Professional Documents
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Module
Introduction
In this chapter, we shall look at the transformation from commodity to cargo and
the packaging requirements for the various types of cargo, including its
implications on shippers of unitised cargo.
Chapter objectives
On completion of this chapter, you should be able to:
In smaller lots liquids and gases are stored and moved in containers or flasks. When
packed in this way, the commodities may be regarded as dry cargo from a transport
point of view.
The dry cargoes embrace raw materials,
semi-finished or finished goods. They do not
require the same containment as gases and
liquids. The number of dry cargo types is
almost endless. The type of commodity, the
level of finishing, and the transport method
will determine the need for packaging and
storage
requirements.
Detailed
recommendations of methods of cargo
carriage, cargo handling, and transport
requirements for various types of goods are
found in many literatures1 .
Storage requirements will tend to determine
the choice of transport method. Some
commodities have to be kept frozen (e.g.
meat) while others need refrigeration (e.g.
fruit). Flowers need to reach the customers
quickly, while other cargoes need adequate ventilation to avoid combustion (e.g. grain,
coal and copra). The shipper must choose a transport method which secures proper
storage and speed of delivery. There are several international conventions as well as
common practices shipowners will have to follow to secure proper handling of
different cargoes onboard a ships.
Loading of dry bulk cargo at dedicated
bulk terminal.
Packaging will also have to be considered relative to the transport method chosen.
Some raw materials, like ores, need not be packaged at all. If finished goods are
moved in containers, the packaging required is much less than if the goods are
transported in individual cases.
Methods of cargo carriage2
In general, commodities are either moved in bulk or as general cargo. Bulk and
general cargoes are defined relative to their means of transport and the cargo mix
onboard. If, for example, a ship carries a homogeneous cargo lot which is not packed
in any form, this is a bulk cargo: oil carried directly in tanks, grain carried directly in
holds or pig iron loaded directly, in holds.
When cargoes are packed and mixed onboard, it is referred to as general cargo. Most
finished goods are shipped as general cargo, while raw materials in bigger lots are
usually bulk cargoes.
Example: Branch, A.E., Elements of Shipping, Chapman and Hall Ltd., London and New York, 1996.
Use of Maritime Transport. A Guide for Shippers, Freight Forwarders and Ship Operators, Volume 1,
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, ST/ESCAP/516, p. 50-51.
The distinction between bulk cargoes and general cargoes is not strict. There are
examples of more than one bulk cargo being carried onboard the same ship, in
different holds or sections. Similarly, there are general cargoes which fill up the whole
carrier, e.g. shiploads of sugar in bags. This is referred to as unit loads of general
cargoes (which does not necessarily involve pallets or containers). The opposite,
where the ship carries different cargoes packed differently is referred to as general
break bulk cargoes. Such cargoes may consist of pallets, unpacked machinery, drums,
crates and so on.
The table below clarifies the difference between the physical form of a cargo and the
way it is shipped. Commodities, dry as well as liquid, may be shipped in unit loads, in
break bulk or as bulk cargo. It should be noted that terminology with regard to the
above is not fully consequent, and that additional terms are in use. The term "parcel
bulk" in chemical carriers is one example of this; up to 30 different chemicals may be
transported simultaneously onboard the same ship.
Table 2.1: Cargo physical forms and ways shipped
The ways Dry cargo is shipped
Physical form
Dry cargoes
Unit load
e.g. bagged rice in
whole load
Liquid cargoes
Break bulk
e.g. machinery
parts in crates and
boxes
e.g. part loads of
wine in cases
Bulk cargo
e.g. loose grain in
holds
e.g. crude oil in
tank vessels
The cargo characteristics will influence the choice of ship needed for a specific job.
Different ships are constructed to carry different bulk cargoes.
Similarly, the cargo access equipment have been constructed to cater for different
commodities. The equipment available for cargo handling at the intended ports of
loading and discharge will also be reflected in the type of ship needed for a specific
job. If, for example, no cranes are available in the discharging port, a ship equipped
with cranes will have to be chosen for the transport task.
Cargo in its different forms
General Cargo
General cargo is a term that covers a great variety of goods. In regard to modern
cargo handling it refers to loose cargo that has not been consolidated for handling
with mechanical means such as unitised or containerised cargo. It refers to individual
items of any type of cargo, bagged or baled items, cases or crates, individual drums or
barrels pieces of machinery or small items of steel construction.
