Sedirnentology (1981) 28, 573-597

Carbonate ramp-to-deeper shale shelf transitions of an Upper Cambrian intrashelf

basin, Nolichucky Formation, Southwest Virginia Appalachians

* Chevron U S .A.,

J. R. M A R K E L L O * and J. F. R E A D ?
Inc. and t Department of Geological Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institiitc
and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24601, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT
The Nolichucky Formation (0-300 m thick) formed on the Cambrian pericratonic shelf i n a shallow
intrashelf basin bordered along strike and toward the regional shelf edge by shallow water carbonates
and by nearshore clastics toward the craton. Lateral facies changes from shallow basinal rocks to
peritidal carbonates suggest that the intrashelf basin was bordered by a gently sloping carbonate ramp.
Peritidal facies of the regional shelf are cyclic, upward-shallowing stromatolitic carbonates. These
grade toward the intrashelf basin into shallow ramp, cross-bedded, ooid and oncolitic, intraclast grainstones that pass downslope i n t o deeper ramp, subwave base, ribbon carbonates and thin limestone
conglomerate. Ribbon limestones are layers and lenses of trilobite packstone, parallel and wave-ripplelaminated, quartzose calcisiltite, and lime mudstone arranged in storm-generated, fining upward
sequences (1-5 cm thick) that may be burrowed. Shallow basin facies are storm generated, upward
coarsening and upward fining sequences of green, calcareous shale with open marine biota; parallel to
hummocky laminated calcareous siltstone; and intraformational flat pebble conglomerate. There are
also rare debris-flow paraconglomerate (10-60 cm thick) and shaly packstone/wackestone with trace
fossils, glauconite horizons and erosional surfaces/hardgrounds. A 15-m thick tongue of cyclic carbonates within the shale package contains subtidal digitate algal bioherins which devcloped during
a period of shoaling in the basin.
Understanding the Nolichucky facies within a ramp to intrashelf basin model provides a framework
for understanding similar facies which are widely distributed in the Lower Palaeozoic elsewhere. The
study demonstrates the widespread effects of storm processes on pericratonic shelf sedimentation.
Finally, recognition of shallow basins located on pericratonic shelves is important because such basins
influence the distribution of facies and reservoir rocks, whose trends may be unrelated to rcgional
shelf-edge trends.

INTRODUCTION
The major aim of this paper is to describe a carbonate r a m p t o shallow basin transition associated
with a n intrashelf depression on a pericratonic platform. Particular emphasis is placed on the description
o f the facies and possible processes (especially storinrelated types) involved in their formation.
The Late Cambrian Nolichucky Formation and
time-equivalent rocks in the Appalachian Valley and
Ridge Province of Virginia developed o n the regional
carbonate shelf o r Appalachian miogeocline (Palmer,
1971a; Williams, 1978) within and peripheral to a
shallow basin upon the shelf (Fig. I).The regional
0037-0746/8 1/OSOO-0573 $02.00
ic)

1981 International Association of Sedinientologists

carbonate shelf passed south-east into deep water

pelitic sediments of the Piedmont (Fig. 1) (Rodgers,
1968; Reinhardt, 1974; Keith s( Friedinan, 1977).
The regional shelf has been compared to an Atlantictype continental shelf (Bird & Dewey, 1970), peripheral to a marginal or back-arc basin. This inarginal
basin may have been ensialic and located behind
a n Andean-type magmatic arc (Glover ct a/., 1978).
The intrashelf basin was the site of fine clastic and
carbonate deposition and was bordered to the northeast (along regional depositional strike) and to the
south-east (toward the regional shelf edge) by shallow
water carbonates, and to the north-west by nearshore
clastics of the craton (Fig. I ) . This intrashelf basin

5 74

J. R. Markello arid J . F. Read

NEARSHORE
C L A S T I C S OF

PRECAMBRIAN/
C A M B R I A N ARC
NOLICHUCKY
INTRASHELF
BASIN

PELITIC
F A C I E S OF
PIEDMONT

200 KMS

Fig. 1. Late Cambrian regional palaeogeography of the

southern Appalachian miogcocline showing Nolichucky
intrashclf basin as a depression upon the regional carbonate shelf. Inset maps locate study area.

appears to be located over a persistent CambroOrdovician depocentre (characterized by thickening

of the Cambro-Ordovician carbonates; Colton, 1970).
This depocentre later evolved into a deep foreland
basin in the Middle Ordovician (Read, 1980). The
Nolichucky intraself basin appears to have many
similarities to the inshore basins described from
the Cambrian of Westcrn Canada (Aitken, 1978), the
Grcat Basin of the western United States (Palmer,
1971b) Lohmann, 1976), the Mesozoic of eastern
Canada (Eliuk, 1978) and intrashelf basins and depressions of Holocene continental shelves (Ginsburg
& James, 19741, niany of which are sites of fine clastic
deposition and are bounded to seaward by shallow
water carbonates.
The transition from per-itidal shelf carbonates into
Nolichucky intrashelf basin facies appears to have
many of the characteristics of a carbonate ramp (after
Ahr, 1973). That is, slopcs were extremely low, which
inhibited devclopnicnt of sediment gravity flows, but
apparently favoured storm-generated sequences over
wide areas. Secondly, grainstones developed in up-dip
positions peripheral to peritidal facies, and linear
build-up trends are absent. Facies comprising the

transition include oolitic and oncolitic grainstones

(seaward of tidal flats), ribbon carbonates of the
deep ramp, and shale, siltstone and limestone conglomerates of the shallow basin.
Ribbon carbonates are widespread in Lower
Palaeozoic sequences (Reinhardt & Hardie, 1976;
Cook & Taylor, 1977). Some are developed within
cyclic, upward shallowing units and are interpreted
as shallow subtidal t o intertidal facies on the basis
of sedimentary structures and position in cycles
(Reinhardt & Hardie, 1976). However, others that
occur in non-cyclic units seaward of peritidal facies,
and grade downslope into deep water facies, may be
deep ramp/slope facies (Cook & Taylor, 1977).
Evidence is presented indicating that Nolichucky
ribbon rocks have characteristics of the deeper water
types.
Deeper water shale and limestone conglomerate
sequences adjacent to Cambro-Ordovician shelves
are described from New York-Vermont (Keith &
Friedman, 1977), and Quebec (Hubert, Lajoie &
Leonard, 1970; Hubert, Suchecki & Callahan, 1977;
St Julien & Hubert, 1975), and are off-shelf slope
and basin deposits that contain sediment gravity flow
units. However, thin conglomerate, siltstone and
shale sequences in the Nolichucky Formation largely
appear to be storm-generated sequences (cf. Sepkoski,
1978) that formed in relatively shallow, subwave base
settings on a gently sloping ramp and on the shallow
basin plain of the intrashelf basin. These and other
features in Nolichucky sediments are common in
other Canibro-Ordovician rocks including those from
Alberta (Aitken, 1966, 1967, 1978), Montana (Sepkoski, 1975, 1978), Nevada-Utah (Lohmann, 1976),
and Texas (Ahr, 1971). Although these fdcies may
on superficial examination appear to be similar to
tidal-flat deposits, they lack features typical of
emergence and show abundant evidence of deposition
below fair weather wave base.
The sequence illustrates the strong influence that
the intrashelf basin had on facies distribution on the
regional shelf and the effects of storm processes on
sedimentation. It also illustrates how the intrashelf
basin may control distribution of potential reservoir
facies, resulting in facies distributions that locally
are unrelated to regional shelf trends.

STRATIGRAPHIC SETTING

Upper Cambrian rocks in Virginia are exposed in

imbricate thrust sheets that moved from south-east

to north-west. Regional biostratigrapliic irelatioris of

the Cambrian units were establishcd by Kesscr ( 1938),
Lochman-Balk & Wilson (1958) and Derby (1965)
who defined the stratigraphic position of several
Dresbachiari trilobite zones and used thtse to correlate the Cambrian units.
The Nolichucky Forination (Late Cambrian,
Dresbachian) in Virginia, is a shale and limestone
unit (0-285 m thick) that interfingers with ElbrookHonaker carbonates to the north-east (along strike)
and to the south-east (toward the regional shelf edge)
(Fig. 2). These units rest on the Cambrian Rome
Formation and a r e overlain by Late Cambrian

NW

Copper l i i d g e ~ ~ o n o c o c l i c a g u Formations,
e
330520 m thick (Rodgcrs, 1953; Harris, 1964) (Fig. 2).
The Honaker Dolomite (300-350 ni thick) contains stromatolitic dolomites and a massive upper
unit of oolitic dolomite 20-30 in thick (Fig. 2). The
Elbrook Formation is up to 520 ni thick, and consists
of cyclic stromatolitic limestone and dolomite units
overlain by oolitic dolomite (30-40 m thick), and a n
upper member, the Widener Limestone (46 m thick)
composed of ribbon rock and ooid and intraclast
limestones (Fig. 2).
The Upper Cambrian (Franconian and Trempealeauan) Conococheague and Copper Ridge Forma-

ACROSS STRIKE SECTION

A'

ALONG STRIKE SECTION

B'

,,
~

/
f

100

KM

PALINSPASTIC BASE

TIDAL FLAT CYCLIC CARBONATES

B'

OOlD ONCOLITE INTRACLAST GRAINSTONE

0RIBBON ROCK

LIMESTONE

SHALE SILTSTONE CONGLOMERATE

A'

OOlD PACKSTONE

x x
wy

??

