Chapter 1 Why Study Intercultural Communication (IC)?

1. Define: ethnocentrism, identity management, multiphrenia, colonialism,

ethics, dialogical approach, self-reflexivity
Ethnocentrisma tendency to think that our own culture is superior to other
cultures. This means that we assume, subconsciously, that the way we do
things is the only way.
Multiphrenia, a splitting of the individual into many different selves. We are
available for communication, via answering machine, fax, and e-mail, even when
were not physically present.
Colonialism (-1-The system by which groups with diverse languages,
cultures, religions, and identities were united to form one state, usually by a
European power; -2- the system by which a country maintains power over other
countries or groups of people to exploit them economically, politically, and
culturally) around the world, whereby European powers lumped diverse groups
differing in language, culture religion, or identitytogether as one state. For
example, the division of Pakistan and India was imposed by the British;
eventually, East Pakistan declared its independence to become Bangladesh.
Nevertheless, ethnic and religious differences in some areas of India and Pakistan
continue to cause unrest.
Ethics may be thought of as principles of conduct that help govern the
behavior of individuals and group
Dialogical approach (Evanoff, 2004). The dialogical approach
emphasizes the importance of relationships and dialogues between individuals
and communities in wrestling with ethical dilemmas. Communication scholars
Stanley Deetz, Deborah Cohen, and Paige P. Edley (1997) suggest that even in
international business contexts, a dialogical approach can work.
Self-reflexivityA process of learning to understand oneself and ones
position in society. In learning about other cultures and cultural practices, we
often learn much about ourselves. Immigrants often comment that they never
felt so much like someone of their own nationality until they left their homeland.
Identity management (Identity Management: The way individuals make
sense of their multiple images concerning the sense of self in different social
contexts
2. Explain briefly six reasons to study intercultural communication.
1. THE SELF-AWARENESS IMPERATIVE
One of the most important reasons for studying intercultural
communication is the awareness it raises of our own cultural identity and
background.
2. THE DEMOGRAPHIC IMPERATIVE
You have probably observed that your world is increasingly diverse. You
may have classes with students who differ from you in ethnicity, race, religion,

and/or nationality. College and university student bodies are becoming

increasingly diverse. Sports are a very visible part of this increasing diversity.
3. 3 THE ECONOMIC IMPERATIVE
The recent trend toward globalizationthe creation of a world market in
goods, services, labor, capital, and technologyis shown dramatically in the
account of a journalist who asks a Dell computer manager where his laptop is
made. The answer? It was code signed by engineers in Texas .and Taiwan; the
microprocessor was made in one of Intels factories in the Philippines, Costa Rica,
Malaysia, or China; the memory came from factories in Korea, Germany, Taiwan,
or Japan. Other components (keyboard, hard drive, batteries, etc.) were made by
Japanese, Taiwanese, Irish, Israeli, or British firms with factories mainly in Asia,
and finally, the laptop was assembled in Taiwan.
Cultural differences in business practices have implications not only when
people from different companies do business with each other but also
when people from different cultures work on the same team
4. THE TECHNOLOGICAL IMPERATIVE
The impact of technology on our everyday communication is staggering.
Think of how often you use technology to communicate in any given day:
You may text-message friends about evening plans, e-mail your family to
tell them the latest news, participate in a discussion board for one of your
courses, and check your cell phone Web site to see how many more
minutes you can use this month without getting charged. And you are not
alone.
5. THE PEACE IMPERATIVE
Can individuals of different genders, ages, ethnicities, races, languages,
socioeconomic statuses, and cultural backgrounds coexist on this planet? Both
the history of humankind and recent world events lead us not to be very
optimistic on this point. Contact among different cultural groupsfrom the
earliest civilizations until todayoften has led to disharmony. For example,
consider the ethnic/religious strife between Muslims and the Western world; the
ethnic struggles in Bosnia and the former Soviet Union; the war between Hutus
and Tutsis in Rwanda (Africa); the continued unrest in the Middle East; and the
racial and ethnic struggles and tensions in neighborhoods in Boston, Los Angeles,
and other U.S. cities.
6. THE ETHICAL IMPERATIVE
Living in an intercultural world presents ethical challenges as well. Ethics
may be thought of as principles of conduct that help govern the behavior of
individuals and groups. These principles often arise from communities consensus
on what is good and bad behavior. Cultural values tell us what is good and what
ought to be good. Ethical judgments focus more on the degrees of rightness
and wrongness in human behavior than do cultural values.