If general cargo is to be loaded on a ship in general stow it is usually man handled into
place. Hence the reason why general cargo is rarely seen in developed countries today,
the cost of handling such items is prohibitive and the time taken is unacceptable for
most maritime operations.
Sling here
This way up
Centre of Gravity
developed countries where labour is expensive significant savings can be made, less so
initially for developing countries but over time as they become developed this will
change.
The cargo itself therefore needs less
protective packaging. The cargo can be
stowed in the container away from the
wharf, often by the shipper himself.
The containers fit into predetermined
positions on board ship, complicated
stowage planning is not necessary.
Documentation and identification of
cargo is simplified as the container
number replaces the cargo mark.
Computers and electronic data
interchange now play a large part in
Typical Cargo
Insulated
containers
Flat racks
Open top
containers
Bulk boxes
Open sided
Tank containers
A typical dry box was 20 x 8 x 8 feet (L x B x H) but it is not unusual to find units in
the system today measuring 20' x 8' x 8' - 9' 6". Forty foot (40) units, were, until
recently the maximum length of containers but 44' and 48' units have been introduced
on the American coast and many are now finding their way into international trades.
Forty-five foot (45) units have also gained worldwide acceptance today.
Compared with general cargo carried break bulk, cargo damage in containers is
considerably reduced, however, it still exists. Some of the more common forms of
damage are explained below.
Cargo not properly secured or trimmed-off within the container will damage
either due to heavy rolling of the ship or from shunting if transported by rail. The
further a container is stowed away from the ship's centre of motion the greater
will be the acceleration forces on the cargo and therefore the greater risk of
damage in heavy weather.
Water damage can be expected if the container has a leaking roof, although the
majority of water damage sustained by a substandard box is caused at the terminal
while the container is waiting in the stacks. Water damage on board is usually
caused by a flooded hold due to blocked bilges or a leaking ballast tank. Another
source of water damage is often caused when a container is stowed outside on
deck where the seas can reach the underside of the unit.
Pilferage can still take place with containerised cargo. Despite the fact that the
door leaves are sealed it is still possible for the doors to be sprung open with the
use of heavy machinery, individual items within the container can then be stolen
and the doors sprung shut without the door seal being broken. Although in most
cases of container pilferage the entire container is hijacked and box and contents
disappear without a trace!
Before packing a container
Packing a container should always be done on level plane either on the ground,
on a railcar, or on a trailer. In the case of a trailer, care should be taken to ensure the
trailer cannot tip whilst being packed especially if a forklift truck is being used. If
necessary the trailer should be propped. Brakes should be securely applied and wheels
choked.
Stowage should be planned before packing is commenced. This should make it
possible to produce either a tight or a secured stow, in which the compatibility of all
items of cargo and the nature i.e. Type and strength of any packages or packaging
involved are taken into account. The possibility of cross-contamination by odour or
dust as well as physical or chemical compatibility should be considered.
The planned load should not weight more than the payload of the container
which is marked upon it. This ensures that the permitted maximum gross weight of
the container on the CSC Safety Approval Plate (which includes the payload) will
never be exceeded. A picture of the rear end of a typical container is shown below:
Stowage planning should take account of the fact that containers are generally
designed assuming the load to be evenly distributed over the entire floor area. Where
substantial deviations from uniform packing could occur, specialist advice should be
sought.
When a heavy indivisible load is to be shipped in a container or vehicle, due regard
should be given to the localised weight bearing capability of the container. If necessary,
the weight should be spread over a larger area than the actual bearing surface of the
load, for example, by use of timber bulks.
In such a case the method of securing the load should be planned before packing
occurs and any necessary preparations made.
If the planned load of an open-topped or open-sided container is to project beyond
the container overall dimensions, special arrangements should be made.
When heavy cargo is to be shipped, if it is impracticable to place the centre of gravity
in or near the centre of the horizontal plane of the container, or if it will be above the
half height, the container operator should be consulted.
When planning the packing of a container, consideration should be given to potential
problems which may be created for those who will unpack it.
Packing and Securing
It is essential to make the cargo in a container or vehicle secure against any reasonably
foreseeable movement. At the same time, the method of securing the cargo should
not itself cause damage or deterioration either to the cargo or the container or vehicle.