GLAUCONITE
HARDGROUNDS
SEOIMENTARY DIKES
TRILOBITE ZONAL

BOUNDARIES

/ol ALGAL BIOHERMS

Fig. 2. Nolichucky Formation stratigraphy, regional cross-sections. A palinspastic base map modified from Dennison
RC Woodward (1963) and Dennison (1970) was used to construct stratigraphic cross-sections, and palaeogeographic
maps. Inset map of south-west Virginia (palinspastic base) shows locations of cross-sections. AA' is normal to the
regional shelf trend, BB' is parallel to the shelf trend. Vertical arrows represent measured sections. Dotted lines on crosssections are trilobite zonal boundaries (Derby, 1965); from base to top, zones are Bolaspidellu, Ceduriu, Crepicephalus
and Aphelurpis.

576
STAGE

J. R. Markello and J. F. Read

1

NOLICHUCKV LOWfR SHALE LOWER L S I MEMBERS

IMIOOLE CEOARlAl

STAGE

2 NOLICHUCKV

STAGf

MIDDLE L S I MfMBER
[EARLY CREPICEPHALUSI

3 NOLICHUCKV UPPER SHALL MEMBER

[LATf CllfPlCEPHALUSl

Fig. 3. Geographicdistribution of Upper Cambrian lithofacies in Virginia during three phases of Nolichucky deposition.

to the south-east (Fig. 2) and consists of cyclic, flatpebble conglomerate, oolitic and stromatolitic limestone and dolomite, and minor quartz sandstone.
The Copper Ridge Formation (up to 330 m thick) is
the north-western equivalent of the Conococheague
Formation (Fig. 2 ) and consists of stromatolitic and
oolitic dolomite with minor quartz sandstone.
The Nolichucky Formation contains five members
(Fig. 2):
\

LLOW SUBTIDAL

FAIR W E A T H E R WAVE B A S

TOP
MaynardviffeLimestone4 > 50 m thick; limestone-dolomite ribbon rock, and minor oolitic,
intraclast and stromatolitic carbonates.
Upper Shale Member--0-56 m thick, shale, siltstone, interbedded skeletal and pellet limestone
and limestone conglomerate.
Middle Limestone M e m b e r 4 - 2 0 m thick, cyclic
shaly limestone and algal bioherms.
Lower Shale M e m b e r 4 1 2 5 m thick; lithologically similar to Upper Shale Member.
Lower Limestone Member (or Maryville Limestone, usually mapped separately from the
Nolichucky Formation)4-77 m thick; limestone-dolomite ribbon rock, ooid, intraclast
and pellet limestones that pass up into shaly
pellet, skeletal and conglomerate limestone.
Base
The Nolichucky and adjacent formations (Fig. 2)
contain four lithofacies suites which make up the
ramp-to-basin transition. These are: ( 1 ) cyclic carbonates (Elbrook-Honaker, Conococheague-Copper
Ridge Formations and Nolichucky Middle Limestone); (2) ooid and oncolitic carbonates of the
shallow ramp (Upper Honaker-Elbrook, and part
of the Maryville and Nolichucky Lower and Middle
Limestones); (3) ribbon carbonates of the deeper
ramp (Maryville Limestone, Nolichucky Lower
Limestone and Lower Shale, the Elbrook Widener

Fig. 4. Schematic profile of peritidal platform-carbonate

ramp to intrashelf shale basin transition. Characteristics
of lithofacies shown in Table 1.

Limestone Member, and the Maynardville Limestone) and; (4) shale facies of the intrashelf basin
(Nolichucky Lower and Upper Shale). The geographic distribution of facies during several phases
of NoIichucky deposition are illustrated in Fig. 3.
Inferred lateral facies relations are shown in Fig. 4
and lithofacies are summarized in Table 1.

CYCLIC CARBONATE FACIES

These include the cyclic stromatolitic facies of the
peritidal carbonate platform and the cyclic algal
bioherm facies of the intrashelf basin (Fig. 2).
Because the focus of this paper is on the facies comprising the ramp-to-intrashelf basin transition, these
cyclic carbonates are not described in detail.
Cyclic stromatolitic facies of the peritidal carbonate
platform

Cyclic platform carbonates (Table I ) of the ElbrookHonaker and Copper Ridge-Conococheague Formations occur adjacent to Maryville and Maynardville
oolitic and ribbon carbonates (Fig. 2). The ElbrookHonaker beds are partly time equivalent to Nolichucky strata (Figs 2 and 3). Copper Ridge-Conococheague rocks that overlie Nolichucky beds have
grossly similar cycles to those of the ElbrookHonaker Formations, with occasional quartz-rich
units at tops of cycles. The cycles are generally 1-5 m

Shales fissile. Nodular

thin layering. Small-scale
parallel, hummocky and
wave-ripple lamination in
ribbon 1st. Bioherms have
delicate digitate, faintly
laminated sh-fingers. Ooid
pksts. have tabular crosslamination

Open marine: trilobites,

echinoderms, sponges,
calcareous algae
(Renalris, Girvanella)
Hardgrounds, glauconite
minor dolomitization

Bedding and
structures

Biota

Diagenesis

Tens to over 150 km Sheets, 0.3-8 m thick,

wide, 0-150 m thick, some small lenses
most sediment types and thin sheets, 10are in sheets; some
30 cm thick
conglomerates in lenses
and some skeletal 1st.
in megaripple and
ripple lenses
Shales fissile, local
Tabular t o ripple
sedimentary dikes.
cross-bedded. MegaSiltstones have parrippled tops ( a 5-15
allel hummocky and cm; up to 2 m).
wave-ripple laminaBases commonly
tion (1-2 cm ampliscoured
tude, up to 30 cm
wavelength). Erosion
surfaces common.
Some parting
casts. Common trace
fossils (Cruriana facies).
Conglomerates are
non-graded to poorly
graded; mainly claitsupport. Megaripples
and ripples on skeletal
1st
Open marine: echinoOpen marine: trilobites, echinoderms.
derms, trilobites,
sponges, phosphatic sponges
brachiopods
Glauconite and hard- Variable late dolomiground formation.
timion. Abundant
Much compaction in hardground and
shales
glauconite formation

Regionally extensive
cycles; mainly sheet-like
units; bioherms range
from discrete columns to
coalescent structures;
conglomerates. Form thin
sheets and lenses

Geometry and
thickness

Ooid pkst. and

skeletal grst/pkst.,
coarse-grained
glauconitic

Shale, calcareous
quartz siltstone, 1st.
conglomerate and
skeletal 1st.. arranged
in upward-coarsening
and upward-fining
sequences (up to 4 m
thick)

Cyclic units (1-7 m thick)

of: (top) ( 5 ) ooid pkst,
(4) shaly ribbon carbonates/conglomerate, (3)
digitate algal bioherms,
(2) shaly ribbon carbonates/conglomerate, (1)
basal shale

Lower and upper

shale members and
middle 1st. member

Lithologies

Nolichucky, lower
and upper shale
members

Shale facies

Midde 1st. member

Algal bioherm cycles

facies

Ooid and skeletal

1st. of shale facies

Intrashelf basin

Occurrence

Shoal water phase of

intrashelf basin

Environment

Thin sheets, 1-10 m

thick and lenses
several metres wide

Ribbon rocks of
Maynardville, Maryville, Nolichurchy
lower 1st
Thin ooid grst. and
oncolite intraclast
grst/wkst

Thin ooid/oncolite
grainstone

Open marine: trilobites,

echinoderms, sponges,
rare Renalcis. Common
burrowers
Glauconite and hardground formation. Abundant compaction, pressuresolution and associated
dolomitization

Elbrook-Honaker, Conococheague and Copper

Ridge fms

Peritidal carbonate
platform
Cyclic stromatolitic
facies

Mainly transported Mainly transported

echinoderm and trilo- skeletal debris
bite debris. Girvanclla
encrusts Renalcis
Variable dolomitiza- Widespread late (?)
tion. Hardgrounds
dolomitization
common. Micritization of grains common

Early dolomitization Of
upper parts of cycles. Late
dolomitization of basal
parts of cycles

Restricted: blue green algal

mats. Some burrowers

Shallow mudcracks. scours.

starved ripples and silt-mud
couplets in thick laminites.
Cryptalgalaminites have
planar to crinkly lamination, deep prism-cracks,
intraclastic layers. palisade
structure. Thrombolites
have faint sh-lamination:
digitate structures have sh
branching fingers. Burrows
present i n ribbon rocks.
Cycles have erosional bases

Thick ooid grst.,

1-5 m cyclic upwarddolomitized. Rare
shallowing sequences of:
interbeds of laminite (top) thick laminites and
and ribbon carbonate cryptalgal laminites; Ilh
stromatolites, columnar
stromatolites and thronibolites; ribbon carbonates,
intraclast lags and calcarenites. Dolamiti/ation
of cycles partial (upper
parts) to complete
Elor.gate sheets 10 to Extensive sheets. few
over 50 km wide, 10 hundred metres thick, tens
to 50 m thick, perito few hundreds of kilopheral to embayment metres wide

