Understanding high school

Mathematics
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE......................................................................................2
THE NUMBER SYSTEM........................................................................2
1.1. REVISION ON THE SET OF RATIONAL NUMBERS.....................................4
1.2. THE REAL NUMBER SYSTEM.............................................................6
1.2.9 EUCLIDS DIVISION ALGORITHM.......................................................8
CHAPTER TWO.....................................................................................8
SOLUTIONS OF EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES.............................8
2. 1. EQUATIONS INVOLVING EXPONENTS AND RADICALS...............................8
2. 2. SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLE.................................8
2. 3. EQUATIONS INVOLVING ABSOLUTE VALUE............................................8
2. 4. QUADRATIC EQUATION....................................................................8
2. 5. INEQUALITIES INVOLVING ABSOLUTE VALUE..........................................8
2. 6. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR INEQUALITIES IN TWO VARIABLES...........................8
2. 7. QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES...............................................................8
CHAPTER THREE..................................................................................8
FURTHER ON SETS..............................................................................8
3.1. WAYS TO DESCRIBE SETS................................................................8
3.2. THE NOTATION OF SETS..................................................................8
3.3. OPERATION ON SETS......................................................................8
CHAPTER FOUR...................................................................................8
RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS.............................................................8
4.1. RELATIONS..................................................................................8
4.2. FUNCTIONS..................................................................................8
4.3. GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS..................................................................8
CHAPTER FIVE.....................................................................................8
POLYNOMIAL EQUATION.....................................................................8
5.1
INTRODUCTION TO POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS........................................8
5.1.1. DEFINITION OF POLYNOMIAL FUNCTION...............................................8
5.1.2. OPERATION ON POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS.............................................9
5.2
THEOREMS ON POLYNOMIALS.........................................................10
5.3
ZEROS OF POLYNOMIAL FUNCTION..................................................10
5.4
GRAPHS OF POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS...............................................10
CHAPTER SIX.....................................................................................10
EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS............................10
6.1. EXPONENTS AND LOGARITHMS.......................................................10
6.2. THE EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS.............................10
6.3. THE LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS.............................10
6.4. EQUATIONS INVOLVING EXPONENTS AND LOGARITHMS.........................10
6.5. APPLICATIONS OF EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS..............10
CHAPTER SEVEN................................................................................10
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS..........................................................10
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Understanding high school

Mathematics
7.1. BASIC TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS.................................................10
7.2. THE RECIPROCAL FUNCTIONS OF THE BASIC TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 10
7.3. SIMPLE TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES................................................10
7.4. REAL LIFE APPLICATION PROBLEMS..................................................10
CHAPTER EIGHT.................................................................................10
GEOMETRY AND MEASUREMENT.....................................................10
8.1. REGULAR POLYGONS....................................................................10
8.2. FURTHER ON CONGRUENCY AND SIMILARITY......................................10
8.3. FURTHER ON TRIGONOMETRY.........................................................10
8.4. CIRCLES....................................................................................10
8.5. THEOREMS ON TRIANGLES.............................................................10
8.6. SPECIAL QUADRILATERALS.............................................................10
8.7. REGULAR POLYGONS....................................................................10
8.8. MEASUREMENT...........................................................................10
CHAPTER NINE...................................................................................10
COORDINATE GEOMETRY.................................................................10
9.1. DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO PATHS.....................................................10
9.2. DIVISION OF A LINE SEGMENT........................................................10
9.3. EQUATION OF A LINE....................................................................11
9.4. PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES..............................................11
CHAPTER TEN....................................................................................11
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY........................................................11
10.1. STATISTICAL DATA........................................................................11
10.2. PROBABILITY..............................................................................11
CHAPTER ELEVEN..............................................................................11
VECTORS IN TWO DIMENSIONS......................................................11
11.1. INTRODUCTION TO VECTORS AND SCALARS......................................11
11.2. REPRESENTATION OF VECTORS.......................................................11
11.3. OPERATION OF VECTORS...............................................................11
11.4. POSITION VECTOR OF A POINT........................................................11