3. Write five aspects of culture and technology

Increase in Information: You may have found that the Internet provides
access to information about other cultures and other peoples. We can now
instantaneously find out almost anything about any group in the world
simply by searching the Internet. This should give us a better
understanding of our global neighbors and perhaps some motivation to
coexist peacefully in our global village.
Identity, Culture, and Technology: Advances in communication
technology lead us to think differently about ourselves and our identity
management (Identity Management: The way individuals make sense of their
multiple images concerning the sense of self in different social contexts). In The
Saturated Self, psychologist Kenneth Gergen describes the changes that occur as
technology alters our patterns of communication. Gergen suggests that with the
removal of traditional barriers to forming relationshipstime and spacethese
technological advancements lead to multiphrenia, a splitting of the individual into
many different selves. We are available for communication, via answering
machine, fax, and e-mail, even when were not physically present.
Identity on the Internet not only is potentially fragmented but also involves
more choice and management issues than in face-to-face interaction. As noted
previously, many of the identity cues individuals use to figure out how to
communicate with otherssuch as age, gender, and ethnicityare filtered out on
the Internet. For instance, when you send an e-mail, you can choose whether to
reveal certain aspects of your identity. The recipients wont know if you are male
or female, young or old, and so onunless you tell them. The same is true for
chat room participation. You can choose which aspects, if any, of your identity
you want to reveal. In fact, you can even give false information about your
identity.
Increased Contact with People Who Differ: Communication
technology brings us in contact with people we might never have the opportunity to
know otherwise.
And many of these people are from different cultural
backgrounds. The Internet/e-mail allows us to have pen pals from different
cultures and to carry on discussions with these people in virtual chat rooms and
on discussion boards.
Increased Contact with People Who Are Similar: Communication
technology also allows us to have more contact with people who are very
similar to ourselves. Perhaps you participate in chat rooms or discussion
boards with people who share your interests and opinions. Perhaps you
turn to Internet groups for support and community. For example,
international students can stay in touch with their local communities, keep
up with whats going on at home, and receive emotional support during
difficult times of cultural adaptation

Access to Communication Technology: As weve seen, technology

plays a huge role in our everyday lives and often has a lot to do with our success
as students and professionals. What would you do if you had no access to
communication technology? If you were not able to text message your friends or
could not use your cell phone? Could not e-mail your family? How might you feel
in our technology-dominated world?
The implications for intercultural communication are enormous. How do
people relate to each other when one is information technology rich and the
other is not? When there is increasing use of English on the Internet, what
happens to those who dont speak English? Can this lead to resentment? Will the
increase in communication technology lead to increasing gaps between haves
and have-nots? To more misunderstandings?
4. Explain briefly three issues to address for being Ethical Students of
Culture.
Developing Self-Reflexivity: In studying intercultural communication, it
is vital to develop self-reflexivityA process of learning to understand
oneself and ones position in society. In learning about other cultures and
cultural practices, we often learn much about ourselves. Immigrants often
comment that they never felt so much like someone of their own
nationality until they left their homeland.
Think about it: Many cultural attitudes and ideas are instilled in you, but
these can be difficult to unravel and identify. Knowing who you are is never
simple; rather, it is an ongoing process that can never fully capture the
ever-emerging person. Not only will you grow older but your intercultural
experiences will change who you are and who you think you are. It is also
important to reflect on your place in society. By recognizing the social
categories to which you belong, and the implications of those categories,
you will be in a better position to understand how to communicate.
Developing a Sense of Social Justice: A final ethical issue involves the
responsibility that comes with the acquisition of intercultural knowledge and
insights - that this educational experience is not just transformative for the
individual but should also benefit the larger society and other cultural groups in
the increasingly interdependent world.
Learning About Others: It is important to remember that the study of
cultures is actually the study of other people. Never lose sight of the humanity at
the core of the topic. Try not to observe people as if they are zoo animals.
Remember that you are studying real people who have real lives, and your
conclusions about them may have very real consequences for them and for you.
Chapter 2 Approaches to Studying IC
5. Define: Ethnography, Rhetorical Approach, Macrocontexts,

Ethnography: A discipline that examines the patterned interactions and

significant symbols of specific cultural groups to identify the cultural norms that
guide their behaviors, usually based on field studies.
Macrocontexts: The political, social, and historical situations, backgrounds, and
environments that influence communication.
Rethorical approach is not only to understand human behavior but also
to change the lives of everyday communicators.

