Casting (metalworking)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Molten metal prior to casting

Casting iron in a sand mold

In metalworking, casting involves pouring liquid metal into a mold, which contains a
hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowing it to cool and solidify. The solidified
part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the
process. Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be difficult or
uneconomical to make by other methods.[1]
Casting processes have been known for thousands of years, and widely used for sculpture,
especially in bronze, jewellery in precious metals, and weapons and tools. Traditional
techniques include lost-wax casting, plaster mold casting and sand casting.
The modern casting process is subdivided into two main categories: expendable and nonexpendable casting. It is further broken down by the mold material, such as sand or metal,
and pouring method, such as gravity, vacuum, or low pressure.[2]

Contents

1 Expendable mold casting

o 1.1 Sand casting
o 1.2 Plaster mold casting
o 1.3 Shell molding
o 1.4 Investment casting
o 1.5 Waste molding of plaster
o 1.6 Evaporative-pattern casting

1.6.1 Lost-foam casting

1.6.2 Full-mold casting

2 Non-expendable mold casting

o 2.1 Permanent mold casting
o 2.2 Die casting
o 2.3 Semi-solid metal casting
o 2.4 Centrifugal casting
o 2.5 Continuous casting

3 Terminology

4 Theory
o 4.1 Cooling curves
o 4.2 Chvorinov's rule
o 4.3 The gating system

o 4.4 Shrinkage

4.4.1 Solidification shrinkage

4.4.2 Risers and riser aids

4.4.3 Patternmaker's shrink

o 4.5 Mold cavity

o 4.6 Filling

4.6.1 Tilt filling

o 4.7 Macrostructure
o 4.8 Inspection

4.8.1 Defects

5 Casting Process Simulation

6 See also

7 References
o 7.1 Notes
o 7.2 Bibliography

8 External links

Expendable mold casting

Expendable mold casting is a generic classification that includes sand, plastic, shell, plaster,
and investment (lost-wax technique) moldings. This method of mold casting involves the
use of temporary, non-reusable molds.

Sand casting
Main article: Sand casting
Sand casting is one of the most popular and simplest types of casting, and has been used for
centuries. Sand casting allows for smaller batches than permanent mold casting and at a
very reasonable cost. Not only does this method allow manufacturers to create products at a
low cost, but there are other benefits to sand casting, such as very small-size operations.
From castings that fit in the palm of your hand to train beds (one casting can create the
entire bed for one rail car), it can all be done with sand casting. Sand casting also allows
most metals to be cast depending on the type of sand used for the molds.[3]
Sand casting requires a lead time of days, or even weeks sometimes, for production at high
output rates (120 pieces/hr-mold) and is unsurpassed for large-part production. Green
(moist) sand has almost no part weight limit, whereas dry sand has a practical part mass
limit of 2,3002,700 kg (5,1006,000 lb). Minimum part weight ranges from 0.0750.1 kg
(0.170.22 lb). The sand is bonded together using clays, chemical binders, or polymerized
oils (such as motor oil). Sand can be recycled many times in most operations and requires
little maintenance.

Plaster mold casting

Main article: Plaster mold casting
Plaster casting is similar to sand casting except that plaster of paris is substituted for sand as
a mold material. Generally, the form takes less than a week to prepare, after which a
production rate of 110 units/hrmold is achieved, with items as massive as 45 kg (99 lb)

and as small as 30 g (1 oz) with very good surface finish and close tolerances.[4] Plaster
casting is an inexpensive alternative to other molding processes for complex parts due to
the low cost of the plaster and its ability to produce near net shape castings. The biggest
disadvantage is that it can only be used with low melting point non-ferrous materials, such
as aluminium, copper, magnesium, and zinc.[5]

Shell molding
Main article: Shell molding
Shell molding is similar to sand casting, but the molding cavity is formed by a hardened
"shell" of sand instead of a flask filled with sand. The sand used is finer than sand casting
sand and is mixed with a resin so that it can be heated by the pattern and hardened into a
shell around the pattern. Because of the resin and finer sand, it gives a much finer surface
finish. The process is easily automated and more precise than sand casting. Common metals
that are cast include cast iron, aluminium, magnesium, and copper alloys. This process is
ideal for complex items that are small to medium-sized.

Investment casting

An investment-cast valve cover

Main article: Investment casting
See also: Lost-wax casting
Investment casting (known as lost-wax casting in art) is a process that has been practiced
for thousands of years, with the lost-wax process being one of the oldest known metal
forming techniques. From 5000 years ago, when beeswax formed the pattern, to todays
high technology waxes, refractory materials and specialist alloys, the castings ensure highquality components are produced with the key benefits of accuracy, repeatability, versatility
and integrity.
Investment casting derives its name from the fact that the pattern is invested, or surrounded,
with a refractory material. The wax patterns require extreme care for they are not strong
enough to withstand forces encountered during the mold making. One advantage of
investment casting is that the wax can be reused.[4]

The process is suitable for repeatable production of net shape components from a variety of
different metals and high performance alloys. Although generally used for small castings,
this process has been used to produce complete aircraft door frames, with steel castings of
up to 300 kg and aluminium castings of up to 30 kg. Compared to other casting processes
such as die casting or sand casting, it can be an expensive process, however the components
that can be produced using investment casting can incorporate intricate contours, and in
most cases the components are cast near net shape, so require little or no rework once cast.

Waste molding of plaster

This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this
section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be
challenged and removed. (February 2009)
A durable plaster intermediate is often used as a stage toward the production of a bronze
sculpture or as a pointing guide for the creation of a carved stone. With the completion of a
plaster, the work is more durable (if stored indoors) than a clay original which must be kept
moist to avoid cracking. With the low cost plaster at hand, the expensive work of bronze
casting or stone carving may be deferred until a patron is found, and as such work is
considered to be a technical, rather than artistic process, it may even be deferred beyond the
lifetime of the artist.
In waste molding a simple and thin plaster mold, reinforced by sisal or burlap, is cast over
the original clay mixture. When cured, it is then removed from the damp clay, incidentally
destroying the fine details in undercuts present in the clay, but which are now captured in
the mold. The mold may then at any later time (but only once) be used to cast a plaster
positive image, identical to the original clay. The surface of this plaster may be further
refined and may be painted and waxed to resemble a finished bronze casting.

Evaporative-pattern casting
Main article: Evaporative-pattern casting
This is a class of casting processes that use pattern materials that evaporate during the pour,
which means there is no need to remove the pattern material from the mold before casting.
The two main processes are lost-foam casting and full-mold casting.

Lost-foam casting
Main article: Lost-foam casting
Lost-foam casting is a type of evaporative-pattern casting process that is similar to
investment casting except foam is used for the pattern instead of wax. This process takes
advantage of the low boiling point of foam to simplify the investment casting process by
removing the need to melt the wax out of the mold.
Full-mold casting
Main article: Full-mold casting
Full-mold casting is an evaporative-pattern casting process which is a combination of sand
casting and lost-foam casting. It uses an expanded polystyrene foam pattern which is then
surrounded by sand, much like sand casting. The metal is then poured directly into the
mold, which vaporizes the foam upon contact.

Non-expendable mold casting

The permanent molding process

Non-expendable mold casting differs from expendable processes in that the mold need not
be reformed after each production cycle. This technique includes at least four different
methods: permanent, die, centrifugal, and continuous casting. This form of casting also
results in improved repeatability in parts produced and delivers Near Net Shape results.

Permanent mold casting

Main articles: Permanent mold casting, low-pressure permanent mold casting and vacuum
permanent mold casting
Permanent mold casting is a metal casting process that employs reusable molds
("permanent molds"), usually made from metal. The most common process uses gravity to
fill the mold, however gas pressure or a vacuum are also used. A variation on the typical
gravity casting process, called slush casting, produces hollow castings. Common casting
metals are aluminum, magnesium, and copper alloys. Other materials include tin, zinc, and
lead alloys and iron and steel are also cast in graphite molds. Permanent molds, while
lasting more than one casting still have a limited life before wearing out.

Die casting
Main article: Die casting
The die casting process forces molten metal under high pressure into mold cavities (which
are machined into dies). Most die castings are made from nonferrous metals, specifically
zinc, copper, and aluminium based alloys, but ferrous metal die castings are possible. The
die casting method is especially suited for applications where many small to medium-sized
parts are needed with good detail, a fine surface quality and dimensional consistency.

Semi-solid metal casting

Main article: Semi-solid metal casting
Semi-solid metal (SSM) casting is a modified die casting process that reduces or eliminates
the residual porosity present in most die castings. Rather than using liquid metal as the feed
material, SSM casting uses a higher viscosity feed material that is partially solid and
partially liquid. A modified die casting machine is used to inject the semi-solid slurry into
re-usable hardened steel dies. The high viscosity of the semi-solid metal, along with the use
of controlled die filling conditions, ensures that the semi-solid metal fills the die in a nonturbulent manner so that harmful porosity can be essentially eliminated.
Used commercially mainly for aluminium and magnesium alloys, SSM castings can be heat
treated to the T4, T5 or T6 tempers. The combination of heat treatment, fast cooling rates
(from using un-coated steel dies) and minimal porosity provides excellent combinations of
strength and ductility. Other advantages of SSM casting include the ability to produce
complex shaped parts net shape, pressure tightness, tight dimensional tolerances and the
ability to cast thin walls.[6]

Centrifugal casting

Main article: Centrifugal casting (silversmithing)

In this process molten metal is poured in the mold and allowed to solidify while the mold is
rotating. Metal is poured into the center of the mold at its axis of rotation. Due to
centrifugal force the liquid metal is thrown out towards the periphery.
Centrifugal casting is both gravity- and pressure-independent since it creates its own force
feed using a temporary sand mold held in a spinning chamber at up to 900 N. Lead time
varies with the application. Semi- and true-centrifugal processing permit 3050 pieces/hrmold to be produced, with a practical limit for batch processing of approximately 9000 kg
total mass with a typical per-item limit of 2.34.5 kg.
Industrially, the centrifugal casting of railway wheels was an early application of the
method developed by the German industrial company Krupp and this capability enabled the
rapid growth of the enterprise.
Small art pieces such as jewelry are often cast by this method using the lost wax process, as
the forces enable the rather viscous liquid metals to flow through very small passages and
into fine details such as leaves and petals. This effect is similar to the benefits from vacuum
casting, also applied to jewelry casting.

