For Flight Dynamics

AER615: Aircraft Performance
Aircraft Performance
The purpose of this course is to understand and predict how the airplane will actually
perform in the air in order to achieve a desired performance or mission.
z
z
z
z
z
How fast can the a/c go?

How high can it go?
How much (weight) can it carry?
How far can it go without refueling?
How steep (or how quickly) can the a/c climb?
Key performance parameters

z
z
z
z
z
z
T/O
Climb
Cruise
Turning
Descent
Landing
Evaluation of a/c performance goes hand-in-hand with a/c design.

We deal with atmospheric vehicle (always fly within the sensible atmosphere) : airplane,
helicopter
The flight performance of a/c is dependent upon such properties as p and of the air.
Therefore (performance of any aerospace vehicle), the properties of the atmosphere must be
taken into account.
Flight manual for the performance of an a/c are always related to standard atmosphere.
A standard atmosphere is defined in order to relate flight tests, wind tunnel results, and
general airplane design and performance to a common reference.
A standard atmosphere gives mean values of pressure, temperature, density and other
properties as functions of altitude. The standard atmosphere reflects average atmosphere
conditions. Its main function is to provide tables of common reference conditions.
Standard Atmosphere
SA reflects average atmosphere conditions

Its main function is to provide tables of common reference conditions
It is not an approximation of the actual atmosphere
A reference performance flight tests and wind tunnel results
Design purpose performance and comparisons
Calibration of instruments
Elements of aircraft performance analysis
Thrust required (Drag)

Thrust/weight, wing loading (W/S), Drag polar, L/D
Load factor ( n =
L
) gives aerodynamic and structural limit for a given aircraft
W
Relationship with Aircraft Design

Evaluation of aircraft performance goes hand-in-hand with aircraft design. It is generally
the purpose of aircraft design to meet or exceed minimum performance requirements,
including both aerodynamic performance and cost performance
Design parameters related to aircraft performance
Zero-lift drag coefficient
Lift-dependent drag factor
Maximum aerodynamic efficiency
Maximum lift coefficient
Wing planform area
Total weight of aircraft
Maximum weight of fuel
Maximum load factor
Maximum net thrust or power for engine
Specific fuel consumption (thrust or power)
Propeller efficiency
Aerodynamics
Structure
Powerplant
Performance Parameters
Takeoff Performance
The takeoff phase begins with the beginning of the ground roll and extends to the first moments
of airborne flight until the aircraft clears a set value of screen height of usually 35'
(FAR25:heavier a/c) or 50'(FAR23:small a/c). The parameters are:
Ground-roll distance and time

Rotation distance and time
Airborne distance and time (to screen height)
Climb Performance
The climb phase immediately follows the takeoff phase and continues to level flight at some
operational altitude. The parameters are:
Angle of climb
Rate of climb
Airspeed (or Mach number) of climb
Time to climb
Horizontal distance to climb
Fuel consumed to climb
Absolute and service ceilings
Cruise Performance
The cruise phase involves the aircraft flying in a straight line. Typically, cruise will involve a
constant speed or throttle setting and may involve a specified altitude profile. The parameters are:
Airspeed (or Mach number) of cruise

Range
Time to cover range
Fuel consumed in cruise
Turning Performance
This area studies steady level turns. The parameters are:
Airspeed (or Mach number) of turn

Bank angle and associated load factor
Rate of turn
Turn radius
Descent Performance
The descent phase begins with the reduction of altitude following cruise and continues until the
aircraft is within the screen height (35 or 50) of the ground. The parameters are:
Rate of descent
Angle of descent
Airspeed of descent
Time of descent
Fuel consumed in descent
Landing Performance
The landing phase begins with the moment of descent past the screen height and extends until the
aircraft has come to a complete rest on the runway. The parameters are:
Airborne distance and time

Airspeed and Its Measurement

Airspeed (Actual and Estimated), also known as True Airspeed
"True airspeed is the speed of the aircraft relative to the undisturbed air through which it is flying"
V
Actual (true) airspeed
VTAS or TAS Estimated or measured true airspeed
Equivalent Airspeed (Actual and Estimated)
Equivalent airspeed is the airspeed at mean sea-level (MSL) in the Standard Atmosphere that has
the same dynamic pressure as the true airspeed at local density.
Ve
VEAS or EAS
Actual equivalent airspeed

Estimated or measured equivalent airspeed
The relationship between actual equivalent airspeed and (true) airspeed is
Ve = V
where is the local density ratio (relative to MSL). The equivalent airspeed is significant for
performance since flying at a constant EAS is effectively flying at a constant dynamic pressure,
where in certain regimes the aerodynamic forces (lift, drag, etc.) tend to remain constant.
Measurement of Subsonic Airspeed

Whether designed for low-subsonic or high-subsonic, a typical airspeed indicator (ASI) bases its
measurement of airspeed on the difference p = p 0 p between total (stagnation) and static
pressure as measured by a pitot-static tube or equivalent.
Calibrated airspeed
Calibrated airspeed is the airspeed at mean sea-level (MSL) in the Standard Atmosphere that
would produce the same pressure difference p as the true airspeed in local conditions.
VCAS or CAS
Calibrated airspeed
The CAS is what is read from the dial of the ASI(Air Speed Indicator). The actual reading from an
uncorrected ASI is called IAS(indicated airspeed).
In some cases manual correction of IAS to CAS may be possible. To obtain the true airspeed (TAS)
from the CAS, corrections for local conditions must be applied.
The equivalent airspeed (EAS) can be obtained from the CAS if the local static pressure is
known, which is generally the case since a standard altimeter measuring pressure altitude is
available. The altitude is converted (based on the SA) back into its original pressure measurement
form thus yielding the local static pressure p.
To complete the measurement of TAS, the local air density is required. This quantity is
generally not measured directly, and so the following options are available.
1. Measure temperature and calculate density from the ideal gas law, = p/(RT) , then
calculate TAS from
VTAS = VEAS MSL /

2. If temperature (or Mach number) is not available, estimate density as using the
standard atmosphere at the current pressure altitude hp as read from the altimeter, then
VTAS VEAS MSL / h

3. Measure Mach number (see next section), and temperature (using the latter to obtain the
local sound speed via
a = RT
), then calculating
VTAS = Ma
Low-Subsonic Airspeed Measurement
Equivalent and calibrated airspeed are same at low speeds(below M=0.3). If Mach
number is known then there is an equation to correct for higher values of Mach.
If an ASI is to always be used in low speed situations, the simpler incompressible flow relations
(Bernoullis Law) can be applied to estimate the calibrated airspeed via
2
2
VCAS
VCAS
=
where we have defined

definition of CAS.
VCAS
2p
MSL
as the low-speed approximation to CAS with respect to the actual
As in the general case, the ASI has no knowledge of density, so the MSL-SA is used for CAS.
For the incompressible flow assumption, it is observed that equivalent airspeed and calibrated
airspeed are the same and one can simply write
VEAS VCAS
And finally, one can recover an estimate of the true airspeed by using either of options 1 or 2
from the previous section.
Generally, Mach numbers of 0.3 or less are considered appropriate for applying these simpler
formulas without correction. At M = 0.3 the error in (equivalent) airspeed measurement will be
less than 3%.
If an ASI designed for low-speed (i.e., uses Bernoullis Law to convert pressure difference p to
CAS) is used in a higher-speed flow it is possible to externally correct the estimated CAS to a
proper EAS. For example, if Mach number is known,
( 1)
M
(
1
)
2
1 +
1
= VCAS
M2
2
2
2
VEAS
Measurement of Mach Number

A Mach meter provides a direct measurement of Mach number based on the compressible flow
relation equation
( 1)
p
2
2
0

1
M =
( 1) p
Velocities and Groundspeed

Aircraft Velocity Relative to the Ground, V
Aircraft Inertial Velocity
For our performance simulations, we will generally assume a flat Earth as an inertial reference, so
that the aircrafts inertial velocity is the same as the velocity relative to the ground. Keep in mind,
however, that the Earths surface is in fact moving in excess of 1000 km/hr (in most places) and
that for long distance flights, surface curvature and direction of flight relative to Earths rotation
become a consideration.
Wind Velocity (Relative to Ground), Vw
Aircraft Velocity Relative to Air, V
= V Vw ; and Airspeed, V = V
It is this velocity that generates the aerodynamic forces on the aircraft. The direction of the vector
with respect to the aircraft structure dictates the angles of attack and sideslip, and it is the
magnitude of this vector that is the airspeed V , defining the dynamic pressure available to
generate aerodynamic forces.
Aircraft Motion in Performance Analysis (sign convention)

Aircraft motion exists in 3 dimensions with 6 degrees-of-freedom required to describe general
motion: up, forward, sideways, roll rotation, pitch rotation and yaw rotation. Traditionally, these
motions are described with respect to the aircraft body-axes and divided into two groups: the
longitudinal group consisting of up, forward and pitch; and the lateral group consisting of
sideways, roll, and yaw
Right-handed coordinate system defining positive directions for the forces & moments
acting on an airplane as well as its linear and angular velocity vectors at the CG
x,y,z
X,Y,Z
u,v,w
p,q,r
L,M,N
,,
Coordinate
Resultant aerodynamic forces along axes
Linear velocities along axes
Angular velocities about axes
Aerodynamic moments about axes
Angular displacements about axes
Angular rates about the x,y, and z are rolling, pitching, and yawing, respectively.
Motion in the airplane's line of symmetry = longitudinal motion
(linear motion along x and z axes, rotation about y axis)
Motion of the plane of symmetry = lateral-directional motion
(linear motion along the y axis, rotation about x and z axes)
In aircraft performance, we mainly concerned with longitudinal motion (x-z plane). The
aircraft motion through the atmosphere is governed by the equation of motion. We will use
our knowledge of the lift, drag, and thrust of an aircraft to analyze how a given airplane
responds to the four forces of flight, and how this1 response determines its performance.
10
The Aircraft Model and Equations of Longitudinal Motion

Simplified Equations of Longitudinal Motion
In this course, we will usually restrict ourselves to longitudinal motion of symmetrical
aircraft during wings-level flight. This means that we study motion where the wings remain
level to the ground (the aircrafts weight always acts in the z-x (symmetry) plane of the
aircraft). For this situation to come about, the following must be true
Y = 0, N = 0 : The net side force and yawing moments are zero. In simple
terms, this is accomplished by the pilots manipulation of the aircrafts rudder
together with a small amount of constant sideslip. The sideslip will be generally
small enough so as to neglect its effect on the longitudinal situation.
L = 0 : The net rolling moment is zero. Moreover the net roll angle will be zero
the wings remain level.
Stability and Control Assumptions

Our study of aircraft performance will focus on the four fundamental forces of flight: lift,
drag, thrust and weight; however, longitudinal motion is also dependent on pitch moment
and the balance thereof. The basic assumption we will use in this course is that the aircraft
is at all times in a state of pitch equilibrium (or quasi-equilibrium if we are changing our
pitch or angle-of-attack)
The fact of the matter is that the pilot cannot arbitrarily select the speed and angle-of-attack,
hence lift coefficient. Rather the pilot adjusts the elevators and throttle simultaneously to
establish any particular condition of trimmed flight. In simple terms, elevator control
directly affects the angle-of-attack at which pitch balance occurs for a given flight speed
and climb angle.
11
Longitudinal Forces in the Aircraft Body-Frame

An aircraft body-fixed frame of reference is useful for describing the key angles and forces
that affect the longitudinal motion. This is true since the direction of aircraft thrust is
essentially a body-fixed quantity and the aircraft angle-of-attack is tied to the aircraft body
orientation.
Aircraft Pitch (body angle relative to horizontal)

(Body) Angle-of-attack (relative to air velocity)
Thrust Angle (relative to body a constant)
Angle of the Zero-Lift Line (ZLL) (relative to the aircraft body)
The equations of motion can be expressed in this body-fixed frame as follows...
mV& , x = T cos T D cos + L sin W sin

mV& , z = W cos L cos T sin T D sin
Before proceeding, we note the following basic relationships that allow one to calculate
angle-of-attack once the lift-coefficient is known:
12
C L = C L + C L
0
The lift coefficient at zero angle-of attack, CL0 , is related to the angle of the ZLL by the
relationship
C L = C L 0
0
where both CL0 and 0 are generally both positive for a typical aircraft.
Longitudinal Forces in the Ground (Earth) Frame

While expressing the longitudinal motion in the aircraft body-frame is in many ways more
natural and direct, the measures of aircraft performance that we are most interested in (rate
of climb, range, etc.) are more directly related to a ground-fixed reference frame.
Air-Climb Angle (angle of air-relative velocity to horizontal)

Flight-Path Angle (angle of ground-relative velocity to horizontal)
Angle of thrust vector (relative to horizontal)
13
The equations of motion can be expressed in this ground-frame are then
mV& , x = T cos T D cos a L sin a

mV& , z = L cos a W + T sin T D sin a
One should note the following about this setup:
The flight-path angle and air-climb angle a are generally different unless the wind
velocity is zero or not considered. (Most simplified performance formulas implicitly
assume these two angles are the same or equivalently that motion is to be evaluated
with respect to the moving air rather than to the ground.)
The thrust angle T is generally unknown unless the aircraft pitch is known. In
principal this is straightforward since C L = C L 0 + C L , T = + T and the
difference between and a can be determined
however, the approximation that thrust direction is collinear with the flight path is
frequently used, i.e., T = a, for simplicity in low angle-of-attack situations.
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Summary of Aerodynamics
Source of any aerodynamic force and moment on a body
pressure distribution
skin friction distribution
Dimensionless coefficients are used to quantify these forces and moments
C L , C M , C D = f ( M , , Re )
Aerodynamic center on a body

moments do not vary with
Total lift and drag of an aircraft are not equal to the sum of the parts due to aerodynamic
interference effects
Wing aerodynamics is a function of the wing shape
high AR straight wing
low AR straight wing
high AR swept wing
The drag polar CL vs. CD contains almost all the necessary aerodynamics for an aircraft
performance analysis
15
Summary of Propulsion Systems

