new program projects
presented in Section four is generic and also suitable to be exploited for Taiwanese TV companies.
The hierarchy proposed in this paper considers 16 critical criteria. We suggest that future research studies
can incorporate more criteria in order to conduct more accurate estimates. Additionally, AHP assumes that
factors in the hierarchy are independent. Considering the interdependent relation among factors, another
decision making approach, analytic network process (ANP), can be applied to handle such problems. Moreover,
AHP ignores the fuzziness of executives judgment during the decision-making process. We suggest that
follow-up researchers could analyze this topic with the concept of fuzzy sets.
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November 2011, Vol. 1, No. 2, 123-135
Television Programs for Teenagers and the Use of

Multimodality in Knowledge Popularization
Laura Santamaria, Margarida Bassols, Anna Torrent
Universitat Autnoma de Barcelona, Spain
The aim of this work is to study the interaction of spoken words and images that are used within programs targeted
to popularize knowledge among teenagers. We will look into the program Bit@bit developed by Televisi de
Catalunya, which is intended to disseminate computer concepts, tools and procedures. In this kind of program, one
can find spoken language (on/off screen voices, interviews, etc.), other oral material (sounds, music, songs), written
language (descriptions, title sequences, inserts and Uniform Resource Locator, or electronic addresses), and other
visual material (film cut images, advertising, other TV programs, cartoons, films, both location or studio images,
depicting reality, or computer screens, or logotypes). The profusion of multimodal elements used in this program
helps to keep the young audiences attention. The use of references to their world or knowledge, as a target group,
is based on interplay among different semiotic strategies. At the same time, the entire programs
multi-segmentation into short video clips, combined with a fast paced sound track helps its audience to understand
the specialized explanations presented. Of all the multimodal wealth that the program presents, we will concentrate
only on the relationship between the words and the images (leaving other secondary semiotics to one side), the
main strategy for achieving the objective of transmitting knowledge and winning adolescent audiences.
Keywords: discourse television, knowledge popularization, multimodality, teenagers
Introduction
Capturing teenage and youth audience is a big challenge for television. The youth market is fickle,
preferring other audiovisual media and often has a complex relationship with knowledge since young people
select the subject areas because they want to learn things and have new experiences: They are television
consumers that are especially sensitive to the content presented by television as a medium, not only as a result
of their need for knowledge and new experiences but also for their ability to understand and interpret what they
consume (Luzn et al., 2008, p. 2). In addition, since understanding knowledge-related content requires effort,
audiovisual productions aiming to get scientific and technological concepts across to this age group have to use
innovative strategies and formats capable of attracting optimum attention and empathy.
The present study focuses on the Catalan TV program Bit@bit. It is an exuberant case of multimodality,
This research has been developed within the framework of the grant FFI2008-0131 from the Ministry for Science and Innovation
in Spain.
Laura Santamaria, Ph. D. in Translation, Faculty of Translation, Universitat Autnoma de Barcelona, Spain.
Margarida Bassols, Ph.D. in Catalan Philology, Professor of Language in the Media, Faculty of Communication Sciences,
Universitat Autnoma de Barcelona, Spain.
Anna Torrent, Ph. D. in Catalan Philology, Faculty of Communication Sciences, Universitat Autnoma de Barcelona, Spain.
124
TELEVISION PROGRAMS FOR TEENAGERS
repeated intertextuality and attractive hybridisation which work together to construct new knowledge from a
starting point of iconic knowledge shared by the target group. The spectator is treated as a pro receiver, as
described by Vern1; in other words, as someone who is also inside the broadcast, who penetrates the
inhabitable space of the television. The format is designed for their inclusion in the discursive flow.
Our objective is to determine the nature of the film units and the network used, their characteristics, their
relationship with the oral verbal strata and their discursive function within the style, in the words of Soulages
(2007), of the program. We believe that one of the attractions of the program is the element of surprise caused
by the relationship between words and images, and references to cultural areas that are recognized, valued
(such as videogames) or rejected (such as traditional festivalsin this case the castanyadawhich they see as
the old-fashioned world of parents and grandparents).
Popularized Knowledge and Television Discourse

Television programs, whose objective is to popularize knowledge, in the broadest sense of the word, from
music to computers to gastronomy or economics, treat quite complex and specialized current issues. This
means that the information presented can be quite dense and indigestible, so strategies are required to make it
more interesting and accessible to the viewer.
These programs seek to demonstrate the social applicability of the information, to help people learn
something that may change their lives, make them more comfortable or enhance their understanding.
Polyphony is used widely throughout the discourse since the different voices and enunciative states that coexist
in the discursive flow are assuming the role of expert or of person affected, which are established to
construct a representation of reality in which received values, and ideologies are sometimes reaffirmed but
often deconstructed or modified.
The programs always seek to include real-life experiences of the man or woman in the street, precisely
through their contributions in the form of personal testimonials or as ad hoc experts. The relevance of this to the
needs and concerns of the viewers also plays a part.
To achieve all these functions, the programs adopt innovative formats. This results from the hybridization
of the genre, which is highly segmented to assist assimilation of content and has a significant quantity of
dialogue, both as a strategy to signal authority and as a resource to make the content lighter. In the programs
aiming at adolescents, humor and emotion are also used to increase the levels of empathy, complicity and
attention, and facilitate emotional involvement.
As far as knowledge is concerned, it is important to emphasize the extent to which interdisciplinarity is
used to broaden the perspective on the issue under consideration, but also to break up the arguments into the
maximum number of segments, small fragments that we call capsules (Bassols, 2011), which have a place,
time and action unit that rarely exceeds two minutes duration. Experts from different fields are invited to talk
about the same subject from their particular angle. As Moirand (2006, p. 8) says, The voice of science appears
erased by other voices, and this tends to turn the mediator into the conductor of an orchestra of multiple voices.
But, while the focus is on a certain problematization of the content, any debate is conspicuous by its absence
and discussion is avoided as far as possible.
For its part, the dissemination of knowledge (whether it be of a scientific, artistic or leisure nature) uses an
1
Vern (1989, p.78), in the analysis of political discourse uses the name pro receiver for the receiver situated in the same us
group as the announcer.
125
amalgam of discursive genres, which may include anything from a presentation to a journalistic article. Their
goal is to give accurate specialized information allowing the audience to make new sense of it, and integrate it
into their existing knowledge. Audiovisual media specifically do not try to enlighten an ignorant audience; they
seek only to influence attitude and opinion. Galn (2003) says:
The meeting point (between science and the general public) seeks to create new knowledge, attitudes and needs,
which sit upon a system of pre-established knowledge and beliefs. To do this it uses mass diffusion of a particular kind of
social account, which intermingles with other social commentaries and has a direct influence on health management,
education, ecology and even on peoples leisure activities. ( pp. 146-147)
The Program Bit@bit