Continuous casting
Main article: Continuous casting
Continuous casting is a refinement of the casting process for the continuous, high-volume
production of metal sections with a constant cross-section. Molten metal is poured into an
open-ended, water-cooled mold, which allows a 'skin' of solid metal to form over the stillliquid centre, gradually solidifying the metal from the outside in. After solidification, the
strand, as it is sometimes called, is continuously withdrawn from the mold. Predetermined
lengths of the strand can be cut off by either mechanical shears or traveling oxyacetylene
torches and transferred to further forming processes, or to a stockpile. Cast sizes can range
from strip (a few millimeters thick by about five meters wide) to billets (90 to 160 mm
square) to slabs (1.25 m wide by 230 mm thick). Sometimes, the strand may undergo an
initial hot rolling process before being cut.
Continuous casting is used due to the lower costs associated with continuous production of
a standard product, and also increased quality of the final product. Metals such as steel,
copper, aluminum and lead are continuously cast, with steel being the metal with the
greatest tonnages cast using this method.

Terminology

Metal casting processes uses the following terminology:[7]

Pattern: An approximate duplicate of the final casting used to form the mold cavity.

Molding material: The material that is packed around the pattern and then the
pattern is removed to leave the cavity where the casting material will be poured.

Flask: The rigid wood or metal frame that holds the molding material.
o Cope: The top half of the pattern, flask, mold, or core.
o Drag: The bottom half of the pattern, flask, mold, or core.

Core: An insert in the mold that produces internal features in the casting, such as
holes.
o Core print: The region added to the pattern, core, or mold used to locate and
support the core.

Mold cavity: The combined open area of the molding material and core, where the
metal is poured to produce the casting.

Riser: An extra void in the mold that fills with molten material to compensate for
shrinkage during solidification.

Gating system: The network of connected channels that deliver the molten material
to the mold cavities.
o Pouring cup or pouring basin: The part of the gating system that receives the
molten material from the pouring vessel.
o Sprue: The pouring cup attaches to the sprue, which is the vertical part of the
gating system. The other end of the sprue attaches to the runners.
o Runners: The horizontal portion of the gating system that connects the
sprues to the gates.
o Gates: The controlled entrances from the runners into the mold cavities.

Vents: Additional channels that provide an escape for gases generated during the
pour.

Parting line or parting surface: The interface between the cope and drag halves of
the mold, flask, or pattern.

Draft: The taper on the casting or pattern that allow it to be withdrawn from the
mold

Core box: The mold or die used to produce the cores.

Some specialized processes, such as die casting, use additional terminology.

Theory
Casting is a solidification process, which means the solidification phenomenon controls
most of the properties of the casting. Moreover, most of the casting defects occur during
solidification, such as gas porosity and solidification shrinkage.[8]
Solidification occurs in two steps: nucleation and crystal growth. In the nucleation stage
solid particles form within the liquid. When these particles form their internal energy is
lower than the surrounded liquid, which creates an energy interface between the two. The
formation of the surface at this interface requires energy, so as nucleation occurs the
material actually undercools, that is it cools below its freezing temperature, because of the
extra energy required to form the interface surfaces. It then recalescences, or heats back up
to its freezing temperature, for the crystal growth stage. Note that nucleation occurs on a
pre-existing solid surface, because not as much energy is required for a partial interface
surface, as is for a complete spherical interface surface. This can be advantageous because
fine-grained castings possess better properties than coarse-grained castings. A fine grain
structure can be induced by grain refinement or inoculation, which is the process of adding
impurities to induce nucleation.[9]
All of the nucleations represent a crystal, which grows as the heat of fusion is extracted
from the liquid until there is no liquid left. The direction, rate, and type of growth can be
controlled to maximize the properties of the casting. Directional solidification is when the
material solidifies at one end and proceeds to solidify to the other end; this is the most ideal
type of grain growth because it allows liquid material to compensate for shrinkage.[9]

Cooling curves

Intermediate cooling rates from melt result in a dendritic microstructure. Primary and
secondary dendrites can be seen in this image.
See also: Cooling curves
Cooling curves are important in controlling the quality of a casting. The most important
part of the cooling curve is the cooling rate which affects the microstructure and properties.
Generally speaking, an area of the casting which is cooled quickly will have a fine grain
structure and an area which cools slowly will have a coarse grain structure. Below is an
example cooling curve of a pure metal or eutectic alloy, with defining terminology.[10]

Note that before the thermal arrest the material is a liquid and after it the material is a solid;
during the thermal arrest the material is converting from a liquid to a solid. Also, note that
the greater the superheat the more time there is for the liquid material to flow into intricate
details.[11]
The above cooling curve depicts a basic situation with a pure alloy, however, most castings
are of alloys, which have a cooling curve shaped as shown below.

Note that there is no longer a thermal arrest, instead there is a freezing range. The freezing
range corresponds directly to the liquidus and solidus found on the phase diagram for the
specific alloy.

Chvorinov's rule
Main article: Chvorinov's rule
The local solidification time can be calculated using Chvorinov's rule, which is:

Where t is the solidification time, V is the volume of the casting, A is the surface area of the
casting that contacts the mold, n is a constant, and B is the mold constant. It is most useful
in determining if a riser will solidify before the casting, because if the riser does solidify
first then it is worthless.[12]

The gating system

A simple gating system for a horizontal parting mold.

See also: Sprue (manufacturing)
The gating system serves many purposes, the most important being conveying the liquid
material to the mold, but also controlling shrinkage, the speed of the liquid, turbulence, and
trapping dross. The gates are usually attached to the thickest part of the casting to assist in
controlling shrinkage. In especially large castings multiple gates or runners may be required
to introduce metal to more than one point in the mold cavity. The speed of the material is
important because if the material is traveling too slowly it can cool before completely
filling, leading to misruns and cold shuts. If the material is moving too fast then the liquid
material can erode the mold and contaminate the final casting. The shape and length of the
gating system can also control how quickly the material cools; short round or square
channels minimize heat loss.[13]
The gating system may be designed to minimize turbulence, depending on the material
being cast. For example, steel, cast iron, and most copper alloys are turbulent insensitive,
but aluminium and magnesium alloys are turbulent sensitive. The turbulent insensitive
materials usually have a short and open gating system to fill the mold as quickly as
possible. However, for turbulent sensitive materials short sprues are used to minimize the
distance the material must fall when entering the mold. Rectangular pouring cups and
tapered sprues are used to prevent the formation of a vortex as the material flows into the
mold; these vortices tend to suck gas and oxides into the mold. A large sprue well is used to
dissipate the kinetic energy of the liquid material as it falls down the sprue, decreasing
turbulence. The choke, which is the smallest cross-sectional area in the gating system used
to control flow, can be placed near the sprue well to slow down and smooth out the flow.
Note that on some molds the choke is still placed on the gates to make separation of the part
easier, but induces extreme turbulence.[14] The gates are usually attached to the bottom of
the casting to minimize turbulence and splashing.[13]
The gating system may also be designed to trap dross. One method is to take advantage of
the fact that some dross has a lower density than the base material so it floats to the top of
the gating system. Therefore long flat runners with gates that exit from the bottom of the
runners can trap dross in the runners; note that long flat runners will cool the material more
rapidly than round or square runners. For materials where the dross is a similar density to
the base material, such as aluminium, runner extensions and runner wells can be

advantageous. These take advantage of the fact that the dross is usually located at the
beginning of the pour, therefore the runner is extended past the last gate(s) and the
contaminates are contained in the wells. Screens or filters may also be used to trap
contaminates.[14]
It is important to keep the size of the gating system small, because it all must be cut from
the casting and remelted to be reused. The efficiency, or yield, of a casting system can be
calculated by dividing the weight of the casting by the weight of the metal poured.
Therefore, the higher the number the more efficient the gating system/risers.[15]

Shrinkage
There are three types of shrinkage: shrinkage of the liquid, solidification shrinkage and
patternmaker's shrinkage. The shrinkage of the liquid is rarely a problem because more
material is flowing into the mold behind it. Solidification shrinkage occurs because metals
are less dense as a liquid than a solid, so during solidification the metal density dramatically
increases. Patternmaker's shrinkage refers to the shrinkage that occurs when the material is
cooled from the solidification temperature to room temperature, which occurs due to
thermal contraction.[16]
Solidification shrinkage
Solidification shrinkage of various metals[17][18]
Metal
Percentage
Aluminium
6.6
Copper
4.9
Magnesium
4.0 or 4.2
Zinc
3.7 or 6.5
Low carbon steel
2.53.0
High carbon steel
4.0
White cast iron
4.05.5
Gray cast iron
2.51.6
Ductile cast iron
4.52.7
Most materials shrink as they solidify, but, as the table to the right shows, a few materials
do not, such as gray cast iron. For the materials that do shrink upon solidification the type
of shrinkage depends on how wide the freezing range is for the material. For materials with
a narrow freezing range, less than 50 C (122 F),[19] a cavity, known as a pipe, forms in the
center of the casting, because the outer shell freezes first and progressively solidifies to the
center. Pure and eutectic metals usually have narrow solidification ranges. These materials
tend to form a skin in open air molds, therefore they are known as skin forming alloys.[19]
For materials with a wide freezing range, greater than 110 C (230 F),[19] much more of the
casting occupies the mushy or slushy zone (the temperature range between the solidus and

the liquidus), which leads to small pockets of liquid trapped throughout and ultimately
porosity. These castings tend to have poor ductility, toughness, and fatigue resistance.
Moreover, for these types of materials to be fluid-tight a secondary operation is required to
impregnate the casting with a lower melting point metal or resin.[17][20]
For the materials that have narrow solidification ranges pipes can be overcome by
designing the casting to promote directional solidification, which means the casting freezes
first at the point farthest from the gate, then progressively solidifies towards the gate. This
allows a continuous feed of liquid material to be present at the point of solidification to
compensate for the shrinkage. Note that there is still a shrinkage void where the final
material solidifies, but if designed properly this will be in the gating system or riser.[17]
Risers and riser aids