The variations of thrust, power, and specific fuel consumption with flight velocity and
altitude.
Different types of engine
Reciprocating engine/propeller combination : up to approximately M = 0.3
Turbojet engine: above M =2 +
Turbofan engine: up to approximately M = 1
Turboprop engine: up to approximately M = 0.6
All of our four main engine types work by processing air to increase its momentum. By
Newtons third law (action-reaction) the air pushes forward on the engine as the engine
pushes the air back.
The thrust is equal to the rate-of-change of momentum of the air processed by the engine:
T = m& (V j V )
& is the mass flow-rate of the processed air (not fuel), V is the
where T is the thrust, m
forward speed of the aircraft relative to the surrounding air, and Vj is the velocity of the
processed air leaving the engine (relative to the surrounding air). Please note that this is a
simplified analysis that neglects changes in pressure and the additional mass-flow due to
spent fuel applicable to gas turbine engines.
Energy is imparted both to the aircraft as it is driven forward, and to the air which is blown
back. The effort to do both must be provided by the engine. In terms of power (energy per
unit time), we have
Available Power
Lost Power
: the power imparted to the aircraft

PA = TV
1
PL = m& (V j V ) 2 : the power imparted to the air
2
So that the total power P (for example, the power provided by a propeller shaft, hence shaft
power) is
P = PA + PL
and we can define the power efficiency as
PA
2
=
P 1 + (V j / V )
16
From this it can been seen that propeller that increases the speed of a large volume of air by
a relatively small amount is inherently a much more efficient device than a jet engine that
increases the speed of a smaller volume of air by a much larger amount.
However, more efficiency does not mean more thrust, and large aircraft that travels at high
speed with lots of drag requires more thrust. The thrust produced by a propeller is limited
by a couple of factors: (a) As propeller rotation speed increases to meet the demands of
faster flight, increased drag on the blade increases the torque load on the driving engine and
saps away the total power P ; and, (b) the shaft power produced by the engine will be
limited, so that even at 100% efficiency the thrust at a given flight speed must drop off with
increasing speed.
Engine Power/Thrust Performance Modelling
For the purpose of this course we can build simplified models of the various powerplant
types. This will allow us to focus on performance calculations while not getting mired in
detailed engine specifications. In addition our simplified models will be able to be imported
directly into our simulation capability.
The prop-types, piston-prop and turboprop, will be treated from a power viewpoint, with
a thrust conversion added on, while the jet-types, turbojet and turbofan, will be treated
directly from a thrust viewpoint. In all cases, the bottom-line will be: the thrust that drives
our aircraft, propulsive power if required, and the fuel-consumption.
We will utilize the concept of a virtual throttle, based on MSL-SA conditions that can vary
the shaft-power or thrust linearly from zero to maximum depending on the engine type.
Following the virtual throttle control we will continue to scale the output according to
variations with: airspeed, relevant atmospheric conditions, and Mach number as applicable.
Key Specifiers (at MSL-SA conditions)
Piston -Prop
Turbo-Jet
Rated Maximum Engine Power

Effective Operating Propeller Efficiency
(Power) Specific Fuel Consumption, SFC
Static Thrust
Rated Maximum (Takeoff) Thrust
(Thrust) Specific Fuel Consumption, TSFC
More details will be discussed in AER710(Propulsion)
Pmax
c
T0
Tmax
ct
17
Takeoff Performance
Aircraft Configuration for Takeoff and Landing
Drag polar is a key encapsulation of aircraft aerodynamic properties affecting performance:
C D = C D + KC L
min
As presented, the drag polar implicitly refers to the cruise or normal flying configuration
of the aircraft. During takeoff and landing operations, however, the aircraft is usually in a
different configuration that leads to somewhat different aerodynamic properties:
Retractable landing-gear is deployed, affecting mainly drag

Wing flaps are used to enhance lift at low speed, and add some drag
Landing-Gear Effect on Lift and Drag

To first-order, landing gear affects only the profile drag of the aircraft, thus
C D = [C D + C D , g ] + KC L
min
This increase in drag coefficient can be treated as a constant for a particular situation.
For the aircraft we will study in this course that have permanently deployed landing gear
(Cessna for example), the additional landing gear drag will already be included in C Dmin .
Wing-Flap Effect on Lift and Drag

Various high-lift devices acting at the trailing and/or leading edge (flaps, slats, etc.) of the
main wing are used to modify the lift characteristics to produce enhanced lift for the low
airspeed associated with takeoff and landing operations. The amount of flap deployment is
generally adjustable.
In simple terms the deployment of high-lift devices
Increases the lift at all angles of attack by some amount

flap setting. The
C L , f whose value depends on the
C L relationship becomes
C L = C L + C L , f + C L
0
18
Increases the maximum value of C L max (though not necessarily by and amount
C L , f )
Adds some profile drag C D , f so that
C D = [C D + C D , f ] + KC L
min
The use of high-lift devices for takeoff and landing has two specific benefits: (1) the higher
lift coefficient means a lower stall speed; and (2) noting that while on the ground, angle-ofattack must be achieved by rotating the aircraft about its wheels, the upward shift of the liftcurve (i.e., greater C L 0 ) means more lift can be generated with less rotation - the latter
being limited by ground clearance.
Ground-Effect Consideration
When and aircraft is close to the ground (In Ground Effect, or IGE) the airflow around it is
different than when away from the ground (Out-of Ground Effect, or OGE). In simple
terms, the ground constrains the normal downwash from the aircraft generally increasing
the upward pressure on the aircraft enhancing lift. The aerodynamic calculations will be
discussed later.
Aerodynamic Stall and Stall-Speed
The stall speed, Vs , is the speed below which an aircraft cannot generate enough lift to
support its own weight occurring when max , CL = CL,max beyond which flow separation
from the wing will occur, generally resulting in a significant loss of lift (lower CL ) and
drag increase. Its value is defined with respect to level flight where L = W, then
Vs =
2 W 1

S C L ,max
The stall speed of an aircraft is a characteristic of a particular configuration with an

additional dependence on altitude (due to density). For example, flap position will
significantly affect stall speed.
19
The takeoff phase begins with the beginning of the ground roll and extends to the first
moments of airborne flight until the aircraft clears a set value of screen height of usually
35 or 50. The parameters are:
Airborne distance and time (to screen height)
.
Takeoff Fundamentals
The takeoff phase is subdivided into three portions:
Ground-roll (all wheels down)
Rotation (nose wheel lifted off ground)
Climb to screen height.
Consider an airplane standing motionless at the end of runway
Where
Sg (Ground Roll): distance covered over the ground before airplane lifts into the air
Sa (Airborne distance): extra distance covered over the ground after the airplane is airborne
but before it clears an obstacle of a specific height
Screen height
50 ft for small A/C, military A/C (FAR23)
20
35 ft for heavy A/C (FAR25)

The ground roll Sg is divided into intermediate segments. These segments are defined by
various velocities
Vstall
Vmcg
Vmca
V1
VR
Vmu
VLO
V2
Stall speed, takeoff configuration (partial flaps typical)

Minimum control speed on the ground at which enough aerodynamic forces can
be generated on the vertical fin with rudder deflection while the airplane is still
rolling along the ground to produce a yawing moment sufficient counteract when
there is an engine failure for a multiengine aircraft
Minimum control speed in the air without the landing gear in contact with the
ground; Min. speed required for yaw control in case of engine failure. This is
essentially a reference speed (the airplane is still on the ground when this speed
is reached)
Decision speed (critical engine failure speed).(should be > Vmcg in order to
maintain control of the airplane). If an engine fails before V1 is reached, the
takeoff must be stopped. If an engine fails after V1 is reached, the takeoff can
still be achieved.
Takeoff rotation speed (> 1.05Vmca ) Pilot begins to rotation of a/c to desired
angle of attack in preparation for optimal liftoff (CL increase). Nose gear may be
retracted at this time
Minimum unstick speed; with critical engine out, a/c could liftoff under adequate
control.
@Vmu, a/c can liftoff but in order to provide an additional margin of safety, the
a/c continues to accelerate. Assume that the angle of attack is achieved during
rotation is the max. allowable by the tail clearance.
Liftoff speed. (> 1.1Vmu with all engine operative, > 1.05Vmu with critical engine
operative) The a/c becomes airborne. Total distance covered along the ground to
this point = ground roll, Sg.
Takeoff climb speed (> 1.2Vstall in takeoff configuration and > Vmca )
21
Usually, VLO 1.1Vstall
Relative Velocity (Head wind, Tail wind)
Ground Speed, V
The velocity of the object measured relative to the ground is called the ground speed.
Again, this is a vector quantity.
Airspeed, V
The important quantity in the generation of lift is the relative velocity between the object
and the air, which is called the airspeed. Airspeed cannot be directly measured from a
ground position, but must be computed from the ground speed and the wind speed.
Airspeed is the vector difference between the ground speed and the wind speed. On a
perfectly still day, the airspeed is equal to the ground speed. But if the wind is blowing in
the same direction that the aircraft is moving, the airspeed will be less than the ground
speed.
Examples
Suppose we had an airplane that could take off on a windless day at 100 mph (liftoff
airspeed is 100 mph). Now suppose we had a day in which the wind was blowing 20 mph
towards the west. If the airplane takes off going east, it experiences a 20 mph headwind
(wind in your face). Since we have defined a positive velocity to be in the direction of the
aircraft's motion, a headwind is a negative velocity. While the plane is sitting still on the
runway, it has a ground speed of 0 and an airspeed of 20 mph [airspeed = ground speed (0)
- wind speed (-20) ]. At liftoff, the airspeed is 100 mph, the wind speed is -20 mph and the
ground speed will be 80 mph [airspeed (100) = ground speed (80) - wind speed (-20) ].
22
If the plane took off to the west, it would have a 20 mph tailwind (wind at your back).
Since the wind and aircraft direction are the same, we assign a "+" to the wind speed. At
liftoff, the airspeed is still 100 mph, the wind speed is 20 mph and the ground speed will
now be 120 mph [airspeed (100) = ground speed (120) - wind speed (20) ]. So the aircraft
will have to travel faster (and farther) along the ground to achieve liftoff conditions with
the wind at it's back.
"A head wind Vw in takeoff reduces the a/c's ground speed while maintaining specified air
speed (V=Vg+Vw), resulting in a shorter takeoff distance. Tailwind will result in a longer t/o
distance"
23
EXAMPLE #1
The below a/c is to perform a t/o at the given indicated conditions. The available runway length is 750 m.
During the t/o roll, the runway conditions change from a dry surface to a heavily puddled wet surface, when
the a/c's airspeed reaches 70 % of lift off airspeed. Using mean kinetic energy estimation, determine if the
pilot will have enough runway to lift off the main landing gear cleanly from the runway surface, or if there
will be some tire damage by overrunning the runway. Note that any pilot reaction delays are implicit in the
airspeeds provided for your calculations (i.e., don't add any extra delay distances)
Aircraft
Twin turbofan business jet
b = 16.1 m, S = 37 m2, e (@ t/o) = 0.78, CD0 = 0.027 (@ t/o), CLmax (@t/o) = 1.7, CLg (t/o ground roll) = 0.85,
W = 135 kN, VLO = 1.08 VS t/o
Engines
Two medium-bypass turbofan engines; for a single engine, max. Forward thrust given by
Teng S/L = 34 - 0.11V + 2x10-4 V2 kN (@ S/L, V in m/s),
Teng (h)/Teng S/L = 0.7 (variation of thrust as function of altitude), ratio of air density =
Airfield
ISA conditions at 900 m altitude, 5 m/s tailwind
Mean height of wing over ground in roll , h = 2.2 m
Runway upslope: R = 1o , = 0.02 (in t/o roll on dry runway), = 0.07 (in t/o roll on wet paved runway)
Ground effect factor:
h
(1 1.32 )
b
= 1
h
(1.05 + 7.4 )
b
24
Climb segments #2 &3 (35' to 1500')
Once we enter climb segment #2, regulated performance will now be in terms of minimum
allowable gross flight slope angles. Flight angle is simplified via % gradient in climb, as
100 tan (%).
During segment #2 from 35' to 400', the aircraft may fly at or exceed V2. Typically one
would expect the aircraft to accelerate to a satisfactory holding speed for climbing to the
desired cruise altitude, at max. climb thrust.
V2
V LO
#1
1500'
400'
35'
#2
#3
Referring to FAR25, Min. allowed climb gradients are as follows

Segment
Configuration
#1
T/O flaps, gear
down, critical engine
inoperative
#2
T/O flaps, gear
coming up, critical
engine inoperative
#3
T/O flaps, gear up,
critical engine
inoperative
2
0%
(0o)
Total No. of Engines

3
0.3 %
(0.2o)
4
0.5 %
(0.3o)
2.4 %
(1.4o)
2.7 %
(1.55o)
3%
(1.7o)
1.2 %
(0.7o)
1.4 %
(0.8o)
1.5 %
(0.9o)
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Performance of aircraft depends on temperature and altitude of airfield.