Elbrook-Honaker

Shallow-ramp sand
shoals
Thick units of
ooid grainstone

Nodular to thin-bedded. Massive to faintly

Cross-bedded, some
Many fining-upward layers layered. Some scoured gravel lags
(few centimetres thick).
basal contacts
Some highly burrowed
layers. Some cross-bedding
and rare grading in skeletal
1st

Sheets up to 40 m thick,
10 to 100 km wide, peripheral t o embayment

Ribbon carbonates: contain skeletal 1st: finingupward storm-generated

layers (few centimetres
thick) composed of skeletal
Ist., calcisiltite, and argillaceous lime mudstone caps;
and burrow-mixed layers

Maryville, Nolichucky
lower Ist., middle 1st. and
Maynardville 1st

Ribbon carbonate facies

Deep ramp

Table 1. Summary of lithofacies

578

J. R. Markello and J. F. Read

thick and commonly contain, from top to base: (4)

thick laminated and cryptalgal laminated dolomite;
(3) cryptalgal thrombolite and digitate stromatolite
heads, and LLH structures; (2) ribbon carbonates
(wave-rippled pellet silts with mud drapes); and (1)
ooid and pellet/intraclast grainstone/intraclast conglomerate.
Elbrook-Honaker carbonates are cyclic, shallowing-upward sequences that developed on the regional
carbonate shelf north-east (along strike) and southeast (towards the regional shelf edge) of the Nolichucky ramp and intrashelf basin (Figs 1 and 3).
They are similar to Recent and other ancient tidal
flat sequences described by Mazzullo & Friedman
(1975), Reinhardt & Hardie (1976) and James (1977)
and result from repeated rapid submergence and subsequent progradation of shallow subtidal and tidal
facies.

Cyclic algal bioherrn facies of the intrashelf basin

Cyclic carbonates that are markedly different from

the above make up the Middle Limestone tongue
of the Nolichucky Formation (Fig. 2). These cycles
are 1-7 m thick and consist of, from top to base: (5)
glauconitic ooid packstone; (4) shaly, ripple-laminated pellet limestone and flat pebble conglomerate;
(3) digitate algal bioherms (Renalcis, Girvanella) up
to 1.5 m high and 10 m wide-these rest on flat
pebble conglomerate or skeletal intraclast packstone,
which also forms thin sheets between heads; (2) shaly
pellet limestone and conglomerate similar to (4); and
(1 ) basal shale-overlies ooid packstone of previous
cycle.
These cyclic Middle Limestone beds are a shallowwater phase of the intrashelf basin (Figs 2 and 3).
They show a n upward transition from quiet water
shale to rippled pellet silts and high-energy conglomerate channel and storm lags (cf. Reinhardt &
Hardie, 1976; James, 1977; Friedman & Sanders,
1978). The bioherms are high-energy deposits related
to shallowing, although the biotas of the mounds
still indicate normal marine salinities and open,
subtidal settings. Widespread development of the
mounds created low-energy settings which favoured
subsequent deposition of rippled silts and thin stormrelated conglomerates. Capping ooid packstones may
reflect shallowing to tide level or they may indicate
initial deepening (and more frequent agitation) prior
to deeper submergence and shale deposition of the
next cycle (cf. Lohmann, 1976).

O O I D AND ONCOLITIC CARBONATES

OF TH E SHALLOW RAMP
Ooid and oncolitic carbonates comprise the upper
Honaker Dolomite, the Upper Elbrook Formation
just beneath the Widener Limestone Member, and
part of the Maryville Limestone, Nolichucky Lower
and Middle Limestone Members and Widener Limestone (Fig. 2 ) . They overlie Elbrook-Honaker cyclic
stromatolite sequences and interfinger with and
underlie ribbon rocks (Fig. 2).
Thick ooid grainstone

Thick (2040 ni) oolitic dolomites (Table 1) occur in

the Upper Elbrook and Honaker Formations peripheral to the intrashelf shale basin; they overlie
Elbrook-Honaker cyclic stromatolitic carbonates and
underlie (or grade seaward into) ribbon rocks (Figs
2 and 3). They have rare thin interbeds of flat pebble
conglomerate, cryptalgalaminite or thick laminite.
The oolitic dolomites are dark grey, massive, fine to
coarse, crystalline dolomite, in which faint largescale cross-stratification is evident on weathered outcrops. The oolitic dolomites have relict grainstone
texture in which the ooids (0.3-0.6 mm diameter)
consist of fine to medium crystalline dolomite in
medium-grained dolomite mosaic, or have faint
circular outlines in medium crystalline dolomite.

Interpretation
Thick ooid grainstones (and oncolite intraclast grainstones) are interpreted as transgressive lime sand
sheets, bars or beach ridges that form on the shallow
ramp between tidal-flat, cyclic carbonates and subtidal fine-grained ribbon limestone and shales (described later). Similar up-dip lime sands have been
described from the Holocene of the Persian Gulf
(Loreau & Purser, 1973), the Yucatan Shelf (Logan
eta/., 1969), and Shark Bay (Hagan & Logan, 1974),
and the Jurassic ramp of Texas and Alabama (Ahr,
1973). The 20-40 m thick Elbrook-Honaker dolomitized ooid grainstone resembles facies of modern
ooid shoals (to 5 n i depth) which contain rippled and
megarippled sediments, are commonly unburrowed,
and composed of small ooids (less than 0.5 mm),
minor skeletal debris, pellets and fibrous cements
(Ball, 1967: Loreau &Purser, 1973; Hine, 1977).The
thick ooid units formed where the ooid lithotope
occupied the same geographic position for a long
period of time (i.e. rate of sedimentation equalled

Shale shelf transitioris iri the Appalachiaris

subsidence/sea-level rise). This stillstand appears t o
mark the transition from transgressive t o regressive
conditions (Fig. 2). Thick ooid sands did not develop
platformward of the Middle Limestone cyclic carbonates, o r in the offlap (Maynardville-Copper
Ridge) sequence (Fig. 2) because of low-energy
conditions that reflect the very low gradients on the
ramp at these times.

The ooid grainstones (Fig. 6A) are composed

mainly of ooids (0.3-0.6 m m diameter), intraclasts
(up t o 1 cni rounded clasts of ooid grainstone, algal
boundstone and lime mudstone), oncolites, and small
amounts of abraded pelmatozoan debris. Some reworked ooid and skeletal grains have adhering mud/
cement and most grains have micritic rims. Intergranular cements are fine, equant and bladed calcite
and sediments are commonly partly dolomitized.
Oncolite intraclast limestones are 1-10 m thick
sheets and rare thin (5-30cm) layers and lenses
(several metres across with scoured bases). They have
alternating fine- and coarse-grained laminae (Fig.
6B), and rare tabular cross-stratification. Sediments
are mainly grainstones (partially dolomitized) composed of granule to pebble size, spherical to discoidal

Thin ooid grainstone and oncolite intraclast limestone

These are 1-10 ni thick, massive to faintly layered

and are interbedded with ribbon rocks and skeletal
limestone of the Maryville, Nolichucky Lower Limestone and Widener Limestone (Figs 2 and 5, Table I ) .
Hardgrounds are common.

MARYVILLE LIMESTONE

THRUST

'1

579

LOWER
LIMESTONE
MEMBER

WIDENER
LIMESTONE

MAVNAROVILLE
LIMESTONE

3.

'

CRYPTALGALAMINITE

OIGITATE/THROMBOLITE STROMATOLITE

NW

9.

5
SE

0010 GRAINSTONE
0NCOLITE;INTRACLAST

GRAINSTONE

~~

CONGLOMERATE
RIBBON ROCK
SHALE
COVERED INTERVAL

Fig. 5. Columnar sections: ribbon rock and grainstone sequences. Sections I , 2, Maryville Limestone; Section 3,

Nolichucky Lower Limestone Member; Section 4, Widener Limestone; Section 5 , Maynardville Limcslonc. Sections
are located on stratigraphic cross-section (insel).
37

$ I I ) 2s

580

J. R. Markello and J. F. Read

Fig. 6. Ooid and oncolite carbonate rocks of the shallow ramp. (A) Photomicrograph of ooid grainstone, Maryville
Limestone. (B) Photomicrograph of cross-laminated oncolite intraclast grainstone. Note oncolites (arrows) with dark
Renulris in cores and lighter outer coats of Girvnnelh. (C) Photomicrograph of oncolite packstone/wackestone. Note
erosion surfaces (arrows) and doloniitiLed oncolite (D).

oncolites and intraclasts (composed of admixtures of

ooids, skeletal grains, pellets and intraclasts), platy
clasts of G i r ~ * a m l land
u Rc/iulcis limestone, and small
amounts of ooids, pellets, and abraded and reworked
echinoderm and trilobite fragments (Fig. 6B). Cores
of oncolites contain branching Rr/io/ci.\ clusters
(locally encrusted on shell fragments) and have
asyninietric and less concentric coats of Girrtnrrlltr.