Chapter One
The Number System
Introduction

Understanding high school

Mathematics
Number is one of the basic concepts of mathematics. Number is
basically representation of quantity of any object. Number system
started from the time of ancient civilization, Primitive man used to
compare one quantity with another when there was no number; like
they used to lay aside each pebble for a sheep they rear, in order to
count sheep. Latter with advancement in language they gave the
number a name and a symbol like for first quantity the name is One
and symbol is 1 and for fifth quantity the name is Five and symbol
is 5.
Each civilization had its own name and symbols for numbers, among
them the most popular one now is Hindu Arabic numbering system
which has 10 bases (or this number system has 10 basic symbols for
numbers).
The ten symbols used in Hindu Arabic numbering system for numbers
are:
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
Some of the numeric system rather than Hindu Arabic are
1. Egyptian Number system
1
=
2
=
3
=
4
=
5
=

10
=
20
=
30
=
40
=
50
=

100
=
200
=
300
=
400
=
500
=

1000
=
2000
=
3000
=
4000
=
5000
=

2. Greek Number system

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Mathematics

3. Babylonian Number system

4. Geez Number system

In your primary school, you have learnt rational numbers, their

properties and basic operations on them. In this chapter we will expand
number system called to real number system by including irrational
number rather than rational numbers. Before us going to see the real
number system we must revise some important points from rational
numbers.
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Mathematics
1.1.
Revision on the set of rational numbers
1.1.1. Natural
numbers,
Integers,
prime
numbers
and
composite numbers
Natural numbers
Natural numbers can be described by the set N= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }. This
set is sometimes called counting numbers
Whole numbers
Whole numbers can be described by the set W= {0, 1, 2, 3, 4 }.
Integers
The set of integers Z is the set Z= {, -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 }
Definition: For any two natural numbers a and b, a is said to be a
multiple of b if there exists an element c in N such that a b c
Note: If a b c then a is also a multiple of c and b and c are factors
of a or divisors of a
Example
a. Multiples of 2 are 2, 4, 6, 8, 10
b. Multiples of 3 are 3, 6, 9, 12
c. Multiples of 12 are 12, 24, 36, 48
d. Multiples of 100 are 100, 200, 300, 400
e. Factors of 12 are 1, 2,3,4,6 and 12
f. Factors of 36 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18 and 36
g. Factors of 42 are 1, 2, 3, 6, 7,14, 21 and 42
h. Factors of 17 are 1 and 17
i. Factors of 2 are 1 and 2
j. Factor of 1 is 1
Prime numbers and Composite numbers
A natural number that has exactly two distinct factors namely 1 and
itself is called prime number.
A natural number that has more than two factors is called a
composite number.
Note: 1 is neither Prime nor composite.
Divisibility test
A number is divisible by:
2, if its units digit is divisible by 2.
3, if the sum of its digits is divisible by 3.
4, if the number formed by its last two digits is divisible by 4.
5, if its units digit is either 0 or 5.
6, if it is divisible by 2 and 3.
8, if the number formed by its last three digits is divisible by 8.
9, if the sum of its digits is divisible by 9.
10, if its units digit is 0.

Understanding high school

Mathematics
Prime factorization of a composite number is found if and only if it is
put in a form of product of its prime factors. The prime factorization of
a number is unique.
Theorem Fundamental theorem of arithmetic
Every composite number can be expressed (factorized) as a
product of primes. This factorization is unique, a part from
the order in which the prime factors occur.

1.1.2. Common factors and common multiples

Definition: A common factor of two or more counting numbers is
counting number which is a factor of the given numbers.
Definition: Greatest common factor (GCF) of two or more natural
numbers is the greatest natural number which is a factor of each of the
given numbers.
GCF can be computed using prime factorization
1. First write the prime factorization of each number
2. find the common prime factors of all the numbers
3. take each common prime factor with its least power
4. the GCF is the product of the numbers obtained in step 3 above
Definition: relatively prime numbers are numbers with no common
prime factor or they are numbers with GCF 1.
Definition: For any two natural numbers a and b, the least common
multiple of a and b denoted by LCM (a, b), is the smallest multiple of
both a and b.
For any natural numbers a and b, GCF (a, b) x LCM (a, b) = a x b.
We can find the LCM by using prime factorization
1. Find the prime factorization of each number
2. take all the prime factors appearing
3. write each prime factor with its highest power
4. The product of the numbers obtained in step 3 (each prime
factor with its highest power) gives the LCM of the numbers.
1.1.3. Rational numbers
Definition: The set of rational numbers denoted by Q can be defined
as Q= {a/b: aEZ, bEZ and b0} or it is a number that can be written in
the form of a/b where a and b are integers and b is different from 0.
Rational numbers

Understanding high school

Mathematics
The set of rational numbers denoted by Q can be defined as

Q { ba : a Z , b Z b 0} or

form of

a
b

it is a number that can be written in the

where a and b are integers and b is different from 0.