WAT(Weight Altitude Temperature) charts or table must be checked such that at t/o weight,
local airfield altitude and temperature, the a/c's climb performance through the various
segments will meet or exceed the specified minimums. The a/c's t/o weight must be at or
below the max. t/o weight indicated on the WAT chart.
ISA-10 deg
ISA
h
ISA+10 deg
ISA+20 deg
ISA+ 30deg
max. t/o weight
Trend: Max. t/o weight drops with increasing altitude, temperature, and humidity (since
water vapor is less dense than dry air)
26
Assuming a specified constant flight angle , or one under gradual transition so that we can
neglect aircraft rotation,
then we can apply the force balance along the flight path:
T D W sin =
W dV
g dt
Here, we are assuming that the a/c may continue to accelerate up to a desired holding speed,
at varying (likely reducing) thrust levels. Account for change in V as done earlier.
When constant or slowly varying, V constant or slowly varying at holding speed,
then use standard climb equations,
T = D + W sin
T CD
=
cos + sin
W CL
where
CL =
W cos
2
, C D = C D + KC L
1
2
V S
2
0
We can solve for as only unknown in implicit equation. Eventually, you'll have to
account for W decreasing as fuel consumed
WF = TSFC T averaget for Jet (where TSFC is thrust specific fuel consumption)
WF = BSFC HP t for Prop. (where BSFC is brake specific fuel consumption)
27
Balanced Field Length(BFL)

The BFL is defined as the runway length such that the distance to continue a takeoff
following recognition of a critical engine failure at speed V1 is equal to the distance
required to stop if the t/o should be aborted.
Only one match exists for accelerate-stop and continues t/o distances for a given set of local
conditions
According to FAR25, field length to be greatest of
accelerate and go distance

accelerate and stop distance
115% of all-engine-operating distance to a 35' height
28
The FARs specify no requirement on BFL, however, it is an important concept

as it represents a minimum field size that the aircraft can safely use.
Conversely, for any size field, a decision speed based upon satisfaction of the
BFL conditions generally represents the safest choice for V1 .
Procedure for determining the BFL
1. Guess a value for decision speed V1 .
2. Determine the associated value for engine failure speed VEF.
3. Assume that a failure occurs exactly at this speed, such that VEF* = VEF (and VEF = V1).
4. Calculate the field lengths for the two cases:
a. accelerate-and-go (takeoff continued):
b. accelerate-and-stop (takeoff aborted):
5. Compare the two field lengths, and
6. Iterate on V1 until the two field lengths become equal: SAG = SAS
7. The common field length is the balanced field length: SBFL .
29
Landing Performance
The landing phase of an aircraft's operation consists of three segments
Approach
Flare
Ground roll
One can refer to FAR25 regulations with regard to the landing phase of a transport aircraft.
In this case landing distance is defined as distance necessary to come to a complete stop
from a point 50ft above landing surface. Further requirements include:
1. A/C must be in landing configuration (e.g. flaps developed, gear down).
2. Steady approach VA> 1.3 VSL must be maintained down to the 50' height.
Typical glide-slopes are 3o~4o for transport a/c up to 6o~7o for STOL a/c.
3. Landing must be made without excessive vertical accelerations or velocities.
4. Landing distance must be determined with critical engine inoperative, if a
decelerating device like reverse thrust is dependent upon this engine.
Airborne Transition (Approach & Flare)

One can calculate airborne transition SLA with reasonable accuracy using an analytical
approach (vs. numerical method described earlier for t/o transition).
We will consider two different landing methods
1. Flown-on landing
2. Stalled-on landing
EXAMPLE #3
Evaluate the following case for takeoff distance using an approximate method(use energy method):
a) Sea level, no wind
Aircraft
Engines
Airfield
Single-engine light aircraft

Wing span 32 ft; wing reference area 180 sq. ft.; efficiency factor (t/o) e = 0.75
Aircraft weight 2800 lb
Mean height of wing over ground in roll, 8 ft
CDo 0.04 (takeoff config.); CLmax 1.7 (@ T/O); CLg 0.9 (@ ground roll)
VLOF at 1.15 VS,T/O ;V2 (at 50 ft) 1.3 VS,T/O
Constant speed propeller, n = 2700 rpm, d prop = 6 ft
To.S/L = 500 lb; T/T o = 1 - 0.3 J ; T(h)/ TS/L = , J=V/ (n dprop)
ISA conditions
/ roll 0.05 (short grass)
EXAMPLE #4
Evaluate the following cases for stalled-on landing distance using an approximate method:
a) Sea level, no wind
b) Sea level, 10 kt tail wind (1 kt = 1.688 fps)
Aircraft
Airfield
Single-engine light aircraft

Wing span 32 ft; wing reference area 180 sq. ft.; efficiency factor (t/o) e = 0.75
Aircraft weight 2500 lb
Mean height of wing over ground in roll, 8 ft
CDo 0.05 (landing config.); CLmax 1.85 (@ landing conf.);
CL(flare) = 1.15 CL (approach) ; approach angle of 5 o
CL (ground roll) 0.3
VA at 1.25 VS,LD
ISA conditions
decel 0.25 (braking)
30
31
Range (R)
Total distance (measured with respect to the ground) traversed by an aircraft on one load of
fuel.
W0 : gross weight of the a/c including everything (fuel, payload, crew, structure)
Wf : weight of fuel; this is an instantaneous value, and it changes as fuel is consumed
during flight
Wempty : weight of everything else the structure, engines(with all accessory equipment),
electronic equipment(including radar, computers, communication devices, etc.), landing
gear, fixed equipment(seats, galleys, etc.), and anything else that is not crew, payload, or
fuel
W1 : weight of the a/c when the fuel tanks are empty
@any instant during the flight, W = W1 + Wf

Wf is decreasing:
dW dW f
=
= W& f (negative values)
dt
dt
Range is intimately connected with engine performance through the specific fuel
consumption and decreasing fuel Wf is defined before as
W f = TSFC T averaget for Jet (where TSFC is thrust specific fuel consumption)
W f = BSFC HP t for Prop. (where BSFC is brake specific fuel consumption)
Note: Over the years, conventional engineering practice has quoted the specific fuel
consumption in the inconsistent units of pounds of fuel consumed per horse power per
hour; these are the units you will find in most specifications for internal combustion
reciprocating engines. Before making a calculation which involves specific fuel
consumption, we always convert the inconsistent units of SFC to the consistent units of c.
"c" will designate the specific fuel consumption with consistent units.
32
For propeller-driven /reciprocating engine
Specific fuel consumption "c" (in terms of power): weight of fuel burned per unit power
per unit time
W& f
p
= (weight of fuel consumed for given time increment)/{(power output)(time
increment)}
Unit of c
[c] =
lb
N
or [c ] =
where W = J/s and J = work = (N m)
( ft lb / s)( s )
W s
However, inconsistent units of lb of fuel consumed per horsepower per hour is also used as
[BSFC ] =
lb
N
and [SFC ] =
(hp hr )
kW s
so,
[c] = BSFC
1hr BSFC 1
lb
1hp
550 ft lb / s 3600s = 550 3600 ft
hp
hr

or
1
N
[c] = SFC N = SFC
= [SFC ]
N m
1000m
kW s
1000
s
s
where W=J/s and J = work=(N m)

It is always a good idea to convert the inconsistent units of SFC to the consistent units of
[c].
33
For Jet engine, we use thrust rather than power.

Thrust specific fuel consumption
ct
W& f
T
= (weight of fuel consumed for given time increment)/{(thrust output)(time
increment)}
Unit of ct
[c ] =
t
1
lb
=
(lb s) s
or [ct ] =
1
N
=
( N s) s
However, TSFC (use hour instead of second)
[TSFC ] =
lb
1
lb 1hr TSFC 1
= , [ct ] = TSFC
=
(lb hr ) hr
lb hr 3600 s 3600 s
Relationship between c and ct
Now we can relate c(=
ct =
W& f
p
) and ct (=
W& f
T
c p
p
where p = A and PA: power available from the engine ( = TV )
T
pr
and pr: propeller efficiency

Then, p =
TV
pr
The specific fuel consumption for a reciprocating engine c in terms of an equivalent thrust
specific fuel consumption ct is
ct =
c V
pr
34
We can find range for steady, level flight with no wind
V =
ds
or ds = V dt .
dt
Also, ct =
then, ds =
W& f
T
dW f / dt
T
or dt =
dW f
ct T
V
V W dW
(since dWf = dW)
dW f =
ct T
ct T W
In steady, level flight condition (L = W and T = D)
ds =
V L dW
ct D W
Integrate from W = W0 (s = 0) to W = W1 (s = R) where W1 : weight of the a/c when the fuel

tanks are empty
R
W1
V L dW
c D W
W0 t
R = ds =
0
Then,
R=
V L dW
W
t D W
W0
for propeller ct becomes c
for level, steady flight without wind
From above range equation, we can find that range is

R = R( L / D, ct ,V ,W0 W1 ) and L / D = f ( ,V ,W , h) if we know all these values
35
Assume constant V , ct , L / D (for preliminary performance analysis) and ct =
R=
V L W0
ln
ct D W1
c V
pr
"Breguet Range equation"
To maximize R,
We want to fly simultaneously at the highest possible V and largest L/D (high
aerodynamic efficiency)
So, we want to fly at max. V
L
but condition is different for propeller and jet aircraft.
D
Range for Propeller-driven airplanes
Since ct =
R=
c V
pr L
c D
pr
ln
W0
, velocity is gone
W1
For max. range

Fly at max. L/D
Have the highest possible pr
Have the lowest possible c

Carry a lot of fuel (max. W0-W1)
For max. (L/D),
CL
L CL
=
=
and we can maximize CL/CD by
2
D C D C D + KC L
0
d (C L / C D ) C D + KC L C L (2 KC L )
2
=
=
0
C
=
KC
,
then
(zero lift drag = drag
D
L
2
2
dC L
C D + KC L
2
due to lift)
then, C L =
36
CD
CD / K
CD / K
C
L
=
= L =
2C D
D max C D max C D + C D
and
Then,
1
L
=
4C D K
D max
0
valid for any flight conditions (climb, level, turn since it is from aerodynamics of aircraft
via drag polar)
The velocity at (L/D)max.is dependent on flight conditions
Velocity will be different for climbing, turning flight compared to steady, level flight for
steady, level flight (L = W)
1
1
2
2
L = W = V SC L and W = V ( L / D ) S C D / K then
2
2
max
V( L / D )
max
2 K W
=
CD S
1/ 2
37
Range for Jet-propelled airplanes
R=
V L W0
ln
, velocity is included
ct D W1
L
L
not
D
D
For max. range for jet is dictated by V

For steady, level flight
1
2W
2
L = W = V SC L or V =
SC L
2
thus
2W C L
L
V =
D
S C D
1/ 2
L
V when the airplane is flying at a
D max .
W0
1
R=
W ct
1
2W C L dW
S C D W
1/ 2
Assume ct,,S, CL1/2/CD are constant. Then
1
R=
ct
or
2 CL
S C D
1 / 2 W0
dW
W1
1/ 2
C L1/2
CD
max
2 CL
1/ 2
1/ 2
(W0 W1 )
S C D
38
1/ 2
2
R=
ct
simplified range equation for a jet aircraft
For max. range

Fly at max. CL1/2/CD
Lowest ct
Fly at high altitude where is small ( is not shown in propeller range equation. so
Jet a/c should fly at high altitude), max. altitude is absolute ceiling where R/C = 0.
Carry a lot of fuel
How to achieve (CL1/2/CD) max.
C
CL
CL
and max. L can be found by
=
2
CD
CD
C D + KC L
1/ 2
1/ 2
1/ 2
d (C L / C D )
=
dC L
1/ 2
CL =
(C
D0
)
(
2 1
1/ 2
1 / 2
+ KC L C L C L (2 KC L )
2
2
= 0 , then C D = 3KC L and

2 2
C D + KC L
CD
3K
therefore
C L1 / 2
3 1
=
3
C D max 4 3KC D
1/ 4
C
and the velocity at which ( L )max. is achieved is
CD
1/ 2
1/ 2
V( C
1/ 2
L
/ C D ) max
2 3K W
, for steady, level flight condition
=
CD S
Now, we can compare V( C 1 / 2 / C

L
V( L / D )
max
2 K W
=
CD S
D ) max
39
and V( L / D ) max
1/ 2
and V( C 1 / 2 / C
L
D ) max
We see that V( C 1 / 2 / C
L
D ) max
2 3K W
=
CD S
1/ 2
= 31/4 V( L / D ) max or V( C 1 / 2 / C
L
When the aircraft is flying at (CL1/2/CD)

(L/D)max.
max,
D ) max
= 1.32 V( L / D ) max
it is flying 32% faster than when it is flying at
V L W0
ln , we see that for max. range for
ct D W1
jet, although the aircaft is flying such that L/D is less than its max. value, the higher V is a
Reflecting on the product
V (L/D) in R =
compensating factor.
We assumed V, L/D, CL1/2/CD are constant during the flight. But, during the flight, fuel is
being burned, and W is decreasing.
L = W = (1/2) V2 SCL.
RHS should decrease. Because of the assumption that V, L/D, CL1/2/CD are constant, only
the can be changed.
"Stair stepping" increases range.
We can consider range in terms of pounds of fuel consumed per mile. The smaller the
number of pounds of fuel consumed per mile, the larger the distance the aircraft can fly,
that is, the larger the range
40
Propeller driven aircraft

lb of fuel consumed ( BSFC ) HPR
=
,
prV
mi
where
BSFC =
lb of fuel consumed
and HPR = HPA , pr bhp = HPA and V = mph
bhp h
So, min. pounds of fuel consumed per mile are obtained with min. HPR / V (Slope shown
below)
Points of maximum range and endurance on the power required curve for propeller driven
aircraft
Min. value of slope. This point corresponds to the conditions for max. range for a propeller
driven aircraft.
Since PR = TRV , then
So, min.
HPR
TR .
V
HPR
corresponds to TR
V
Min. TR corresponds to flight @max. L/D.
TR = D =
D
D
W
W = W and TR =
L
W
L
D
Drag versus velocity

Velocity instability
Velocity instability : Velocity stability
41
Velocity instability and stability curve
42
43
Jet propelled aircraft

lb of fuel consumed (TSFC ) TR
,
=
mi
V
where
TSFC =
lb of fuel consumed
lb hr
So, min. pounds of fuel consumed per mile are obtained with min.
TR
(slope shown
V
below)
Points of maximum range and endurance on the thrust-required curve
Min. value of slope = max. range for jet
TR 1
1
2W
SC =
= VSC D =
V 2
SC L D
2
WS C D
2
CL
1/ 2
1/ 2
CD
CL
TR
is a min. when
is a min. or
is a max.
so,
1/ 2
V
CD
CL
44
Endurance
Amount of time that airplane can stay in the air on one load of fuel.
We know
dW f
dt
= ct T or
dt =
dW f
ct T
Since T = D, L = W for steady, level flight

dt =
dW f
ct D
L 1 dW f
D ct W
Integrate from t = 0 where W = W0 to t = E where W = W1