Some asymmetric oncolites are in place, with thicker

coats o n upper sides of oncolites, but most have been
rotated.
Oncolitic packstones and wackestones (Fig. 6 C )
occur as rare thin layers and lenses (1-5 cni thick) in
ribbon rocks. Packstones commonly have scoured
and erhsional bases with basal, coarse, oncolitic and
skeleta'l lags that grade up into wackestone. They are

58 1

Shale shelftransitions in the Appalachiaiis

composed of large (up to 7 mm) concentrically coated
Girvanella oncolites (cores of lime mudstone intraclasts or trilobites), together with intraclasts (lime
mudstone), trilobites, echinoderms, pellets and lime
mud. Many grains have micritized rims, and are
partially to completely dolomitized. Cements are
fine equant and fine columnar calcite.

Inrerpretatiori
Thin ooid grainstone and interbedded oncoliteintraclast grainstones are similar to modern ooid and
intraclastic sand ribbons and shoals (0-3 m deep)
on high-energy sublittoral platforms (Hagan &
Logan, 1974), in that sediments have well-defined
layering, hardgrounds, small ooids (average 0.3 niin
diameter), reworked ooid and skeletal grains, intraclasts of ooid grainstone and skeletal limestone, and
calcareous algae attached to clasts.
Some oncolite intraclast sands interbedded with
fine-grained ribbon limestones, and which contain
marine fibrous cement, interstitial mud/micrite
cement and asymmetric oncolite coats of algal intraclasts, may have formed in slightly deeper parts of,
or peripheral to active shoals (cf. Hine, 1977). Alternating coarse and fine layers, basal erosional surfaces
with oncolitic and intraclastic lags and rotated
asynimetric oncolites mixed with concentrically
coated oncolites, suggest that these sediments were
intermittently reworked during storms. Cornnion
fibrous cements in the Cambrian lime sands indicate
submarine lithification of sands that were immobile
for long periods (Ball, 1967; Shim, 1969; Hagan &
Logan, 1974). Periodic reworking of these formed
intraclasts. Some Reriulcis algal clasts formed in place
by encrustation of skeletal grains, but others may be
boundstone fragments transported from shallow
water biohernis.

R I B B O N C A R B O N A T E FACIES O F T H E
DEEPER RAMP
Ribbon carbonate facies make up parts of the Maryville Limestone, Nolichucky Lower Limestone and
Widener Limestone, are common in the Nolichucky
Lower Shale and Middle Limestone Meiiibel-s, and
comprise the Maynardville Limestone (Figs 2 and 5 ) .
They onlap Elbrook -Honaker grainstone and stromatolitic carbonates to the south-east and north-east,
and interfinger with and underlie Nolichucky shale
facies to the north-west and south-west (Figs 2

and 5). They also overlie Nolichucky shales and interfinger with and underlie Conococheague and Copper
Ridge Formation stromatolitic carbonates (Fig. 2).
The ribbon carbonates occur in sequences u p to
40 ni thick, interbedded with ooid and oncolite grainstone, carbonate conglomerate and shale (Fig. 5).
Stromatolitic carbonates are locally associated with
Maynardville ribbon facies (Fig. 5). The ribbon carbonates (Fig. 8A) consist of nodular skeletal limestones, fining-upward layers (skeletal limestonepellet limestone-lime mudstone) and dolomottled
layers, that form a gradational sequence from undisturbed primary sedimentation units to burrowhomogenized units. Regionally correlative glauconitic beds and hardgrounds (Fig. 2) occur in the
ribbon rocks, and parallel regional ooid packstone
sheets and biostratigraphic zonal boundaries of
Derby (1965).
Skeletal limestones of ribbon carbonates

Skeletal wackestone, packstone and grainstone that

are locally glauconitic, are common lithologies in
shaly ribbon carbonates of the Nolichucky Lower
Limestone; similar skeletal beds also occur in shale
facies cf the Nolichucky Formation. The skeletal
beds are layers and lenses of liniestone (4-30cm
thick) separated by shale partings, stylolitic dolomite
seams and hardgrounds. Internally, the limestones
are burrowed, massive to well-layered and, locally
tabular cross-bedded. Well-lsyered units contain
centimetre-thick horizontal and inclined layers outlined by hardground surfaces and glauconite-silt
concentrations. The hardgrounds are planar to
irregular surfaces impregnated. with black opaque
material, and generally truncate fabrics of underlying sediments (Fig. 7A and B), although some hardgrounds developed on wackestone/miidstone lack
truncated fabrics (Fig. 7A). Layers above hardgrounds are generally graded with coarse, grainsupported basal sediments passing up into fine
wackestone/m udst one.
The skeletal limestones are fine- to coarse-grained
grainstone, packstone and wackestone that are interlayered and locally burrow-mixed. They include
trilobite-dominated to echinoderm-dominated sediments that also contain spicules, intraclasts (laminated pellet limestone, lime mudstone, skeletal and
ooid limestone and Rcmlris boundstone), variable
amounts of pellets, quartz silt and clay/mica niinerals, and locally abundant lime mud. Glauconite is
abundant in soaie packstones. Intraclasts (sand-size
il-2

582

J. R. Markello and J. F. Read

Fig. 7. Skeletal limestone lithofacies of the deeper ramp. (A) Photomicrograph of close-spaced, micrite-cemented
hardgrounds in packstone. (B) Photomicrograph of hardground that truncates grains and cement in grainstone. Dark
grains are glauconite. (C) Photomicrograph of multigeneration cl st (arrow) with four erosion sufaces. (D) Photomicrograph of in-place, upward branching Renulcis colonies (arrow ) encrusting intracIast. Note hardground near top
of picture (H).

to 4 cm diameter) are dominantly single-generation

clasts but some are ,multigeneration clasts which
show evidence of successive cementation, erosion and
abrasion (Fig. 7C). Rare, in place, upward-branching
algal (Renalcis) colonies encrust some intraclasts
(Fig. 7D). Cements include fine columnar, fine
equanl, coarse blocky and syntaxial calcite cements.

Interpretation
Compaction and pressure solution have played a n
important role in the development of ribbon rock
fabrics in which argillaceous dolomite seams contain
close-packed stylolites. Burrows, argillaceous laminae, and lime mudstone layers are common loci for
pressure solution and dolomitization. Similar fabrics
interpreted as the products of pressure solution and
dolomitization have been described by Logan &
Semeniuk (1976) and Wanless (1979). However,

primary sedimentary fabrics are sufficientlypreserved

as to allow environmental analysis.
The skeletal limestone ribbon carbonates are interpreted as subtidal deeper ramp facies because they
lack fqatures indicative of tidal flat deposition, occur
downhlope froni cyclic stromatolitic facies and
oolitic sands, pass seaward into basinal shale facies
(Figs 2 and 3), and contain open marine biotas
(including calcareous algae) and glauconite.
Wackestones/packstones are low energy, subwave
base deposits, in which some of the fine carbonate
may have been carried from adjacent shallow water
areas to accumulate together with inplace skeletal
carbonate. Cross-stratified packstone/grainstones
are higher energy winnowed ramp sediments that
may have formed above fair weather wave base, or
in subwave base settings subject to periodic reworking
of bottom sediments.
Abundant hardgrounds, intraclasts and multi-

Shale shelftransitions in the Appalachians

generation clasts indicate periods of marine cementation and dissolution on the sea-floor, possibly during
times of decreased sedimentation, as in subwave base
ramp settings in the Persian Gulf (Shinn, 1969) and
Shark Bay (Hagan & Logan, 1974). Locally abundant glauconite in Nolichucky sediments may also
indicate periods of relatively slow sedimentation,
when clay-rich fecal pellets were diagenetically
altered on the sea-floor (Degens, 1965). Locally,
hardened sediments were subjected to one or more
periods of cementation and reworking and some
hardgrounds were overlain by storm-reworked
graded sands.

583

Laminated calcisiltites fine up into 1 cm thick

caps of lime mud, that commonly grade up into
argillaceous carbonate containing short (1-2 mm)
wispy stylolites (Fig. 8C, D and E). Caps have sharp
erosional tops, rare flame structures, and abundant
horizontal and vertical burrows. Lime mudstones
(Fig. 8E) consist of 2-20 ym lime mud/microspar,
pellets, silt-size quartz and glauconite, micas, and
locally common trilobite detritus. The argillaceous
carbonates consist of fine dolomite and clay minerals
with numerous wispy, anastomosing stylolites.

Interpretation
Fining-upward sequences

Repetitive fining-upward layers (1-5 cm thick) in

ribbon rocks consist of basal skeletal lags, laminated
quartzose calcisiltites, lime mudstone and argillaceous stylolitic dolomite caps arranged in thin beds
(Fig. 8B). Fining-upwards layers may contain all
four lithologies or lack one or more units.
Basal units have planar to irregular micro-scoured
bases (1-5 mm relief) and are mainly trilobite- or
echinoderm-dominated packstone/grainstone or
wackestone. They contain abundant, subhorizontally
aligned, convex-up trilobite and lesser echinoderm
fragments, pellets and lime mud; interparticle and
shelter voids beneath fossils are filled with columnar
and equant calcite (Fig. 8C).
Laminated calcisiltites (1-2 cm thick) overlie
basal skeletal packstones or rest with sharp contact
on underlying fine argillaceous caps of the underlying
sequences (Fig. 8B and D). They consist of single or
multiple sets of laminae(Fig. 8D) arranged in parallel,
horizontal, small-scale hummocky (Harms et a/.,
1975) (up to 1 cm amplitude, 5-10 cni wavelength)
and wave-ripple ( I cm amplitude, 1-5 cm wavelength) sets. Horizontally laminated sediments commonly occur in lower parts of laminated units and
are overlain by hummocky laminated and waveripple-laminated sets. Bases of sets are conformable
or are erosional, and laminae generally parallel basal
set boundaries (Fig. 8D). Within sets, laminae both
thin and fine upward. Laminated units are locallydisrupted by burrows (Fig. 8D). The calcisiltites consist
of pellets, variable amounts of silt-size quartz/
feldspar, opaques (including pyrite), glauconite and
scattered flat-lying platy fossils (trilobite and phosphatic brachiopod fragments); mica plates are concentrated in thin laminae that alternate with micapoor layers which outline the layering.