Catalan Television proposed a weekly program for adolescents, Bit@bit, whose aim was to communicate
concepts and tools associated with new technologies. The idea was to surf the internet, focusing in depth on the
world of mobile phones, MP3 and video games. It sought to talk about everything that could possibly be of
interest to television, internet or mobile phone users.
They invented a cartoon character of a 17 year old girl, Bitbit, who was into iPods, skating and jokes (just
like the potential viewers). She presented different sections of the program with cheeky and funny comments.
Right from the start there was also a webpage with its own chat and Bitbit had a personal blog.
The tone of the program was to push the boundaries, so as to connect with a young audience.
Theoretical Framework
Fundamentally, we base out theories on studies of image and multimodality (Barthes, 1964; Compte, 2009;
Charaudeau, 2005; Kress & Van Leeuwen, 2001; Kress & Van Leeuwen, 2006). These authors are arranged in
two lines of antagonistic research, evidently conditioned by the text type2 studied, printed or audiovisual: those
who consider that in the elaboration of meaning, the verbal message takes priority and the image is subsidiary,
such as Barthes; and those who maintain that the words and images carry the same importance in the
construction of the meaning of a multimodal text, such as Compte, Charaudeau, Kress and Van Leeuwen.
Our research clearly places us with the second group of researchers, since in the study of an audiovisual
text such as Bit@bit it can be seen that the meaning is constructed in multiple articulations, as Kress and Van
Leeuwen (2001) say, and only through the conveyance of the two semiotics can overall meaning be reached,
and the projected objectives of spreading knowledge and entertaining the spectator are achieved.
As far as the discrimination between the different phenomena of cohesion is concerned, we have based our
research on the proposals of functional grammar and text linguistics by Halliday and Hasan (1976) and
Halliday (20043), although these authors only make reference to grammatical and lexical categories in a verbal
text. That is why we have adapted these categories to the existing relationship between the words and images.
In other words, we have omitted some and added others, so that the links established by the verbal and the
visual track in television text can be explained.
If we give a brief summary of the theories of the abovementioned authors, starting with those that are
interested in the role of the image, we find that in an article that was a distinct milestone in the study of
semiotics, Roland Barthes (1964) postulated that image has three different messages:
2
From our linguistic focus, we use text and discourse as synonyms utterance (or collection of utterances), written or
spoken, that act as a semantic unit and have communicative intention; not as a dichotomy (text = abstraction; discourse =
production). The selection of one term or another is not guided by any conceptual distinction.
126
(1) The linguistic message. Barthes, in the study of advertising print messages, takes into account the
linguistic messages embedded in the image (subtitles and signs, diegetic or non-diegetic), and which can give a
connotative or denotative message.
However, in our paper, we will only take account the script the viewer hears the written words are
minimal and have no impact on the discourse to reach the overall sense we get with the images.
(2) The literal or denotative iconic message, which arises from the combination of elements which make
up the image. Although these elements have their roots in reality they are also interpreted from the starting
point of the transformation they have undergone through visual codes, such as mobility or photographic
composition.
(3) The symbolic iconic message, for which a good general knowledge is required (or intertextual
knowledge, as we shall see in some of the examples we have detected in the program under analysis). The
symbolism and values attached to the connotation will allow us to observe the underlying ideology.
According to Barthes images in themselves are polysemous, given that they have inherent a floating chain
of meanings, and it is only through the linguistic message, which constantly guides the interpretation of these
images that the subject can identify which meaning to choose. It is precisely the disparity of possible readings
of the same image that can threaten the very code that is used to read the images.
Among the authors who argue there is a semiotic unit of audiovisual discourse is Van Leeuwen. In one of
his earliest approaches (1991, p. 76), he considers that that text is an indivisible unity and, therefore, should be
analyzed taking into account the fusion of two integral parts, the visual and the verbal. As regards the errors
which may be made if linguistic structures were projected onto the analysis of the visual domain, Van Leeuwen
believes that every semiotic, in its own way, can perceive the kinds of logical relationship which the different
cultural domains allow, in order to be able to act, suggest, etc.. In that sense, he defends the idea that although
some conjunctive relationships, in a given social or historical context, may only be perceived visually, others
only verbally and yet others in both semiotics, there is always only one content form although it may
manifest itself in different expression forms.
Later on, this author, together with Kress (2001, p. 26), would tackle the idea of multimodality as a means
of communication which incorporates various semiotic modes into the design of a product or an event,
narrowing the field of interest to how people use a range of semiotic modes to construct meaning in specific
social contexts. It is significant to notice how these different modes are combined: whether one empowers the
other, or whether they play complementary roles. On the other hand, they define communication as a process in
which a semiotic product or event is articulated and produced and interpreted or used.
Moreover, they point out how interesting it would be to find principles of multimodality, such as
framing (continuity versus discontinuity), valid for visual, written and spoken works, even where they
materialize differently in each semiotic mode. They consider that the multimodal texts construct meaning in
multiple articulations (as opposed to the double articulation of traditional linguistics) and they talk about four
domains of action (strata) which contain meaning: discourse, design, production and distribution. According
to this: (a) Discourse is a socially constructed interpretation of reality (a course of events which constructs
reality then evaluates, interprets and legitimizes it); (b) The designs are the conceptualizations of semiotic
products and events, enabling the discourse to function in a communicative context. They also take into account
which communicative context may change the socially-constructed knowledge in a given social interaction
(e.g., tackling the racism issue in a soap opera); (c) Production refers to the organization of expression and
127
includes a set of technical skills, related to the instruments and material means of executing them; (d)
Distribution does not add meaning, but facilitates the pragmatic function of the preservation and transmission
of the program.
The research carried out in France in this field includes the work of Charaudeau and Compte. According to
Charaudeau (2005, p. 188), media images have three functions: designation, figuration and visualization.
Designation consists of directly presenting the world in its perceptual reality; it is a way of being present in that
world, which is transformed into a visible autonomous object. Designation seeks to convey the sensation of
authenticity. Figuration, on the other hand, is a reconstruction of a pre-existing world, not now immediately
perceptible but may be represented through simulation. It is an analogy, not a copy of reality, but a
construction-representation of something imaginary. Figuration seeks to convey the sensation of credibility.
Lastly, visualization is representation through a system of codes, a way of organizing the world that is not
immediately perceptible, through graphics, outlines, drawings, and so on. Visualization seeks to recreate the
effect of unveiling the truth.
Compte (2009, p. 274) considers that the image has not a role of simple illustration. It accompanies and
recontextualizes meaning, and sometimes becomes an assurance of truth or authenticity. It provides true
understanding and mediates towards the acquisition of new knowledge. According to Compte, there are three
types of relationship between the audio and video channels: redundancy, complementarity, and opposition. She
refers to redundancy when the same information is presented on audio and video channels: it is used in
pedagogical documents, but it is poorly tolerated in a public issue. Complementarity, when the image and the
audio provide information that complements each other by keeping a slight delay in their appearance on the
screen, this instance is the most widely used in TV. Opposition is used to arouse laughter or surprise and
requires more attention on the part of the viewer, because he must find other cues to understand this singular
relationship; that is why its use is ad hoc and limited.
The contributions of these linguists proved very useful to us when analyzing Bit@bit. We were able to
take advantage of some of Barthes references to connoted meaning; from Van Leeuwen and Kress we took the
defense of the single meaning that multimodal texts have, such as the text of our program; from Charaudeau we
took the distinction of the three functions of image designation, figuration and visualization, as guarantees of
the reality of the discourse; from Compte we took the three large blocks in which images are sorted according
to their links with the wordsredundancy, complementarity, and oppositionwhich offer a clear general
typology in which new categories can be placed.
As far as Halliday and Hasan (1976) and Halliday (2004) are concerned, their theory of textual cohesion,
especially their consideration of reference and lexical cohesion, even though it only refers to the grammatical
and lexical categories of a verbal text offered us a highly productive and adaptable initial framework of the
special characteristics of the relationship between words and images. We have therefore integrated the
phenomenon of repetition with the name total identity, and we have taken the part-whole and opposition
relationships to as being partial identity; however, what he calls collocation we have broken down into
setting, causality and exemplification, because the images in the program indicate those concepts.
Multimodality as a Strategy for Attracting Adolescents

One of the most obvious characteristics of the program under scrutiny is the frequency with which the shot
changes per minute. One possible explanation of this phenomenon, rapidly gaining popularity in youth
128
programs, could reside in the following affirmation from Pindado (2006):

Modern text required time, and relaxed contemplation; postmodern text, speed and ever-changing emotion and
stimulus. A multitude of exciting messages calling for subjectivity () Modern text is analytic; postmodern text, synthetic.
Modern text is unidirectional; postmodern text turns in all possible directions, capable of dealing with various stimuli
simultaneously. It is a plural, varied and immeasurable self. (p. 13)
These characteristics would perfectly describe the program Bit@bit. Moreover, since the images are
charged not only with symbology but also with values, we shall endeavor to analyze the relationship between
its oral and visual semiotics, and the cultural references that some or all of them have.
These symbols and values play a determining role in the construction of young peoples identity
(Belmonte & Guillamn, 2005), given that the media act as a mirror for adolescents (Pindado, 2006, p. 13).
This can be explained by the symbolic power of television and by adolescents capacity to incorporate the
messages received. Identities have both an individual and social expression, and it is in the latter that we can
best observe the influence of the media as socialization agents in the process of extracurricular education.
Belmonte and Guillamn (2005) also underline the need for investigation of television text as a
polysemous proposal, with multiple meanings foreseen by the broadcaster and multiple meanings
interpretable by the viewers (for all that the balance between both forces of negotiation of meaning depends on
each situation). This is the premise for the analysis we will present.
Analysis of the Relationship Between Oral and Visual Discourse