W0
1 L dW f
1 L dW f
E =
=
c D W
c D W
W t
W t
W1
If the detailed variation of ct, L/D, and W are known, then integrate numerically.
For preliminary performance (assume ct,and L/D are constant)
1 L W dW f
E=
ct D W W
0
E=
1 L W0
ln
ct D W1
45
Endurance for Propeller-driven airplanes
Since ct =
E=
W0
c V
pr
pr C L dW f
c V
W1
CD W
For steady, level flight V =
2W
(where T = D, L = W)
SC L
Then,
E=
W0
W1
pr
SC L C L dW f
2W C D W
or E =
W0
W1
pr
c
S C L 3 / 2 dW f
2
CD W 3/ 2
3/ 2
C
Assume constant pr , c, , L
CD
E=
pr
c
2 S
3/ 2
CL
1 / 2
1 / 2
(W1
W0 )
CD
Conditions for maximum endurance for propeller-driven airplanes

3/ 2
C
Fly at max. L
CD
Have the highest pr
Lowest specific fuel consumption

Carry a lot of fuel (max. W0 W1)
Fly at sea level (where air density is largest value)
46
3/ 2
C
Conditions for max. L or how to achieve (CL3/2/CD) max.
CD
3/ 2
3/ 2
CL
CL
=
, differentiate with respect to CL
2
CD
C D0 + KC L
d (C L 3 / 2 / C D )
=
dC L
D0
)
(C
+ KC L 2 C L 1 / 2 C L 3 / 2 (2 KC L )
2
+ KC L 2
D0
=0,
1
2
KC L ( zero lift drag equals one-third of the drag due to lift)
3
then C D0 =
and C L =
(C
3C D0
C 3/ 2
(3C D0 / K ) 3 / 4
CL3/ 2
1
L
=
C = C + KC 2 = C + 3C
4C D0
D0
D0
L max
D max D0
3C D0
3/ 4
or
CL3/ 2
1 3
=
1/ 3
C
D max 4 KC D0
3/ 4
For steady, level flight (L = W), the velocity at which (CL3/2/CD) max. is
L =W =
V(C
3/ 2
L
1
V 2 SC L and C L = 3C D0 / K
2
/ C D ) max .
2
=
1/ 2
K W
3C D0 S
and we know V( L / D ) max
2 K W
=
CD S
or
1/ 4
V(C
3/ 2
L
/ C D ) max .
1
= V( L / D ) max . = 0.76 V( L / D ) max .
3
1/ 2
47
Endurance for Jet-propelled airplanes
We know E =
1 L W0
ln
ct D W1
Conditions for maximum endurance

Fly at max. L/D
Lowest specific fuel consumption
Carry a lot of fuel (max. W0 W1)
The simplest way to think about endurance is in terms of pounds of fuel consumed per hour.
The smaller the number of pounds of fuel consumed per hour, the longer the airplane will
be able to stay in the air; that is, longer the endurance.
SUMMARY OF PROPELLER-DRIVEN AIRPLANES
SFC =
lb of fuel consumed
, HPA = pr ( Shaft bhp )
Shaft bhp h
For steady, level flight (HPA = HPR)

lb of fuel consumed
( SFC )( HPR )
hour
Therefore, min. lb of fuel consumed per hour are obtained with min. HPR.
PR = TRV =
W
V where V =
CL / CD
Then, PR = TRV =
W
CL / CD
2W
=
SC L
3/ 2
We can relate PR and
CL
CD
2W
1
2
, L = W = V SC L
2
SC L
2W 3C D
SC L 3
48
3/ 2
C
Min. power required occurs when the aircraft is flying such that L
CD
is a max.
3/ 2
We already know the conditions for max.
CL 3/ 2
1
3
=
3/ 2
C
4
K
C
D0
D max .
V(C
3/ 2
L
/ C D ) max .
2
=
CL
CD
3/ 4
, C D0 =
1
2
KC L
3
1/ 2
K W
3C D0 S
, V(C 3 / 2 / C
L
D ) max .
= 0.76V( L / D ) max .
SUMMARY OF JET PROPELLED AIRPLANES
The specific fuel consumption for a jet-propelled aircraft is based on thrust
TSFC =
lb of fuel consumed
Thrust h
For steady, level flight TA=TR

lb of fuel consumed
= TR TSFC
h
49
Min. pounds of fuel consumed per hour are obtained with min. TR
Min. TR occurs at TR = D =
TR =
D
W
W
W
( L / D)
so, (TR)min. occurs at (L/D)max.

We already know the conditions for max.
CL
=
C D max .
V(C L / CD ) max .
1
2
, C D0 = KC L
4 KC D0
2
=
K W
C D0 S
1/ 2
CL
CD
50
Graphical summary of conditions for maximum range and endurance

From previous analyses
V1 = 0.76V2 = 0.76V3
V4 = 1.32V2
where V(C
3/ 2
L
/ C D ) max .
= 0.76V( L / D ) max . and V(C 1 / 2 / C

L
D ) max .
= 1.32 V( L / D ) max .
51
The effect of wind on range

We already know V = Vg - Vw where V = V (air speed)
Then
V = Vg - Vw for tail wind
V = Vg + Vw for head wind
Endurance is not influenced by the wind. The airplanes relative velocity V is simply that
for max. endurance.
1 L W0
and E = pr
E=
ln
ct D W1
c
3/ 2
C
1 / 2
1 / 2
2 S L (W1
W0 )
CD
Range is affected by wind.

Example
V = 100 mph, Head wind of 100 mph.
Then, Vg = V - Vw = 0. The ground speed is zero. The aircraft just hovers over the same
location, and the range is zero.
R = f(Vg)
Let s denote the horizontal distance covered over the ground.

ds
and ds = V g dt
Vg =
dt
Range for jet aircraft R =
Vg L W0
ln
ct D W1
Range for propeller aircraft R =
pr Vg L
c V D
ln
W0
W1
We can find the values of V that correspond to max. range for a jet & propeller aircraft
including the effect of wind by differentiating above equations with respect to V and setting
the derivatives equal to zero.
52
The best range value of V with tail wind is lower than that for no wind.(V = Vg - Vtw)
The best range value of V with head wind is higher than that for no wind.(V = Vg + Vhw)
We know that the range is determined by the pounds of fuel consumed per mile covered
over the ground.
lb of fuel consumed BSFC HPR

=
for propeller aircraft
mi.
pr Vg
lb of fuel consumed TSFC TR
=
mi.
Vg
for jet
Minimum number of pounds of fuel consumed per mile, which corresponds to max. range,
T
HPR
or R .
is obtained with min.
Vg
Vg
Effect of headwind on best range airspeed for a propeller driven aircraft
53
Effect of tailwind on best range airspeed for a propeller driven aircraft
Effect of tailwind and headwind on best range airspeed for a jet

The best range value of V with tail wind is lower than that for no wind.(V = Vg - Vtw)
The best range value of V with head wind is higher than that for no wind.(V = Vg + Vhw)
HPR and TR (=drag) are depend on V (depend on aerodynamics of the aircraft)
54
Example #5
Estimate the maximum range and maximum endurance at 30,000 ft for the Gulfstream IV.
Also calculate the flight velocity required to obtain this range and endurance.
Aircraft
Engines
Gulfstream IV
Wing reference area 950 sq. ft. ; AR = 5.92 ; K = 0.08
Aircraft weight 73,000 lb
CDo 0.015 ; Maximum usable fuel weight = 29,500 lb
Rolls-Royce Tay turbofan
TSFC @ 30,000 ft = 0.69 lb/(hr lb)
Example #6
Given a headwind of 30 kt, determine the maximum-ground-range airspeed at a current

aircraft weight of 41000 lb and cruise altitude of 10000 ft. How does this value compare to
the nominal no-wind case ?
Aircraft
de Havilland DHC-5D (Buffalo)

Wing span 96 ft ; Wing reference area 945 sq. ft. ; e = 0.82
CDo 0.024 ; CLmax 1.6 ; Max. t/o weight 43000 lb ; Max. fuel weight 14000 lb;
Max. Payload weight 12000 lb ; Operating empty weight 25000 lb
Engines
Two General Electric CT64-820-4 turboprops

BSFC at 10000 ft, 0.5 lb/hr-hp
Cruise propulsive efficiency 85 %
55
Note on Weight
In performing the calculation for range, note that the various components that comprise the
aircrafts overall weight
W = W E ( empty
+ W F( fuel ) + W P / L ( payload
MTOW (max. takeoff weight)
Here, WE refers to the empty operating weight (airframe, engines, trapped oil/fuel, fixed
equipment, crew), WF the mission fuel weight (fuel to be used plus required reserve), and
WP/L being the disposable payload weight. The aircraft will have limited capacity for
carrying fuel in tanks, and for storing cargo onboard.
In calculating overall range, one must account for fuel consumption as the mission profile
can be broken down as follows
W F = W F( t / o ,c lim b ) + W F( cruise ) + W F( hold ,delay ) + W F( descent ,land ) + W F( reserve )

Subtract the appropriate weight for mean weight estimates in calculating attained distance,
using the appropriate specific fuel consumption for the particular flight segment.
56
Cruise Performance
Cruise performance depends on the requirements for a given mission, e.g. max. range, max.
endurance, min. trip time, min. cost.
This performance may be characterized by a number of parameters.
Recall Specific Air Range from flight mechanics
SAR =
air dis tan ce V t

V
=
=
fuel used
m& f t m& f
where m& f = TSFC T = TSFC W
km
kg

CD
for Jets. (T = D = W(CD/CL) )
CL
In terms of equivalent air speed ( V = VE / , VE =
2( p 0 p )
S/L
where
: pressure ratio( = ), : density ratio( = ( h ) / ( S / L)), : temp. ratio, p0 : total pressure
Equivalent air speed: airspeed at mean sea-level in the standard atmosphere that has the
same dynamic pressure as the true airspeed at local density.
The equivalent airspeed is significant for performance since flying at a constant EAS is
effectively flying at a constant dynamic pressure, where in certain regimes the aerodynamic
forces (L, D, etc.) tend to remain constant
SAR =
VE
1 CL
TSFC W C D
From this expression, it is evident that cruise performance improves with

higher altitudes
higher L/D
lower TSFC & W
57
The product of SAR and aircraft weight W is a performance parameter and it is often plotted
V
versus E
SAR W =
W V VE
CL
=
m& f
TSFC C D
with different weight curves (W/). Thus, at a given weight, altitude and velocity, once can
ascertain the SAR.
Other formats illustrating fuel flow versus airspeed may be provided by manufactures of
aircraft
Also, there will be a drag divergence limit on max. Mach no.
58
Cost consideration
In addition to fuel costs, one may have to account for other flight operations costs, i.e., that
associated with operations & maintenance.
In doing so, aircraft performance at cruise may have to be adjusted.
Typical Direct Operating Costs
Fuel/ Oil
Aircrew (flight & cabin)
Ground personnel & maintenance
Depreciation
Insurance
Total
Commercial transport
38%
24%
25%
12%
1%
100%
In addition to direct operating costs for flight operations, one may also have indirect
operating costs such as administration, sales & customer service, and depreciation of
ground facilities. Actual dollar figures for DOC (Direct Operating Cost) & IOC (Indirect
Operating Cost) are sometimes hard to pin down, and some costs may have no bearing on
aircraft design or performance. Operation and maintenance costs are usually given as costs
per flight hour, therefore do have a bearing on performance.
History of operating costs for U.S. air transports
59
Vmc (Minimum Cost Cruise)

For the minimum-cost cruise case, one would fly at a specific speed for a given altitude,
weight & wind.
Consider the parameters related to cost;
cos t
A=
, B = hourly cost[aircraft + crew operation & maintenance (exclude
unit mass of fuel
fuel)]
Cost to fly for time t : $ = Am& f t + B t
and given t = s/Vg , $ = Am& f
s
s
+ B
Vg
Vg
Given m& f = TSFC T = TSFC W (C D / C L ) = TSFC W
C D0 + KC L
CL
1
KW
W
, since C L =
m& f = TSFC C D0 V 2 S +
, (L = W for cruise)
1
1
2
2
2
V
S
V
S
2
2
For simplicity, let V = Vg (no wind), so that
$ = A TSFC C D0
KW 2
1
s
VS + 2 3 s + B
2
V S
V
For minimum,
0=
6( A TSFC KW 2 s ) Bs
d$ A
= TSFC C D0 Ss
2
dV 2
V 4 S
V
Multiply by V4/s, divide by
A
TSFC C D0 S ,
2
2 12 KW 2
2B
V
0 =V4
A TSFC C D S
C D0 ( S ) 2
0
60
Solve for V2 via quadratic solution, and take square root

2
1
B
B
2
+
+ 12 KW C D0
A TSFC C D0 S C D0 S A TSFC
Vmin . cos t =
then
Vmin . cos t
B
B
=
+
+ 12 KW C D0
C D0 S A TSFC
A TSFC
Note that for high subsonic speeds, one may be getting into drag divergence, requiring
C D0 ( M ) modification in above.
When M > Mcr,
Drag is increased by factor 1 +
M M cr
0. 1
Check case for, no hourly cost, i.e., B = 0 (consider only fuel cost)
Vmin . cos t =
where
1
C D0 S
2W
S
12 KW 2C D0 =
2W
S
3K
= 1.32VL / Dmax .
C D0
3K
=V( C 1 / 2 / C ) =1.32 V( L / D ) max
L
D max .
CD0
With earlier result for max. range, for jets (Vmax. range).
As a result, we can see that Vmc (min. cost) increases above Vmr (max. range) as hourly cost
coeff. B increases.
This explains why one operates to the right of the max. SAR =
point, at a higher velocity.
air dis tan ce V

=
fuel used
m& f
km
kg

61
For propeller driven aircraft,
m& f = BSFC P = BSFC

where Pa = pr P, P =
Pa
pr
TRV
pr
T V
pr
= BSFC W
pr
W (C D / C L )
, then
BSFC
KW
1
, let V = Vg and given B,
m& f =
C D0 V 3 S +
1
2
pr
VS
For simplicity, let V = Vg (no wind), so that cost to fly for time
$ = A
1
BSFC
KW 2
s
s + B
C D0 V 2 S + 2
2
2
pr
V S
V
where A = cost/unit mass of fuel and B = hourly cost.