Fining-upward layers in the ribbon rocks are interpreted as storm-reworked, deeper-ramp carbonates
that formed below normal wave base. This is indicated by the strafigraphic position of the ribbon rocks
between shallow-ramp ooid grainstones and intrashelf basin shales, by the lack of features indicative
of exposure, and by the similarity of the finingupward sequences to ancient storm deposits described
by Brenner & Davies (1973), Bowen, Rhoads &
McAlester (1974, p. 96, fig. 4), Ager (1974), Kelling
& Mullin (1975), DeRaaf, Boersma & van Gelder
(1977) and Kreisa (1979). All these occur in subtidal settings adjacent to or interbedded with shales
and other fine sediments, have basal erosion/scour
surfaces, skeletal concentrations, parallel and smallscale hummocky lamination and mud caps.
Such fining-upward layers are generated by erosion
and redeposition of sediments during and following
storms. Basal erosion surfaces form as high-energy
storm waves scour and suspend bottom sediments,
and redeposit winnowed material as storm lags
(Brenner & Davies, 1973; Bowen et al., 1974; Kreisa,
1979), whereas the calcisiltites and their lamination
types form under waning storm-energy conditions as
suspended fines settle from suspension (Reineck &
Singh, 1972; Harms eta/., 1975; Hamblin &Walker,
1979; Kreisa, 1979).
The transition from parallel t o hummocky and
wave-ripple cross-lamination within the calcisiltites
may relate to waning energy conditions. The parallellaminated calcisiltites may form above basal scours/
shell lags by deposition from storm-generated density
currenls while storm water levels are still high
(Hamblin &Walker, 1979); by suspension deposition
of storm-suspended sediment under the influence of
wave-, tide- or wind-driven currents (Reineck &
Singh, 1972); and/or by deposition of sediment under

584

J . R. Markello arid J . F. Rcad

Fig. 8. For legend see opposite.

Shale shelf transitions in the Appalachians

585

147

MO

145

SKELETAL LIMESTONE

MAYNARDVILLE

CONGLOMERATE
CALCAREOUS SILTSTONE
/PELLETAL CALClSlLTlTE

0
-SHALE
141

139
MARYVILLE

anz
-SCOUR

BASE

GLAUCONITE

Fig. 9. Columnar sections : shale-siltstone-conglomerate sequences, Nolichucky Lower and Upper Shale Members.
Positions and widths of arrow stems at index column represent stratigraphic locations and thickness of shale intervals
magnified in adjacent columns.

the influence of high, wave-induced, oscillatory

bottom-current velocities (Allen, 1970, p. 170).
Hummockycross-stratification (Harmset a/., 1975;
Kreisa, 1979) has features that are intermediate
between horizontal parallel lamination and wavecurrent ripple lamination (e.g. laminae are gently
undulating, laminae thicken over crests, crests of
laminae are in-phase, and sets locally truncate underlying sets), and may be a transitional bedform
between the two end members. The in-phase character of hummocks in part reflects high suspended
sediment supply. Hummocky cross-stratification may
be caused by strong wave action, with surges of
greater displacement and velocity than those required
to form ripples (Harms et al., 1975) but lower than
those required to form plane lamination (Allen, 1970,
p. 170). Alternatively, hummocky lamination may
be produced in sediments that are transported by
storm-generated density currents, and reworked and
deposited under the influence of storm waves
(Hamblin & Walker, 1979), possibly as water levels

decreased during storm dissipation. Finally, waveripple cross-lamination forms as a traction lamination, commonly produced by oscillatory waves associated with tidal currents (Harms et a/., 1975) and
probably reflects lower suspended load in the water
column, lower currents (Allen, 1970, p. 170) and
possibly decreased water depths, than the planar and
hummocky types.
Lime mudstone and argillaceous dolomite caps of
fining-up sequences are low-energy suspension
deposits formed by deposition of storm-suspended
fine sediment (Bowen et a/., 1974; DeRaaf et al.,
1977; and Kreisa, 1979), and accumulation of fines
either generated in situ o r carried on to the deeper
ramp between storms. The common occurrence of
lime mud layers overlain by argillaceous dolomite
caps may result from settling of lime mud before
platy, lower density clay minerals. It may also be
caused by influx of terrigenous fines on to the deeper
ramp during and following storms, when rivers in
flood debouched into the basin.

Fig. 8. Ribbon rock lithofacies. (A) Outcrop photograph of ribbon rock (light layers are limestones; dark layers are
dolomitic). (B) Polished slab of fining-upward sequences. Scale in millimetres. (C) Photomicrograph of fining-upward
sequences showing basal scours (arrows), skeletel packstones and dolomitized mud caps (dark). 1 cm bar scale on left.
(D) Photomicrograph of lamination in pellet limestones of fining-upward sequences. Note erosional boundary at base
of upper set (arrow). (E) Photomicrograph of burrowed lime mudstone. Note geopetal filling of burrows with sediment
and cement. (F) Polished slab of dolomottled ribbon rock.

586

J . R . Markcllo a i d J . F. Rcad

Dolomottled ribbon rocks

Doloniottled ribbon rocks range from slightly burrowed, fining-upward layers t o burrow-disrupted
irregular layers and mottles of lime mudstone, calcisiltite, and skeletal packstone to wackestone.
Anastomosing thick stylolites and stylolitic seams
are common.
Within slightly burrower'. fining-upward layers
(Fig. 8F), basal skeletal packstone, laminated calcisiltite and mudstone caps are present, but scoured
bases are burrowed, skeletal fragments lack preferred
orientation, lamination is burrow-disrupted and
lithologies are mixed. Large burrows traverse entire
sequences and are filled with host sediment, cement
o r stylolitic dolomite.
Highly burrow-disrupted ribbon rocks consist of
splierical, elliptical to irregular limestone nodules
(0.5-2 cni thick, 1-5 cm long) enclosed by horizontal
to vertical anastomosing stylolitic argillaceous dolomite seams. Burrows preserved within nodules are
filled with host sediment and cement, and disrupt
primary layering.
Iiiterpretation

Dolomottled ribbon rocks, that contain slightly

burrowed, fining-upward sequences to burrow
homogenized units, may have formed by burrowing
of storm deposits. Burrowers may have been unable
to mix sedimentswhere intervals between storrnswere
short. Highly burrowed layers mayreflect longer times
between storms o r periods when numbers of infaunal
organisms were high. Consequently, all gradations
from little-burrowed, fining-upward sequences to
burrow-homogenized limestones are present.

SHALE FACIES OF THE INTRASHELF

BASIN
Intrashelf basin shale facies comprise the Nolichucky
Upper and Lower Shale Members, and are enclosed
by r i b b m rock and grainstone ramp facies to the
nirth-ea5t and south-east (Fig. 2). They consist of
shale, calcareous quartz siltstone, limestone conglonieratc, and lesser glauconitic skeletal and ooid
packstone/gr-dinstone. The units are comnionly
arranged in upward-coarsening sequences, 30 t o
40 cm thick (Fig. 9) that consist of shale-siltstoneconglomerate (or skeletal limestone). Less commonly,
they form fining-upwards sequences (typically u p t o

50 cni thick) of liniestone conglonierate (or skeletal

1i niest one)-si It st one-shale.
Shale units

Shale units (Fig. 10A) are u p to 4 m thick in the

Lower and Upper Shale members, and extend as
tongues into ribbon carbonate facies (Fig. 2). The
shale is green to dark grey, fissile, calcareous, and
contains scattered layers of trilobite, phosphatic
brachiopod and rare pelmatozoan debris. The shales
consist of elongate flakes of biotite, rare muscovite,
chlorite and other clay minerals, fine quartz/feldspar
silt, lime mud and euhedral dolomite (20-200 uni
rhombs).
Compacted sedimentary dikes occur in two regionally extensive shale layers (3.3 and 1 in thick), which
occur 3-10 ni above the Middle Limestone Member
(Fig. 10B). The dikes can be traced upward into paraconglorrerate and siltstone beds which overlie shale
units. They taper downward, and are highly compacted to 40';; of original length. Dike fills, which
are similar to overlying paracongloinerates to which
dikes connect, contain clast-supported quartzose
limestone conglomerate with subrounded intraclasts
(up to 2.5 cm across) of laminated calcisiltite, skeletal
limestone and lime mudstone and inter-clast quartzose skeletal wackestone.
Itztcrprctatiorl