The relationship between verbal and visual semiotics is the keystone to the success and all the
communicative possibilities of television as a means of communication in the domestic sphere. Although
internet also takes advantage of this potential, with a following of 45.9%, it is still a long way from the 91% the
small screen can boast.
Our study therefore seeks to identify the kind of relationship that is established between oral language
and its accompanying images, with respect to the function that these exercise. The result is the following
classification laid out with illustrative examples. The classification comes from text linguistics: Charaudeau
and Maingueneau (2002), Halliday (2004), and Halliday and Hasan (1976), although it was adapted to the
multimodal text by the authors to explain the relationship between the words and the images in Bit@bit. That is
why only the items that appear in the word/image relationship in the program. Reference (A) is one of the
main concepts of text linguistics: one of the mechanisms that guarantees the cohesion of the text; this is
endorphic reference, because it occurs between two explicit signifying units (word/image) in the
multimodal text.
In general, it can be observed that words and images have two main types of relationships: reference and
fictionalization3, depending on the characters, objects or processes named in the oral text or, conversely, when
only the producer of that text is shown. In the first case the two semiotics have been produced at different times.
Almost certainly the script will have been written first, and appropriate images to illustrate it found later. In the
second case, image and sound form part of the same moment of production. When a person has been recorded,
what he or she says has also been registered; when a cartoon character has been sketched it is in consideration
of that it will say.
3
We use the term fictionalization in the sense given by Compte (2009, p. 145), i.e., as the construction of a fiction character,
as proposed by Casetti and Odin (1988).
129
Table 1
Classification of the Word/Image Relationship
(A) REFERENCE Relationship established between certain linguistic units and the images that accompany them
1 CONNOTATION (metaphor) Meaning associated with words and image that is added to the literal meaning:
Hello!-Hello! [jumping elephant, with the connotation of happiness] 4
2 DENOTATION objectivable level: basic meaning of the word that the image picks up and specifies in submission to
meaning
2.1 TOTAL IDENTITY of the referent (association by identity): Un virus dordinador s un programa informtic per t
semblances amb els virus biolgics?-A computer virus is a computer program but it has some similarities with a biological virus
[when they talk about biological virus a microscope image of one appears on the screen]
2.2 parTial IDENTITY OF THE referent (association by analogy):
(a) circumstanTial RELATION:
EXEMPLIFICATION: per qu totes les castanyeres semblen bruixes?-Why do all the chestnut sellers look like witches?
[different images of fictional witches from TV cartoons or animated films]
CAUSALITY: perqu tamb es consideren software maligne-because they are also considered malignant software [Eddie
Murphy looks scared]5
SETTING: es tracta daltres programes que sovint confonem amb els virusthis refers to is the several other programs that
we often confuse with viruses [office with computers]
(b) PART-WHOLE RELATIONSHIP: -s lhora del Bitcionari. Atenci!Its Bitcionary time6. Watch out! [images of
different words]
(c) OPPOSITION OR CONTRAST: Noies la competici s dura!-chestnut ladies7, the competition is hard [various beauty
queens parading] (the chestnut ladies have been characterized as witches and contrast with the beauty queens)
3 SUBSTITUTION
The referent of the text is substituted by an image or other referent: els virus, a ms dinfectar i propagar-se, han devitar ser
detectats-the virus, as well as infecting and spreading must avoid being detected [man hiding to avoid being detected]
(B) FICTIONALIZATION
Characters (cartoons or actors) interrupt the voiceover discourse with comments, jokes, ironic comments, illustrations etc.,
and unlike it, actually appear on screen while they are talking.
Tha fotut?-Its gotcha! [Jason Biggs says this sentence after the voiceover has explained that computer viruses reproduce
and infect computers]
The most complex combination of functions relates to the reference section, which comes as no surprise,
since the image can produce a connotation, a denotation or the substitution of a verbal element. If the relation
between the spoken and image referent is weak or the image suggests some concept or value that is easily
identifiable by the receiver, we are talking about connotation, generally metaphorical or metonymical. For
example, when the jumping elephant comes on to tell us how happy the voiceover is to be presenting a new
episode of Bit@bit and meet up with the audience again. We are talking about substitution, on the other hand, if
a verbalized action coincides with a visual one and is more or less directly related to it. For example, if viruses
which try to hide to avoid detection are mentioned at the same time as we see a man hiding.
4
Because there is an associated meaning as well as an explicit meaning between the word Hello and the image (elephant) : that
of a welcome. the happiness of a meeting. That is what is suggested by the elephant when it leaps into the air (obviously re-cut),
that was widely shown through YouTube and Zappinternet, and that adolescent viewers were almost certainly familiar with.
5
Worms and Trojans are considered malignant software and malignant things are scary.
6
Bitcionary is a competition in which the young people have to guess the meaning of new computer words such as cookie.
7
In Catalonia chestnuts and sweet potatoes are traditionally sold in the street. The traditional chestnut seller (la castanyera) is an
old lady dressed in a long skirt.
130
By far the most diverse function is denotation, where the coincidence between verbal and iconic referents
can be absolute, for example when a biological virus is shown and talked about at the same time; or, and this is
the most common case, it may be partial, when the relationship is not complete. Normally there is a relationship,
albeit a fragmented one, between the referents (which may materialize in a purely circumstantial link) of
part/whole, of causality or of contrast.
In the relationship of contrast, there is a kind of opposition between the referents of the two semiotics: for
example, ugly witches are talked about while beauty queens are seen parading. In the part-whole relationship, on
the other hand, the relationship is based on the fact that one referent is a part of the other, as when we talk about
Bitcionary (a dictionary of computer terms which the viewers can play with) and a series of words are seen.
Finally, in the circumstantial relationship, which is by far the most common in these types of program,
there are three different functions. Firstly, the image may serve as an example of the verbal referent, in the case
of exemplification, for example, when witches are mentioned and a Walt Disney cartoon witch is shown.
Secondly, a causality can be established when its referent has a cause and effect relationship with the referent
of the oral text, as is the case of the verbal reference to the malignity of software at the same time as Eddie
Murphys frightened face appears on the screen. And thirdly, the image may serve to create the setting of the
verbal text, when the frame of the setting is shown. An example of this is when we see images of a whole office
yet talk only about the computers that are in it.
Analysis of the Program Virus Informtics

Table 2
Analysis of Virus Informtics
Image
Oral text
1. Elephant jumping (7 tons2 of
Hello
N. Deveaux)
2. Panellets (kind of cake)
We are stuffed with panellets
00.01
CN
Youtube and Zappinternet
00.02
tradition
3. Virus
00.04
computer technology
00.06
computer technology
00.10
tradition
00.12
P/W
television series
00.14
Photoshop
00.20
tradition
00.25
videogame
If your computer is stuffed with viruses,

youll be interested in everything we have
4. Cracked codes
to tell you today about these strange
computer beings.
5. Sweet potatoes
Weve had enough of sweet potatoes
6. Sean McNamara and Christian But rather than being operated on by
Troy from Nip/Tuck
someone from Nip Tuck,
We decided to pay a visit to Kim Boix,
7. Kim Boix
the plastic surgeon shown in the
photograph and a real motibit.
We are sick to death of chestnuts. No, no,
8. Chestnuts
not those ones, the other ones
The ones that kick the rabbits in Rayman
9. Images of the game
Raving Rabbits 2.
10. Robin Williams
Thats what were like!
Minute
Function
Cultural reference
00.29
cinema
11. Mr. Bean crying

And we have an existential question:
00.31
12. DA witches (from the Les 3 Why do all chestnut sellers look like
00.33
bessones and another witch)
witches
13.DA Ronaldinho witch
And have moustaches
00.35
television series
childrens story
football
14.Witch (Demi Moore)
cinema
beauty contest
15. Miss USA competition
And no teeth?
00.37
Chestnut sellers. The competition is
00.38
tough!
131
(Table 2 continued)
Image
Oral text
Minute
Function Cultural reference
16. Javier Cmara opening a tent
Bit@bit is about to begin!
00.42
S
cinema
in the film Ficci
17. Bitbit with a remote control
Computer viruses!
01.02
F
Have you noticed that your computer
18. Huge computer
01.06
E
electronics
sometimes does strange things?
19. Man dressed as a woman, No, no, we dont mean it dresses up in a
flamenco dress and starts singing, as 01.08
E
low quality television
dancing
some do
20. Mr. Rogers, Samanthas
Yes, that can happen,
01.14
S
television series
husband in Bewitched
21. He turns green and purple
Its very likely youve got a virus.
01.16
S
television series
No not you, the computer.
A computer virus is a computer program
22. Virus magnified
but it has some similarities with a 01.18
I
biology
biological virus
23. Girls blowing their noses.
But obviously its not catching
01.24
O
medicine
Viruses are different from other computer
24. Girl writing at the computer
programs
and
they
have
two 01.27
SE
computer technology
characteristics:
25. Gremlins chasing humans
They can reproduce like Gremlins,
01.32
I
cinema
and they can be transmitted to other
26. programs, cables, web page
computers through programs, files and
01.37
P/W
Internet
connections to the net from your
computer
27. Jason Biggs
Its gotcha!
01.42
F
cinema
This makes them different from other
28. Office with computers
programs which we often confuse with 01.44
SE
computer technology
viruses:
29. Worm Sasser
Worms
01.47
E
computer technology
30. Brad Pitt en Troy
and Trojans
01.48
S
cinema
31. Computer screen being
All of these programs are a problem
01.50
E
computer technology
programmed
Because theyre also considered to be
01.52
CS
cinema
32. A scared Eddie Murphy
malignant software
33. Worms
Worms spread on their own and they
01.55
S
biology
dont need anything to attach to
34. The movie Troy (the horse)
And Trojans, although also malignant
01.59
S
cinema
software, dont reproduce.
Now weve got viruses clear: you must be
02.03
E
Internet
35. Screen with Bulo:Sulfnbk.exe
wondering why theyre called viruses.
Notes. CN: Connotation; I: Total identity; IP: Partial Identity; C: Circumstantial relationship; E: Exemplification; CS: Causality;
SE: Setting; P/W: Part-whole relationship; O: Relationship of opposition; S: Substitution; F: Fictionalization.
Description of the Extract