For minimum in order to find Vmc (min. cost),
0=
d$
BSFC
A BSFC KW 2 s Bs
C D Ss 4
=A
2
dV
pr
pr V 3 S
V
0
Multiply by V3/s and divide by
0 = Vmin . cos t
A BSFC C D0 S
pr
B pr
4 KW 2
A BSFC C S min . cos t C ( S ) 2

D
D
Solve iteratively. When B = 0, no hourly cost

Vmin . cos t = 2
W
S
K
; agrees with earlier result for max. range case for props.
C D0
62
1/ 2
We already know that V( L / D ) max
2 K W
and this is max. range for props and
=
CD S
max. endurance for jet.

Here again, as B goes up, so does Vmc(min. cost) increases above Vmr(max. range).
Having looked at costs, later well look at revenue generation and see where we might
optimize in that respect, remembering: net profit = gross revenue operating costs.
63
Minimum Fuel Cruise, Variable Properties

Recall for min. fuel consumption in cruise, fly at max. specific air range with no wind.
We defined SAR = (air distance)/(fuel used)
V
V
or
Max.
TSFC T
BSFC P
pr
Max. SAR = Max.

or
Max.
BSFC D where Pa = P = TV =DV
TSFC D
V
pr
CL
CL
or Max.
Max. SAR = Max.
TSFC W C D
BSFC W C D
Max. SAR = Max.
where T = D = W(CD/CL), W = L
TSFC = lb/(lb hr) = 1/hr, BSFC = lb/(hp hr)
Up to now, we have assumed in analysis that properties like TSFC, pr and BSFC are
relatively constant, but in fact we know they vary as function of V or M. To illustrate
importance of allowing for property variation in optimization, consider an example for a jet,
with linear variation:
TSFC = TSFC 0 + a 2V ,
so that
SAR =
2W /( SC L ) C L
CL
V
=
TSFC 0 + a2V W C D TSFC 0 + a2 2W /( SC L ) W (C D + KC L 2 )
d ( SAR 1 )
Invert and find min. SAR and
=0
dC L
-1
By doing this, we can show that C L =

1/2
CD
3K
This is for max. CL /CD: best range for jet
or C D0 = 3KC L when a2 = 0.
2
64
Now consider prop. case, where one might not expect BSFC to vary much with V, but
might expect pr to vary substantially at lower V's.
Consider an example of propeller driven aircraft which has linear variation of
pr
+ a 1V
so that
SAR =
pr
+ a1 2W /( SC L ) C L
CL
= 0
2
BSFC W C D [BSFC ] W (C D + KC L )
We want to maximize SAR.

Then,
d ( SAR)
=0
dC L
By doing this, we can show that C L =
CD
K
or C D0 = KC L when a1 = 0. (Max. range

2
for prop: max. CL/CD)

As a third case to consider, allow for zero-lift drag C D0 to increase above the dragdivergence Mach no. MDD, via parabolic rise
C D = C D [1 + C ( M M DD ) 2 ], M > M DD
0
0i
C D = C D i , M M DD
0
So, for min. fuel (max. range) cruise by jet in drag divergence, (where C L =
W
).
0.7 pM 2 S
Since
V = Ma, a =
Then,
= RT , (1 / 2) V 2 = (1 / 2) a 2 M 2 = (1 / 2)
M 2 = 0.7 pM 2
SAR =
65
V
1
aM
=
TSFC W (C D / C L ) TSFC W (C D / C L + KC L )
We can substitute C D0 = C D0i 1 + C ( M M DD ) and then find min of SAR-1, in terms of

2
M rather than CL.
d ( SAR 1 )
Then,
= 0.
dM
The nominal incompressible value, at C = 0
M max .range =
W
> M DD
0.7 pS C D / 3K
0
66
Minimum Fuel Mission (Climb/Cruise/Descent)

In considering the overall mission for aircraft with respect to fuel consumption concerns,
one must also consider the climb and descent portion of the flight along with the cruise
segment (for now, we'll assume that fuel consumed in takeoff, loiter and landing is fixed).
For longer trips, one can likely choose in isolation the best cruise max. range Mach
no.(Mmr) and cruise altitude for min. fuel and max. range. In these cases, it is typically best
to get to the best cruise altitude as quickly as possible, thus one may climb at or near
R/Cmax from climbout to altitude, a common assumption in preliminary design.
One may want to consider a min. fuel climb approach in getting to that desired altitude, for
further fuel saving:
dW f
Min
dh
W& f
dW f / dt
= Min dh / dt = Min R / C
Thus, best interim climb speed V at a given h would be ascertained from
Recall for jet, W& f = TSFC T , R / C =
(T D)V
W
(where R/C = V sin = (Pa Pr)/W = (TV-DV)/W )

Thus, want to minimize such that
d
dV
W& f d TSFC T W
=0
R / C dV (T D)V
for best climb V, or alternatively maximize such that,
d
dV
R / C d (T D)V
& =
TSFC T W = 0 , for jet
W
dV
f
d
dV
W& f
= 0.
/
R
C
Similarly then for props, where W& f = BSFC PA (or alternatively, W& f = BSFC
67
TV
pr
),
then for maximizing,
d R/C d
=
dV W& f dV
(T D)V
BSFC P W = 0 , for props
Descent portion of the flight
When Pr > Pa, aircraft will descend rather than climb.

If there is no power at all, aircraft will be in gliding, or un-powered flight. [Engine quits
(failure out of fuel), un-powered glider &sailplanes].
Difference between sailplane and glider
Sailplane: expensive, high-performance un-powered aircraft
Glider: crude, low-performance un-powered aircraft
For the descent portion of the flight (from say hcruise to ~ 1500 ft above ground level, ready
for fuel approach in landing), one would also in general like to minimize fuel consumption.
Assuming the aircraft's flight descent angle D doesn't fall below specified maximums (say
~4o), an "unpowered" max. ground range approach would be typical, i.e., for no wind,
Force diagram for an un-powered aircraft in descending flight
For steady, unaccelerated descent

Glide angle is a function of the lift-to-drag ratio, the higher the L/D, the shallow the glider
angle
L = W cos , D = W sin , tan min =
68
1
; max. horizontal distance covered over
( L / D) max .
the ground (max. range).

At a given h, this is the case for max. horizontal distance covered over the ground (max.
range)
We already know that (L/D)max. occurs when induced drag = zero lift drag.
Vmax .range =
2W
S C D / K
0
Note that even though there may be zero nominal thrust (indeed spoilers may be deployed
at same point to slow a/c), idling engine are still burning fuel, at a min. allowed rpm to keep
& f / idle )
accessories, etc, functioning, at some w
69
As noted earlier, for longer trips, one can analytically isolate the cruise segment choices for
Vcr, Mcr or hcr, from the climb and descent portions.
However, for shorter trips, one must start to look at the whole mission together, in order to
arrive at a good choice for hcr and Mcr for overall fuel consumption concerns. One typical
rule of thumb is to apply a one-third rule below a minimum distance set for a given a/c,
whereby the ground segments for climb, cruise and descent would each be roughly onethird of the overall trip distance.
Simply to apply, it turns out to be a reasonably economical approach for a number of
aircraft. In a full analysis for a given aircraft for min. fuel consumption, one would apply a
computer program to iterate for the best hcr, etc. for the trip distance A to B, for a given
payload delivery.
1/3
1/3
1/3
hcr
A
1/3 1/3 1/3
B6
B5
B4
B3
B2
B1
70
PROBLEM #7
Allowing for the variation of specific fuel consumption at an altitude of 40000 ft as shown
below, find the maximum- range Mach number (compare to the nominal, constant TSFC
case). You may assume no wind and neglect drag divergence, and the current weight of the
aircraft is 500000 lb.
Aircraft
Boeing 747-200
Wing reference area 5500 sq. ft. ; K = 0.05
CDo (M < M DD) 0.02 ; MDD = 0.83 ; CLmax 1.7
Engines
Four Pratt & Whitney JT9D-7A turbofans

TSFC at 40000 ft, = 0.3 + 0.00036 V (ft/s), lb/hr- lb
PROBLEM #8
Determine the maximum-range airspeed at a current aircraft weight of 41000 lb and cruise
altitude of 10000 ft, if one allows for the variation of propulsive efficiency as noted below.
How does this value compare to the nominal constant pr case ?
Aircraft
de Havilland DHC-5D (Buffalo)

Wing span 96 ft ; Wing reference area 945 sq. ft. ; e = 0.82
CDo 0.024 ; CLmax 1.6 ; Max. t/o weight 43000 lb ; Max. fuel weight
14000 lb;
Max. Payload weight 12000 lb ; Operating empty weight 25000 lb
Engines
Two General Electric CT64-820-4 turboprops

BSFC at 10000 ft, 0.5 lb/hr-hp
Cruise propulsive efficiency pr = 0.5 + 0.00095 V (ft/s)
71
Accelerated Flight
Static performance (no acceleration) how fast it can fly, how far it can go?
Now, we want to know how fast can it turn?
Level turn
The curved flight path is in a horizontal plane parallel to the plane of the ground: altitude
remains constant.
Flight path & forces for an aircraft in a level turn
The relationship between forces required for a level turn.

The aircraft is banked through the roll angle .
The necessary condition for a level turns
Lcos = W : under this condition, the altitude of the a/c will remain constant.
72
Another way of stating this necessary condition is

r
r v
Fr (resultant force) = Vector sum of L & W
Governing equation of motion is

2
V
V
m = L sin : Centrifugal force m is balanced by the radial force L sin
R
R
Two performance characteristics of greatest importance in turning flights are

The turn radius, R
The turn rate = d / dt ; local angular velocity of a/c along the curved flight path
Above are important for combat a/c. For supersonic dog-fighting capability the a/c should
have smallest possible R and fastest possible turn rate, .
r
The aircraft is turning due to the radial force, Fr .
r
The larger the magnitude of this force, Fr , the tighter & faster will be the turn.
r
Fr is the horizontal component of the lift, L sin .
r
As L increases, Fr increases for two reasons
1. The length of the lift vector increases
2. increases because, for a level turn, L cos must remain constant (=W)
r
Hence L controls the turn.
When a pilot goes to turn the aircraft, pilot rolls the a/c in order to point the lift vector in
the general direction of the turn.
cos =
W
1
=
where L/W is the load factor (= n)
L (L /W )
So, = cos 1 (1 / n )
The roll angle depends only on the load factor (if you know n, then you know , and vice
versa)
73
The turn performance of an aircraft strongly depends on the n from equation of motion
for a level turn
2
V
m
= L sin
R
2
mV
V
W V
Solve for R, R =
=
=
L sin L g sin g n sin
We already know that cos =
1
and from the trigonometric identity of cos2 + sin 2 = 1 .
n
1
1 2
1
n 1 .
We have + sin 2 = 1 or sin = 1 2 =
n
n
n
Then, the turn radius is expressed as
R=
g n2 1
To obtain the smallest possible, R

highest possible n (L/W)
lowest possible V .
For the turn rate . (angular velocity ,,is related with radius R and V ; V =R)
d V
=
dt
R
Then,
g n2 1
V
To obtain the largest possible turn rate

1. highest possible n
2. lowest possible V
(same criteria for smallest possible R)
n (=L/W) and V are only two explicit factors to determine R and .
But, n and V depend on aircraft design characteristic wing loading (W/S), (T/W), drag
polar, air density.
74
Constraints on Load Factor (n)

As the aircrafts is increased, the magnitude of the lift must increase.
As L increases, the drag due to lift increases. Hence, to maintain a sustained level turn at a
given velocity and , the thrust must be increased from its straight & level flight value to
compensate for the increase in drag. If this increase in thrust pushes the required thrust
beyond the maximum thrust available from the power plant, then the level turn cannot be
sustained at the given V & . In this case, to maintain a turn at the given V , will have
to be decreased in order to decrease the drag.
1
at any given velocity, the maximum
cos
possible load factor for a sustained level turn is constrained by the maximum thrust
available.
Since the load factor n is a function of , n =
Maximum load factor nmax. can be calculated as follows.

D=
1
V 2 S (C D0 + KC L 2 ) for a level flight T = D.
2
Also, L = nW =
Substitute T =
1
V 2 SC L or C
2
2 nW
.
V2S
1
2nW 2
V 2 S C D0 + K (
) and solve for n.
2
2
V
S
2
2 V T 1
2 C D0
n=
V
K
(
W
/
S
)
W
2
W
/
S
1/ 2
above equation gives the load factor (hence ) for a given V & T/W.
75
The maximum value of n is obtained by T = Tmax. or (T/W)max.
n max .
2
2 V T
1
2 C D0
=
V

W / S
K (W / S ) W max . 2
1/ 2
for a given V , n can only range between 1 < n < nmax.

nmax. is dictated by the design parameters W/S, T/W, C D0 , K, and altitude ().
Left of nmax.: C Di (decreases with velocity) dominates

Right of nmax.: C D0 (increases with velocity) dominates
Above is why nmax. curve first increases, then reaches a local maximum, then decreases with
velocity.
76
At point B, the aircraft is flying at (L/D)max.

n=
L
L D L T
L T
. When Tmax. is inserted then, nmax . = ( ) max .
=
=
W DW DW
D W
Relationship between nmax. and CL.
As V decreases, CL increases. (As V decreases, the magnitude of L is maintained

by increasing CL, by increasing )
CL cannot increase indefinitely it is limited by stall CLmax.
The velocity at CLmax.is reached is denoted by point A
At lower velocities, less than point A, the maximum load factor is constrained by
CLmax., not by available thrust
1
2 C Lmax .
When nmax. is constrained by CLmax., the nmax.is nmax . = V
(the solid curve
2
W /S
to the left of point A is obtained by this)
Also, cos max =
1
n max .
77
Constraints on V
We know that for high performance for turn, V should be as small as possible. However,
V cannot be reduced indefinitely without encountering stall. Hence, the stall limit is a
constraint on V .
The stalling velocity is a function of (n = L/W)
L = nW =
1
V 2 SC L and V =
2
2nW
.
SC L
When CL = CLmax., then V = Vstall

Vstall =
2nW
more general equation for stall velocity
SC Lmax .
When the aircraft is at a bank angle , the stalling velocity is increased above that for
straight & level flight (n = 1).
Hence, when the aircraft is in a level turn with a load factor n > 1, the stalling velocity
increases proportionally to n1/2.
78
Minimum Turn Radius
The conditions for minimum R(radius) are found by setting dR/d V = 0

From R =
R=
g n2 1
2q
g n 1
2
,q =
, we can rewrite R as
1
V 2 (dynamic pressure)
2
Load factor n is a function of velocity (n = f( V )), so n = f(q).