1.2. The real number system

1.2.1 Representation of Rational numbers by Decimals
A rational number can be expressed either by fraction or decimals. A
fraction is a way of writing division of one quantity by another. Any
fraction of integers can be expressed as a decimal by dividing the
numerator by the denominator.
Any rational number a/b can be expressed as a decimal by dividing the
numerator a by denominator b.
When you divide a by b, one of the following two cases will occur.
Case 1 The division process ends or terminates when a remainder of
zero is obtained. In this case, the decimal is called a terminating
decimal.
Case 2 The division process does not terminate as the remainder never
becomes zero. Such a decimal is called a repeating decimal.
Expressing terminating and repeating decimals as fraction
Every terminating decimal can be expressed as a fraction ( a ratio of
two integers) with a denominator of 10, 100, 1000 and so on.
If d is a terminating decimal number that has n digits after a decimal
point, then we rewrite d as
The right side of the equation gives the fractional form of d.
In general, if d is a repeating decimal with k non-repeating and p
repeating digits after the decimal point, then the formula
is used to change the decimal to the fractional form of d.
1.2.2 Irrational number
Irrational numbers are neither terminating nor repeating decimals.
Definition: An irrational number is a number that cannot be expressed
as a/b, such that a and b are integers and b0.
1.2.3 Real Numbers
Definition: A number is called real number, if and only if it is either a
rational or irrational number. The set of real numbers, denoted by R,
can be described as the union of the sets of rational and irrational
numbers. R={x: x is a rational number or an irrational number}
1.2.4 Exponents and Radicals.
Definition: Square root
For any real numbers a and b, if a2=b, then a is a square root of b.
Definition: The nth root
For any two real numbers a and b, and positive integer n, if a n=b,
then a is called an nth root of b.
Definition: Principal nth root
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Mathematics
If b is any real number and n is a positive integer greater than 1, then,
the principal nth root of b, denoted by is defined as
Definition: the nth power
If bER and n is a positive integer greater than 1, then
Theorem
For any two real numbers a and b for all integers
Theorem
For any two numbers a and b where and for all integers
Definition
For and p and q any two positive integers
1.2.5 Operations on Real numbers
1.2.6 Limits of Accuracy
1.2.7 Scientific Notation (Standard form)
1.2.8 Rationalization
1.2.9 Euclids Division Algorithm
Chapter Two
Solutions of Equations and Inequalities
2. 1. Equations involving exponents and radicals
2. 2. System of linear equations in two variable
2. 3. Equations involving absolute value
2. 4. Quadratic equation
2. 5. Inequalities involving absolute value
2. 6. systems of linear inequalities in two variables
2. 7. Quadratic inequalities
Chapter Three
Further on Sets
3.1. Ways to describe sets
3.2. The notation of sets
3.3. Operation on sets
Chapter Four
Relations and Functions
4.1. Relations
4.2. Functions
4.3. Graphs of functions
Chapter Five
Polynomial Function
5.1
Introduction to polynomial functions
5.1.1. Definition of Polynomial function
Definition: Let n be a non-negative integer and let an, an-1,,a1, a0 be a
real number with an0. The function
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Mathematics
P(x) =anxn+an-1xn-1+. +a1x+a0 is called a polynomial function in
variable x of degree n.
Note that in the definition or q polynomial function
P(x) =anxn+an-1xn-1+. +a1x+a0
an, an-1,,a1, a0 are called the coefficient of the polynomial
function (or simply the polynomial)
The number an is called the leading coefficient of the polynomial
function and anxn is the leading term.
The number a0 is called the constant term of the polynomial.
The number n (the exponent of the highest power of x), is the
degree of the polynomial.
Note that the domain of a polynomial function is R.
Based on the type of function it has, a polynomial function p is said to