6. Write the goals of three approaches.

1. THE SOCIAL SCIENCE APPROACH
The goal of this research, then, is to predict specifically how
culture influences communication.
2. THE INTERPRETIVE APPROACH
The goal of interpretive research is to understand and describe human
behavior. (Predicting behavior is not a goal.)
3. THE CRITICAL APPROACH
The goal of critical researchers is not only to understand human
behavior but also to change the lives of everyday communicators.

7. Learn table

Discipline on which
approach is founded
Research Goal
Assumptions
human behavior
Method of study

of

Relationship
of
culture
and
communication

Social Science
(or Functionalist)
Psychology
Describe and
predict behavior
Predictable
Survey,
observation
Communication
influenced by
culture

Interpretive
Anthropology,
sociolinguistics
Describe
behavior
Creative and
voluntary
Participant
observation,
field study
Culture created
and maintained
through
communication

Critical
Various
Change
behavior
Changeable
Textual analysis
of media
Culture a site
of power
struggles

Chapter 3 - A Dialectical Approach to Understanding Culture and

Communication
8. Define: Dichotomies, dialectic
Dialectic:
1. A method of logic based on the principle that an idea generates
its opposite, leading to a reconciliation of the opposites;
2. The complex and paradoxical relationship between two opposite
qualities or entities, each of which may also be referred as a dialectic.
(a method of examining and discussing opposing ideas in order to
find the truth
This notion may be difficult to comprehend because it emphasizes dichotomous
thinking.

Dichotomies such as good and evil, arteries and veins, and air and
water form the core of our philosophical and scientific beliefs.
The fact that dichotomies such as far and near, high and low, and long and
short sound complete, as if the two parts belong together, reveals our tendency
to form dichotomies.
Certainly, we can learn something from each of the three traditional approaches,
and our understanding of intercultural communication has been enriched by all
three.

Combining these approaches provides us with extensive insight into the

problems and challenges of intercultural ventures.
Clearly, if we limit ourselves to a specific research orientation, we may fail to see
the complexities of contemporary intercultural interaction in contexts.

9. Explain Dialectical approach briefly.

The dialectical approach emphasizes the processual, relational, and
contradictory nature of intercultural communication, which encompasses
many different kinds of intercultural knowledge.
(processual refers to how interaction happens rather than to the
outcome
Dialectical Approach: An approach to intercultural communication that
integrates three approaches functionalist (or social science), interpretive,
and critical in understanding culture and communication. It recognizes
and accepts that three approaches are interconnected and sometimes
contradictory

10.Explain briefly six dialectics of IC.

1.Dialectic:
1. A method of logic based on the principle that an idea generates
its opposite, leading to a reconciliation of the opposites;
2. The complex and paradoxical relationship between two opposite
qualities or entities, each of which may also be referred as a dialectic.
(a method of examining and discussing opposing ideas in order to find the
truth)
2.Cultural Individual Dialectic:
Intercultural communication is both cultural and individual, or idiosyncratic
that is, you may have some behaviors not shared by anyone else, perhaps a
unique way of wrinkling your nose or unique way of using language.
It is important to remember that communication for all of us is both
cultural and individual. We need to keep this dialectic in mind as we try to
understand and develop relationships across cultural differences.
3.Personal Contextual Dialectic:
This dialectic involves the role of context in intercultural relationships and
focuses simultaneously on the person and the context.

Although we communicate as individuals on a personal level, the

context of this communication is important as well. In some contexts, we
enact specific social roles that give meaning to our messages.

As students and professors, we communicate in particular ways in

classroom contexts, and our messages are interpreted in particular ways.
In understanding intercultural communication, we have to understand that
we sometimes communicate as members of social groups ,yet we also always
communicate from our personal identities.
4.Static - Dynamic Dialectic:

This dialectic suggests that intercultural communication tends to be at

once static and dynamic.

The static dynamic dialectic highlights the ever-changing nature of

culture and cultural practices but also underscores the tendency to think about
these things as constant.

Some cultural and communication patterns remain relatively constant,

whereas other aspects of cultures (or personal traits of individuals) shift over
timethat is, they are dynamic.
5.History/Past Present/Future Dialectic:

Another dialectic emphasizes the need to focus simultaneously on the

past and the present in understanding intercultural communication.


On the one hand, we need to be aware of contemporary forces and
realities that shape interactions of people from different cultural groups.