We can find min. radius by
dR
=
dq
2 g n 2 1 2 gqn(n 2 1) 1 / 2
dn
dq
g 2 2 (n 2 1)
=0
or
2 g n 2 1 2 gqn(n 2 1) 1 / 2
dn
=0
dq
or
n 2 1 qn
dn
dn
= 0 . Now we need to find
.
dq
dq
From previous derivations, we know n as a function of V .
n2 =
CD
T
q
q
K (W / S ) W
W /S
0
Differentiate with respect to q gives
79
qC D
dn
T /W
=
dq 2 K (W / S ) K (W / S ) 2
After substitution,
q 2C D
q 2CD
q
T
q(T / W )
1
+
=0
K (W / S ) W K (W / S ) 2
2 K (W / S ) K (W / S ) 2
0
Combining and cancelling terms, we get
q(T / W )
=1
2 K (W / S )
or q =
2 K (W / S )
.
T /W
Then,
(V ) R
min .
4 K (W / S )
: min. turning radius
(T / W )
Above equation gives the value of V which corresponds to the min. turning radius.
The load factor corresponding to above velocity is found by substituting above into n = f(V)
C D 2 K (W / S )(T / W )
4 KC D
4 K 2 (W / S ) 2 C D
T
q
=
2
n =
q
K (W / S ) W
W / S (T / W ) K (W / S ) (T / W ) 2 K (W / S ) 2
(T / W ) 2
2
or
nR
min .
= 2
4 KC D
(T / W ) 2
Above equation gives the load factor corresponding to the min. turning radius.
Finally, the expression for min. turning radius is obtained by using R =
g n2 1
Rmin =
2
Rmin
g nR
min .
4 K (W / S )
1
(T / W ) g 2 4 KC D /(T / W ) 2 1
0
Then,
Rmin ==
80
4 K (W / S )
(T / W ) g 1 4 KC D /(T / W ) 2
0
So, best Rmin. occurs at

at sea level (max. )
small (W/S)
large (T/W)
good aerodynamic characteristics
good streamline( low CD0 ), low K
81
Maximum Turn Rate
g n2 1
=
V
max. is obtained by differentiating above equation and setting the derivative equals to zero.
Same method as for min. turn radius. We will get
(V )
max .
max .
2(W / S )
=
1/ 2
C
D
1/ 4
T /W
1
KC D
0
max
T / W
CD
=q

W / S 2 K K
1/ 2
Wing loading (W/S) and thrust-to-weight (T/W) ratio dominate the values of R min & max.
For good turn performance (low R min & high max.), W/S should be low (increase S) and
T/W should be high. For low K high AR.
High turning performance
Min. turn radius and max. turn rate are important performance characteristics for a fighter
airplanes.
The large load factors result in large bending moments at the wing root.
The wing span is more related than the AR in this consideration. Aircraft with high
maneuver performance simply do not have large wingspans in order to keep the wing
bending moments within reasonable design limits.
A way to have a short wingspan and a reasonably high AR at the same time is to go to a
biplane configuration. Here, lift is generated by two smaller wings. This gives small
82
wingspan with reasonably high AR. Shorter wingspan leads to a smaller rolling moment of
inertia and hence higher roll rate.
The pull-up and pull-down maneuvers
Pull-up maneuver with turn radius of R

For steady and level flight: L = W
but in pull-up : L > W
For the pull-up maneuver, the roll angle is zero ( = 0)
Equations of motion becomes
V
m = L W cos
R
2
Unlike the level turn, where we considered a sustained turn (constant flight properties
during the level turn), in the pull-up maneuver we will focus on an instantaneous turn,
where we are interested in the turn radius and turn rate at the instant that the maneuver is
initiated.
Aircraft frequently execute sustained level turns, but rarely a sustained pull-up maneuver
83
with constant flight properties.
Moreover, we assume the instantaneous pull-up is initiated from straight & level horizontal
flight ( = 0)
So,
V
m = L W
R
2
Again, we are interested in turn radius R and turn rate ( = d/dt).

So,
mV
V
W V
R=
=
=
L W g L W g ( L / W 1)
2
V
R=
g (n 1)
2
The instantaneous turn rate (angular velocity) is given by
g (n 1)
V
V
R
84
For pulldown maneuver,

Aircraft is suddenly rolled to an inverted position ( = 180o)
Equations of motion becomes
V
m = L +W
R
2
Hence,
mV
V
W V
R=
=
=
L + W g L + W g ( L / W + 1)
2
V
R=
g (n + 1)
2
The instantaneous turn rate (angular velocity) is given by
g (n + 1)
V
V
R
85
Difference between pull-up and pulldown is a minus and plus sign in parenthesis.
As in the case for the level turn for the pull-up & pulldown, R and depend only on the
flight characteristics (velocity and load factor)
Limiting case for large load factor

Consider the turn radius equations for
Level turn: R =
g n2 1
2
Pull-up: R =
V
g ( n 1)
2
Pulldown: R =
V
g ( n + 1)
In the limit of large load factor n >> 1, these equations reduce to the same form
2
V
R=
g n
Similarly, for turn rate
g n2 1
Level turn: =
V
Pull-up: =
g ( n 1)
V
Pulldown: =
g ( n + 1)
V
In the limit of large load factor n >> 1, these equations reduce to the same form
g n
V
86
The physical reason why the same form for R & is obtained in the case of large n. -> The
magnitude of the lift is so large that the weight is unimportant by comparison.
Lets use the limiting equations of R and for instantaneous maneuver. In these equations
V can be replaced as follows
L=
2L
1
.
V 2 SC L then V 2 =
2
SC L
Substituting above equation into R and , we have

2
R=
V
2L
2L
2 W
=
=
=
gn SC L gn SC L g ( L / W ) C L g S
and
gn
=
V
gn
=
2 L /( SC L )
nC L
gn
=g
2(W / S )
[2n /( C L )](W / S )
We can see clearly R will be a min. and will be a max. when both CL & n are max. That is
R=
=g
2
W
(C L ) max g S
n max (C L ) max
2(W / S )
However, keep in mind that nmax is limited by (CL)max.

n=
L 1
S
2
= V C L
W 2
W
nmax =
(C )
1
V 2 L max
2
(W / S )
87
For an instantaneous maneuver, the two design characteristics that are important are CLmax
& W/S (wing loading).
The minimum turn radius(R) can be smaller, and max. turn rate can be made larger, by
designing the aircraft with a higher (CL)max. and a smaller W/S.
For an instantaneous maneuver, T/W does not play a role because an instantaneous
maneuver is initiated by a sudden change in lift by a sudden increase in . The drag is
increased as well, causing the aircraft to experience a deceleration. However, at the instant
the maneuver is initiated, the instantaneous velocity is V . So even though the aircraft will
feel a sudden increase in drag and therefore a sudden deceleration, the V decreases only
after the instant of initiation of the maneuver. Any increase in thrust to counteract the
increase in drag comes after the fact.
V-n diagram
There are structural limitations on the max. load factor allowed for a given aircraft.
Two categories of structural limitations in aircraft design
1. Limit load factor: this is the boundary associated with permanent structural
deformation of one or more parts of the aircraft. If n is less than the limit load factor,
the structure may deflect during a maneuver, but it will return to its original state
(n=1). If n is greater than the limit load factor, aircraft structure will experience a
permanent deformation -> structural damage.
2. Ultimate load factor: this is the boundary associated with outright structural failure.
If n is greater then the ultimate load factor, parts of the aircraft will break.
Both the aerodynamic & structural limitations for a given aircraft are illustrated in the V-n
diagram. -> Flight envelope for a given aircraft.
V-n diagram establishes the manoeuvre boundaries.
88
A-B: Aerodynamic limit on n imposed be CLmax (Above curve A-B: stall region)
Aircraft flying at V1, Assume CL < CLmax at 1. Increase to CLmax at constant V1, so lift
increases to its max. for V1. This value nmax is given by point 2. If increases further the
wing stall and n decreases. So point 3 is unobtainable in flight. So point 2 represents the
highest possible load factor for V1.
As V is increased to V4, then the max. possible nmax also increases.
B-C: positive limit load factor
C-D: high-speed limit ( q is higher than the design range for the aircraft)
A-E: stall limit (if the wing is pitched downward to a large )
B: maneuver point (both CL and n are simultaneously at their highest possible values)
Smallest possible turn radius (instantaneous)
Largest possible turn rate (instantaneous)
V* =
2nmax W
: corner velocity
(C L ) max S
At flight velocity less than V*, it is not possible to structurally damage aircraft due to the
generation of too much lift. In contrast, V > V*, lift can be obtained that can structurally
damage the aircraft (point 5). Pilot should avoid such a case.
89
Energy Concepts: Accelerated rate of climb

Unlike the approach taken in all our performance analyses to this point, where we dealt
with forces and invoked Newtons second law for our fundamental dynamic equation. Now
we will deal with energy concepts.
Energy height
Consider an aircraft of mass m in flight at some altitude h with some velocity V .

Due to its altitude, the aircraft has potential energy ( = mgh )
1
2
Due to its velocity, the aircraft has kinetic energy (= mV )
2
1
2
Total aircraft energy = mgh + mV
2
The specific energy (He) is defined as total energy per unit weight and obtained by (total
energy/(W=mg))
1
2
mgh + mV
2
He =
mg
2
V
He = h +
2g
Specific energy (He) has units of height -> called "energy height of the aircraft".
Contours of constant He are given. (Altitude Mach No. Map)
90
Contours of constant He are given. (Altitude Mach No. Map)
The total energy is same, but the distribution between kinetic and potential energy can
change. Consider two aircrafts, one is flying @ h = 30,000 ft @ M= 0.81 and other is flying
@ h = 10,000 ft @ M= 1.3. Both aircrafts have the same energy height of 40,000 ft.
However, aircraft A has more potential energy and less kinetic energy (per unit weight)
than aircraft B.
If both aircrafts maintain their same states of total energy, then both are capable of
zooming to an altitude of 40,000 ft @zero velocity (point C) simply by trading all their
kinetic energy for potential energy.
Consider another aircraft, flying @ h = 50,000 ft @ M= 1.85 (point D). This aircraft will
have an energy height of 100,000 ft and is capable of zooming to an actual altitude 100,000
ft by trading all its kinetic energy for potential energy. Aircraft D has a much greater
capability for speed and altitude performance than aircrafts A and B.
In an air combat, everything else being equal, it is advantageous to be in a higher energy
state (higher He).
Specific Excess Power

How does an aircraft change its energy state? (from aircraft A,B to D).
Lets look at the equation of motion for climb with climb angle .
T D W sin = m
dV
dt
Since m = W/g
T D = W (sin +
1 dV
)
g dt
Multiply by V / W , we obtain
TV DV
V dV
= V sin +
W
g dt
where TV DV = excess power
We define specific excess power, denoted by Ps, as the excess power per unit weight.
Ps =
Excess Power TV DV
=
W
W
91
92
Also, recall that the rate of climb (R/C) is
R / C = V sin
then,
dh
= V sin
dt
Substituting above into equation of motion, we have

Ps =
dh V dV
+
dt
g dt
An aircraft with excess power can use this excess for rate of climb (dh/dt) or to accelerate
dV
along its flight path ( ) or for a combination of both.
dt
For the case of no acceleration (
Ps =
dV
= 0)
dt
dh
dt
We already know that this is the case for steady climb.

R/C =
Excess Power
W
Specific excess power allows an increase in the energy height of an aircraft. Differentiating
energy height equation with respect to time
dH e dh V dV
=
+
dt
dt
g dt
2
where energy height is H e = h +
V
2g
The right hand side of above equation and specific excess power are identical.
93
Hence,
Ps =
dH e
dt
The time rate of change of energy height is equal to the specific excess power. An aircraft
can increase its energy height simply by the application of excess power. So, aircrafts A &
B can reach the energy height of aircraft D if they have enough specific excess power to do
so.
Summary
Total Energy = K.E + P.E = mgh +
1
2
mV
2
2
Specific Energy or Energy Height: H e = h +
V
(higher He has greater capability for
2g
speed and altitude performance)

Specific excess power can change He.
Ps =
dh V dV
+
dt g dt
Excess power can be used for changing R/C (dh/dt) or to accelerate along its flight path
(dV/dt).
Ps =
dH e
dt
94
How can we ascertain whether a given aircraft has enough Ps to reach a certain energy
height?
The answer has to do with contours of constant Ps on an altitude-Mach number map.
Ps Contours
We already know that excess power is the difference between power available and power
required. For a given altitude, say, h, the excess power (Ps) can be plotted versus velocity
(or Mach no.); Ps first increases with velocity, then reaches a max. and finally decreases to
zero as the velocity approaches Vmax for the aircraft.
Specific excess power contours for a subsonic aircraft
95
Specific excess power contours for a supersonic aircraft
Supersonic aircraft's specific excess power contours are somewhat different because of the
effect of the drag divergence phenomenon on drag. The "dent' in the curves around Mach 1
is due to the large drag increase in the transonic flight regime.
96
We can now answer the question of how to ascertain whether a given aircraft has enough Ps
to reach a certain energy height. Let's overlay the Ps contours and the curves for constant
energy height all on an altitude-Mach number map.
This plot gives what energy heights are obtainable by a given aircraft. The regime of
sustained flight for the aircraft lies inside the envelope formed by the Ps = 0 contour. Here,
all values of the He inside this envelope are obtainable by the aircraft. A comparison of
figure like overlay of Ps contours and specific energy state for different aircrafts will clearly
show in what regions of altitude & Mach no. can aircraft has maneuver advantage over
another.
97
Rate of climb and time to climb (Accelerated performance)

The rate of climb with acceleration is found from
Ps =
dh V dV
+
dt g dt
Consider an aircraft at a given altitude and Mach number. This flight condition is
represented by a specific point in the altitude-mach no. map.
At this point, the aircraft will have a certain value of Ps. Assume the aircraft is accelerating,
with a specific value of
The rate of climb is
dV
A.
dt
V
dh
= Ps A
dt
g
All quantities on the right hand side are known or specified. The equation gives the
instantaneous max. rate of climb that can be achieved at the instantaneous V & A.
The time required for an aircraft to change from one energy height He1 to a larger energy
height He2 can be obtained as follows
dt =
dH e
Ps
Integrating between t1(He = He1) and t2(He = He2)
t 2 t1 =
He2
H e1
dH e
; gives the time to climb from altitude h1 to h2 when the aircraft has
Ps
accelerated (or decelerated) from V1 @h1 to V2 @h2.