Shale facies of the Nolichucky Formation are interpreted as shallow basin facies formed below normal
wave base because they are stratigraphically furthest
from peritidal facies, are enclosed by subtidal ribbon
rocks, are fine grained, and lack features suggestive
of shallow-water deposition or emergence. These
facies are similar to shale sequences from intrashelf
basins in the Cambrian (Aitken, 1978) and Mesozoic
(Eliuk, 1978). Depositional slopes were very low,
indicated by horizontal regional time markers (zonal
boundaries, glauconite and hardground horizonr,
ooid packstone sheets, sedimentary dike layers and
Middle Limestone Member; Fig. 2), and by the
general lack of turbidites, slump structures and intraformational truncation surfaces which are associated
with steeper platform margins. Estimates of water
depths during deposition of shale lithofacies range
from a few metres (estimated from Middle Limestone
upward-shallowing cycles containing basal shales)
to a few tens of metres (estimated from thickness
of the Upper Shale/Maynardville Limestone

587

Fig. 10. Shale and siltstone lithofacies. (A) Cutcrop photograph of Nolichucky shale and interbedded siltstone. Staff
(bottom centre) is 1.5 m long. (B) Outcrop photograph of small compacted sedimentary dyke in shale. (C) Polished slab
photograph of planar to hummocky laminated siltstone. Scale in cenlimetres.
1.

interval from maximum transgression to Copper

Ridge peritidal facies). Aitken (1978) suggested water
depths greater than 8-1 2 ni for similar shale sequences
in Canada.
Studies of mud deposition on modern continental
shelves suggest that most fine-grained sediments, once
introduced into the marine realm by river jets at
deltas, are transported to shelf environments in
turbid nepheloid o r bottom boundary layers by wind
and tidal currents, and accumulate by settling from
suspension (Howard & Reineck, 1972; McCave,
1972; Drake, 1976; Swift, 1976). Storms maintain
suspension of, or cause resuspension of, muds and
assist in further transport (Drake, 1976).
Sedimentary dikes in Nolichucky shales are similar
to those described by Waterson (l950), Peterson
(1968), Truswell (1972) and Williams (1976) in that
they are stratigraphically (vertically) restricted, regionally extensive, composed of coarser silts, sands
and gravels, and occur in shales. The major suggested
mechanism of emplacement is remobilization of
water-charged sediments (both shales and sands) by
liquefaction, triggered by seismic shock (Sims, 1974,
1975; and Rymer & Sims, 1976) o r slope failure and
slumping. Other ancient sedimentary dikes (Hoffman,
1975) are interpreted as injected fills of subaqueous
syneresis cracks. Friedman & Sanders (1978, pp.
408-409) suggest that dikes are emplaced along
parallel syneresis joint systems in slightly compacted
shales, and are later contorted as shales compact
further.

rare in the siltstones, occurring at tops of units whcre

rippled bedforms are preserved by clay drapes. Many
parallel sets have laminae which thin upward, but
some have laminae which are thickest in the middle
of sets.
Some siltstone layers have parting casts (Ksiazkiewicz, 1958; Dzulynski & Walton, 1965) which create
polygonal patterns on bedding planes. They are
confined to siltstones and appear to be absent from
shales. In vertical section, the partings are a few
millimetres wide and up to 1.5 cm deep. They widen
then thin upward, typically have non-matching walls,
and some are highly compacted (to 5Oo0 original
length). They have fills of fine mud or silt, with a
crude vertical flow layering outlined by silt stringers
o r vertical, platy fossils. Fills appear to have been
injected both from above and below.
Siltstones also have abundant trace fossils which
include curvilinear crawling and resting traces, rare
tracks, meandering trails and shallow oblique and
vertical burrows similar to the Critziurra facies of
Seilacher (1967) and Crimes (1975).
Siltstone laminae are outlined by aligned mica/
clay minerals, ca!cite cement-rich layers, and stylolitic concentrations of densely packed quartz silt.
They are composed dominantly of angular quartz/
feldspar silt, minor mica/clay minerals, rare glauconite, pyrite, detrital heavy minerals, rare skeletal
grains (trilobite, echinoderms and phosphatic brachiopod fragments), and calcite, lesser dolomite and
quartz cement.

Calcareous quartz siltstone

Iiiterpretatioii

These occur as 1-10 cm thick beds (Fig. IOC) in 0.32 m thick siltstone intervals of coarsening-upward
sequences (Figs 9 and 10A). Siltstones are sharp
based, thinly laminated with shale partings and, in
coarsening-upward sequences, siltstone beds thicken
and shale partings thin upward. Locally, siltstones
have thin conglomerate interbeds.
Siltstone beds (Fig. 1OC) contain parallel, hummocky and rare wave-ripple lamination (1-2 cm
amplitude, 10-30 cm wavelength). Single beds may
consist of one lamination set or of several sets separated by basal erosion surfaces. Laminae are 1-3 mni
thick, continuous, parallel, basal erosion surfaces
thicken over crests of hummocks and thin into
troughs. Parallel lamination, the most abundant
lamination type, comprises complete siltstone beds
o r occurs in lower parts of beds and grades u p into
hummocky lamination. Wave-ripple lamination is

The siltstones of the Nolichucky shale-siltstone-conglomerate sequences might be considered to be tidal

flat deposits, o n the basis of the association of flat
pebble conglomerates and parting casts that superficially resemble mudcracks. However, a tidal flat
origin is not likely because:
( I ) The mudcracks o r parting casts differ from
desiccation cracks, because in tidal flat silts and
mud it is typically the mud layers that are cracked
(cf. Hardie & Ginsburg, 1977). In the Nolichucky beds, the siltstones are cracked and the
fine muddy layers o r shales lack cracks. Similar
features have been described by Ksiazkiewicz
(1958) and Dzulynski & Walton (1965) from
flysch sequences, and by Pfeil & Read (1980)
from carbonate slope facies. These structures
may be due to creep o r slumping on a slope
(Dzulynski & Walton, 1965; Pfeil &Read, 1980).

Shale shelf transitions in the Appalachians

They might also reflect compaction and volume
reduction due to dewatering; this hypothesis is
supported by the highly compacted nature of
some of the filled cracks.
(2) The sediments have open marine biotas.
(3) The stratigraphic relations and lithofacies preclude a tidal flat setting. The siltstones of the shale
facies are separated from peritidal carbonates of
the Elbrook-Honaker Formations by the subtidal ooid sands and ribbon carbonates of the
shallow ramp. There is no evidence of cryptalgal
sediments in limestone beds associated with the
siltstones, neither do the siltstones contain characteristics of clastic tidal flat deposition such as
herringbone cross-stratification, flaser bedding
and reactivation surfaces.
The shales and siltstones do not resemble turbidite sediments because they lack graded bedding,
Bouma sequences, flutes, tool marks and slumps.
They are interpreted on the basis of regional relations
and sedimentary features, as intrashelf basin sediments, deposited below subwave base by storm
processes.
Parallel, hummocky and wave-ripple laminated
siltstones of the Nolichucky Formation resemble siltstones interbedded with shales in the Holocene
(Reineck & Singh, 1972), Cretaceous (Masters, 1967;
Harms et al., 1975) and Ordovician (Kreisa, 1979),
and storm-deposited laminated calcisiltites in the
Nolichucky deep-ramp ribbon rock facies. Holocene
parallel-laminated silts occur in shales of the Gulf of
Mexico and North Sea shelves at depths up to 40 m
and as far as 45 km from shore (Reineck & Singh,
1975). Calcareous silts in the Nolichucky intrashelf
basin and deep ramp may have been generated in-place
by winnowing of skeletal sediments, and may have
been carried into the basinfromsurroundingshallower
water carbonate areas. Quartz silts in the basin must
have been transported considerable distances, over
300 km, from the north-western clastic belt (Fig. 1).
Hayes (1967) considered that sediments of hurricane-generated storm sequences in water depths of
20-30 m were transported seaward by turbidity flow.
Hamblin & Walker (1979) also propose stormgenerated turbidity currents as the mechanism for
transporting shelf sediments in the Mesozoic of
Western Canada. However, Howard & Reineck
(1972) favour transport of storm-suspendedsediments
by tide- or wind-driven turbid water masses.
Reineck & Singh (1975) note that deeper offshore
storm-generated laminated sequences pass shoreward
into shallow, wave-ripple-laminated sediments. In a

589

similar manner, Nolichucky siltstones have more

abundant parallel lamination, lower amplitude and
longer wavelength hummocky lamination, and less
wave-ripple lamination than laminated calcisiltites
of deep-ramp ribbon rocks. This may reflect the
action of large storm waves in the basin compared
to that of damped waves in shallower, ramp settings
(cf. Allen, 1970, pp. 171-172). A basin setting also is
supported by the presence of Cruziana trace fossils
on siltstone beds.
Carbonate conglomerates