Different types of risers

Main articles: Riser (casting) and chill (casting)
Risers, also known as feeders, are the most common way of providing directional
solidification. It supplies liquid metal to the solidifying casting to compensate for
solidification shrinkage. For a riser to work properly the riser must solidify after the
casting, otherwise it cannot supply liquid metal to shrinkage within the casting. Risers add
cost to the casting because it lowers the yield of each casting; i.e. more metal is lost as scrap
for each casting. Another way to promote directional solidification is by adding chills to the
mold. A chill is any material which will conduct heat away from the casting more rapidly
that the material used for molding.[21]
Risers are classified by three criteria. The first is if the riser is open to the atmosphere, if it
is then it is called an open riser, otherwise it is known as a blind type. The second criterion
is where the riser is located; if it is located on the casting then it is known as a top riser and
if it is located next to the casting it is known as a side riser. Finally, if riser is located on the
gating system so that it fills after the molding cavity, it is known as a live riser or hot riser,

but if the riser fills with materials that's already flowed through the molding cavity it is
known as a dead riser or cold riser.[15]
Riser aids are items used to assist risers in creating directional solidification or reducing the
number of risers required. One of these items are chills which accelerate cooling in a
certain part of the mold. There are two types: external and internal chills. External chills are
masses of high-heat-capacity and high-thermal-conductivity material that are placed on an
edge of the molding cavity. Internal chills are pieces of the same metal that is being poured,
which are placed inside the mold cavity and become part of the casting. Insulating sleeves
and toppings may also be installed around the riser cavity to slow the solidification of the
riser. Heater coils may also be installed around or above the riser cavity to slow
solidification.[22]
Patternmaker's shrink
Typical patternmaker's shrinkage of various metals[23]
Metal
Percentage
in/ft
1
5
Aluminium
1.01.3
8 32
3
Brass
1.5
16
1
Magnesium
1.01.3
8532
1
Cast iron
0.81.0
1018
3
Steel
1.52.0
1614
Shrinkage after solidification can be dealt with by using an oversized pattern designed
specifically for the alloy used. Contraction rules, or shrink rules, are used to make the
patterns oversized to compensate for this type of shrinkage.[23] These rulers are up to 2.5%
oversize, depending on the material being cast.[22] These rulers are mainly referred to by
their percentage change. A pattern made to match an existing part would be made as
follows: First, the existing part would be measured using a standard ruler, then when
constructing the pattern, the pattern maker would use a contraction rule, ensuring that the
casting would contract to the correct size.
Note that patternmaker's shrinkage does not take phase change transformations into
account. For example, eutectic reactions, martensitic reactions, and graphitization can cause
expansions or contractions.[23]

Mold cavity
The mold cavity of a casting does not reflect the exact dimensions of the finished part due
to a number of reasons. These modifications to the mold cavity are known as allowances
and account for patternmaker's shrinkage, draft, machining, and distortion. In nonexpendable processes, these allowances are imparted directly into the permanent mold, but
in expendable mold processes they are imparted into the patterns, which later form the

mold cavity.[23] Note that for non-expendable molds an allowance is required for the
dimensional change of the mold due to heating to operating temperatures.[24]
For surfaces of the casting that are perpendicular to the parting line of the mold a draft must
be included. This is so that the casting can be released in non-expendable processes or the
pattern can be released from the mold without destroying the mold in expendable processes.
The required draft angle depends on the size and shape of the feature, the depth of the mold
cavity, how the part or pattern is being removed from the mold, the pattern or part material,
the mold material, and the process type. Usually the draft is not less than 1%.[23]
The machining allowance varies drastically from one process to another. Sand castings
generally have a rough surface finish, therefore need a greater machining allowance,
whereas die casting has a very fine surface finish, which may not need any machining
tolerance. Also, the draft may provide enough of a machining allowance to begin with.[24]
The distortion allowance is only necessary for certain geometries. For instance, U-shaped
castings will tend to distort with the legs splaying outward, because the base of the shape
can contract while the legs are constrained by the mold. This can be overcome by designing
the mold cavity to slope the leg inward to begin with. Also, long horizontal sections tend to
sag in the middle if ribs are not incorporated, so a distortion allowance may be required.[24]
Cores may be used in expendable mold processes to produce internal features. The core can
be of metal but it is usually done in sand.

Filling

Schematic of the low-pressure permanent mold casting process

There are a few common methods for filling the mold cavity: gravity, low-pressure, highpressure, and vacuum.[25]
Vacuum filling, also known as counter-gravity filling, is more metal efficient than gravity
pouring because less material solidifies in the gating system. Gravity pouring only has a 15
to 50% metal yield as compared to 60 to 95% for vacuum pouring. There is also less
turbulence, so the gating system can be simplified since it does not have to control
turbulence. Plus, because the metal is drawn from below the top of the pool the metal is
free from dross and slag, as these are lower density (lighter) and float to the top of the pool.
The pressure differential helps the metal flow into every intricacy of the mold. Finally,
lower temperatures can be used, which improves the grain structure.[25] The first patented
vacuum casting machine and process dates to 1879.[26]
Low-pressure filling uses 5 to 15 psig (35 to 100 kPag) of air pressure to force liquid metal
up a feed tube into the mold cavity. This eliminates turbulence found in gravity casting and
increases density, repeatability, tolerances, and grain uniformity. After the casting has
solidified the pressure is released and any remaining liquid returns to the crucible, which
increases yield.[27]
Tilt filling

Tilt filling, also known as tilt casting, is an uncommon filling technique where the crucible
is attached to the gating system and both are slowly rotated so that the metal enters the
mold cavity with little turbulence. The goal is to reduce porosity and inclusions by limiting
turbulence. For most uses tilt filling is not feasible because the following inherent problem:
if the system is rotated slow enough to not induce turbulence, the front of the metal stream
begins to solidify, which results in mis-runs. If the system is rotated faster then it induces
turbulence, which defeats the purpose. Durville of France was the first to try tilt casting, in
the 1800s. He tried to use it to reduce surface defects when casting coinage from aluminium
bronze.[28]

Macrostructure
The grain macrostructure in ingots and most castings have three distinct regions or zones:
the chill zone, columnar zone, and equiaxed zone. The image below depicts these zones.

The chill zone is named so because it occurs at the walls of the mold where the wall chills
the material. Here is where the nucleation phase of the solidification process takes place. As
more heat is removed the grains grow towards the center of the casting. These are thin, long
columns that are perpendicular to the casting surface, which are undesirable because they
have anisotropic properties. Finally, in the center the equiaxed zone contains spherical,
randomly oriented crystals. These are desirable because they have isotropic properties. The
creation of this zone can be promoted by using a low pouring temperature, alloy inclusions,
or inoculants.[12]

Inspection

Common inspection methods for steel castings are magnetic particle testing and liquid
penetrant testing.[29] Common inspection methods for aluminum castings are radiography,
ultrasonic testing, and liquid penetrant testing.[30]
Defects
Main article: Casting defects
There are a number of problems that can be encountered during the casting process. The
main types are: gas porosity, shrinkage defects, mold material defects, pouring metal
defects, and metallurgical defects.

Casting Process Simulation

A high-performance software for the simulation of casting processes provides opportunities

for an interactive or automated evaluation of results (here, for example, of mold filling and
solidification, porosity and flow characteristics). Picture: Componenta B.V., The
Netherlands)
Casting process simulation uses numerical methods to calculate cast component quality
considering mold filling, solidification and cooling, and provides a quantitative prediction
of casting mechanical properties, thermal stresses and distortion. Simulation accurately
describes a cast components quality up-front before production starts. The casting rigging
can be designed with respect to the required component properties. This has benefits
beyond a reduction in pre-production sampling, as the precise layout of the complete
casting system also leads to energy, material, and tooling savings.
The software supports the user in component design, the determination of melting practice
and casting methoding through to pattern and mold making, heat treatment, and finishing.
This saves costs along the entire casting manufacturing route.
Casting process simulation was initially developed at universities starting from the early
'70s, mainly in Europe and in the U.S., and is regarded as the most important innovation in
casting technology over the last 50 years. Since the late '80s, commercial programs are

available which make it possible for foundries to gain new insight into what is happening
inside the mold or die during the casting process.