On the other hand, we need to realize that history has a significant impact
on contemporary events.
6.Privilege Disadvantage Dialectic:

A dialectical perspective recognizes that people may be simultaneously

privileged and disadvantaged, or privileged in some contexts and disadvantaged
in others.

For example, many tourists are in the position of economic privilege

because they can afford to travel, but in their travels, they also may be
disadvantaged if they do not speak the local language.

We can also be simultaneously privileged and disadvantaged because of

gender, age, race, socioeconomic status, and other identities.
Chapter 4 Culture, Communication, Context and Power

1. Define: culture, embodied ethnocentrism, cultural values,

Culture: Learned patterns of behavior and attitudes shared by a group of
people.
Culture is more than merely one aspect of the practice of intercultural
communication

Embodied Ethnocentrism Milton Benett and Ida Castiglioni speak

of a concept called embodied ethnocentrism. According to them, it is not
enough to intellectualize a foreign concept like the polychronic notion of
time. My idea here is to explain how developing heightened inter-cultural
abilities can lead individuals in a monochronic-time culture to avoid
burnouts, and, making it more general, how the abilities acquired through
cross-cultural experiences can help individuals cope better with societal
issues that affect them.
If one knows rationally that a culture has little or no respect for
schedules and punctuality, it can equip that individual with a little more
patience. But eventually, when confronted to a longer wait, a feeling of
discomfort, of something not being right will happen if the wait is long
enough. That is because our intuition is grounded in our home culture. It
is what we call the embodied ethnocentrism. Now imagine that the same
person, after being in the country for a number of years, finally develops a
real understanding of the situation. Then he will not only think it is alright
if such a situation happens, but he will also feel it is alright an intuitive,
visceral feeling.

Cultural Values
A culture's values are its ideas about what is good, right, fair, and just. Sociologists
disagree, however, on how to conceptualize values. Conflict theory focuses on how

values differ between groups within a culture, while functionalism focuses on the
shared values within a culture. For example, American sociologistRobert K.
Merton suggested that the most important values in American society are wealth,
success, power, and prestige, but that everyone does not have an equal opportunity
to attain these values. Functional sociologist Talcott Parsons noted that Americans
share the common value of the American work ethic, which encourages hard work.
Other sociologists have proposed a common core of American values, including
accomplishment, material success, problemsolving, reliance on science and
technology, democracy, patriotism, charity, freedom, equality and justice,
individualism, responsibility, and accountability.

A culture, though, may harbor conflicting values. For instance, the value of material
success may conflict with the value of charity. Or the value of equality may conflict
with the value of individualism. Such contradictions may exist due to an
inconsistency between people's actions and their professed values, which explains
why sociologists must carefully distinguish between what people do and what they
say.Real culture refers to the values and norms that a society actually follows,
while ideal culture refers to the values and norms that a society professes to
believe.

2. Define briefly meaning of culture according to three approaches.

3. Explain communication briefly according to three approaches.

Communication may be understood as a symbolic process whereby
reality is produced, maintained, repaired and transformed.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CULTURE & COMMUNICATION
The relationship between culture and communication is complex.

A dialectical perspective assumes that culture and communication are

interrelated and reciprocal.
That is, culture influences communication, and vice versa.

How Culture Influences Communication

Intercultural communication scholars use broad frameworks from anthropology
and psychology to identify and study cultural differences in communication.

Two of the most relevant were developed by anthropologists Kluckhohn and

Strodtbeck (1961) and by social psychologist Hofstede (1984).

4. Identify five areas of common problems in the relationship between

culture and communication (According to the Hofstede Value
Orientation)
Hofstede identified five areas of common problems.
1.Power distance
2.Individualism versus collectivism
3Feminity versus masculinity
4Long-term versus short-term orientation to life
5. Uncertainty avoidance
5.Explain two levels of group-related power in the relationship between
communication and power.
(1) the primary dimensionsage, ethnicity, gender, physical abilities, race,
and sexual orientationwhich are more permanent in nature, and
(2) the secondary dimensions educational background, geographic
location, marital status, and socioeconomic statuswhich are more changeable.