The extract is 206 long comprising the list of contents (105) and the first sequences of the program
(101).
There is a voiceover narrator responsible for presenting the program and the subsequent explanation of the
characteristics and means of propagation of computer viruses. His discourse is quite unique because, although it
is undoubtedly didactic in nature, it is shot through with colloquialisms, humor and amusing diversions that are
a far cry from the formal, ordered and precise format that you would expect.
The voiceover narrator is interrupted on two occasions. The first when Bitbit proclaims euphorically the
title of the program; and the second by a cheeky adolescent comment.
132
The images which accompany the narration appear and disappear at breakneck speed and are fragmented and
dislocated. In some cases they are images of people, objects and events-largely taken from the media referred to in
the oral discourse; but in others the referential identity only partially coincides, and suggested connections play
with ambiguity, connections as far apart as cinema, television, Internet, gastronomic tradition, biology, video
games, football or cartoons. In other words, with things adolescents can emotionally identify with.
The bringing together of words and images fulfills the programs objective: the words transmit knowledge
and the images maintain the interest of a young audience.
Image and Oral Text in Virus Informtics

Our analysis is centered on the images function in relation to the oral text, by means of the following
table. The results are the following:
Table 3
Results of the Imagess Functions in Relation to the Oral Text
Categories
Connotation
Identity
Exemplification
Setting
Part-whole relationship
Opposition
Substitution
Fictionalization
Total occurrences
Total in the extract

1
8
8
2
2
3
7
3
34
%
2.94
23.52
23.52
5.82
5.82
8.82
20.58
8.82
99.84
Total in the text

3
27
42
6
8
5
25
20
136
%
2.20
19.70
30.70
4.41
5.90
3.80
18.50
14.70
99.91
As it can be observed, the categories identity and exemplification, both with a 23.52% of occurrence, are
the categories with the highest representation in the extract analyzed. The fact that the sample includes the
opening is, certainly, a contributing factor to the emergence of the category identity, given that in the
presentation of the main themescomputer viruses and Photoshop-the voiceover and the image frequently act in
unison (e.g., when they say these strange technological beings a coded script appears on the screen).
However, in the totality of the program, the identity is in the second place, well below of exemplification, which
is the first category used.
As far as exemplification is concerned, where the reference of images to words is partial and often limited
to the field of hyponymy, concepts and processes in general are presented while the image shows one or more
of the possible cases by way of example. So when worms are mentioned the Sasser computer worm appears on
the screen. This is one of the most common processes in explicative discourse in general, and Bit@bit is no
exception. Moreover, exemplification is often part of the entertainment because it gives the opportunity to show
funny and attractive associations that are close to the audiences experience (e.g., when they mention witches
and well-known cartoon witches appear, when Ronaldinho is dressed up as a witch, or when they draw parallels
between a computer and a biological virus and we see a man sneezing). It is because of this capacity to
entertain and evoke experiences that exemplification is by far the most prevalent strategy in the program.
Substitution is also a favorite strategy, because the referent suggested by the image, as opposed to that of
the words, is powerfully emotive and invites us to relive shared cultural universes, as may also be the case with
exemplification. The image of the Trojan Horse to represent the malignant Trojan software is an example. In
133
general, substitution affects the subject, but not the action, although it often distorts it. Take for example the
statement We have an existential question. The subject, we, is substituted in the image by Mr Bean crying
while sitting an exam he cannot do. It is also the case of the opening image when the presenter says Bit@bit is
about to begin and we see a scene from the film Ficci in which Javier Cmara zips open a tent.
Through the setting, the image makes no allusion to the referent of the words, but to the environment in
which the action takes place. It is an indirect approach to the said referent. The suggestion of an appropriate
atmosphere is preferred for the representation, rather than an exact demonstration of whom or what the subject
is (e.g., the voiceover says, This makes them different from other programs we often confuse with virus, and
the image shows an office full of computers.
Opposition or contrast is the negative of the image, in the sense that it shows something contrary to or
contrasting with the content of the words. In this case the surprise factor is a basic ingredient, and once again
the ironic, humorous card is played. This is what happens when, for example, after making us believe that we
are talking about chestnuts (the nut) they show a box full of chestnuts and say We are about to burst from so
many chestnuts, only to add no, not those ones, the other ones (There is a pun on the word castanya which
can mean both a chestnut and a wallop or a blow, or in this context a kick) and we see a character in a
videogame giving a rabbit a good kick, as a result of which it could effectively burst from the blow. On another
occasion, after describing the chestnut sellers as witches, they are warned the competition is stiff and we are
shown a Miss America beauty contest, the contestants fixed smiles, the bathing suits and sashes.
In the part-whole relationship the image shows one part of the whole being formed by the oral discourse.
It is similar to the rhetorical figures of the synecdoche. It makes only a discreet appearance in the program.
There is one example in the contents: while the narrator says, But rather than being operated on by someone
from Nip Tuck, we see a picture of Sean McNamara and Christian Troy, the main characters of the TV series,
and so a part of, Nip Tuck.
The causality shows us the effect of an action. It is barely present in the program, except when Eddy
Murphy is shown looking scared, while the oral discourse affirms all these programs can give you a fright,
because they are also considered to be malignant software.
The connotation is produced when the image acts as a metaphor for, or comparison with, what is being
said. The opening scene of the programthe video 7 tonnes 2 of N. Deveaux, which Youtube and
Zapperinternet have shown, with huge success in terms of the numbers of visitors to the site, is a prime
example. There is an elephant that has just done a spectacular jump on a trampoline. It has a happy, welcoming
feel to it. And the word we hear is Hello. In other words, everything starts off on a good optimistic footing
and, more importantly, the majority of the young audience has seen this video and will be quick to empathize
with the program.
Finally, there is a case of fictionalization when a character appears on the screen and speaks at the same
time. The voiceover hands the stage over to the character. The most interesting example is when Bitbit, the
cartoon character belonging to the series, authoritatively presents the program Bit@bit and then,
symbolically, starts it off with a remote control. Another example is the actor who in saying Tha fotut! (Its
gotcha!) is making fun of someone for being victim of a computer virus.
Conclusion
The analysis of the program Bit@bit leads us to the following consideration:
134
The type of receiver significantly conditions the format and structuring of the discourse in this program
about new technology, so much so that that one could say that it is not for adult viewing, since adults would not
recognize the visual referents because they are not their own, and they would be bothered by the speed with
which the images and the ideas appear. Among the audiovisual products that young people consume, alongside
films and series have been placed objects produced by newer technologies: (television, mobile phones,
computers, internet, etc.). The range of possibilities has grown in at an extraordinary rate in very little time.
Moreover, the intertextuality of these supports has been perceived as an opportunity to create a macrotext that
is continuous in time and segmented in content where the consumers are obliged to find links and fill in the
gaps; processes that seem to be more attractive than dissuasive. What is constructed in the program is found in
the world of young people: It refers to it and expands on it.
The fact that todays adolescents have a large range of audiovisual and consumer products available to
them, some perhaps more attractive than television, means that capturing audiences is basic in informative-type
programs. A key role, then, is that of the link between images and verbal language and some of the operations
that have been detected within them. In terms of the functions of the images in relation to the oral discourse,
they are mainly to exemplify, identify or substitute: the first two act in relation to the explicative discourse and
the last to the discourse of entertainment. It is a case of capturing and making loyal an audience who would
probably consider conventional computer classes to be boring.
Bit@bit has a strong teaching componentthe sequence is predominantly explicative, and the
identifications and exemplifications work together to help young people to understand subjects that are complex
but at the same time close, useful and attractive to them. They do not need to be persuaded of the benefits of
computers and new technology because they are privileged and keen users. In that sense the program is at an
advantage. Using shared, easily accessible references new information is introduced in small doses, much
smaller than in the academic world. As far as the educational role of the media is concerned, the adolescent
audience receives knowledge as much, if not more, from the audiovisual world as it does from the conventional
academic one. It is familiar with the referents from the world of the media, given that new technology allows
for reiterated and repeated consumption of its favorite products. The market for audiovisual products is huge,
easily accessible and sometimes completely unrestricted, in terms of both money and time. The relation
between verbal language and image activated the knowledge of the receiver, both in the field of computers and
audiovisuals, since films, series, objects produced by newer technologies (television, mobile phones, computers,
internet, computer games, etc.), appear in flashes that are illustrative, paradoxical, contrasting, humorous, etc.,
following the flow of the words, with the purpose of making the discourse understood and making it less dense.
The type of cognitive process that the program demands is completely different from the other discourses
for the communication of informationeven other television discoursesthat have longer conceptual units,
establish more explicit causal relations, are denser terminologically and are centered more on the analysis than
the results of the processes. It could be said that the whole program is designed to be adapted to a type of
reasoning that the young people have, based on fragmentation and the simplification and association of ideas,
as well as a highly visual, basic component with which they are very familiar.
The youth audience is highly attracted to products packaged with humor and fear. In this case, Bit@bit
plays significantly on humor, which is a leading element for ensuring audience enjoyment and increasing
empathy. The substitution relationship between words and images, thanks to a whole stream of audiovisual
fragments taken from products consumed by young people, is primordial in that sense. But there are also other
135
elements that ensure the surprise or laughter impact, such as the breakneck speed of the images (up to 12
images per minute at certain times), the segmentation of the images, the parallel or dislocated relationship
between images and words, the use of cartoon characters or on screen adolescent experts and the online
presenter as an alter ego. All these elements go to make up an attractive and highly persuasive product.
Bit@bit satisfies all the requirements of a knowledge communication program for adolescent receivers
since it offers a serious, but interesting and fun discourse. Among the different factors that make that possible
dual presenters, one is a cartoon character but has the same traits that users might have, she is the one who
answers back, is ironic, interested in games, programs, skateboarding, etc.; participation of receivers by making
them the central characters as true experts in the field, who offer each other advice, help each other, give each
other information etc. the relationship between spoken words and images is fundamental.
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staging). Mots, 20, 75-91.