See also
Engineering portal

Bronze sculpture

Bronze and brass ornamental work

Flexible mold

Porosity sealing

Spin casting

Spray forming

Sand casting
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help
improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced
material may be challenged and removed. (July 2011)

Sand casting, also known as sand molded casting, is a metal casting process characterized
by using sand as the mold material. The term "sand casting" can also refer to an object
produced via the sand casting process. Sand castings are produced in specialized factories
called foundries. Over 70% of all metal castings are produced via a sand casting process.[1]
Sand casting is relatively cheap and sufficiently refractory even for steel foundry use. In
addition to the sand, a suitable bonding agent (usually clay) is mixed or occurs with the
sand. The mixture is moistened, typically with water, but sometimes with other substances,
to develop strength and plasticity of the clay and to make the aggregate suitable for
molding. The sand is typically contained in a system of frames or mold boxes known as a
flask. The mold cavities and gate system are created by compacting the sand around
models, or patterns, or carved directly into the sand.

Contents

1 Basic process
o

1.1 Components

1.1.1 Patterns

1.1.2 Molding box and materials

1.1.3 Chills

1.1.4 Cores

1.1.5 Design requirements

2 Processes
o

2.1 Green sand

2.2 The "air set" method

2.3 Cold box

2.4 No-bake molds

2.5 Vacuum molding

2.6 Fast mold making processes

2.6.1 Mechanized sand molding

2.6.2 Automatic high pressure sand molding lines

2.6.2.1 Horizontal sand flask molding

2.6.2.2 Vertical sand flaskless molding

2.6.2.3 Matchplate sand molding

3 Mold materials

3.1 Molding sands

3.1.1 Types of base sands

3.1.1.1 Silica sand

3.1.1.2 Olivine sand

3.1.1.3 Chromite sand

3.1.1.4 Zircon sand

3.1.1.5 Chamotte sand

3.1.2 Other materials

3.2 Binders

3.2.1 Clay and water

3.2.2 Oil

3.2.3 Resin

3.2.4 Sodium silicate

3.3 Additives

3.4 Parting compounds

4 History

5 See also

6 Notes

7 References
o

7.1 Bibliography

Basic process

There are six steps in this process:

1. Place a pattern in sand to create a mold.

2. Incorporate the pattern and sand in a gating system.
3. Remove the pattern.
4. Fill the mold cavity with molten metal.
5. Allow the metal to cool.
6. Break away the sand mold and remove the casting.

Components
Patterns

Cope & drag (top and bottom halves of a sand mold), with cores in place on the
drag
Main article: Pattern (casting)

From the design, provided by an engineer or designer, a skilled pattern maker builds a
pattern of the object to be produced, using wood, metal, or a plastic such as expanded
polystyrene. Sand can be ground, swept or strickled into shape. The metal to be cast will
contract during solidification, and this may be non-uniform due to uneven cooling.
Therefore, the pattern must be slightly larger than the finished product, a difference known
as contraction allowance. Pattern-makers are able to produce suitable patterns using
"Contraction rules" (these are sometimes called "shrink allowance rulers" where the ruled
markings are deliberately made to a larger spacing according to the percentage of extra
length needed). Different scaled rules are used for different metals, because each metal and
alloy contracts by an amount distinct from all others. Patterns also have core prints that
create registers within the molds into which are placed sand cores. Such cores, sometimes
reinforced by wires, are used to create under-cut profiles and cavities which cannot be
molded with the cope and drag, such as the interior passages of valves or cooling passages
in engine blocks.
Paths for the entrance of metal into the mold cavity constitute the runner system and
include the sprue, various feeders which maintain a good metal 'feed', and in-gates which
attach the runner system to the casting cavity. Gas and steam generated during casting exit
through the permeable sand or via risers,[note 1] which are added either in the pattern itself, or
as separate pieces.
Molding box and materials

A multi-part molding box (known as a casting flask, the top and bottom halves of which are
known respectively as the cope and drag) is prepared to receive the pattern. Molding boxes
are made in segments that may be latched to each other and to end closures. For a simple
objectflat on one sidethe lower portion of the box, closed at the bottom, will be filled
with a molding sand. The sand is packed in through a vibratory process called ramming,
and in this case, periodically screeded level. The surface of the sand may then be stabilized
with a sizing compound. The pattern is placed on the sand and another molding box
segment is added. Additional sand is rammed over and around the pattern. Finally a cover is
placed on the box and it is turned and unlatched, so that the halves of the mold may be
parted and the pattern with its sprue and vent patterns removed. Additional sizing may be
added and any defects introduced by the removal of the pattern are corrected. The box is
closed again. This forms a "green" mold which must be dried to receive the hot metal. If the
mold is not sufficiently dried a steam explosion can occur that can throw molten metal
about. In some cases, the sand may be oiled instead of moistened, which makes possible

casting without waiting for the sand to dry. Sand may also be bonded by chemical binders,
such as furane resins or amine-hardened resins.

Chills

To control the solidification structure of the metal, it is possible to place metal plates, chills,
in the mold. The associated rapid local cooling will form a finer-grained structure and may
form a somewhat harder metal at these locations. In ferrous castings, the effect is similar to
quenching metals in forge work. The inner diameter of an engine cylinder is made hard by a
chilling core. In other metals, chills may be used to promote directional solidification of the
casting. In controlling the way a casting freezes, it is possible to prevent internal voids or
porosity inside castings.
Cores
Main article: Core (manufacturing)

To produce cavities within the castingsuch as for liquid cooling in engine blocks and
cylinder headsnegative forms are used to produce cores. Usually sand-molded, cores are
inserted into the casting box after removal of the pattern. Whenever possible, designs are
made that avoid the use of cores, due to the additional set-up time and thus greater cost.

Two sets of castings (bronze and aluminium) from the above sand mold

With a completed mold at the appropriate moisture content, the box containing the sand
mold is then positioned for filling with molten metaltypically iron, steel, bronze, brass,
aluminium, magnesium alloys, or various pot metal alloys, which often include lead, tin,
and zinc. After filling with liquid metal the box is set aside until the metal is sufficiently
cool to be strong. The sand is then removed revealing a rough casting that, in the case of
iron or steel, may still be glowing red. When casting with metals like iron or lead, which
are significantly heavier than the casting sand, the casting flask is often covered with a

heavy plate to prevent a problem known as floating the mold. Floating the mold occurs
when the pressure of the metal pushes the sand above the mold cavity out of shape, causing
the casting to fail.

Left: Corebox, with resulting (wire reinforced) cores directly below. Right:Pattern (used with the core) and the resulting casting below (the wires are from
the remains of the core)

After casting, the cores are broken up by rods or shot and removed from the casting. The
metal from the sprue and risers is cut from the rough casting. Various heat treatments may
be applied to relieve stresses from the initial cooling and to add hardnessin the case of
steel or iron, by quenching in water or oil. The casting may be further strengthened by
surface compression treatmentlike shot peeningthat adds resistance to tensile cracking
and smooths the rough surface.
Design requirements

The part to be made and its pattern must be designed to accommodate each stage of the
process, as it must be possible to remove the pattern without disturbing the molding sand
and to have proper locations to receive and position the cores. A slight taper, known as
draft, must be used on surfaces perpendicular to the parting line, in order to be able to
remove the pattern from the mold. This requirement also applies to cores, as they must be
removed from the core box in which they are formed. The sprue and risers must be
arranged to allow a proper flow of metal and gasses within the mold in order to avoid an
incomplete casting. Should a piece of core or mold become dislodged it may be embedded
in the final casting, forming a sand pit, which may render the casting unusable. Gas pockets
can cause internal voids. These may be immediately visible or may only be revealed after
extensive machining has been performed. For critical applications, or where the cost of
wasted effort is a factor, non-destructive testing methods may be applied before further
work is performed.

Processes

In general, we can distinguish between two methods of sand casting; the first one using
green sand and the second being the air set method.
Green sand

These expendable molds are made of wet sands that are used to make the mold's shape. The
name comes from the fact that wet sands are used in the molding process. Green sand is not
green in color, but "green" in the sense that it is used in a wet state (akin to green wood).
Unlike the name suggests, "green sand" is not a type of sand on its own, but is rather a
mixture of:

silica sand (SiO2), or chromite sand (FeCr2O), or zircon sand (ZrSiO4), 75

to 85%, or olivine, or staurolite, or graphite.

bentonite (clay), 5 to 11%

water, 2 to 4%

inert sludge 3 to 5%

anthracite (0 to 1%)

There are many recipes for the proportion of clay, but they all strike different balances
between moldability, surface finish, and ability of the hot molten metal to degas. The coal,
typically referred to in foundries as sea-coal, which is present at a ratio of less than 5%,
partially combusts in the presence of the molten metal leading to offgassing of organic
vapors. Green sand for non-ferrous metals does not use coal additives since the CO created
is not effective to prevent oxidation. Green sand for aluminum typically uses olivine sand
(a mixture of the minerals forsterite and fayalite which are made by crushing dunite rock).
The choice of sand has a lot to do with the temperature that the metal is poured. At the
temperatures that copper and iron are poured, the clay gets inactivated by the heat in that
the montmorillonite is converted to illite, which is a non-expanding clay. Most foundries do
not have the very expensive equipment to remove the burned out clay and substitute new
clay, so instead, those that pour iron typically work with silica sand that is inexpensive
compared to the other sands. As the clay is burned out, newly mixed sand is added and
some of the old sand is discarded or recycled into other uses. Silica is the least desirable of
the sands since metamorphic grains of silica sand have a tendency to explode to form submicron sized particles when thermally shocked during pouring of the molds. These particles
enter the air of the work area and can lead to silicosis in the workers. Iron foundries spend a
considerable effort on aggressive dust collection to capture this fine silica. The sand also
has the dimensional instability associated with the conversion of quartz from alpha quartz

to beta quartz at 1250 degrees F. Often additives such as wood flour are added to create a
space for the grains to expand without deforming the mold. Olivine, chromite, etc. are used
because they do not have a phase conversion that causes rapid expansion of the grains, as
well as offering greater density, which cools the metal faster and produces finer grain
structures in the metal. Since they are not metamorphic minerals, they do not have the
polycrystals found in silica, and subsequently do not form hazardous sub-micron sized
particles.