Chapters 5 & 6 Identity and IC

1. Define: Impression Management theory, Minor identity, Majority identity,

gender identity, sexual identity, age identity, stereotype, prejudice
Impression Management Theory:
The effort to control or influence the perceptions of other people.
(attempting to influence the perceptions of other people about a person,
object or event)
Some scholars suggest that individuals are constantly performing spin
control campaigns to highlight their strengths and virtues while also
attempting damage control by minimizing deficiencies.
Minority Identity: A sense of belonging to a non-dominant group.
In general, minority identities tend to develop earlier than majority identities.
In general, minority identities tend to develop earlier than majority identities.
For example, straight people tend to not think about their sexual orientation
identity often, whereas gay people are often acutely aware of their sexual
orientation identity being different from the majority and develop a sense of
sexual orientation identity earlier than people who are straight.
Similarly, while whites may develop a strong ethnic identity, they often do
not think about their racial identity, whereas members of racial minority groups
are aware of their racial identities at an early age.
Majority Identity Development
Majority Identity: A sense of belonging to a dominant group.
Majority identity, like minority identity, develops through a complex process.
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL IDENTITIES
Gender Identity
Gender Identity: The identification with the cultural notions of masculinity and
femininity and what it means to be a man and woman.
We often begin life with gender identities.
To establish a gender identity for the newborn, visitors may ask if the baby is a
boy or a girl.
But gender is not the same as biological sex or sexual identity.
This distinction is important in understanding how our views on biological sex
influence gender identities.
What it means to be a man or a woman in the society is heavily influenced by
cultural notions.
For example, some activities are considered more masculine or more feminine.

As culture changes, so does the notion of what we idealize as masculine or

feminine.
Our expression of gender not only communicates who we think we are but also
constructs a sense of who we want to be.
Initially, we learn what masculinity and femininity mean in our culture.
The dynamic character of gender reflects its close connection to culture.
Society has many images of masculinity and femininity; we do not all seek to
look and act according to a single ideal.
At the same time, we do seek to communicate our gendered identities as part of
who we are.
Gender identity is also demonstrated by communication style.
Sexual Identity
Sexual identity refers to ones identification with various categories of sexuality.
You are probably most familiar with heterosexual, gay or lesbian, and perhaps
bisexual categories; however, sexual identity categories vary from culture to
culture and have been variously viewed throughout history.
Age Identity
Age Identity: The identification with the cultural conventions of how we should
act, look, and behave according to our age.
As we age, we also play into cultural notions of how individuals our age should
act, look, and behave; that is, we develop an age identity.

IDENTITY, STEREOTYPES, AND PREJUDICE

The identity characteristics described previously sometimes form the basis for
stereotypes, prejudice, and racism.
. Stereotypes are widely held beliefs about a specific group of people.
1. They are positive or negative and help us know what to expect from
people.

2. They are detrimental when they are negative and when they are held rigidly.
3. People tend to remember information supporting a stereotype better
than contradicting information.

4. Stereotypes come from many sources including the media, family and peers, and
negative experiences.
5. Because stereotypes operate at an unconscious level and are
persistent, people have to work consciously to reject them.

a. Recognition of the stereotype is the first step.

b. The second step is finding information to counteract it.

The origins of these have both individual and contextual elements.

To make sense out of the overwhelming amount of information we receive, we
necessarily categorize and generalize, sometimes relying on stereotypes widely
held beliefs about some group.
They may be positive or negative.
Even positive stereotypes can be damaging in that they create unrealistic
expectations for individuals.
Stereotypes become particularly detrimental when they are negative and are
held rigidly.
In fact, people tend to remember information that supports a stereotype but may
not retain information that contradicts it.
Prejudice is a negative attitude toward a cultural group, based on little or
no experience.

Prejudice is a basically negative attitude toward a cultural group based on little or

no experience.
It is a prejudgment of sorts.
Whereas stereotypes tell us what a group is like, prejudice tells us how we are
likely to feel about that group.
Scholars disagree somewhat on the origins of prejudice and its relationship to
stereotyping.
Prejudice may arise from personal needs to feel positive about our own groups
and negative about others, or it may arise from perceived or real threats.