November 2011, Vol. 1, No. 2, 136-149
Representing Islam in China: A Case Study on the Religious

Motifs of Uyghur Sermon Poems
WANG Jian-xin
School of Law and Politics, Shihezi University, China
As a unique local convention of Islamic proselytizing, Uyghur religious specialists in the present Turpan Basin are
using a kind of folk songs qoshaq to organize motifs and materials for their religious sermons. Though the poems
are particularly used as religious texts at mosque preaching and other chances of Islamic proselytizing, their
contents give insights into the ways of local Uyghurs to understand various daily happenings through the lens of
Islamic doctrines. This issue can be taken as a process of the localization of Islamic culture among Uyghurs,
therefore, it provides comprehensive pictures on the Islamic ways of local Uyghurs to accommodate their social
realities. Through undertaking analyses on the structure, style, contents of the poems, this paper makes efforts to
unfold the symbolic landscape of the poems implied, making clear the logic bases of those religious motifs and the
attitudes Uyghur preachers had toward social realities.
Keywords: Uyghur folk songs, religious motifs, islamic accommodation of social realities
Introduction
In China, there are about twenty million Muslim population composed of ten different ethnic minority
groups (Turkic speaking Uyghur, Kazak, Kirgiz, Uzbek, Tatar, Salar, Indo-European speaking Tajik, Chinese
speaking Hui, Mongolian speaking Dongxiang and Baoan). The Uyghur is counted as one of the largest
Muslim groups, with a population over about eight million, almost paralleling with what of the huis, taking the
oases areas surrounding the Teklamaqan Desert in the southern part of Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region
as their traditional residential places. The Turpan Basin1 is one of these oases, and local Uyghurs believe in
Islam and take a small proportion of Hui and Han people as their local neighbors.
In the Uyghur society of the present basin, there are several ideological streams giving influences to local
peoples religious life. First, local governments have the strongest impact because of its compulsory business of
religious administration. While the government has a Socialist atheistic stance to religious affairs, its policy
makes flexible compromises with religious realities aiming at popularizing gradually the atheistic ideology on
One of my previous work Uyghur Education and Social Order: The Role of Islamic Leadership in the Turpan Basin (WANG,
2004) has a chapter (chapter 9) discussing about these sermon poems with all original texts and their English translation attached.
Please see the work when references to the details needed.
WANG Jian-xin, professor at School of Law and Politics, Shihezi University in Xinjiang, and co-working as research fellow at
Institute of Logic and Cognition, and professor at Department of Anthropology of Sun Yat-sen University in Guangzhou, China.
1
Here, I use the Turpan Basin to mean the jurisdictional area of present Turpan City, which administratively consists of seven
countryside units Yar, Uzumchilik, Singim, Qarahoja, Astana, Chatqal and Adinkul, and three towns, the capital town Turpan of
the city, a railway station Daheyan and a coalmine center Chiquanhu. Also see the related parts of my previous works for the
details (WANG, 1996; 2004).
137
REPRESENTING ISLAM IN CHINA
the conditions of maintaining the countrys political unity and keeping public stability. Second, those Uyghurs
who are government officials and scientifically-educated intellectuals belong to a unique social group whose
opinions and actions also influential to ordinary Uyghurs. Third, Islamic specialists, especially those preachers
who have the state-approved privilege of making proselytizing at mosques, belong to a social group which
gives their influences to the spiritual world of their fellow residents (Table 1).
Table 1
The Proportion of Social Groups in the Population of Turpan City2 Unit: Person
Social Groups
Officials and intellectuals
Religious specialists
Numbers
24,116
2,000
Percentage ( % )
9.46
0.79
Note. Source: The Statistic Section of the Turpan District (2004, p. 46).
Ordinary residents
228,784
89.75
Total population
254,900
100
In such a socio-cultural circumstance, those mosque preachers who have strong influences to the spiritual
world of local residents are actually functioning as local educators accommodating different socio-cultural
realities. Comparing with various aspects of their religious services to local residents, such as lecturing to
religious students, guiding mosque prayers and various ritual occasions, mosque preaching is the most
important channel for them to express opinions upon many going-on social events. Their work can be taken as
having three main directions: commenting on the negative effects of numerous politically-related social events,
dealing with various social issues in relation to their bad influences to the standards of Muslim ethics,
providing religious criticism upon those unhappy events according to Islamic believing and its theological
doctrines.
Islamic sermons khutba, undertaken by Uyghur preachers in the basin, are regarded an important part of
the teaching activities of Islamic specialists from the Prophet Muhammad. The occasions for sermons are
regularly fixed with Friday prayers and the prayers at Muslim festivals, and often delivered when eclipses and
droughts occur. However, they have their own particular contents and styles. And as a rule in local Uyghurs,
sermons must be made by erudite preachers (khatip or damolla) 3, the most respected Islamic specialists.
Their sermons, as a series of admonitions, may address a wide range of socio-cultural phenomena, from
political issues, legal regulations and social problems to small particulars of Muslim life, but the contents of a
single sermon must be specific, short and to the point. Therefore, well-prepared sermons can evoke changes in
the feeling of their audience, influence their opinions and get responses. During my twenty months field
research in the basin, from the summer of 1993 throughout the autumn of 1995, I had paid special attention to
2
In this table, officials and intellectuals are consisted of roughly government officials, various white collar workers at
government-related organs (actually containing also other ethnic groups but roughly can be taken as also the condition of the
Uyghurs since their major proportion of the local population), religious specialists are of mosque preachers and various Quranic
teachers, ordinary residents are of city residents, merchants and peasants. While the numbers of officials and intellectuals,
ordinary residents come from the statistical data published by the related government section, the number of religious specialists
comes from my rough calculation: there are about 400 villages with Uyghur and Hui residents in the jurisdiction area of Turpan
City, and each village may have a mosque with 4-5 religious specialist, include at least one government-admitted preacher and
several villagers-elected religious assistants (muazen and molla). Together with those ones serving at the dozen of mosques in the
town areas, the actual number of religious specialists may be approximately 2000 or over.
3
I calculated the number of mosque preachers by referring to the total number of central mosques in rural Turpan areas and
towns. As a rule, every central mosque has two of their own mosque preachers: One is the chief preacher (akhon or khatip), the
other is a great teacher (da-molla). There are about 95 village communities in the jurisdictional area of Turpan City. That is to say
there are nearly two-hundred mosque preachers in their service. Adding the central mosques in three suburban towns, then the
actual number should be around two-hundred.
138
mosque preaching and the contents of sermons. Without exception, capable Islamic leaders have the reputation
of excellent mosque preachers. Some of them are known for their beautiful voices and humorous speeches,
while others are respected by their fellow Uyghurs for their ability to make tactful criticism upon political
corruption and bad social behaviors. All of them are serious about their sermons, since preaching is both a
Sunna of the prophet they have to obey and their duty to serve their fellow Uyghurs.
Some of the preachers are using personally prepared texts and notes as aiding materials for their sermons,
and one interesting case I observed is by the chief preacher at the central mosque of the Yarbash Village
Community, Ismayil Qarahaji, who had been also a most reliable informant and Islamic teacher of mine. He
offered his own version of preaching texts, a manual including 100 monitory verses he edited for mosque
sermons. He uses these folk songs also as teaching notes for his students at religious classes, as a folk reader to
be exchanged with other preachers, and even as references for new sermons in his services of mosque
preaching.
Mosque Preachers and Their Sermon Motifs