The "air set" method

The air set method uses dry sand bonded with materials other than clay, using a fast curing
adhesive. The latter may also be referred to as no bake mold casting. When these are used,
they are collectively called "air set" sand castings to distinguish them from "green sand"
castings. Two types of molding sand are natural bonded (bank sand) and synthetic (lake
sand); the latter is generally preferred due to its more consistent composition.
With both methods, the sand mixture is packed around a pattern, forming a mold cavity. If
necessary, a temporary plug is placed in the sand and touching the pattern in order to later
form a channel into which the casting fluid can be poured. Air-set molds are often formed
with the help of a casting flask having a top and bottom part, termed the cope and drag. The
sand mixture is tamped down as it is added around the pattern, and the final mold assembly
is sometimes vibrated to compact the sand and fill any unwanted voids in the mold. Then
the pattern is removed along with the channel plug, leaving the mold cavity. The casting
liquid (typically molten metal) is then poured into the mold cavity. After the metal has
solidified and cooled, the casting is separated from the sand mold. There is typically no
mold release agent, and the mold is generally destroyed in the removal process.[2]
The accuracy of the casting is limited by the type of sand and the molding process. Sand
castings made from coarse green sand impart a rough texture to the surface, and this makes
them easy to identify. Castings made from fine green sand can shine as cast but are limited
by the depth to width ratio of pockets in the pattern. Air-set molds can produce castings
with smoother surfaces than coarse green sand but this method is primarily chosen when
deep narrow pockets in the pattern are necessary, due to the expense of the plastic used in
the process. Air-set castings can typically be easily identified by the burnt color on the
surface. The castings are typically shot blasted to remove that burnt color. Surfaces can also
be later ground and polished, for example when making a large bell. After molding, the
casting is covered with a residue of oxides, silicates and other compounds. This residue can
be removed by various means, such as grinding, or shot blasting.

During casting, some of the components of the sand mixture are lost in the thermal casting
process. Green sand can be reused after adjusting its composition to replenish the lost
moisture and additives. The pattern itself can be reused indefinitely to produce new sand
molds. The sand molding process has been used for many centuries to produce castings
manually. Since 1950, partially automated casting processes have been developed for
production lines.
Cold box

Uses organic and inorganic binders that strengthen the mold by chemically adhering to the
sand. This type of mold gets its name from not being baked in an oven like other sand mold
types. This type of mold is more accurate dimensionally than green-sand molds but is more
expensive. Thus it is used only in applications that necessitate it.
No-bake molds

No-bake molds are expendable sand molds, similar to typical sand molds, except they also
contain a quick-setting liquid resin and catalyst. Rather than being rammed, the molding
sand is poured into the flask and held until the resin solidifies, which occurs at room
temperature. This type of molding also produces a better surface finish than other types of
sand molds.[3] Because no heat is involved it is called a cold-setting process. Common flask
materials that are used are wood, metal, and plastic. Common metals cast into no-bake
molds are brass, iron (ferrous), and aluminum alloys.
Vacuum molding

A schematic of vacuum molding

Vacuum molding (V-process) is a variation of the sand casting process for most ferrous and
non-ferrous metals,[4] in which unbonded sand is held in the flask with a vacuum. The
pattern is specially vented so that a vacuum can be pulled through it. A heat-softened thin
sheet (0.003 to 0.008 in (0.076 to 0.203 mm)) of plastic film is draped over the pattern and
a vacuum is drawn (200 to 400 mmHg (27 to 53 kPa)). A special vacuum forming flask is

placed over the plastic pattern and is filled with a free-flowing sand. The sand is vibrated to
compact the sand and a sprue and pouring cup are formed in the cope. Another sheet of
plastic is placed over the top of the sand in the flask and a vacuum is drawn through the
special flask; this hardens and strengthens the unbonded sand. The vacuum is then released
on the pattern and the cope is removed. The drag is made in the same way (without the
sprue and pouring cup). Any cores are set in place and the mold is closed. The molten metal
is poured while the cope and drag are still under a vacuum, because the plastic vaporizes
but the vacuum keeps the shape of the sand while the metal solidifies. When the metal has
solidified, the vacuum is turned off and the sand runs out freely, releasing the casting.[5][6]
The V-process is known for not requiring a draft because the plastic film has a certain
degree of lubricity and it expands slightly when the vacuum is drawn in the flask. The
process has high dimensional accuracy, with a tolerance of 0.010 in for the first inch and
0.002 in/in thereafter. Cross-sections as small as 0.090 in (2.3 mm) are possible. The
surface finish is very good, usually between 150 to 125 rms. Other advantages include no
moisture related defects, no cost for binders, excellent sand permeability, and no toxic
fumes from burning the binders. Finally, the pattern does not wear out because the sand
does not touch it. The main disadvantage is that the process is slower than traditional sand
casting so it is only suitable for low to medium production volumes; approximately 10 to
15,000 pieces a year. However, this makes it perfect for prototype work, because the pattern
can be easily modified as it is made from plastic.[5][6][7]
Fast mold making processes

With the fast development of the car and machine building industry the casting consuming
areas called for steady higher productivity. The basic process stages of the mechanical
molding and casting process are similar to those described under the manual sand casting
process. The technical and mental development however was so rapid and profound that the
character of the sand casting process changed radically.
Mechanized sand molding

The first mechanized molding lines consisted of sand slingers and/or jolt-squeeze devices
that compacted the sand in the flasks. Subsequent mold handling was mechanical using
cranes, hoists and straps. After core setting the copes and drags were coupled using guide
pins and clamped for closer accuracy. The molds were manually pushed off on a roller
conveyor for casting and cooling.
Automatic high pressure sand molding lines

Increasing quality requirements made it necessary to increase the mold stability by applying
steadily higher squeeze pressure and modern compaction methods for the sand in the flasks.
In early fifties the high pressure molding was developed and applied in mechanical and

later automatic flask lines. The first lines were using jolting and vibrations to pre-compact
the sand in the flasks and compressed air powered pistons to compact the molds.
Horizontal sand flask molding

In the first automatic horizontal flask lines the sand was shot or slung down on the pattern
in a flask and squeezed with hydraulic pressure of up to 140 bars. The subsequent mold
handling including turn-over, assembling, pushing-out on a conveyor were accomplished
either manually or automatically. In the late fifties hydraulically powered pistons or multipiston systems were used for the sand compaction in the flasks. This method produced
much more stable and accurate molds than it was possible manually or pneumatically. In
the late sixties mold compaction by fast air pressure or gas pressure drop over the precompacted sand mold was developed (sand-impulse and gas-impact). The general working
principle for most of the horizontal flask line systems is shown on the sketch below.
Today there are many manufacturers of the automatic horizontal flask molding lines. The
major disadvantages of these systems is high spare parts consumption due to multitude of
movable parts, need of storing, transporting and maintaining the flasks and productivity
limited to approximately 90120 molds per hour.

Vertical sand flaskless molding

In 1962, Dansk Industri Syndikat A/S (DISA-DISAMATIC) invented a flask-less molding

process by using vertically parted and poured molds. The first line could produce up to 240
complete sand molds per hour. Today molding lines can achieve a molding rate of 550 sand
molds per hour and requires only one monitoring operator. Maximum mismatch of two
mold halves is 0.1 mm (0.0039 in). Although very fast, vertically parted molds are not
typically used by jobbing foundries due to the specialized tooling needed to run on these
machines. Cores need to be set with a core mask as opposed to by hand and must hang in
the mold as opposed to being set on parting surface.

Matchplate sand molding

The principle of the matchplate, meaning pattern plates with two patterns on each side of
the same plate, was developed and patented in 1910, fostering the perspectives for future
sand molding improvements. However, first in the early sixties the American company
Hunter Automated Machinery Corporation launched its first automatic flaskless, horizontal
molding line applying the matchplate technology.
The method alike to the DISA's (DISAMATIC) vertical molding is flaskless, however
horizontal. The matchplate molding technology is today used widely. Its great advantage is
inexpensive pattern tooling, easiness of changing the molding tooling, thus suitability for
manufacturing castings in short series so typical for the jobbing foundries. Modern
matchplate molding machine is capable of high molding quality, less casting shift due to
machine-mold mismatch (in some cases less than 0.15 mm (0.0059 in)), consistently stable
molds for less grinding and improved parting line definition. In addition, the machines are
enclosed for a cleaner, quieter working environment with reduced operator exposure to
safety risks or service-related problems.