2. Explain briefly three contemporary communication

perspectives on identity.
Social Science
Identity created by self (by
relating to groups)
Emphasizes individualized,

Interpretive
Identity formed through
communication with others
Emphasizes avowal and

Critical
Identity shaped through
social, historical forces
Emphasizes contexts an

familial, and spiritual self

(cross-cultural perspective)

ascribed dimensions

resisting ascribed ident

3. Learn table: Three Perspectives on Identity and Communication

Social Science
Interpretive
Critical
Identity created by self (by
Identity formed through
Identity shaped through
relating to groups)
communication with others
social, historical forces
Emphasizes individualized,
Emphasizes avowal and
Emphasizes contexts an
familial, and spiritual self
ascribed dimensions
resisting ascribed ident
(cross-cultural perspective)
4. Explain briefly stages of Minority identity development.
Stage 1 - Unexamined Identity: This stage is characterized by the lack of
exploration of identity, be it racial, ethnic, sexual orientation, gender, or
whatever.
Stage 2 - Conformity: This stage is characterized by the
internalization of the values and norms of the dominant group and a strong
desire to assimilate into the dominant culture.
Stage 3 - Resistance and Separatism: The person may reject the
values and norms associated with the dominant group.
Stage 4 - Integration: An achieved identity. Individuals who have
reached this stage have a strong sense of their own group identity (based
on gender, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and so on) and an
appreciation of other cultural groups.
5.Explain briefly stages of Majority identity development.
Stage -1: Unexamined Identity: This first stage is the same as for minority
identities. In this case, individuals may be aware of some physical and cultural
differences, but they do not fear the other or think much about their own identity.
Stage -2 : Acceptance: The second stage represents the internalization,
conscious or unconscious, of a racist (or otherwise biased) ideology.
This may involve passive or active acceptance. The key point is that individuals
are not aware that they have been programmed to accept this worldview.
Stage -3: Resistance: The next stage represents a major paradigm shift.
It involves a move from blaming minority members for their condition to naming
and blaming their own dominant group as a source of problems.
Stage -4: Redefinition: In the fourth stage, people begin to refocus or
redirect their energy toward redefining their identity in a way that recognizes
their privilege and works to eliminate oppression and inequities.
Stage -5: Integration: As in the final stage of minority identity
development, majority group individuals now are able to internalize their
increased consciousness and integrate their majority identities into all other
facets of their identity.

They not only recognize their identity as white but also appreciate other groups.

6. What are dimensions of Ethnic identity?

It includes several dimensions:
Self-identification,
Knowledge about the ethnic culture
Feelings about belonging to a particular ethnic group.
Having an ethnic identity means experiencing a sense of belonging to a
particular group and knowing something about the shared experience of
group members.

Chapter 7 Language and IC

1. Define: Bilingual, multilingual, interlanguage, translation, interpretation,
code switching, Lingua Franca
People who speak two languages are often called bilingual; people who
speak more than two languages are considered multilingual.
Interlanguage refers to a kind of communication that emerges when speakers of
one language are speaking in another language.
Translation generally refers to the process of producing a written text that refers
to something said or written in another language.
The original language text of a translation is called the source text; the text into
which it is translated is the target text.
Interpretation refers to the process of verbally expressing what is said or
written in another language.
Code Switching

Code switching is a technical term in communication that refers to the phenomenon of

changing languages, dialects, or even accents. I
ngua franca /lw frk/[1] (plural lingue franche or lingua francas), also called a bridge
language, trade language, or vehicular language, is a language systematically (as opposed to
occasionally, or casually) used to make communication possible between persons not sharing
a native language, in particular when it is a third language, distinct from both native languages. [2]

2. What are types of interpretation?

Interpretation can either be simultaneous, with the interpreter speaking at
the same time as the original speaker, or consecutive, with the interpreter
speaking only during the breaks provided by the original speaker.
3. Explain Equivalency and Accuracy in translation and
interpretation.
Some languages have tremendous flexibility in expression; others have a
limited range of words.
The reverse may be true, however, for some topics.
This slippage between languages is both aggravating and thrilling for
translators and interpreters.
Translation studies traditionally have tended to emphasize issues of
equivalency and accuracy.
That is, the focus, largely from linguistics, has been on comparing the
translated meaning with the original meaning.
Equivalency: An issue in translation, the condition of being equal
meaning, value, quantity, and so on
4. Explain the role of translator or interpreter.
The Role of the Translator or Interpreter
We often assume that translators and interpreters are invisible, that
they simply render into the target language whatever they hear or read.
The roles that they play as intermediaries, however, often regulate how
they render the original.
It is not always appropriate to translate everything that one speaker is
saying to another, in exactly the same way, because the potential for
misunderstanding due to cultural differences might be too great.
Translation is more than merely switching languages; it also involves
negotiating cultures.
5. What are the reasons of Code switching?
People code switch for several reasons:
(1) to accommodate the other speakers,
(2) to avoid accommodating others, or
(3) to express another aspect of their cultural identity.
Chapter 8 Nonverbal Code & Cultural Space
1. Define: Relational messages, proxemics, paralinguistics, Voice quality,
Vocalization,
Relational messages information on how the talker wants to be
understood and viewed by the listener.
Proxemics
The study of the effects of the physical distance between people in
different cultures and societies.
Paralinguistics
The study of vocal behaviors include voice qualities and vocalization

Voice quality: The music of the human voice, including speed, pitch, rhythm,
vocal range, and articulation.
Vocalization: The sounds we utter that do not have the structure of the
language.