be:
A polynomial function over integers, if the coefficient of p(x) are
all integers
A polynomial function over rational numbers, if the coefficients
of p(x) are all rational numbers.
A polynomial over real numbers, if the coefficients of p(x) are all
real numbers.
Based on the degree of a polynomial, polynomial functions can be
classified into:
1. Zero polynomial (zero function)
The zero function is a polynomial function with no degree. If b is a
constant with a value 0 (b=0), f(x) =b that is f(x) =0 is a zero
function.
2. Zero degree polynomial(constant function)
Constant functions are polynomial functions of degree 0. If b is a non
zero constant (b0), f(x)=b is a constant function with the set of real
numbers as its domain and {b} as its range.
3. First degree polynomial (linear function)
Linear functions are polynomial function of degree 1.
A linear function is a function which is given by the form f(x) =ax+b
where a and b are real numbers and a0.
4. Second degree polynomial (quadratic function)
Quadratic functions are polynomial functions of degree 2. Quadratic
function f is a polynomial function which is written in the form of
ax2+bx+c where a, b, c are real numbers and a0.
5. Third degree polynomial (cubic function)
Cubic functions are polynomial function of degree 3. If a, b, c and d
are real number with a0, then the function f(x) =ax 3+bx2+cx+d is a
cubic function.
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Mathematics
6. Higher degree polynomials
Higher degree polynomials are polynomial functions whose degree is
greater than 4. In general it is given by the form P(x) =anxn+an-1xn-1+.
+a1x+a0 where, an, an-1, a1 and a0 are real numbers with an0 and
n4.
5.1.2. Operation on polynomial Functions
Addition of polynomial functions
In addition of two or more polynomials we will add the coefficient of like
terms. Note that like terms are terms having the same variables to the
same powers but possibly they may have different coefficients.
Let P(x) =anxn+ an-1xn-1++a1x+a0 and Q(x) =bnxn+bn-1xn-1++b1x+b0,
then
P(x) +Q(x) = anxn+ an-1xn-1++a1x+a0 + bnxn+bn-1xn-1++b1x+b0
= anxn+ bnxn +an-1xn-1+bn-1xn-1++ a1x+ b1x+a0+ b0
= (an+ bn)xn +(an-1+bn-1)xn-1++ (a1+ b1)x+(a0+ b0)
Subtraction of polynomial functions
In subtraction of two or more polynomials we will subtract the
coefficient of like terms. Note that like terms are terms having the same
variables to the same powers but possibly they may have different
coefficients.
Let P(x) =anxn+ an-1xn-1++a1x+a0 and Q(x) =bnxn+bn-1xn-1++b1x+b0,
then
P(x) +Q(x) = anxn+ an-1xn-1++a1x+a0 (bnxn+bn-1xn-1++b1x+b0)
= anxn-bnxn +an-1xn-1-bn-1xn-1++ a1x- b1x+a0- b0
= (an-bn)xn +(an-1-bn-1)xn-1++ (a1-b1)x+(a0-b0)
5.2
Theorems on polynomials
5.2.1. Polynomial Division Theorem
5.2.2. Remainder Theorem
5.2.3. Factor Theorem
5.3
Zeros of polynomial function
5.4
Graphs of polynomial functions
Chapter Six
Exponential and logarithmic functions
6.1. Exponents and logarithms
6.2. The exponential functions and their graphs
6.3. The logarithmic functions and their graphs
6.4. Equations involving exponents and logarithms
6.5. applications of exponential and logarithmic functions
Chapter Seven
Trigonometric functions
7.1.
Basic trigonometric functions

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Mathematics
7.2. The reciprocal functions of the basic trigonometric
functions
7.3. Simple trigonometric identities
7.4. Real life application problems
Chapter Eight
Geometry and Measurement
8.1. Regular polygons
8.2. Further on congruency and similarity
8.3. Further on trigonometry
8.4. Circles
8.5. theorems on triangles
8.6. special quadrilaterals
8.7. regular polygons
8.8. Measurement
Chapter Nine
Coordinate Geometry
9.1. Distance between two paths
9.2. Division of a line segment
9.3. Equation of a line
9.4. Parallel and perpendicular lines
Chapter Ten
Statistics and Probability
10.1. Statistical data
10.2. Probability
Chapter Eleven
Vectors in Two Dimensions
11.1. Introduction to Vectors and scalars
11.2. Representation of vectors
11.3. Operation of vectors
11.4. Position vector of a point

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