2
Since H e = h +
V
then
2g
H e 2 H e1 = h2 h1 +
1
2
2
(V 2 V 1 ) or
2g
h2 h1 = H e 2 H e1
98
1
2
2
(V 2 V 1 )
2g
Above equation gives the change in altitude h2 h1 between two conditions.

The time to climb t2 t1 between He1 and He2 is not a unique value. It depends on the flight
path taken in the altitude-Mach no. map. In changing from He1 to He2, there are an infinite
number of variations of altitude and Mach no. that will get you there.
However, once a specific path is chosen between He1 and He2 then dHe/Ps (=dt) has a
definite variation along this path and a specific value of t2 t1 is obtained.
Minimum time to climb

There is a unique path in the altitude-Mach no. map that corresponds to a minimum time to
climb.
From
t 2 t1 =
He2
H e1
dH e
Ps
The time to climb will be a min. when Ps is a max. value.

Looking at figure, for each He curve, we see there is a point where Ps is a maximum. Indeed,
at this point the Ps curve is tangent to the He curve. Such points are illustrated by points A
to I.
Analysis of modern high-performance aircrafts makes extensive use of energy concepts.
Military pilots fly with Ps diagrams in the cockpit.
99
Aircraft Capability (Range-Payload)

The capability of an aircraft to earn revenue is an important performance parameter in the
real world. Revenue may be generated by carrying a payload over some distance from point
A to point B.
Payload is the disposable load carried by the aircraft, other than fuel and crew. Typically
for civil transports, payload will be a mix of passengers and cargo. Passengers and cargo
have their own weight and space characteristics, and these must be defined in order to
ascertain the aircraft's capability.
For example, seating must be available for the number of passengers under consideration,
and one can specify a typical passenger weigh as 165 lbs plus 35 lbs hand baggage. Other
passenger baggage in the cargo hold should be accounted for in addition, e.g., 20 kg for
economy class per passenger and 27 kg for first class. Cargo may be characterized as
weighing 10 lb per cubic foot for design purposes, and the corresponding space must be
available.
Capability of an aircraft may be illustrated by its range-payload diagram for a specific
mission profile. The effect of trading off payload for fuel on the range of the aircraft is
made evident.
100
In addition to carrying a satisfactory amount of payload from point A to point B, one would
also like to move it at a satisfactory speed, since shorter trip times mean more trips for a
given period, and therefore more revenue. This speed under consideration will in fact be the
block speed rather than the cruise speed.
Block speed VB is defined by
VB =
block dis tan ce RB

=
; Block range (trip distance from point A to point B)
block time
tB
where RB is the distance from ramp A to ramp B at the other field and tB is the "block-toblock" elapsed time in leaving the ramp at A till arriving at ramp B.
In calculating block time for design purposes, one should include all delays as well as the
principal mission segment times for climb, cruise and descent.
Delays will include taxing, take-off, landing, loitering, and all other air and ground
maneuvering sequences.
For example, allow 10 minutes for miscellaneous air maneuvering with no distance attained,
and 30 minutes for all ground maneuvering delays at both ends.
Below is a typical result for block speed vs. block range.
Clearly, with greater block distances covered, VB will approach the cruise speed of the
aircraft.
Define t cr =
101
RB
where Vcr is ground speed for cruise.
Vcr
t extra = t delay + t c lim b + t descent
Rc lim b,descent
Vcr
since RB include Rc lim b,descent
so, t B = t cruise + t extra
VB =
given
Vcr
RB
RB
=
=
V t
t extra + t cruise RB
+ t extra 1 + cr extra
Vcr
RB
1
e s
1+ s
VB = Vcr exp(
Vcr t extra
)
RB
102
Aircraft Capacity
Another parameter that may be used to ascertain the capability of an aircraft to earn
revenue is referred to as capacity CAP, or transport productivity.
Here we will define aircraft capacity as the product VB X WP/L, where VB is typically given
in mph or km/h and payload as passengers, tons(2000 lb), or tonnes(1000 kg). As the above
parameter suggests, increasing aircraft speed and cargo-carrying size will increase an
aircraft's revenue-earning capacity.
Revenue-earning example
Aircraft flies a 3000 mile route at a VB of 600 mph, max. 350 seats at a utilization factor
of 60%(210 seats occupied), fare of $500, and annual utilization of 4500 hrs(where 8760
hr/yr)
Hours per flight = 3000 mi/600 mph = 5 hrs
Flight per year = 4500 hrs/ 5hrs = 900 flights
Annual gross revenue = 900 flights X (350 X 0.6) pass/flight X $500/pass.
= $94.5 million
This large amount will give you some idea of the cumulative wealth potential of an aircraft.
Incurred cost as discussed earlier will reduce net profit.
Optimum Range
Plotting capacity versus block range allows for determination of the "optimum" range of
the given aircraft at a given mission profile.
With this and other information, or using an inverse approach, an aircraft can be designed
for specific routes whereby revenue per annum will be maximized (if CAP1 is applicable)
103
We can show that for linear assumption of range-payload, optimal capacity given by
d (CAP )
= 0 or
dRB
Recall Payload vs. Rmax
WP / L max .un lim it = W0 WE = W pmu
V t
R
WP / L WP / L max .un lim it 1 B , VB = Vcr exp( cr ex ), then
R fmu
RB
V t
R
WP / L VB = W pmu Vcr (1 B ) exp( cr ex )
R fmu
RB
V t
V t
d (WP / L VB )
V t
R
1
= 0 = W pmu Vcr (1 B ) exp( cr ex ) cr 2 ex W pmu Vcr exp( cr ex )
dRB
R fmu
RB
RB
R fmu
RB
0 = (1
RB Vcr t ex
1
2
)
; RB
2
R fmu
R fmu
RB
V t
RB
RB ( cr ex ) + Vcr t ex ; R fmu
R fmu
R fmu
2
0=
0 = RB + RB (Vcr t ex ) Vcr t ex R fmu

2
RB
(Vcr t ex ) 2 + 4Vcr t ex R fmu

Vcr t ex
=
+
or
2
2
RB
Optimal
Optimal
104
Vcr t ex
V t
+ ( cr ex ) 2 + Vcr t ex R fmu
2
2
Note: Allow for some range attained in climb &descent, i.e., Rcl/des, so that
t ex = t delay + t cl + t des
Rcl / des
Vcr
Further note on capacity

The origin of the definition of CAP comes from a linear equation for gross revenue earned
$=
(total dis tan ce flown) ( payload carried ) (utilization factor )
tonne
km
$=
( RB total flight ) ( payload carried )
tonne km
Where is the utilization factor (~ 0.5 -> 0.6).
If total flights (e.g. per year) is restricted by a limit on total flight hours, then
total hours
V
= (total hours ) B
Total flights =
tB
RB
Substituting back into the revenue earning equation:
$ = WP / L VB (total hours)
tonne km
105
In the last three parameters are considered as fixed constants, then we can define the
variable component as capacity
CAP1 = WP/L VB
Using this as a revenue performance guideline, one must trade-off between short-hauling
heavy payloads with numerous flights or long-hauling lighter loads with fewer flights.
From our analyses for RBopt., we see that optimum range shrinks as the operators become
more efficient in reducing delays, i.e., tex. Of course, net profit requires consideration of
both gross revenues earned and costs (DOC + IOC) incurred, so that short-hauling with
large aircraft may not in fact be profitable. (large fuel expenditure in takeoff and climbs,
lack of passengers and cargo supply rate to justify frequent short flights) Flying at less than
peak capacity due to lower will also be a factor in pushing up range per flight.
If an operator is restricted to total flights per year (rather than total flight hours), one can
produce a different definition for revenue-earning capacity, namely
CAP2 = WP/L RB
Substituting our linear approximation for WP/L from range-payload considerations
CAP2 = Wpmu (RB -RB2/Rfmu )
Here again, we get a parabolic-shaped capacity curve, with a peak given by,
d (CAP2 )
R
= 0 = 1 2 B
dR B
R fmu
Then, RB opt =
R fmu
This result typically corresponds to that range attained with max. payload at MTOW or
little higher range into intermediate zone. We can define a more general expression for
capacity as a nonlinear function of payload and range:
CAP3 = WP/L m X RBn
where powers m and n may vary above or below 1.0 depending on market demand. The
peak case gives
RB
opt
106
n
=
R fmu
m+n
e.g. for m = 1.0, n = 0.8 -> RBopt3 = 0.44 Rfmu

for m = 1.0, n = 1.2 -> RBopt3 = 0.55 Rfmu
For problems, assume CAP1 if there is no indication of CAP1 or CAP2.
PROBLEM #9
Determine two cardinal points on the aircrafts range-payload curve, namely range attained for
maximum payload at maximum takeoff weight, and range attained for maximum allowed fuel
at MTOW. Assume range covered during climb and descent totals 100 km, with 140 kg of
fuel consumed in t/o and climb, and 140 kg in descent and landing. In addition, determine the
optimal capacity (CAP1) of the aircraft. Assume time required to climb is 20 min., time to
descend is 20 min., and time due to various delays for taxiing, air maneuvers, etc. as 30
minutes. Neglect wind effects, and assume both airfields at sea level.
Aircraft
de Havilland DHC-8 (Dash 8)

Wing span 25.9 m ; Wing reference area 54.4 sq. m ; e = 0.8
CDo 0.0255 ; CLmax 2.0 ; Max. t/o weight 15645 kg ; Max. fuel weight 2575
kg
Max. payload weight 3810 kg ; Operating empty weight 10250 kg
Max cruise at 4600 m alt. ; True air speed of 490 km/hr
Engines
Two Pratt & Whitney PW120A turboprops

BSFC at 4600 m, max. Cruise 2.2 x 10-4 kg/hr-W
Cruise propulsive efficiency pr 0.85
107
Elements of Aircraft Control

We will be discussing various aspects of aircraft flight control for both manual (pilot-inthe-loop) and automatic flight control systems (AFCS). We already have some appreciation
for one part of the control loop, that being control surface deflections required to produce
the needed aerodynamic force and moment for a given time in a flight.
Axes and notation

Frame is fixed to aircrafts mass center and moves with it
L: rolling moment
M: pitching moment
N: yawing moment
P: rolling velocity
Q: pitching velocity
R: yawing velocity
(X,Y,Z): component of aerodynamic force
(Ub,Vb,Wb): component of velocity C
Elevators provide a pitching moment M, aileron provides a rolling moment L, and
rudders provide a yawing moment N.
These moments are needed to move the aircrafts attitude to a desired position. (pitch angle
, roll angle , yaw angle or heading angle ), with respect to the earth.
108
Consider the simplified governing equations for this sequence of events.
L =I
P& I xz R& + ( I z I y )QR I xz PQ : Rolling moment
M =I
N =I
R& I xz P& + I xz RQ + ( I y I x ) PQ : Yawing moment
Q& ( I z I x ) PR + I xz ( P 2 R 2 ) : Pitching moment
where P& , Q& , R& are the angular rate accelerations about the aircrafts X,Y,Z axes. With the
application of moments, some change in the angular rates will occur. In turn, the rate of
change of the aircrafts attitude will be governed by
& = Q cos R sin

& = P + & sin
Q sin + R cos
& =
cos
Integration provides Euler angles
t
= 0 + &dt
t0
= 0 + &dt
t0
= 0 + &dt
t0
For manual or automatic flight, one requires continuous updating of the aircrafts attitude.
Other variables that affect flight control include altitude above ground, airspeed or Mach
number, rate of climb, angle of attack and sideslip.
Navigation from one point to another requires correct updates of heading and distance to a
station. In addition, instrument landing requires continuous updating of localizer and glideslope angles to ensure proper landing procedure.
We will now look at some sensing devices that translate to the pilot (or AFC) the above
information, i.e., measured or raw data.
109
110
Accelerometers
Accelerometers may be comprised of a spring-mass-damper system whose motion
characteristics are well defined. This device may be used to measure linear (and sometimes
angular) accelerations of the airframe. Having an accurate and continuous update of various
acceleration components is useful for a number of applications. Consideration of
aerodynamic/propulsive/gravity forces provides the following expressions for measured
linear acceleration at the aircraft's c.g.
X
: X ~ T -D
a x = U& b + QWb RVb + g sin =
m
Y
a y = V&b + RU b PWb g cos sin = : Y ~ side force
m
c.g
c.g
az
c. g
= W& b + PVb QU b g cos cos =
Z
: Z ~ -L
m
One can ascertain U& b ,V&b ,W& b and via integration with time, U b ,Vb ,Wb , the velocity
components along aircraft's reference axes. Translating the above to the earth's reference
frame via direction cosines, we have
dX E
X& E =
= U b cos cos + Vb (sin sin cos cos sin ) + Wb (cos sin cos + cos sin )
dt
dY
Y&E = E = U b cos sin + Vb (sin sin sin + cos cos ) + Wb (cos sin sin sin cos )
dt
dZ E
Z& E =
= U b sin + Vb sin cos + Wb cos cos
dt
and via integration,
dX E
dt
dt
t
t
dY
YE = Y0 + E dt
dt
t
t
dZ
Z E = Z 0 + E dt
dt
t
t
XE = X0 +
0
: Earth-fixed coordination
111
This illustrates the principle of inertial navigation, with point-to-point positioning of the
aircraft. The ground track or course of the aircraft is thus given by
Y&E
X& E
E = tan 1
It should be noted at this point that due to wind (and side slip), airframe heading and
ground track E do not necessarily coincide.
Other uses for accelerometers include:
Rate of climb, h& = Z& E
h&
cos sin , for small and
V