2. Explain Contact and Noncontact Cultures.

Contact Cultures:
Cultural groups in which people tend to stand close together and touch
frequently when they interact.
For example, cultural groups in South America, the Middle East and
southern Europe.
Noncontact Cultures:
Cultural groups in which people tend to maintain more space and touch
less often than people do in contact cultures.
For instance, Great Britain and Japan tend to have noncontact cultures.

3. Explain Eye Contact.

Eye Contact
A nonverbal code, eye gaze, that communicates meanings about respect and
status and often regulates turn-taking during interactions.

Eye contact often is included in proxemics because it regulates interpersonal

distance.
Direct eye contact shortens the distance between two people, whereas less eye
contact increases the distance.
Eye contact communicates meanings about respect and status and often
regulates turn-taking.
Patterns of eye contact vary from culture to culture.
In many societies, avoiding eye contact communicates respect and deference,
although this may vary from context to context.

4. Explain Chronemics and types of it

Chronemics
Chronemics: The concept of time and the rules that govern its use.
Monochronic: An orientation to time that assumes it is linear and is a
commodity that can be lost or gained.
Polychronic: An orientation to time that sees it as circular and more
holistic.
In general, monochronic cultures value being punctual, completing tasks, and
keeping to schedules.
In contrast, in a polychronic orientation, time is more holistic, and perhaps
more circular: Several events can happen at once.

5. Explain Cultural Space.

DEFINING CULTURAL SPACE
A cultural space is not simply a particular location that has culturally
constructed meanings.
It can also be a metaphorical place from which we communicate.
We can speak from a number of social locations, marked on the map of
society, that give added meaning to our communication.
Thus, we may speak as parents, children, colleagues, siblings, customers,
Romanians, and a myriad of other places.
All of these are cultural spaces.
6. Explain Postmodern Cultural Spaces.
Postmodern Cultural Spaces
Space has become increasingly important in the negotiation of cultural and
social identities, and so to culture more generally.

Postmodern Cultural Spaces: Places that are defined by cultural

practices languages spoken, identities enacted, rituals performed and
that often change as new people move in and out of these spaces.
A cultural space is both a physical location and a cultural phenomenon.
Another set of postmodern spaces that are quite familiar are those of the
internet.
Chat rooms, message boards, instant messengers, bulletin boards, social
network sites, and blogs are examples internet spaces.

Chapter 9 Understanding Intercultural Transitions

1. Define: Migrant, sojourners, immigrant, Assimilation, separation,
segregation, marginalization, intergration,
Migrant: An individual who leaves the primary cultural context in which
he or she raised and moves to a new cultural context for an extended time.
Sojourners are those travelers who move into new cultural contexts for a
limited time and a specific purpose.

Imigrant
residence.

a person who migrates to another country, usually for permanent

Assimilation
A type of cultural adaptation in which an individual gives up his/her own cultural
heritage and adopts the mainstream cultural identity.
Separation
A type of cultural adaptation in which an individual retains his or her original
culture while interacting minimally with other groups.
Segregation: The policy or practice of compelling groups to live apart from each
other.
Marginalization: A type of cultural adaptation in which an individual expresses
little interest in maintaining cultural ties with either the dominant culture or the
migrant culture.
This situation of being out of touch with both cultures may be the result of actions
by the dominant society.

Integration
Integration: A type of cultural adaptation in which individuals maintain both
their original culture and their daily interactions with other groups.
Integration differs from assimilation in that it involves a greater interest in
maintaining ones own cultural identity.
Immigrants can resist assimilation in many ways for example, by insisting on
speaking their own language in their home.