Conglomerates occur throughout the Nolichucky

Formation, but are best developed in the Lower and
Upper Shales (Fig. 9) where they are interbedded with
shales and shaly ribbon rocks, cap coarsening-up
cycles or, less commonly, occur at bases of upwardfining sequences. Conglomerates are 2-30 cm thick
and rarely up to 60 cm thick. They are single and
rare composite thin sheets and broad lenses (tens of
metres across). Some units thicken and thin or form
discontinuous boudin-like layers, and others pinch
out into shales or fine laterally into calcisiltites or
siltstones. Systematic regional variation in bedding
thickness is not apparent. Bases of conglomerate units
are planar to irregular and scoured, and tops are
draped by finely laminated lime mud or rippled pellet
limestone. Rare units are capped by hardgrounds.
Most conglomerates are clast-supported, unsorted
and non-graded to poorly graded. Rare paraconglomerates occur in some thick shales. Clasts are
spherical to platy and discoidal, are well rounded to
angular, and have random, subhorizontal, imbricate,
edgewise, and fanned orientations (Fig. 1IA).
Clasts in conglomerates within shale units lack edgewise arrangements and are generally smaller, less
platy and better rounded than those of conglomerates
that rest on limestone beds.
In most conglomerates, clasts are dominantly
laminated pellet limestone, lime mudstone, lesser
skeletal wackestone, and some multigeneration clasts
of laminated pellet limestone/skeletal packstone
(Fig. 1 I B) and limestone conglomerate (Fig. 1 1 0
Rare multigeneration clasts contain first-generation
pebbles, accretionary sediment and erosion surfaces,
all of which indicate multiple depositional, cementation and erosional events. In many conglomerates,
clast lithologies are similar to immediately underlying
or laterally equivalent limestones. Many clasts have
red-stained borders, and are cut by burrows and
borings (?) filled with mud or interclast sediment
(Fig. 1 1 B). Some clasts have been bent and cracked

590

J. R. Markcllo and J. F. Rcad

Fig. 1I . Limestone conglomerate lithofacies. All photographs are of polished slabs and all scales in centimetres.
(A) Slab of conglomerate that overlies limestone. Note edgewise and fanned orientation of some clasts, and platy clast
shapes. (3) Conglomerate with multigeneration clasts of pellet liniestone/skeletal packstone (M). Note burrows preserved

in clasts (B). (C) Slab ofconglomerate (20 cm thick) that is enclosed i n shale and occurs north-west (basinward) ofshallowramp, thick, ooid grainstones. It contains large multigeneration conglomerate clasts(M), and sediments of oolitic skeletal
sand. (D) Slab of paraconglomerate with lime mudstone clasts i n shaly lime mud matrix.
by compaction, and V-shaped brittle fractures are
filled by inter-clast sediment o r cement.
Inter-clast sediment ranges from lime mudstone to
grainstone, but in most conglomerates is skeletal
intraclast packstone composed of poorly sorted,
rounded to angular, skeletal material (trilobites,
echinoderms, phosphatic brachiopods, and rare
sponge spicules), intraclasts, lime mud, rare ooids,
glauconite, quartz silt, and columnar and equant
calcite cement. Inter-clast lime mud is commonly
dolomitized and locally is iron oxide stained.
Rare mud-supported paraconglomerates (up to
45 c m thick) occur in the Upper Shale Member
5-10 m above the Middle Limestone Member, where
they are enclosed in thick shales and are associated
with compacted sedimentary dikes. These conglomerates have planar scoured bases overlain by thin
basal laycrs of coarse skeletal packstone, and grade
into overlying shales. They consist of unoriented,
unsorted, poorly rounded t o angular clasts of bur-

rowed lime mudstone, lesser laminated pellet limestone, and skeletal wackestone in lime mud matrix
(Fig. 1 1 D).
Inteupretatioii

Most Nolichucky conglomerates interlayered with

basin shale and siltstone facies are not earthquaketriggered sediment gravity flow deposits (Cook et al.,
1972) because units are thin (a few tens ofcentimetres),
clasts are small and locally derived, and depositional
slopes are low.
Nolichucky conglomerates are very similar to
ancient subtidal shallow-shelf conglomerates described by Sepkoskr (1975, 1978), Chudzikiewicz
(1975), Jones & Dixon (1976) and Kazmierczak &
Goldriiig ( 1978), and which are believed to have
formed by storm processes. These conglomerates
occur in limestone-shale sequences in beds 30-60 cm
thick, are dominantly clast-supported with inter-

Skakc shelf trawsitioirs iir the Appuluchiaiw

particle skeletal-intraclast packstone to mudstone,
and contain clasts that are platy to discoidal, up to
10 em long, in subhorizontal and imbricate to edgewise arrangements.
Clasts in the conglomerates have similar lithologics to underlying units (Chudzikiewicz, 1975 and
Kazinierczak & Goldring, 1978). They form during
high-energy storms when semi-lithilied bottom sediments areeroded; currentsarereinforced by thestorni
and eroded sediments are transported and later
redeposited under waning encrgy conditions (Kelling
& Mullin, 1975). Many Nolichucky clasts are bored,
and have grains and cement truncated at borders,
which indicates that some sediments were highly
lithified when reworked, a conclusion supported by
the abundance of hardgrounds and marine fibrous
cements in Nolichucky sedinicnts. Other clasts may
have been fragments of fine lime sediment that was
sufficiently coherent to be reworked as pebbles.
Rounded to angular shapes of clasts indicate
variable lateral transport during resedimentation.
Transport is neither unidirectional nor from a point
or linear source because a systematic gradient in
conglomerate bedding thickness and clast size is
absent. Oligomictic conglomerates which rest on
limestones and contain large, angular to subrounded
platy clasts, may have undergone little lateral transport as evidenced by proximity to source sediments
(stibjacent limestones) and angular shapes of many
clasts. However, wave reworking of sediments was
capable of round iiig highly I i t hified 1imestone fragments such as iiiultigeneration clasts (Fig. 11C).
Clasts in grain-supported conglonierates that overlie
shale beds may have undergone greater lateral
transport, because clasts were eroded from limestone/
siltstone lithotopes and deposited on shales; these
clasts tend to be smaller and better rounded than
clasts in conglomerates that overlie limestone.
Kandomly developed conglomerates and locally
developed upward-fi ni ng sequences wit I1 congl omeratic basal lags probably developed as a result of
recurrent storms (Jones & Dixon, 1976; Kreisa,
1979). Although also probably storm generated, the
more common upward-coarsening sequences of
shale-siltstone-conglomerate have some similarities
to basal portions of progradational sandy shoreline
sequences i i the North Sea and Gulf of Gaeta
(Keincck & Singh, 1975, pp. 314 and 330). These
modern sequences which consist of interlayered silty
muds, storm-reworked parallel and hummocky
laminated silts, and thick beds of shoreface crossbedded sands, occur as progradational sheets and

59 I

lobes that fine seaward, and prograde during storms

when sediments are transported and deposited in
deeper water environments. In a similar manner, the
Nolichucky coarsening-upwards sequences may have
formed by progradation of siltstone sheets and lobes
over basin shales. Capping conglomerates may have
been deposited as the prograding lobes, with surficial
conglomerate-filled channels, migrated out over siltstones that formed fans in front of the channels. The
conglomerates may be analogous to the storm-surge,
subtidal, coquinoid sandstones in shelf sequences
described by Brenner & Davies (1973). Some conglomerate caps might also have formed during subsequent storms by erosion of previous storm-deposited
siltstones that had become cemented at or near to
the sediment-water interface.
Rare paraconglomerates interbedded with thick
shales and composed of subangular, poorly graded
clasts of lime mudstone, and lesser laminated pellet
limestone in mud matrix, contain allochthonous
debris. They resemble debris flow deposits (Cook ct
a/., 1972) in that they are laterally extensive, enclosed
in shales, massive to poorly graded, and have mud
support fabrics, planar bases, locally irregular tops
and subangular clasts. It is possible that slopes in the
Nolichucky basin were locally sufficient to sustain
debris flow. Perhaps storin-induced sediment transport from limestone lithotopes may have initiated
debris flow following rapid deposition upon watersaturated, uncompacted shales.
Skeletal limestone

Skeletal limestones (up to 30 cm thick) interbedded

with shale Iithofacies occur as thin beds and starved
ripple/megaripple lenses within shale, as basal
skeletal lags in upward-fining sequences, as skeletal
caps in upward-coaisening shale-siltstone-skeletal
limestone sequences, and as beds interlayered with
conglomerates. Caps of skeletal limestones may be
rippled or niegarippled. Some have scoured and loadcasted bases. Units are massive to thin-layered, to
ripple-cross-laminated, and some contain hardgrounds. They are mainly glauconitic skeletal grainstonelpackstone that resemble skeletal sands in
ribbon carbonates, and lime sand matrix of conglomerates in shale sequences. They mainly consist
of trilobite and echinoderm fragments, intraclasts,
pellets, interstitial lime mud and variable amounts of
glauconite. These are similar to skeletal beds of the
ribbon carbonates (Fig. 7).

592

J. R. Markello and J. F. Read

Interpret ation

Ooid packstone

Probably all of the skeletal sands are storm-reworked

deposits, indicated by association with upwardfining and upward-coarsening sequences, interlayering with conglomerates, presence of abundant intraclasts, starved ripples and megaripples. Some sands
may have undergone considerable lateral transport
during storms, especially those that rest with sharp
basal contacts o n shales, and some may even have
been transported from ribbon carbonate lithotopes.
Others may have resulted from storm reworking of
locally produced skeletal sediment.