Where goods of regular shape and size are concerned, a tight stow from wall to wall
should be sought. However, in many instances some void spaces will occur. These
can be tolerated if security is obtained by the frictional effect between adjacent
packages. If there is an insufficient frictional effect, or if the spaces between the
packages are tool large, then the stow should be completed by using dunnage, folded
cardboard, air bags or other suitable means.
If airbags are used, the manufacturer's instructions as to filling pressure should be
scrupulously observed. Allowance should be made for the possibility of a considerable
rise in the internal temperature of the container above the temperature at the time of
packing which might cause the bags to expand and burst, thereby making them
ineffectual as a means of securing the cargo. Air bags should be not be used as a
means of filing space at the doorway unless precautions are taken to ensure that they
cannot cause the door to open violently when the locking bars are released.
The cargo weight should be evenly distributed over the floor of a container or vehicle.
Where cargo items of a varying weight are to be packed into a container or vehicle or
where a container or vehicle will not be full (either because of insufficient cargo or
because the maximum weight allowed will be reached before the container or vehicle
is full), the stow should be so arranged and secured that the approximate centre of the
weight of the cargo is close to the mid-length of the container or vehicle. In no case
should more than 60 per cent of the load be concentrated in less than half of the
length of a container measured from one end.
Heavy goods should not be placed on top of lighter goods and liquids should not be
placed on top of solids. The centre of gravity should be below the half height of a
container.
In order to avoid cargo damage from moisture, wet cargoes, moisture inherent
cargoes or cargoes liable to leak should not be packed with goods susceptible to
damage by moisture. Wet dunnage, pallets or packaging should not be used. In
certain cases, damage to equipment and cargo can be prevented by the use of
protective material such as polythene sheeting.
Damaged packages should not be packed into container or vehicle unless precautions
have been taken against harm from spillage or leakage.
Permanent securing equipment incorporated in the design of a container should be
used wherever necessary to prevent cargo movement.
Where open-sided vehicles are concerned, particular care should be taken to secure
cargo the forces likely to arise from the rolling of the ship. In order words, a check
should be made to ensure that all side battens are fitted or other adequate precautions
are taken.
Special packing instructions shown on packages or otherwise available, should be
followed. E.g.:
Goods marked "protect from frost" should be packed away from the walls of
a container;
that a cargo may move against the doors due to jolts etc. during the transit.
After closing the doors, ensure that all closures are properly engaged and secure.
Usually a seal should be applied. Care should be taken that sealing procedures are
carried out properly and transport documents/receipts bear the correct seal number
before the container leaves the premise.
When a container, or its contents, has been fumigated and is to be shipped under
fumigation, then a warning label should be placed on the outside of the doors so that
it is clearly visible to any person operating the doors. The label should state the
method of fumigation employed and the date and time on which it took place.
As containers offered for shipment under fumigation may require special precautions,
they should only be accepted with the agreement of the carrier and they should be
identified to him prior to loading. Note: point 4 and 5 do not apply to containers
which have been fumigated, ventilated thereafter and certified as safe.
Dry bulk cargo
The loading, carriage and finally the discharge of dry bulk
cargo is not as simple or straight forward as most people
would imagine. Many bulk cargoes have hazardous
properties, or can change their properties on passage.
The ship can be easily damaged by incorrect loading e.g.
loading a forward hold to it maximum can cause the ship
to bend. This stress can have life threatening results at
sea in rough weather. Residues from previous cargoes
can also seriously effect latter cargoes. Water damage can
also have devastating effect on some bulk cargoes e.g.
cement power. It is not easy to verify true weights or
quantities of cargoes loaded or discharged. All these
factors have a serious consequence on the methods of
operation for the safe carriage of bulk cargoes.
Consider some of the more common bulk cargoes and their properties:
Coal Coal is transported on all types of bulk carriers from handy size to VLCBs.
However, it is not an easy or straight forward cargo to handle. It can emit methane
gas and it is self-heating. In addition coal contains sulphur which causes severe
corrosion when in contact with the ship's steelwork. In most ports the cargo is loaded
wet to reduce dust. Much of this moisture settles on passage and is pumped out
through the ship's hold bilges which means that less weight is discharged than is
loaded.