Flight path angle, = sin 1
Angle of attack,
Angle of sideslip,
Also, may be used for angular acceleration measurement of P& , Q& , R& . Depending on
accuracy required, you may have to account for earth's rotation and spherical shape.
Inertial measurement units (IMUs) employ gyros and accelerometers in a combined
package for inertial navigation, i.e., INS.
Filters
Output from devices like gyroscopes and accelerometers may contain a high-frequency
noise component that is not desirable or necessary to output to the pilot of AFCS.
Low-pass filters (digital and/or analog) act to clean up to the transmitted signal by allowing
low-frequency info. to pass, and blocking high-frequency signals.
Band-pass filters may also be required to filter out intermediate range frequencies that are
known beforehand (e.g. 60 Hz AC electronic supply).
Sensor application
112
113
Airframe output quantities such as angular displacements (,,) and angular rates (P,Q,R)
are used in automatic control. The device which has been universally utilized for sensing
these quantities is the gyroscope. The conventional gyroscope consists of a rotor (gyro)
spinning at high speed and mounted in a set of rings (gimbals) so as to have one or two
degrees of angular freedom (see Figure 1). The primary characteristics of interest with
respect to gyroscopic motion are rigidity in space and precession.
Figure 1. Two Degrees of Freedom Gyroscope

If no torques are applied to the spin axis, the gyro angular orientation remains fixed
with respect to inertial (celestial) space, and in this configuration it can be used to measure
angular displacement of its case, when the suitable pickoff devices are used to measure the
angles between the case and spin axis. Gyroscopes of this type are commonly used in
automatic flight control systems to measure the angular orientation of the airframe, the socalled vertical gyro being used to measure pitch and roll and the directional gyro being used
to measure airframe heading.
114
The vertical gyro is oriented as shown in Figure 1, which shows the gyro spin axis
aligned with the airframe z axis. The gimbals' orientations are assumed to correspond to
level flight. Vertical gyros are always supplied with an erection mechanism whose purpose
is to keep the spin axis aligned with the local vertical. A vertical gyro exploits the spatial
rigidity characteristic to measure pitch and/or roll of the aircraft (pickoff device used to
measure respective angles between the case & spin axis of rotor). In this case, the gyro
spin axis will be erected to be vertical to the earths surface, thus establishing a reference
plane. Figure 2 shows the actual vertical gyro system
Two degrees of angular freedom are also used for the directional gyro; however, in
this case the gyro spin axis is maintained in a horizontal plane by one of the torqueing
motors and aligned with some specific compass direction (usually north and south) by the
other torqueing motor. A directional gyro (gyro compass) measures the aircrafts airframe
heading angle, with the gyro spin axis maintained horizontal to the earths surface and
aligned at some suitable compass direction, i.e., north-south.
In actual practice both the vertical and directional gyros give accurate indications
only when the gimbal axes are orthogonal. For example, Fig.1 shows that for a pitch angle
of 90 deg., the condition known as gimbal lock occurs wherein the outer gimbal axis is
aligned with the gyro spin axis. For this condition the gyro is not sensitive to roll angle. In
the case of the directional gyro, errors are introduced whenever yawing occurs in the
presence of a roll angle, such as during a coordinated turn.
A conventional rate gyro measures the torque generated by a spinning gyro due to
an angular velocity input, which in turn provides the angular rate (P, Q or R). A single
degree-of-freedom gyro is used for each angular direction, with the torque being absorbed
by a spring as one example, thus restricting the motion of the gimbal. An optical or
electrical pickoff measures the limited gimbal rotation under torque. Integrating rate gyros
are available, providing ,, with time in a 3-gyro package.
A stabilized platform may use a combination of gyros and electromechanical drives
to maintain a rigid position. Use of ring-laser & fibre optic gyros coming on-line, increased
precision & reliability.
115
Figure 2. Example of a Self-Contained Vertical Gyro System
Figure 3. Single Degree of Freedom Restrained Gyroscope, Oriented to Sense Rate of Roll
116
Spatial rigidity refers to the reluctance of a spinning gyro rotor to change the axis of its
rotation, i.e. precession, unless acted upon by on external force or torque. Real precession
refers to angular displacement of the gyro spin axis from its original alignment; this
moment is proportional to the processing force and the gyros rigidity. Examples of real
precession are gyro drift due to unintentional rotor imbalance & friction, and spin axis
precession when intentionally erecting the gyro spin axis to be perpendicular (or horizontal)
to the earth surface. Apparent precession refers to relative changes in angle between the
gyro spin axis and the earth surface, due to the fact that the earth is a rotating sphere while
the gyro retains its orientation in space.
A directional gyro provides a more immediate heading estimate than a magnetic compass,
which tends lag considerably. Due to real precession, the pilot will have to on occasionally
reset the gyro to agree with the magnetic compass (i.e., while flying straight & level).
Refer to diagram of horizontal situation indicator as associated flight instrument for
showing airframe heading (0 - 360 deg).
117
Other Sensors (onboard independent measurement)

Magnetic compass (or magnetometer): Aligned with magnetic north pole, largely used to
calibrate or reset the directional gyro for airframe heading angle . Large lag during
maneuvers, and only reliable during straight & level, un-accelerated flight.
Pressure altimeter: Determines height as based on local static pressure. Considerable lag
during maneuvers.
Radar altimeters: Used for low-altitude applications, immediate & accurate update, except
at high bank & pitch angles (unless altimeter stabilized). Applying Doppler shift principles
between a/c & ground, radar also may be used for navigation (ground speed & direction).
Airspeed indicator/Mach meters: Determines airspeed and/or Mach no. Based on
dynamic & static pressure measurement (pitot-static probe, typically mounted at nose,
fuselage_side, or wing tip).
Rate-of-turn indicator: Typically employing a rate gyro, provides rate of turn & turn
direction.
Inclinometer: Utilizing a moving ball in a sealed, curved glass tube filled with liquid. Ball
moves with gravity and centrifugal forces from the central position if uncoordinated turn.
When turn rate too slow for bank angle, slip occurs with ball to inside of turn. When turn
rate too fast for bank angle, skid occurs with ball to outside of turn.
Vertical-speed or rate-or-climb indicator: Determines rate of climb via static pressure
measurement with time. Subject to some lag in maneuvers. Typical output in feet per
minute.
Angle-of-attack/angle-of-sideslip indicators: Common or indicators use a massbalanced pivot vane that is free to align itself with the oncoming flow. The indicated or
will be empirically corrected to provide the true incidence angle, depending on the local
flow distortion. The probe may be nose, wing or fuselage mounted where flow is relatively
clean.
118
119
120
121
Navigational Aids (external)

There are systems external to aircraft that provide transmitted or unlinked (or down-linked
if satellite) data to receivers onboard the aircraft to assist in the navigational process,
Non-directional Radio Beacon (NDB): Radio antenna transmitting in all directions out to
as much as 200 miles at a low or medium frequency. An automatic direction finder (ADF)
receives onboard the aircraft determines a bearing to the beacon. The ADF is also called a
radio compass. A radio magnetic indicator combines bearing info of ADF with a/c heading
info of directional gyro (gyro compass).
Very High Frequency Omni Range (VOR) Radio Beacon: Used for typically shorter
range navigation like airport approach, and provides more info at all bearings. Maybe used
with airborne ADF equipment & indicators, set up for VOR reception. Typical range of 50
n.mi. At low altitude, up to 150 n.mi. At > 20,000 ft.
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) Beacon: Typically the beacon will send out
timed pulses in suitable pattern that are picked up and analyzed by a receiver onboard the
a/c, thus giving distance to the beacon at any time as well as ground speed via
differentiation. Combined with VOR info described earlier, the a/c's position and course
can be ascertained.
VORTAC or TACAN (Tactical Air Navigation) Beacon: Here the beacon is sending out
both bearing & slant distance info together, combining earlier VOR &DME signals.
VORTAC is the civil application of the original military T ACAN setup.
Global Positioning System (GPS) Satellite System: Using signals from an array of
orbiting satellites, a GPS receiver on board the a/c can establish altitude, position, ground
speed and ground track to greater accuracy versus the older radio methods.
Also, Long Range Navigation (LORAN) still used.using a number of radio beacons around
the world (ground-based sites).
122
Instrument Landing System (ILS)

ILS is a precision approach aid designed to position an aircraft for landing under conditions
of low cloud ceiling and poor visibility. There are different categories for classifying ILS,
based on facility capability.
A conventional ILS ground installation consists of
VHF localizers equipment: provides lateral course guidance
UHF glide-path equipment: provides flight path and elevation guidance
VHF marker beacons: provides range relative to the start of runway
Associated monitors for verifying proper operation
Note that eventually this equipment will be replaced by microwave instrument landing
systems (MLS) or GPS-based systems prove more accuracy, more flexibility in flight path
management, and better reliability.
A localizer beam system
123
There are different categories for classifying ILS, based on facility capability (e.g.,
Category I provides guidance information & down to a decision height as low as 200 feet)
Decision height: At this height, the pilot will have sufficient view of runway to complete a
safe landing, or abort the landing if not safe, and execute a missed approach procedure.
Automatic Flight Control System
Replacing the pilot with computer/microprocessors in the control loop for some duties can
improve the performance capability of a given aircraft.
AFCs can reduce pilot workload in aiding in navigation and flight management including
guiding the aircraft to a safe landing in poor visibility (outward), provide stability
augmentation to improve an aircraft's flying qualities, and provide wing gust load
alleviation and flutter suppression through active control.
Flutter: an aeroelastic self-excited vibration in which the external source of energy

is the airstream and which depends on the elastic, inertial and dissipative forces of
the system in addition to the aerodynamic forces
Aeroelesticity: the study of the response of structurally elastic bodies to
aerodynamic load
Inertial: resistance to acceleration or deceleration
Consider a control system for adjusting an aircraft's pitch angle via deflection e of the
elevator, towards a desired flight path angle c.
t
c e = k1 ( c ) + k 2 ( c )dt +k 3 Q + e (0)
e
trim
where k1e, k2e,k3e are control gains and these are f(M,h)
Roll control may be administered via deflection a of ailerons (angle sum of both "+" for
left aileron up, right down) toward a desired bank angle c.
t
c a = k1 ( c ) + k 2 ( c )dt +k 3 P + a (0)
a
trim
where c may be a function of another flight variable
124
Yaw control may be administered via deflection r of rudder, e.g., towards a desired
heading c if using skid-to-turn methodology, or keeping the aircraft level in an
uncoordinated turn by applying side-force. Below is an example for heading trim (small
) and yaw rate damping
t
c r = k 2 ( c )dt + k 3 R + r (0)
r
trim
The yaw damper acts to limit Dutch roll oscillation, as well as providing yaw manoeuvring
damping.
In addition to attitude control via surface deflection, one can automatically control aircraft
airspeed via a speed control or auto throttle system. We have already seen one possible
application for this, i.e., for maintaining the proper approach speed in lading the aircraft.
The auto throttle servo mechanism controls the engine throttles, so as to maintain a selected
airspeed or a pre-computed angle of attack, which corresponds to stall-margin airspeed, e.g.,
1.2 Vs.
125
Problem #10
Given the below information, estimate the time for the aircraft to reach an airframe
heading of 55o from its initial heading noted below. Estimate the height lost or gained in
undergoing this transitional maneuver. For simplicity, assume air properties constant at
values for 6000 m altitude.
Aircraft
Commercial jet transport

Wing reference area 186 m2 ; mass of 70000 kg
CL 4.5 rad-1 ; CLo 0.18 ; CY -0.8 rad-1
Vertical gyro
= 4.0 o , & = 66.5 o
Directional gyro
) = 35 o
Rate gyros
P = -0.006 rad/s, Q = 0.077 rad/s, R = 0.033 rad/s
Accelerometers
aXcg = 0 m/s 2 , aYcg = 0 m/s 2 , aZcg = -24.5 m/s 2
Machmeter
M = 0.85
Altimeter
hASL = 6000 m

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AER615: Aircraft Performance

How fast can the a/c go?

Key performance parameters

Evaluation of a/c performance goes hand-in-hand with a/c design.

AER615: Aircraft Performance

SA reflects average atmosphere conditions

Elements of aircraft performance analysis

Thrust required (Drag)

AER615: Aircraft Performance

Relationship with Aircraft Design

Ground-roll distance and time

AER615: Aircraft Performance

Airspeed (or Mach number) of cruise

Airspeed (or Mach number) of turn

Airborne distance and time

AER615: Aircraft Performance

Airspeed and Its Measurement

Actual equivalent airspeed

The relationship between actual equivalent airspeed and (true) airspeed is

Measurement of Subsonic Airspeed

pressure as measured by a pitot-static tube or equivalent.

AER615: Aircraft Performance

VTAS = VEAS MSL /

VTAS VEAS MSL / h

where we have defined

as the low-speed approximation to CAS with respect to the actual

AER615: Aircraft Performance

Measurement of Mach Number

Velocities and Groundspeed

AER615: Aircraft Performance

AER615: Aircraft Performance

Aircraft Motion in Performance Analysis (sign convention)

AER615: Aircraft Performance

The Aircraft Model and Equations of Longitudinal Motion

Stability and Control Assumptions

AER615: Aircraft Performance

Longitudinal Forces in the Aircraft Body-Frame

Aircraft Pitch (body angle relative to horizontal)

The equations of motion can be expressed in this body-fixed frame as follows...

mV& , x = T cos T D cos + L sin W sin

AER615: Aircraft Performance

Longitudinal Forces in the Ground (Earth) Frame

Air-Climb Angle (angle of air-relative velocity to horizontal)

AER615: Aircraft Performance

The equations of motion can be expressed in this ground-frame are then

mV& , x = T cos T D cos a L sin a

AER615: Aircraft Performance

Dimensionless coefficients are used to quantify these forces and moments

Aerodynamic center on a body

AER615: Aircraft Performance

Summary of Propulsion Systems

: the power imparted to the aircraft

and we can define the power efficiency as

AER615: Aircraft Performance

Rated Maximum Engine Power

More details will be discussed in AER710(Propulsion)

AER615: Aircraft Performance

Retractable landing-gear is deployed, affecting mainly drag

Landing-Gear Effect on Lift and Drag

Wing-Flap Effect on Lift and Drag

Increases the lift at all angles of attack by some amount

C L , f whose value depends on the

AER615: Aircraft Performance

Adds some profile drag C D , f so that