As part of the formal phase of Islamic education, sermons convey religious messages affirming the
existence of God and Muslims duties to Him, and thus provide local Uyghurs with their vision of Muslim life
and social events. Therefore, sermon preachers must have Islamic learning combined with insights into
community affairs and critical attitudes towards social events to endow their opinions with a political
significance welcomed by ordinary Uyghurs. As sermons possibly be antagonistic to government policies, that
who can deliver sermons at mosques is a critical problem for both sides.
On the one hand, Uyghur residents are very serious about whom to entrust as their own mosque preachers
while local government is also very sensitive about admitting eligible preachers to avoid political troubles. In
the present jurisdictional area of Turpan City, there are about two hundreds governmentally-approved sermon
preachers. They serve at the central mosques of every village community which in turn are the only places they
can deliver sermons.
Though making sermons is only the business of these top-level preachers, who they are and what they say
greatly interest local Uyghurs who talk about their preachers, just as university students talk about their
professors. They talk about the preachers ability of interpreting Islamic doctrines, their attitudes toward social
events, their political stances and even the tone of their voice. Naturally, preachers try to make good sermons to
keep good reputations. Some preachers are good at explaining Islamic doctrine; others are famed for daring to
express their political criticism just as others are known for good voices or humor. Influential preachers gather
greater audiences and their attitudes strongly influence ordinary Uyghurs.
In Yarbash Village Community, Ismayil Qarahaji was known for making clear and persuasive sermons. He
told me that meaningful sermons need to have critical attitudes toward social problems. Doing this may upset the
feelings of government officials but was welcomed by ordinary Uyghurs. He said that he never mentioned the
names of any politicians in his sermons and did not make sermons favoring government officials also. What he
wanted to do was only to admonish his fellow Uyghurs to stay away from bad influences and be proper Muslims.
He has a habit of editing sermon themes summarized as verse. By the spring of 1984, he had a hundred verses or
folk songs (yuz qoshaq) as he called them, composed by him together with other preachers. Each song has four
lines (except two verses with two) in specific rhythmic patterns, dealing with one social problem. By using the
form of folk songs, preachers made their opinions easy to remember with a persuasive impact
139
Since he compiled his manual from many good sermons he heard, these admonitory songs represent not
only his own, but also opinions from other mosque preachers and ordinary Uyghurs. They thus provide a
valuable sample of the social and political significance of mosque sermons. In the following sections, I will
introduce the background for the criticism found in mosque sermons and then discuss the themes as presented
in Ismayil Qarahajis manual for the Islamic significance and how sermons are basic to Uyghur education,
forming and shaping their opinions towards social realities.
Criticism of Moral Depravity and Related Themes

In September 1993, on my earlier days of fieldwork in Chatqal Countryside Unit, I heard villagers talking
about a murder case in a small village, where a young man killed the father and an uncle of his girl friend just
because his marriage proposal was rejected by the girls parents. Later, in the summer of 1994, a young worker
called Abdurashit working at the cotton factory of Chatqal Countryside Unit was killed by two boys on his way
back home just because of a simple quarrel. When a village elder in Akhon Kariz, Srajidin told me that such
unpredictable criminal cases had been very rare in countryside areas but became more and more common in the
recent period, he sighed and said these young men killed people easily like killing sheep (ademni qoydek
oturwatqan).
In Achiq Kariz village of Chigbulaq Village Community, the village head, Niyaz, whom I visited several
times, had his several hundred pigeons stolen one night. Niyaz reported the case and the names of some suspect
boys living in the same village to the head of the community committee. However, he told me that the village
community could do nothing to correct the situation.
Drug problems also began to upset local villagers. Once around the end of 1993, the head of the primary
school in Chigbulaq Village Community told me that his son had passed his examinations and went to study at
a technical school in Urumchi City. He was proud since very few people in his village had the opportunity to
get higher education after middle school. In the summer of 1994, however, I heard that his son learned to use
drugs from his classmates. He quit study and came back home weak. In order to buy drugs, the son stole family
property such as a TV set and livestock to sell. A village cadre told me that this was the first drug case in this
remote village community and now many villagers were anxious that drug problems would spread to their
village community.
Also, the moral standards for clothing, entertainment and sexual relations changed quickly, especially
among young people. For example, customarily, men must always wear caps and women wear scarves on their
heads and trousers under their skirts. But recently, some young men removed their caps, style their hair and
cream their faces, while some girls prefer to wear short skirts with socks and wear shirts with the upper buttons
opened. In the traditional ways of entertainment, for instance at parties after wedding rituals, the hosts usually
hold dance parties (mashrep) to entertain their guests. Elders and youngsters, men and women sing and dance
together to the rhythms of traditional music. But now, young boys and girls dance (tangsa) in couples to the
tune of electronic music. In many cases, boys drink alcohol and smoke, playing with girls until dawn. Naturally,
love disputes, drunken disturbances and fights are more possible.
Furthermore, increased dishonesty in local villagers reflects this downtrend in morality, as local Uyghur
villagers recognized. For example, some countryside cadres proved unworthy of the trust the villagers placed in
them. They receive subsidies for their services to village communities but work only for their own interests.
Also some Islamic leaders receive money and food from villagers without fulfilling their sacred service of
140
religious teaching. Parents use their daughters marriages as opportunities to gather money. Children do not
respect their parents.
Though these unfavorable changes may be taken as a result of past political disturbances, recent political
and economic changes also make local communities more open and easier to be influenced by the outside
world. The decline in Islamic moral standards threatens the healthy social life of local communities. Many
people worry about the situation, but their views and attitudes differ.
Some village cadres tend to consider these phenomena are mainly negative results of the trend toward
freedom in recent ideological shifts. A top cadre of Chigbulaq Village Community once told me that in the
revolutionary periods communist cadres had the power of controlling both the political and the economic
spheres of local life. Ordinary villagers obeyed village cadres and village cadres obeyed the communist party
and government, and the whole country obeyed Mao Zedong and his thought (Mao Zedong idiyisi). Village
cadres served villagers with their hearts and villagers followed their leadership. But now, village cadres have
lost most of their control over villagers. All things are free (Erkinlik), all people seem to think only of their own
affairs while nobody cares about public affairs. Such attitudes toward changes seem an expression of village
cadres to their longing for lost privilege and anxiety about the future.
However, religious intellectuals see these matters in a quite different light. On the one hand, they believe
that the revolutionary movements in the past destroyed the spiritual world of their fellow Uyghurs, forcing
them to forget their faith and duties to God. The downtrend in moral standards is no doubt the result of those
revolutionary periods. On the other hand, they also consider this trend the result of recent developments, which
bring good as well as bad things to their communities. They are both critical against the past revolutionary
movements without any reservation and concerned over the negative outcome of recent developments.
They claim that social problems mainly come from the instability of peoples faith. Now it is the time to
rebuild faith in the spiritual world of their fellow Uyghurs. These attitudes encourage self-reliance against
social problems. Many religious teachers discuss current changes in their classes and preachers make critical
sermons. Also they begin to use folk songs (qoshaq), which are popular and full of critical spirits, as an
effective medium to express their opinions.
The folk songs collected by Ismayil Qarahaji reflect this approach in religious preaching. He insists that
the spiritual world and morality of his fellow Uyghurs should not be entrusted to any political ideology or
administrative system. It has to be built up entirely on faith in the one and only God. His faith, knowledge of
Uyghur folk literature and open-minded personality worked together in compiling these admonitory songs.
Folk Songs and Preaching Texts

In modern Uyghur literary composition, one of the important forms of folk rhymes is peoples songs
(khaliq qoshaq). These folk songs are usually composed of verses without strict limitation on their structure.
The verses can be four lines each, or two lines or even an irregular number of lines. The most popular forms
use four-lines or two-lines for each verse, with the number of verses depending on writers purposes. Some
rhyming rules exist for each line in a verse, but they are loose, leaving the composer many choices. For
example, one standard four-line love songs goes:
Yarimning eti Niyaz (a) My loves named Niyaz
Ashqa salmiz piyaz (a) In food we put onions
141
Yaqshi yarini tapqanda (b) On finding sweet love

jirmaymiz qishmo yaz (a) Divorce not: winters turn to summers
(Turpan Sheherlik Khaliq Edibiyeti Toplamliri Tehrir Hayiti, 1990, p. 77)
Of these lines, three end with the same vowels and consonants for an aaba pattern, which is easy to recite.
But, the pattern can be abab, abca, abcd, etc.. Also, the lines can be shorter or much longer. Usually, Turpan
Uyghurs compose and recite these verses to express their worldview, values and attitudes toward work and life.
In a study of Uyghur literature, Zunon and Abdukirim classify these folk songs in two types. One is
ethnographical songs (etinograpiy qoshaq) reflecting local customs, while the other reflects various life
experiences. The second classification (local songs yerlik qoshaq) is further divided into five types: work
songs (emgek qoshaq), life songs (turumush qoshaq), political songs (siyasi qoshaq), love songs (muhabat
qoshaq) and childrens songs (bala qoshaq) (1982, pp. 84-162). Influenced by this classification, a recent
collection of folk songs arranged them into six categories with the sixth as ritual rhymes (murasim qoshaq)
correspending to the ethnographical songs of the first work (Turpan City Peoples Literature Collection
Committee, 1990). This latter classification seems better and more understandable as a single genre with
subdivisions.
Ismayil Qarahajis anthology belongs to a different type, which can be called religious songs as a variety
of political songs. The songs he edited have some similarities to those poems used Sufist believers (quite
popular in Sufist missionary literatures in Islamic history in Central Asia) in a sense of Islamic proselytizing,
but the purpose and the style of his songs are different greatly from the latter ones which give much more
importance to searching a real route to communicate with God. He wrote the verses down in a 17.5 cm12.5
cm large, flat, brown note book, with twenty-six pages. Ismayil told me that he composed some himself and
collected others from other preachers over a long time. In 1984, he edited them into a unified anthology of
admonitory songs (nashet nezimliri), also called simply one hundred songs (yuz qoshaq), for it contains
100 verses.4 Since they were edited for the purpose of criticizing moral depravity and highlighting social
problems in local communities, they reflect the opinions of many Uyghur residents.
As the themes are written and used by religious preachers in their sermons, their reasoning and logic are
based on Islamic doctrines. By using folk songs as sermon texts, those preachers tactfully express their critical
opinions toward social problems. They also recommend their Islamic solutions to their fellow Uyghurs.
Therefore, these admonitory songs are good samples for observing the role of Islamic education in forming
opinions toward to social issues.
Topics, Contents and Styles of Admonitory Songs