Mold materials

There are four main components for making a sand casting mold: base sand, a binder,
additives, and a parting compound.
Molding sands

Molding sands, also known as foundry sands, are defined by eight characteristics:
refractoriness, chemical inertness, permeability, surface finish, cohesiveness, flowability,
collapsibility, and availability/cost.[8]
Refractoriness This refers to the sand's ability to withstand the temperature of the liquid
metal being cast without breaking down. For example some sands only need to withstand
650 C (1,202 F) if casting aluminum alloys, whereas steel needs a sand that will
withstand 1,500 C (2,730 F). Sand with too low a refractoriness will melt and fuse to the
casting.[8]

Chemical inertness The sand must not react with the metal being cast. This is
especially important with highly reactive metals, such as magnesium and titanium.[8]
Permeability This refers to the sand's ability to exhaust gases. This is important because
during the pouring process many gases are produced, such as hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon
dioxide, and steam, which must leave the mold otherwise casting defects, such as blow
holes and gas holes, occur in the casting. Note that for each cubic centimeter (cc) of water
added to the mold 16,000 cc of steam is produced.[8]
Surface finish The size and shape of the sand particles defines the best surface finish
achievable, with finer particles producing a better finish. However, as the particles become
finer (and surface finish improves) the permeability becomes worse.[8]
Cohesiveness (or bond) This is the ability of the sand to retain a given shape after the
pattern is removed.[9]
Flowability The ability for the sand to flow into intricate details and tight corners without
special processes or equipment.[10]
Collapsibility This is the ability of the sand to be easily stripped off the casting after it
has solidified. Sands with poor collapsibility will adhere strongly to the casting. When
casting metals that contract a lot during cooling or with long freezing temperature ranges a
sand with poor collapsibility will cause cracking and hot tears in the casting. Special
additives can be used to improve collapsibility.[10]
Availability/cost The availability and cost of the sand is very important because for
every ton of metal poured, three to six tons of sand is required.[10] Although sand can be
screened and reused, the particles eventually become too fine and require periodic
replacement with fresh sand.[11]
In large castings it is economical to use two different sands, because the majority of the
sand will not be in contact with the casting, so it does not need any special properties. The
sand that is in contact with the casting is called facing sand, and is designed for the casting
on hand. This sand will be built up around the pattern to a thickness of 30 to 100 mm (1.2
to 3.9 in). The sand that fills in around the facing sand is called backing sand. This sand is
simply silica sand with only a small amount of binder and no special additives.[12]

Types of base sands

Base sand is the type used to make the mold or core without any binder. Because it does not
have a binder it will not bond together and is not usable in this state.[10]
Silica sand

Silica (SiO2) sand is the sand found on a beach and is also the most commonly used sand. It
is made by either crushing sandstone or taken from natural occurring locations, such as
beaches and river beds. The fusion point of pure silica is 1,760 C (3,200 F), however the
sands used have a lower melting point due to impurities. For high melting point casting,
such as steels, a minimum of 98% pure silica sand must be used; however for lower melting
point metals, such as cast iron and non-ferrous metals, a lower purity sand can be used
(between 94 and 98% pure).[10]
Silica sand is the most commonly used sand because of its great abundance, and, thus, low
cost (therein being its greatest advantage). Its disadvantages are high thermal expansion,
which can cause casting defects with high melting point metals, and low thermal
conductivity, which can lead to unsound casting. It also cannot be used with certain basic
metal because it will chemically interact with the metal forming surface defect. Finally, it
causes silicosis in foundry workers.[13]
Olivine sand

Olivine is a mixture of orthosilicates of iron and magnesium from the mineral dunite. Its
main advantage is that it is free from silica, therefore it can be used with basic metals, such
as manganese steels. Other advantages include a low thermal expansion, high thermal
conductivity, and high fusion point. Finally, it is safer to use than silica, therefore it is
popular in Europe.[13]
Chromite sand

Chromite sand is a solid solution of spinels. Its advantages are a low percentage of silica, a
very high fusion point (1,850 C (3,360 F)), and a very high thermal conductivity. Its
disadvantage is its costliness, therefore it's only used with expensive alloy steel casting and
to make cores.[13]
Zircon sand

Zircon sand is a compound of approximately two-thirds zircon oxide (Zr2O) and one-third
silica. It has the highest fusion point of all the base sands at 2,600 C (4,710 F), a very low
thermal expansion, and a high thermal conductivity. Because of these good properties it is
commonly used when casting alloy steels and other expensive alloys. It is also used as a
mold wash (a coating applied to the molding cavity) to improve surface finish. However, it
is expensive and not readily available.[13]

Chamotte sand

Chamotte is made by calcining fire clay (Al2O3-SiO2) above 1,100 C (2,010 F). Its fusion
point is 1,750 C (3,180 F) and has low thermal expansion. It is the second cheapest sand,
however it is still twice as expensive as silica. Its disadvantages are very coarse grains,
which result in a poor surface finish, and it is limited to dry sand molding. Mold washes are
used to overcome the surface finish problem. This sand is usually used when casting large
steel workpieces.[13][14]
Other materials

Modern casting production methods can manufacture thin and accurate moldsof a
material superficially resembling papier-mch, such as is used in egg cartons, but that is
refractory in naturethat are then supported by some means, such as dry sand surrounded
by a box, during the casting process. Due to the higher accuracy it is possible to make
thinner and hence lighter castings, because extra metal need not be present to allow for
variations in the molds. These thin-mold casting methods have been used since the 1960s in
the manufacture of cast-iron engine blocks and cylinder heads for automotive applications.
[citation needed]

Binders

Binders are added to a base sand to bond the sand particles together (i.e. it is the glue that
holds the mold together).
Clay and water

A mixture of clay and water is the most commonly used binder. There are two types of clay
commonly used: bentonite and kaolinite, with the former being the most common.[15]
Oil

Oils, such as linseed oil, other vegetable oils and marine oils, used to be used as a binder,
however due to their increasing cost, they have been mostly phased out. The oil also
required careful baking at 100 to 200 C (212 to 392 F) to cure (if overheated the oil
becomes brittle, wasting the mold).[16]

Resin

Resin binders are natural or synthetic high melting point gums. The two common types
used are urea formaldehyde (UF) and phenol formaldehyde (PF) resins. PF resins have a

higher heat resistance than UF resins and cost less. There are also cold-set resins, which use
a catalyst instead of a heat to cure the binder. Resin binders are quite popular because
different properties can be achieved by mixing with various additives. Other advantages
include good collapsibility, low gassing, and they leave a good surface finish on the casting.
[16]

MDI (methylene diphenyl diisocyanate) is also a commonly used binder resin in the
foundry core process.
Sodium silicate

Sodium silicate [Na2SiO3 or (Na2O)(SiO2)] is a high strength binder used with silica
molding sand. To cure the binder carbon dioxide gas is used, which creates the following
reaction:

The advantage to this binder is that it can be used at room temperature and it's fast. The
disadvantage is that its high strength leads to shakeout difficulties and possibly hot tears in
the casting.[16]
Additives

Additives are added to the molding components to improve: surface finish, dry strength,
refractoriness, and "cushioning properties".
Up to 5% of reducing agents, such as coal powder, pitch, creosote, and fuel oil, may be
added to the molding material to prevent wetting (prevention of liquid metal sticking to
sand particles, thus leaving them on the casting surface), improve surface finish, decrease
metal penetration, and burn-on defects. These additives achieve this by creating gases at the
surface of the mold cavity, which prevent the liquid metal from adhering to the sand.
Reducing agents are not used with steel casting, because they can carburize the metal
during casting.[17]
Up to 3% of "cushioning material", such as wood flour, saw dust, powdered husks, peat,
and straw, can be added to reduce scabbing, hot tear, and hot crack casting defects when
casting high temperature metals. These materials are beneficial because burn-off when the
metal is poured creating voids in the mold, which allow it to expand. They also increase
collapsibility and reduce shakeout time.[17]
Up to 2% of cereal binders, such as dextrin, starch, sulphite lye, and molasses, can be used
to increase dry strength (the strength of the mold after curing) and improve surface finish.

Cereal binders also improve collapsibility and reduce shakeout time because they burn-off
when the metal is poured. The disadvantage to cereal binders is that they are expensive.[17]
Up to 2% of iron oxide powder can be used to prevent mold cracking and metal
penetration, essentially improving refractoriness. Silica flour (fine silica) and zircon flour
also improve refractoriness, especially in ferrous castings. The disadvantages to these
additives is that they greatly reduce permeability.[17]
Parting compounds

To get the pattern out of the mold, prior to casting, a parting compound is applied to the
pattern to ease removal. They can be a liquid or a fine powder (particle diameters between
75 and 150 micrometres (0.0030 and 0.0059 in)). Common powders include talc, graphite,
and dry silica; common liquids include mineral oil and water-based silicon solutions. The
latter are more commonly used with metal and large wooden patterns.[18]
History

Clay molds were used in ancient China since Shang Dynasty(c. 1600 to 1046 BC. The
famous Houmuwu ding c. 1300 BC) was made using clay molding.
The Assyrian king Sennacherib (704681 BC) cast massive bronzes of up to 30 tonnes, and
claims to have been the first to have used clay molds rather than the 'lost-wax' method:[19]
Whereas in former times the kings my forefathers had created bronze statues imitating reallife forms to put on display inside their temples, but in their method of work they had
exhausted all the craftsmen, for lack of skill and failure to understand the principles they
needed so much oil, wax and tallow for the work that they caused a shortage in their own
countriesI, Sennacherib, leader of all princes, knowledgeable in all kinds of work, took
much advice and deep thought over doing that work. Great pillars of bronze, colossal
striding lions, such as no previous king had ever constructed before me, with the technical
skill that Ninushki brought to perfection in me, and at the prompting of my intelligence and
the desire of my heart I invented a technique for bronze and made it skillfully. I created clay
moulds as if by divine intelligence....twelve fierce lion-colossi together with twelve mighty
bull-colossi which were perfect castings... I poured copper into them over and over again; I
made the castings as skillfully as if they had only weighed half a shekel each
Sand casting molding method was recorded by Vannoccio Biringuccio in his book
published around 1540.
In 1924, the Ford automobile company set a record by producing 1 million cars, in the
process consuming one-third of the total casting production in the U.S. As the automobile

industry grew the need for increased casting efficiency grew. The increasing demand for
castings in the growing car and machine building industry during and after World War I and
World War II, stimulated new inventions in mechanization and later automation of the sand
casting process technology.
There was not one bottleneck to faster casting production but rather several. Improvements
were made in molding speed, molding sand preparation, sand mixing, core manufacturing
processes, and the slow metal melting rate in cupola furnaces. In 1912, the sand slinger was
invented by the American company Beardsley & Piper. In 1912, the first sand mixer with
individually mounted revolving plows was marketed by the Simpson Company. In 1915,
the first experiments started with bentonite clay instead of simple fire clay as the bonding
additive to the molding sand. This increased tremendously the green and dry strength of the
molds. In 1918, the first fully automated foundry for fabricating hand grenades for the U.S.
Army went into production. In the 1930s the first high-frequency coreless electric furnace
was installed in the U.S. In 1943, ductile iron was invented by adding magnesium to the
widely used grey iron. In 1940, thermal sand reclamation was applied for molding and core
sands. In 1952, the "D-process" was developed for making shell molds with fine, precoated sand. In 1953, the hotbox core sand process in which the cores are thermally cured
was invented. In 1954, a new core binderwater glass (sodium silicate) hardened with CO2
from the ambient air, came into use.
See also

Casting

Veining (metallurgy), common sand casting defect

Foundry sand testing

Hand mould

Sand rammer

Juutila Foundry (Finland), est. 1881, specialized in sand casting

Notes
1.