Ooid packstone sheets (0.3-8 m thick) occur between

shaly ribbon limestones and the overlying shales in
the Nolichucky Lower Limestone/Lower Shale Members and in thin layers and lenses in shaly limestones
and shales beneath the cyclic Middle Limestone
(Fig. 2). They also cap cycles in the Middle Limestone
(Fig. 2). Basal contacts of ooid beds are commonly
erosional, and upper contacts are sharp with preserved
symmetrical megaripples (5-15 c m ampIitudes, 0.52 m wavelength; Fig. 12A). Thick oolitic units have
thin tabular cross-stratified sets. Hardgrounds and

Fig. 12. Ooid packstone facies of the intrashelf basin. (A)Ooid packstone, Middle Limestone Member. Note megarippled
top overlain by shale and the centimetre scale (arrow). (3)Photomicrograph of ooid packstone with sediment-filled

bedding plane parting (arrows) that separates cemented ooid packstone beds. Coarse crystalline ooids are dolomitized.
( C ) Photomicrograph of ooid packstone; platy ooid nuclei are mainly trilobite fragments.

Shale shelf transitions in the Appalachians

marine-cemented layers are common and include
cryptocrystalline calcite-cemented layers separated
by bedding-plane partings filled with infiltrated ooid
sediment (Fig. 12B).
The ooid packstone (Fig. 12C) consists of moderate- to well-sorted, medium sand- to granule-size
ooids, intraclasts (lime mudstone, quartzxe calcisiltite, and skeletal limestone), locally abundant
echinoderm and trilobite fragments, spicules, glauconite, and abundant interstitial lime mud/pelletal
mud. Ooids have well-developed radial fabric and
nuclei that include pellets and skeletal grains (Fig.
12C). Thin, fine-columnar cement partially to cornpletely fringes ooids, but most interparticle void
space is filled with lime mud/pellet mud and minor
equant cement. Dolomitization of ooids is partial
(only nuclei replaced) to complete, and commonly is
localized within layers.

Interpretation
Ooid packstones are interpreted on the basis of
stratigraphic setting as subtidal sand sheets that
accumulated in shallow basin settings, s-award of
nearshore grainstone shoals and deeper-ramp, ribbon
carbonate environments. The ooid packstones differ
from the other ooid sediments in that they occur in
extensive thin sheets overlain by shales, have preserved megarippled bedding surfaces, and are packstones with large ooids (1-4 mm) with pronounced
radial fabrics, open marine fossil asemblages and
glauconite.
Holocene oolitic sediments similar to Nolichucky
ooid packstones are forming in protected Persian
Gulf lagoons where ooids are moved only during
storms, and sustained low-energy periods allow for
precipitation of thick radial oolitic cortexes (Loreau
& Purser, 1973). Similar ooid packstones occur in
intrashelf basin shale facies of the Mesozoic shelf,
Canada, where they also have pronounced radial
fabrics (Eliuk, 1978) and in the Cambrian inshore
basin facies of Canada (Aitken, 1978). The radial
fabrics may be partly diagenetic, although they
probably reflect primary radial fabrics that were
either aragonitic or high Mg calcite. Megaripple
bedforms on subwave base oolitic sediments are
generated during periodic high tides and large storms,
and are preserved because of the subwave base setting
and possible stabilization of sediments by subtidal
algal films (Bathurst, 1975).

593

C O M P A R I S O N WITH OTHER
INTRASHELF B A S I N SEQUENCES
The Nolichucky intrashelf basin has facies that are
similar to those in intrashelf basins in the Cambrian
of the United States and Canada (Palmer, 1971b;
Aitken, 1978) and the Mesozoic of Canada (Eliuk,
1978). They are bordered toward the regional shelf
edge by shallow-water carbonate platforms that
periodically shoaled to tidal levels. Consequently
these rimming platforms commonly have interbeds
of carbonate tidal flat facies. Width of the rimming
platform for the Appalachians is not known. However, rimming platforms may have ranged from 20
to 400 km wide in the Cambrian of Western Canada
(Aitken, 1978), and up to 30 km wide in the Mesozoic
of eastern Canada (Eliuk, 1978).
Inshore basins may be extremely large. Aitken
(1978) suggests the Cambrian basin of Western
Canada was 1900 km long by 700-1 10 km wide. In
the Appalachians, the basin may have been 800 km
long by 300-400 km wide. The Mesozoic intrashelf
basin in eastern Canada appears to be smaller
(500 km long by 70 km wide; Eliuk, 1978).
Slopes into the intrashelf basins appear to be low,
probably of the order of a few metres per kilometre.
Consequently, facies transitions from the platform
into the basin are typically ramp-like and lack the
turbidites and megabreccias that seem to characterize
steep shelf edges. Instead, the facies grade from lime
sands into muddy carbonates and then into shale
sequences. An important feature associated with the
transition is that thick ooid grainstone bodies may
be located irnmediately.behind the rimming platform.
lntrashelf basins appear to be bordered toward the
craton by nearshore clastics which are locally introduced via delta-systems and redistributed by marine
currents. Intrashelf basin fills common:y are olivegreen shale, calcisiltite, quartz siltstone, open marine
skeletal limestone and locally, radial-ooid packstone.
Flat pebble conglomerates, glauconite and hardgrounds are common, particularly in the Cambrian
examples. Finally, and of great importance, is that
basin fills appear to be dominantly subtidal facies
that may have formed below fair weather wave base.

CONCLUSIONS
( I ) Upper Cambrian (Dresbachian) facies of the
Nolichucky and adjacent formations accumulated
within and peripheral to a shallow intrashelf basin on

594

J. R. Markello andJ. F. Read

the Appalachian pericratonic carbonate shelf. The

intrashelf basin was bordered to the west by the
North American craton. It was bordered by a
shallow ramp-tidal flat complex to the north-east
(along strike) and to the south-east (toward the
regional shelf edge). The location of the shelf basin
above a pet sistent Lower Palaeozoic depocentre
suggests a genetic relationship. Similar basins occur
in the Cambrian of western Canada (Aitken, 1978)
and the Mesozoic of eastern Canada (Eliuk, 1978).
(2) Lithofacies occur in broad bands which intergrade laterally and vertically. Four lithofacies suites
that make u p the ramp-intrashelf basin transition
are: (I)cyclic carbonate peritidal facies; (2) shallowramp, high-energy ooid and oncolitic grainstones;
( 3 ) deeper-ramp ribbon carbonates (skeletal limestones, storm-generated fining-up sequences, and
burrow-mixed sequences); (4) shallow-basin shalesiltstone-carbonate-conglomerate
sequences and
open marine skeletal limestone and ooid packstone,
believed to have formed below fair weather wave
base, but above storm wave base. Shale lithofacies
appear to be on-shelf deposits and differ from
typical deeper water facies (Wilson, 1969) in lack of
pelagic sed inient s, abundance of Cruzium-type fossils,
presence of storm sequences and interbedded shallow
water and oolitic facies, and by proximity of tidal
flat carbonates.
( 3 ) Slopes oil the ramp were very low. This is indicated by horirontal time lines that parallel lithostratigraphic markers (regionally extensive hardgrounds, glauconite and sedimentary dike horizons,
ooid packstone sheets, and the Middle Limestone
Member) and by general lack of turbidites, slumps
and intraformational truncation surfaces. Further,
limestone conglomerates in basin shales, which consist of basin facies clasts, lack clasts of shallow platform rocks and other evidence of widespread, downslope debris flow deposition typically associated with
steeply sloping shelf margins. Estimates of basin
water depths during deposition range from a few
metres to perhaps a few tens of metres maximum.
(4) Storms were important in the formation of
many rock types in the sequence including finingupward sequences of deep-ramp ribbon rocks;
parallel/liiimmocky laminated siltstone/calcisiltites
and conglomerate lenses and sl-.eets in deep ramp
and.basin facies. Storm origin of most conglomerates
is sugg:sted by lack of regional gradients in bedding
thickness and clast size, by dominance of locally
derived clasts, and by abundance of conglomerates
throughout the basin. Storm-initiated sediment

gravity flows may have been involved in deposition

of rare paraconglomerates interbedded with shales.
( 5 ) Recogition of intrashelf basins o n continental
shelves is important because such basins strongly
influence distribution of associated facies (including
potential reservoir rocks), whose trends may largely
be unrelated to regional shelf-edge trends.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This paper is based on an M.S. Thesis by J. R.
Markello, under the supervision of J. F. Read.
Thanks are given to W. D. Lowry, C. G . Tillman,
George A. Grover, Jr, Ronald D. Kreisa and J. D.
Aitken for helpful discussion and for ci-itical review
of the manuscript. Technical assistance was provided
by Bryan Roberts and Greg Lumpkin (field work),
by Sharon Chiang, Martin Eiss and Carol Markello
(drafting), by Sue Bruce and Gordon Love (photography), and by Susan Roth and Donna Williams
(typing). Financial assistance was provided by Earth
Sciencss Section, Nat ional Science Foundation grants
DES 75-15015 andEAR75-15015 to J. F. Read,and
by grants from the Department of Geological Sciences,
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University;
a Grant-in-Aid of Research from Sigma Xi, the
Scientific Research Society of North America; and a
Grant-in-Aid from the American Association of
Petroleum Geologists. The senior writer wishes to express much appreciation to his wife, Carol, who
aided in preparation of illustrations and provided
abundant emotional support throughout the project.

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(Mnriiiscvipt rcceired 14 April 1980; revisiorr wcc~ived14 August 1980)