As noted above, Ismayil Qarahajis version of admonitory songs have a four-line pattern, with only two
two-lined ones used in his verses of the finished anthology. Though each verse can be taken as having an
independent theme, as a whole, the hundred verses are organized under twenty-eight topics relating to social
issues in six categories or groups (excepting the four introductory and ten concluding verses).
The first group covers eight topics and altogether 16 verses on Islamic doctrine and Muslims duties: two
4
Some of the numbers of the verses were omitted and a couple of them repeated, but in the end, his manuscript contains a true
100 verses. For the details of the contents of the original verses and English translation, see my related study (WANG, 2004, pp.
353-424).
142
verses to encourage alms; one to observe daily routines; two to criticize non-Muslim elements at ritual events;
two on dietary restrictions; one on idolatry; two on ineligible religious intellectuals; four on proper Muslim
observances and two on mistaken religious practices.
The second group consists of seven topics about cultural norms, manners and public morality, including
14 verses: two to criticize non-Muslim trends; three on westernized clothing styles; one on vulgar behavior at
wedding ceremonies; one on despising farm work and peasants; four on making rumors and slander; two on
irresponsible elders and one on business morality.
The third group consists of three topics, including nine verses respectively on new fashions, entertainment
activities and manners of young people.
The fourth group consists of eight topics about marriage and family, including altogether 21 verses: two
comments on raising children; twelve on extorting money from marriage and bride prices; five on heartless
wives, illegal pregnancy, abortion and adultery; two on divorce and separation nine on filial piety and two on
the relations between husbands and wives.
The fifth group consists of two topics including 12 verses with a nine of the verses criticizing local cadres
and three more on countryside elections.
The last group has two topics on delinquency including three verses, one on drug use and two on robbery.
Though the mood of criticism is serious, the tones and rhythms are bright, the meanings clear. As
sophisticated preachers normally do, the songs use the first person singular or plural for positive comments,
while mostly the second or third person plural for criticism. This avoids possible insults to specific listeners.
Structure and Symbolic Meanings of Admonitory Songs

The critical impact of these songs uses a binary logic or dual thought structure comparing, contrasting or
pairing good and evil (yaqshi vs. yaman), lawful and prohibited (halal vs. haram), virtue and sin (sawap vs.
gunah), reward and punishment (mukapat vs. jaza), heaven (biyish) and hell (dozaq), etc. to present an Islamic
perspective with all criticisms and insights. They are taken as powerful for persuading, impressing and
reinforcing the admonitory effects of religious preaching.
All songs use a two-part structure: one part describes problematic phenomena and the other makes
remarks referring to Muslim ethics or Islamic regulations. For example, a verse goes:
Going to steal when it becomes dark,
Never getting up until dusk after day begins,
Sticking what they see into their bosoms;
Please remember retribution after death!
(WANG, 2004, pp. 363, 401)
In the first three lines, the preacher makes description on thieves, their habits and values, then, gives his
admonition in the last one referring to the Last Judgment. Another verse goes:
Away from places of virtuous conduct,
Throwing themselves into the sinful ways,
Actively participate in guilty deeds,
143
Beware the punishment after death!

(WANG, 2004, pp. 361, 396)
The first three lines contrast virtue and sin, to evoke rejection and the last promises hell for evil people
(thus implying heaven for the virtuous).
In addition to this formula in meaning and structure, the preacher organized his songs using two or more
verses to approach the same problem from different aspects, such as making comments on family disputes from
both the husbands and wifes sides, on the new fashion of both boys and girls, or criticizing the corruption of
communist cadres and ordinary Uyghurs, and so on. Here are two illustrations.
Muslim people have five duties to God,
Confession, Prayers, fasts, tithes and pilgrimages are compulsory,
Sultans fulfilled these as written in Islamic law (Shariyet);
Are there Muslims doing these among us?
(WANG, 2004, pp. 366, 407)
Some people are not firm in Islam,
Observing ritual prayers when in good moods,
But casting them aside when feeling otherwise;
Being Muslim or infidel depends on ritual prayers!
(WANG, 2004, pp. 354, 379)
The above two verses are both on Muslim duties, but use different approaches. The first invites
comparison with the faithful, the latter with infidels.
The Prophet of God told us this Hadith:
The Cereals are lawful form of food,
Pigs are counted as prohibited in the Judgement Day;
Please learn well from this Hadith!
(WANG, 2004, pp. 364, 402)
Saying I repent when listening to Traditions,
After that continuing to eat prohibited things,
As if all things going down throats are lawful;
Remember that prohibited food is great sin!
(WANG, 2004, pp. 364, 403)
The above two verses are similarly about the food restriction, but where one stresses obedience or else, the
focuses on hypocrisy and negligence. Here are some more two pronged approaches:
Boys and girls are excited at marriage ceremonies
144

New, new customs they have created,
Marriage and wedding separated from the faith;
Tell these youth to behave proper ways!
(WANG, 2004, pp. 356, 383)
Getting in the way of wedding guests,
Asking for presents as collecting taxes,
Letting none pass until getting money;
Please stop robbing at weddings!
(WANG, 2004, pp. 359, 391)
Both verses criticize the degeneration of wedding ceremonies, but the first one criticizes licentious youth
while the other on the problem of parents extorting gifts and money.
Made-up in a way like women do,
Little difference to female guys,
Styling hairs the same as women;
Please you boys follow Gods will!
(WANG, 2004, pp.356, 382)
Going around with dyed hair,
Pursuing strange fashions,
Behaving in no way like Uyghur girls;
Please put on Muslim clothes!
(WANG, 2004, pp. 357, 386)
These two concern the new fashions of young Uyghurs, but the first verse is directed to males while the
second females.
Some men say talaq to divorce their wives,5
Urging imams to pray for their marriage,
Getting no promise they blame preachers;
Please retreat from such conduct!
(WANG, 2004, pp. 359, 390)
Some girls go away from their husbands,
5
Talaq is an Arabic word meaning divorce. In the old Uyghur tradition, following religious stipulation, when men want to
divorce their wives, they must say talaq three times in front of witnesses and religious arbitrators (usually mosque preachers).
Then the divorce can be taken as legal. If a divorced man wants to remarry, he has to invite mosque preacher to hold Islamic
wedding rites (nikah) again. In present day Turpan, however, this old custom is not practiced by Uyghurs. This verse just uses this
term to mean divorce and criticizes men who dont take the marriage relations seriously.
145
Staying many days without being together,

Shaming imam, muazzin and akhon;6
Please pray for them to get Gods teaching!
(WANG, 2004, pp. 359, 391)
The Prophet of God did his marriages as follows,
Marry someone with only 10 derhem,7
Marry the poor giving a ring;
Please let these weddings guide you well!
(WANG, 2004, pp. 360, 393)
The above three verses concern unfavorable relations between husbands and wives from different aspects:
first is on husbands and then wives followed by the example of the Prophet. The following is an example of the
criticism by the way of beating two birds with one stone:
Some people hang pictures in their rooms;
Demons and devils hide in such place,
Angels escape from such places,
Hanging picture is not good conduct!8
(WANG, 2004, pp. 365, 405)
This verse criticizes the custom of hanging picture as the wall decoration of houses since hanging pictures,
especially of people, could be idolatry. Therefore, Islamic leaders oppose such customs. Actually, at the same
time, to hang pictures means to hang the pictures of revolutionary leaders such as Lenin, Stalin and Mao
Zedong, popular until the end of 1970s. While veneration of these political leaders came close to religious
worship, attacking political leaders is still unacceptable even in the era of the open-reform policy.
Sometimes they are scholars reciting the Quran,
But also gathering with demons drinking alcohol,
Dangerous conduct swinging from the faith;
6
Marriage is taken as one of the most important Muslim duties ordered by God: it must be held according to Islamic rules. In
Turpan, when holding wedding rites (niqah), each side of the marriage would invite three scholars, one as a negotiator and two as
witnesses on behalf of each. These two groups would further select an arbitrator (usually a highly respected religious authority) to
preside over the ritual. Thus, if there are problems after the wedding, such as divorce, adultery or other troubles, these religious
specialists who attended the wedding as arbitrator, negotiators and witnesses have the duty to help the couple solve their problems.
That is why the verse says that those who dont take marriage relations serious are causing trouble for religious specialists.
7
Here, derhem is the drachma used in ancient Arabia in the period of the Prophet Muhammad.
8
In the Socialist revolution period of China, there is custom for local residents to hang pictures of political leaders and other kinds
of pictures on the walls to decorate their houses. B. Davidsons description of the wall decoration in a peasants house in the
middle of the 1950s in rural Turpan shed light on this situation. A fly-blown poster of Stalin with the name in Chinese characters
(sometimes, in these peasant houses, one may still see posters of Lenin and Stalin with the names in Russian, torn fragments of
Inner Asian history) hung askew on the wall across from me. Alongside and depicting the physiology of childbirth were pinned
three fresh posters whose colored and practically photographic detail showed six stages of fetus growth within a red and pink
womb, and a number of variants of delivery from normal to breach birth and frontal (Davidson, 1957, p. 165).
146