'Riser' (UK) is a term for an up-runner, in which the poured metal

rises from the casting. In US practice, a riser is another term for a feeder
to the top of a casting.[20]

Shell molding
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Shell molding, also known as shell-mold casting,[1] is an expendable mold casting process
that uses a resin covered sand to form the mold. As compared to sand casting, this process
has better dimensional accuracy, a higher productivity rate, and lower labor requirements. It
is used for small to medium parts that require high precision.[2] Shell mold casting is a metal
casting process similar to sand casting, in that molten metal is poured into an expendable
mold. However, in shell mold casting, the mold is a thin-walled shell created from applying
a sand-resin mixture around a pattern. The pattern, a metal piece in the shape of the desired
part, is reused to form multiple shell molds. A reusable pattern allows for higher production
rates, while the disposable molds enable complex geometries to be cast. Shell mold casting
requires the use of a metal pattern, oven, sand-resin mixture, dump box, and molten metal.
Shell mold casting allows the use of both ferrous and non-ferrous metals, most commonly
using cast iron, carbon steel, alloy steel, stainless steel, aluminum alloys, and copper alloys.
Typical parts are small-to-medium in size and require high accuracy, such as gear housings,
cylinder heads, connecting rods, and lever arms.
The shell mold casting process consists of the following steps:
Pattern creation - A two-piece metal pattern is created in the shape of the desired part,
typically from iron or steel. Other materials are sometimes used, such as aluminum for low
volume production or graphite for casting reactive materials.
Mold creation - First, each pattern half is heated to 175-370 C (350-700 F) and coated
with a lubricant to facilitate removal. Next, the heated pattern is clamped to a dump box,
which contains a mixture of sand and a resin binder. The dump box is inverted, allowing
this sand-resin mixture to coat the pattern. The heated pattern partially cures the mixture,
which now forms a shell around the pattern. Each pattern half and surrounding shell is
cured to completion in an oven and then the shell is ejected from the pattern.
Mold assembly - The two shell halves are joined together and securely clamped to form the
complete shell mold. If any cores are required, they are inserted prior to closing the mold.
The shell mold is then placed into a flask and supported by a backing material.
Pouring - The mold is securely clamped together while the molten metal is poured from a
ladle into the gating system and fills the mold cavity.

Cooling - After the mold has been filled, the molten metal is allowed to cool and solidify
into the shape of the final casting.
Casting removal - After the molten metal has cooled, the mold can be broken and the
casting removed. Trimming and cleaning processes are required to remove any excess
metal from the feed system and any sand from the mold.
Examples of shell molded items include gear housings, cylinder heads and connecting rods.
It is also used to make high-precision molding cores.

Contents

1 Process

2 Details

3 Advantages and disadvantages

4 References
o 4.1 Notes
o 4.2 Bibliography

Process
The process of creating a shell mold consists of six steps:[2][3]
1. Fine silica sand that is covered in a thin (36%) thermosetting phenolic resin and
liquid catalyst is dumped, blown, or shot onto a hot pattern. The pattern is usually
made from cast iron and is heated to 230 to 315 C (450 to 600 F). The sand is
allowed to sit on the pattern for a few minutes to allow the sand to partially cure.
2. The pattern and sand are then inverted so the excess sand drops free of the pattern,
leaving just the "shell". Depending on the time and temperature of the pattern the
thickness of the shell is 10 to 20 mm (0.4 to 0.8 in).
3. The pattern and shell together are placed in an oven to finish curing the sand. The
shell now has a tensile strength of 350 to 450 psi (2.4 to 3.1 MPa).
4. The hardened shell is then stripped from the pattern.

5. Two or more shells are then combined, via clamping or gluing using a thermoset
adhesive, to form a mold. This finished mold can then be used immediately or
stored almost indefinitely.
6. For casting the shell mold is placed inside a flask and surrounded with shot, sand, or
gravel to reinforce the shell.[4]
The machine that is used for this process is called a shell molding machine. It heats the
pattern, applies the sand mixture, and bakes the shell.

Details
Setup and production of shell mold patterns takes weeks, after which an output of 5
50 pieces/hr-mold is attainable.[citation needed] Common materials include cast iron, aluminum
and copper alloys.[1] Aluminum and magnesium products average about 13.5 kg (30 lb) as a
normal limit, but it is possible to cast items in the 4590 kg (100200 lb) range.[citation needed]
The small end of the limit is 30 g (1 oz). Depending on the material, the thinnest crosssection castable is 1.5 to 6 mm (0.06 to 0.24 in). The minimum draft is 0.25 to 0.5 degrees.
[1]

Typical tolerances are 0.005 mm/mm or in/in because the sand compound is designed to
barely shrink and a metal pattern is used. The cast surface finish is 0.34.0 micrometers
(50150 in) because a finer sand is used. The resin also assists in forming a very smooth

surface. The process, in general, produces very consistent castings from one casting to the
next.[3]
The sand-resin mix can be recycled by burning off the resin at high temperatures.[4]

Advantages and disadvantages

This article contains a pro and con list, which is sometimes inappropriate. Please
help improve it by integrating both sides into a more neutral presentation, or remove
this template if you feel that such a list is appropriate for this article. (November 2012)
One of the greatest advantages of this process is that it can be completely automated for
mass production.[2] The high productivity, low labor costs, good surface finishes, and
precision of the process can more than pay for itself if it reduces machining costs. There are
also few problems due to gases, because of the absence of moisture in the shell, and the
little gas that is still present easily escapes through the thin shell. When the metal is poured
some of the resin binder burns out on the surface of the shell, which makes shaking out
easy.[1][3]
One disadvantage is that the gating system must be part of the pattern because the entire
mold is formed from the pattern, which can be expensive. Another is the resin for the sand
is expensive, however not much is required because only a shell is being formed.[3] Property
Name Shell Mold Casting Sand Casting Shapes Thin-walled: Complex, Solid: Cylindrical,
Solid: Cubic, Solid: Complex (Flat, Thin-walled: Cylindrical, Thin-walled: Cubic) Thinwalled: Complex, Solid: Cylindrical, Solid: Cubic, Solid: Complex (Flat, Thin-walled:
Cylindrical, Thin-walled: Cubic) Part size Weight: 0.5 oz - 220 lb Weight: 1 oz - 450 ton
Materials Metals, Alloy Steel, Carbon Steel, Cast Iron, Stainless Steel, Aluminum, Copper,
Nickel Metals, Alloy Steel, Carbon Steel, Cast Iron, Stainless Steel, Aluminum, Copper,
Magnesium, Nickel (Lead, Tin, Titanium, Zinc) Surface finish - Ra (in) 50 - 300 (32 500) 300 - 600 (125 - 2000) Tolerance (in.) 0.015 ( 0.006) 0.03 ( 0.015) Max wall
thickness 0.06 - 2.0 0.125 - 5 (0.09 - 40) Quantity 1000 - 1000000 (100 - 1000000) 1 - 1000
(1 - 1000000) Lead time Weeks (Days) Days (Hours)
Advantages: Can form complex shapes and fine details, Very good surface finish, High
production rate, Low labor cost, Low tooling cost, Little scrap generated. Can produce very
large parts, Can form complex shapes, Many material options, Low tooling and equipment
cost, Scrap can be recycled, Short lead time possible.

Disadvantages: High equipment cost, Poor material strength, High porosity possible, Poor
surface finish and tolerance, Secondary machining often required, Low production rate,
High labor cost.
Applications: Cylinder heads, connecting rods Engine blocks and manifolds, machine
bases, gears, pulleys.

Casting defect
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A casting defect is an irregularity in the metal casting process that is very undesired. Some
defects can be tolerated while others can be repaired, otherwise they must be eliminated.
They are broken down into five main categories: gas porosity, shrinkage defects, mold
material defects, pouring metal defects, and metallurgical defects.[1]

Contents

1 Terminology

2 Types
o 2.1 Shrinkage defects
o 2.2 Gas porosity
o 2.3 Pouring metal defects
o 2.4 Metallurgical defects

3 Process specific defects

o 3.1 Die casting
o 3.2 Continuous casting
o 3.3 Sand casting

4 See also

5 References
o 5.1 Bibliography

Terminology
The terms "defect" and "discontinuity" refer to two specific and separate things in castings.
Defects are defined as conditions in a casting that must be corrected or removed, or the
casting must be rejected. Discontinuities, also known as "imperfections", are defined as
"interruptions in the physical continuity of the casting". Therefore, if the casting is less than
perfect, but still useful and in tolerance, the imperfections should be deemed
"discontinuities".[2]

Types
There are many types of defects which result from many different causes. Some of the
solutions to certain defects can be the cause for another type of defect.[3]
The following defects can occur in sand castings. Most of these also occur in other casting
processes.