2. What are three great waves of global migration?

According to experts, there have been three great waves of global
migration.
The first wave was motivated by a search for resources and military
conquest and lasted into the 16th century.
The second was dominated by the European migration into poorer
empty territories of the new world and led to the colonization of Africa,
Asia, and America; it lasted until the middle of the 20th century.
The third and most recent wave is reversing the European colonization from the
poorer countries of Asia, Africa, and South America to the richer ones in the
postwar period.
This wave more complex and multidimensional.
Experts estimate that 25 people cross national borders every second, one billion
journeys per year.
They leave their countries for many reasons, including national revolutions and
civil wars (Syria, Afghanistan, Yugoslavia, Rwanda, Sudan).
In addition, millions of global nomads are roaming around the world as
transnational corporate or government employees, guest workers, refugees,
tourists, or study-abroad students.
And there are internal migrationswhere people move from one place to another
within national boundariesoften for the same reasons:
for better economic opportunities or because of war or famine.

3. What are four types of Migrant groups? Explain each of them.

1.Voluntary Migrants
There are two groups of voluntary travelers: sojourners and immigrants.
Sojourners are those travelers who move into new cultural contexts for a
limited time and a specific purpose.

They are often people who have freedom and the means to travel.
This includes international students who go abroad to study and technical
assistance workers, corporate personnel, and missionaries who go abroad
to work for a specific period.
Another type of voluntary traveler is the immigrant.
Families who voluntarily leave one country to settle in another exemplify
this type of migrant.
2.
Involuntary Migrants
Two types of migrants move involuntarily: long-term refugees and shortterm refugees.
Most refugees, whether they have migrated domestically or internationally,
want to return home as soon as possible.
4. Explain four types of Relationship between Migrant and Host?

5. Explain cultural adaptation.

CULTURAL ADAPTATION
Cultural Adaptation: A process by which individuals learn the rules and customs
of new cultural contexts.
Cultural adaptation is the long-term process of adjusting to and finally feeling
comfortable in a new environment.
How one adapts depends to some extent on the host environmentwhether it is
welcoming or hostile.
There are three communication approaches to studying cultural adaptation, and
they vary in the degree to which they emphasize individual or
contextual/environmental influences in the adaptation process.

A dialectical perspective incorporates both the individual and the contextual.

The social science approach emphasizes the role of personal characteristics of
the migrant;
the interpretive focuses on the experience of the migrant in the adaptation
context;
the critical explores the role of larger contexts that influence cultural adaptation:
social institutions and history, politics, and economic structures.
Chapter 10 Popular Culture and Intercultural Communication
1. Define: High culture, low culture, culture industries, folk culture, cultural
texts, Reader Profile, Media Imperialism, Electronic Colonialism, Cultural
Imperialism,
High culture refers to those cultural activities that are often the domain of
the elite or the well-to-do: ballet, symphony, opera, great literature, and
fine art.
In opposition to high culture is low culture, which refers to the activities of the
nonelite: music videos, game shows, professional wrestling, stock car racing,
graffiti art, TV talk shows, and so on.
Culture industries: Industries that produce and sell popular culture as
commodities.
Folk culture: Traditional and nonmainstream cultural activities that are not
financially driven.
Cultural Texts: Popular culture messages whether television shows, movies,
advertisements, or other widely disseminated messages.
Reader Profile: Portrayals of readership demographics prepared by magazines.
Media Imperialism: Dominating or control through media
Electronic Colonialism: Dominating or exploitation utilizing technological
forms.
Cultural Imperialism: Dominating through the spread of cultural products
2. Explain Popular culture and give examples

Popular Culture: A new name for low culture, referring to those cultural
products that most people share and know about, including television, music,
videos, and popular magazines.

According to this definition, television, music videos, YouTube, Disney,

advertising, soap operas, and popular magazines are systems of popular culture.
In contrast, the symphony and the ballet do not qualify as popular culture
because most people cannot identify much about them unless they have studied
them.
Intercultural contact and intercultural communication play a central role in the
creation and maintenance of popular culture.
.
3.What are four significant characteristics of popular culture?
There are four significant characteristics of popular culture:
(1) It is produced by culture industries,
(2) it differs from folk culture,
(3) it is everywhere, and
(4) it fills a social function.

4.Learn table
Type

Definition

Who knows it?

High Culture

Elite aristocratic
expressions of culture

Folk Culture

Traditional and
nonmainstream
cultural activities that
are not financially
driven
Ever-present cultural
products designed for
profitable
consumption

Rich members of the

political
establishment
Most cultural groups,
but especially middleclass groups

Popular
culture

Almost everyone in a
social group

What does it look

like?
Opera, classic
sculpture, symphony
performances
Folk music

Mainstream music,
movies, television,
romance novels