Hold to wholeness and never behave thus!
(WANG, 2004, pp. 355, 380)
Keeping their eyes on the wrongs of other's,
Asserting themselves as just and avoiding evil,
Holding stately rituals while mixing the lawful and forbidden;
Mossa outside, perikhon9 inside, are there such Muslims among us?
(WANG, 2004, pp. 367, 409)
These verses criticize two kinds of religious intellectuals: corrupt hypocrites and those with impure faith
and superstitious inclinations.
Racking their brains to create and use budget,
Spending government money and wealth,
Bringing heavy taxes to the masses;
Work sincerely for your people!
(WANG, 2004, pp. 363, 400)
Getting swollen-heads after winning peoples elections,
Eating and playing, profiting from powerful connections,
Becoming rich without work, benefiting from the peasants;
Are there such leaders eating peoples blood among us?
(WANG, 2004, pp. 370, 419)
These last two examples address the corruption of government officials and village cadres: the first,
embezzlers and the second, those that bribe higher-ups while exploiting those below.
The Power of Words and Islamic Significance

Sermons based on the themes like Ismayil Qarahajis folk songs tackling social problems are welcomed by
local Uyghurs and mosque preaching is an inseparable part of mass education. Since mosque preachers are
actually the leaders of local elder groups, they have a grasp of the needs in their communities and of their
fellow Uyghurs. Thus their approach toward social problems reflects concerns of ordinary Uyghurs with
Islamic solutions suiting their shared Islamic heritage disrupted from the inside and outside.
At once, it is necessary for them to be very strict in religious teaching and in observance if their teaching is
to have any effect. Mosques have an overwhelming aura of Gods presence with all people quiet as the
preachers voice echoes. Probably, Friday prayers are the best opportunities for religious leaders to demonstrate
their preaching power and influence the opinions of a large mass of the local Uyghurs.
The symbolic effectiveness of their words comes from their reputations for erudition, judicious use of
9
Moses outside means someone who is quite pious outwardly (like Moses) while perikhon inside meaning someone who
actually behaves superstitiously or improperly and thus a hypocrite.
147
stereotypes and self-criticism along with simple rhetoric and charging everything with Islamic significance. For
example, the stereotypes under criticism are four types: (1) Infidels or non-Muslims are used basically to make
being Muslim more desirable; (2) ordinary Uyghurs, theoretically all local Uyghurs, but actually only those
offending Islamic regulations to strengthen the desire to more than ordinary; again, a good Muslim; (3)
government officials and village cadres who are a part of ordinary Uyghurs but privileged as community
authorities, any problems, corruption, etc., with them are very serious for all; as also with (4) Islamic
intellectuals, also a part of ordinary Uyghurs with authority through their duties of social organization and
religious teaching.
Admonitory sermons like the folk songs, do not take criticisms outside ethnic boundaries. As the major
ethnic group in the basin, Uyghurs still interact with other groups such as the Huis and Hans; however,
mentioning the social problems related to the other ethnic groups has the risk of complicating things, stirring up
political disputes.
Criticism of Muslim offenders is often and bitter, especially deviant behavior of youth. The 100 songs
have 38 verses criticizing the morals and behavior among young people, from marriage disputes, alcohol and
drug uses to adulteries, fashions, filial piety and manners. These problems are actually more the concern
Uyghur parents. Seven verses criticize government officials and village cadres along with eight for religious
intellectuals. Fifteen verses include the neglect of Muslim duties, betrayal trusts, hypocrisy and greed, blaming
the official and cadres may not stir too many villagers, but appropriate self-criticism may be wise for
reinforcing the persuasive power of their sermons.
When Islamic significance is assumed and drives the reasoning process, the persuasive effects of religious
sermons become most powerful. Although I know many preachers study religious scriptures in old Turkic,
Arabic and sometime in Persian, and teach the Quran and Hadith to their students and use many difficult words
and expressions in religious teaching and their theological discussions, their preaching is understandable to
even children and women.
In order to emphasize the importance of Islamic belief and Muslim duty, preachers constantly refer to
Gods will, the Quran, Islamic law, the five pillars, virtue and heaven, the necessity of obeying the custom of
marriage and family relations, etc., along with traditions (Hadis) about Muhammad and the Sunna which tells
people what the prophet said and did when he was alive. When criticizing impure or heretical beliefs and
superstitions using examples of religious intellectuals (akhon, molla) or mentioning Moses (means Mossa and
other related prophets familiar), and condemning mystic beliefs (supi, the local Uyghur spell of Sufi),
shamanism and sorcery (buwi, perikhon), common-sense recommendations come with repeated uses of five
expressions: sin, answer to God, the Last Judgment, Gods punishment and Hell as reinforcing sanctions
against offending behavior. Such Islamic significance charges the points of any sermons with clarity and
compelling compulsoriness (i.e., this rhetoric emphasizes how to be a proper Muslim, accumulate virtue,
minimize sin and get a positive reward in the next world). If one neglects religious duties, straying away from
the way of God, they can only go straight to Hell, the logic understandable even to children. Preachers omit lot
of complicated theological concepts in religious teaching for the purpose of simplicity and rely on guilty feeling
rather than actual sanctions to offenders.
While such reasoning makes no sense to non-Muslims and those Uyghurs without religion, Islamic
significance with tactfully organized criticism and simplicity are persuasive to those who share the same
assumptions, even if admixed with superstitions. Normally, believers accept sermons as authentic and true
148
teachings and a part of their most valuable education.
Conclusion: Religious Knowledge and Social Control

In the present basin, since preachers are basically outside the functional system of government
administration, their authority has no compulsory nature in the sense of political power to control their fellow
Uyghurs, nonetheless, the fact that about 200 mosque preachers serving about 200,000 of their fellow Uyghurs
makes their knowledge an inseparable element and coordinate force in social organization.
The difference between the power of two authority groups, village cadres and religious intellectuals, is the
forms of their political expressions based on their education and social status. The former are powerful because
they have political privilege, the latter because they have knowledge both on Islam and local customs.
Though the result of their religious teaching has to be connected to their role of social organization, their
political power is more symbolic. We can now understand its real power from what we see in how sermons
function in popular Islamic education exemplified in those admonitory songs. They clearly aim at social
problems with tactful criticism and adaptations to political realities makes preachers acceptable to their fellow
Uyghurs. Once in front of their fellow Uyghurs, at central mosques, the religious aura of the location invests
their sermons with impressive powers of persuasion. In a sense of cultural logic and aesthetics, their Islamic
knowledge and rhetoric are finishing touches to an emotional and psychological art form that doubles as real
power for social organization and community influences if not direct control.
References
Davidson, B. (1957). Turkestan alive: New travels in Chinese Central Asia. London: J. Cape.
The statistic section of the Turpan District. (2004). 2004 statistical yearbook of Turpan. China Statistics Press .
Turpan City Peoples Literature Collection Committee (Turpan Sheherlik Khaliq Edibiyeti Toplamliri Tehrir Hayiti). (1990).
China Peoples Folk Songs Xinjiang Part (Jongguo Khaliq Chochekliri Shinjang Tomi: Turpan Sheher Khaliq Paranglir).
Turpan Sheherlik 1-Ottura Mektep Basma Zawuti.
WANG, J. (1996). Religious legitimation in the healing practice of a Uyghur preacher in rural Turpan. Journal of Asian and
African Studies, 52, 35-55.
WANG, J. (2004). Uyghur education and social order: The role of Islamic leadership in the Turpan Basin. Studia Culturae
Islamicae, 76. Tokyo: Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa.
Zunon, M., & Abdukirim R. (1982). The basic knowledge of Uyghur peoples spoken literature (Uyghur Khaliq Eghiz
Edibiyatning Asasiliri). Shinjang Khaliq Neshiriyati.

Appendix: The Original Manuscripts of the Sermon Poems
Verses 1-4
Verses 97-100
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