Shrinkage defects
Shrinkage defects can occur when standard feed metal is not available to compensate for
shrinkage as the thick metal solidifies. Shrinkage defects can be split into two different
types: open shrinkage defects and closed shrinkage defects. Open shrinkage defects are
open to the atmosphere, therefore as the shrinkage cavity forms air compensates. There are
two types of open air defects: pipes and caved surfaces. Pipes form at the surface of the
casting and burrow into the casting, while caved surfaces are shallow cavities that form
across the surface of the casting.[4]
Closed shrinkage defects, also known as shrinkage porosity, are defects that form within
the casting. Isolated pools of liquid form inside solidified metal, which are called hot spots.
The shrinkage defect usually forms at the top of the hot spots. They require a nucleation
point, so impurities and dissolved gas can induce closed shrinkage defects. The defects are
broken up into macroporosity and microporosity (or microshrinkage), where macroporosity
can be seen by the naked eye and microporosity cannot.[4][5]

Gas porosity

Gas porosity is the formation of bubbles within the casting after it has cooled. This occurs
because most liquid materials can hold a large amount of dissolved gas, but the solid form
of the same material cannot, so the gas forms bubbles within the material as it cools.[6] Gas
porosity may present itself on the surface of the casting as porosity or the pore may be
trapped inside the metal,[7] which reduces strength in that vicinity. Nitrogen, oxygen and
hydrogen are the most encountered gases in cases of gas porosity.[5] In aluminum castings,
hydrogen is the only gas that dissolves in significant quantity, which can result in hydrogen
gas porosity.[8] For casting that are a few kilograms in weight the pores are usually 0.01 to
0.5 mm (0.00039 to 0.01969 in) in size. In larger casting they can be up to a millimeter
(0.040 in) in diameter.[7]
To prevent gas porosity the material may be melted in a vacuum, in an environment of lowsolubility gases, such as argon[9] or carbon dioxide,[10] or under a flux that prevents contact
with the air. To minimize gas solubility the superheat temperatures can be kept low.
Turbulence from pouring the liquid metal into the mold can introduce gases, so the molds
are often streamlined to minimize such turbulence. Other methods include vacuum
degassing, gas flushing, or precipitation. Precipitation involves reacting the gas with
another element to form a compound that will form a dross that floats to the top. For
instance, oxygen can be removed from copper by adding phosphorus; aluminum or silicon
can be added to steel to remove oxygen.[6] A third source consists of reactions of the molten
metal with grease or other residues in the mould.
Hydrogen is normally produced by the reaction of the metal with humidity or residual
moisture in the mold. Drying the mold can eliminate this source of hydrogen formation.[11]
Gas porosity can sometimes be difficult to distinguish from microshrinkage because
microshrinkage cavities can contain gases as well. In general, microporosities will form if
the casting is not properly risered or if a material with a wide solidification range is cast. If
neither of these are the case then most likely the porosity is due to gas formation.[12]

Blowhole defect in a cast iron part.

Tiny gas bubbles are called porosities, but larger gas bubbles are called a blowholes[13] or
blisters. Such defects can be caused by air entrained in the melt, steam or smoke from the
casting sand, or other gasses from the melt or mold. (Vacuum holes caused by metal
shrinkage (see above) may also be loosely referred to as 'blowholes'). Proper foundry
practices, including melt preparation and mold design, can reduce the occurrence of these
defects. Because they are often surrounded by a skin of sound metal, blowholes may be
difficult to detect, requiring harmonic, ultrasonic, magnetic, or X-ray (i.e., industrial CT
scanning) analysis.

Pouring metal defects

Pouring metal defects include misruns, cold shuts, and inclusions. A misrun occurs when
the liquid metal does not completely fill the mold cavity, leaving an unfilled portion. Cold
shuts occur when two fronts of liquid metal do not fuse properly in the mould cavity,
leaving a weak spot. Both are caused by either a lack of fluidity in the molten metal or
cross-sections that are too narrow. The fluidity can be increased by changing the chemical
composition of the metal or by increasing the pouring temperature. Another possible cause
is back pressure from improperly vented mold cavities.[14]
Misruns and cold shuts are closely related and both involve the material freezing before it
completely fills the mold cavity. These types of defects are serious because the area
surrounding the defect is significantly weaker than intended.[15] The castability and
viscosity of the material can be important factors with these problems. Fluidity affects the
minimum section thickness that can be cast, the maximum length of thin sections, fineness
of feasibly cast details, and the accuracy of filling mold extremities. There are various ways
of measuring the fluidity of a material, although it usually involves using a standard mould
shape and measuring the distance the material flows. Fluidity is affected by the composition
of the material, freezing temperature or range, surface tension of oxide films, and, most
importantly, the pouring temperature. The higher the pouring temperature, the greater the
fluidity; however, excessive temperatures can be detrimental, leading to a reaction between
the material and the mold; in casting processes that use a porous mould material the
material may even penetrate the mould material.[16]
The point at which the material cannot flow is called the coherency point. The point is
difficult to predict in mold design because it is dependent on the solid fraction, the structure
of the solidified particles, and the local shear strain rate of the fluid. Usually this value
ranges from 0.4 to 0.8.[17]
An inclusion is a metal contamination of dross, if solid, or slag, if liquid. These usually are
metal oxides, nitrides, carbides, calcides, or sulfides; they can come from material that is
eroded from furnace or ladle linings, or contaminates from the mold. In the specific case of
aluminium alloys, it is important to control the concentration of inclusions by measuring
them in the liquid aluminium and taking actions to keep them to the required level.

There are a number of ways to reduce the concentration of inclusions. In order to reduce
oxide formation the metal can be melted with a flux, in a vacuum, or in an inert
atmosphere. Other ingredients can be added to the mixture to cause the dross to float to the
top where it can be skimmed off before the metal is poured into the mold. If this is not
practical, then a special ladle that pours the metal from the bottom can be used. Another
option is to install ceramic filters into the gating system. Otherwise swirl gates can be
formed which swirl the liquid metal as it is poured in, forcing the lighter inclusions to the
center and keeping them out of the casting.[18][19] If some of the dross or slag is folded into
the molten metal then it becomes an entrainment defect.

Metallurgical defects
There are two defects in this category: hot tears and hot spots. Hot tears, also known as hot
cracking,[20] are failures in the casting that occur as the casting cools. This happens because
the metal is weak when it is hot and the residual stresses in the material can cause the
casting to fail as it cools. Proper mold design prevents this type of defect.[3]
Hot spots are areas on the surface of casting that become very hard because they cooled
more quickly than the surrounding material. This type of defect can be avoided by proper
cooling practices or by changing the chemical composition of the metal.[3]

Process specific defects

Die casting
In die casting the most common defects are misruns and cold shuts. These defects can be
caused by cold dies, low metal temperature, dirty metal, lack of venting, or too much
lubricant. Other possible defects are gas porosity, shrinkage porosity, hot tears, and flow
marks. Flow marks are marks left on the surface of the casting due to poor gating, sharp
corners, or excessive lubricant.[21]

Continuous casting
A longitudinal facial crack is a specialized type of defect that only occurs in continuous
casting processes. This defect is caused by uneven cooling, both primary cooling and
secondary cooling, and includes molten steel qualities, such as the chemical composition
being out of specification, cleanliness of the material, and homogeneity.

Sand casting

Sand casting has many defects that can occur due to the mold failing. The mold usually
fails because of one of two reasons: the wrong material is used or it is improperly rammed.
[22]

The first type is mold erosion, which is the wearing away of the mold as the liquid metal
fills the mold. This type of defect usually only occurs in sand castings because most other
casting processes have more robust molds. The castings produced have rough spots and
excess material. The molding sand becomes incorporated into the casting metal and
decreases the ductility, fatigue strength, and fracture toughness of the casting. This can be
caused by a sand with too little strength or a pouring velocity that is too fast. The pouring
velocity can be reduced by redesigning the gating system to use larger runners or multiple
gates.[22][23] A related source of defects are drops, in which part of the molding sand from the
cope drops into the casting while it is still a liquid. This also occurs when the mold is not
properly rammed.[24]
The second type of defect is metal penetration, which is when the liquid metal penetrates
into the molding sand. This causes a rough surface finish. This caused by sand particles that
are too coarse, lack of mold wash, or pouring temperatures that are too high.[24] An
alternative form of metal penetration into the mould known as veining is caused by
cracking of the sand.
If the pouring temperature is too high or a sand of low melting point is used then the sand
can fuse to the casting. When this happens the surface of the casting produced has a brittle,
glassy appearance.[24]
A run out is when the liquid metal leaks out of the mold because of a faulty mold or flask.
[24]

Scabs are a thin layer of metal that sits proud of the casting. They are easy to remove and
always reveal a buckle underneath, which is an indentation in the casting surface. Rattails
are similar to buckles, except they are thin line indentations and not associated with scabs.
Another similar defect is a pulldowns, which are buckles that occur in the cope of sand
castings. All of these defects are visual in nature and no reason to scrap the workpiece.[25]
These defects are caused by overly high pouring temperatures or deficiencies of
carbonaceous material.[24]
A swell occurs when the mold wall gives way across a whole face, and is caused by an
improperly rammed mold.[24]
Burn-on occurs when metallic oxides interact with impurities in silica sands. The result is
sand particles embedded in the surface of the finished casting. This defect can be avoided
by reducing the temperature of the liquid metal, by using a mold wash, and by using
various additives in the sand mixture.[26]

See also

Hydrogen gas porosity

Inclusions in aluminium alloys

Non-metallic inclusions for inclusions in steel

Porosity sealing