Iron Ore - This cargo is loaded very fast, 10,000 tonnes an hour is not unusual. The
loading and de-ballasting of the ship must be meticulously planned to ensure that the
vessel is not overstressed. There is very little chance of damaging the cargo but the
ship can receive extensive damage during the discharge operation from the equipment
used.
Mineral Concentrates - Many different types of concentrates are handled in various
parts of the world and in varying quantities. Most of these cargoes are extremely
heavy and have a low transportable moisture limit (TML). This means that if the
moisture content of the cargo become greater than the TML the cargo can liquefy and
turn into a slurry. When this happens on board, the cargo moves from side to side as
the ship rolls which reduces the ship's righting lever. It does not require much cargo
weight to capsize the vessel when this happens, it a loss of stability due to free surface
effect. Some of the most dangerous cargoes where this can happen are copper, lead or
zinc concentrates, magnetite, limonite and most pyrites.
Grain - One of the most difficult and dangerous cargoes
to carry in bulk are grain cargoes. Most grains have an
angle of repose (slip angle) of about 20 from the
horizontal, which means that if the ship rolls more than
20 the cargo will shift. Then this happens the ship will
develop a large list, lying on her side and still rolling will
obviously cause a greater shift of cargo which in turn will
capsize the vessel. Most authorities therefore request that
the master proves that his ship is capable of remaining
stable even if the grain cargo shifts. This is done by the
compiling of the Grain Loading Form which fully
outlines the ships stability at the worse condition on
passage.
Liquid cargo
Even liquid cargoes have their difficulties.
Outlined below are some problems associated
with various cargo systems found in tankers.
There is a high risk of contamination when a
common pump is used for several cargo tanks,
if the system is not properly drained between
different cargoes. Modern tankers are often
Connecting shore loading arm to the
equipped with individual submersible cargo
ships manifold onboard a tanker.
pumps but if these are connected to common
or shared lines there is still a risk of
contamination. There will normally be a drain cock near or on the cargo pump itself,
this drain cock should be opened to verify that the line has been properly drained
before pumping a different cargo. In addition most of these pumps are hydraulically
driven, damage oil seals can lead to hydraulic oil leakage into the cargo tank
contaminating sensitive cargoes.
On oil tankers it is normal to have a common cargo tank ventilation system. The
vapours from one cargo tanks can easily enter a different tank in the system. This may
result in cargo contamination or change the flash point of the product. Petroleum
products are classified into volatile and non-volatile cargoes. A cargo with a flash
point below 60C is a volatile product and a cargo with a flash point above 60C is a
non-volatile cargo (different rules apply to the handling of volatile and non-volatile
cargoes). Diesel oil has a flash point of around 63C and vapours from a volatile cargo
can easily change the flash point to below 60C, causing the cargo to be re-classified.
Many lube oils and lube additives are heated during transport. Steam coils are
normally used for this purpose. A leaking heating coil can lead to water entering the
cargo tank and consequently contaminating the cargo. Laboratory tests should be
carried out on cargoes contaminated by water. It should be established whether the
water is fresh or salt water. Contamination caused by fresh water is most likely to be
caused by a leaking heating coil whereas salt water contamination would probably be
caused by a leaking tank hatch, in which case the hatch packing should be checked.
Chemical
tankers
are
normally
constructed
with
completely
independent cargo systems. Each cargo
tank will have an independent pumping
and
venting
system.
Cargo
contamination in chemical tankers are
often caused by poor cleaning of cargo
tanks or pipe lines. Unfortunately many
chemicals are extremely sensitive to
contamination, just a few parts per
A typical chemical tanker.
million of a previous cargo can
contaminate an entire shipment. Many
cargo samples are taken during the loading of chemicals. When a cargo is
contaminated it must be established whether the cargo was effected prior to loading;
or during its transportation on board. Cargo transfer hoses may also contribute to
the two. In an efficient system, these four elements must be properly matched. This
implies a certain cooperation between the port authority, the shipowner, the shipper,
and the possible stevedoring company engaging the port labour.
The earliest efforts to increase cargo
handling rates were concentrated mainly
on the transfer medium, and led to the
development of a wide range of
mechanical equipment, such as cranes,
conveyors etc., which has substantially
improved loading and discharging rates,
especially for bulk cargoes.
General cargo handling has, however,
not benefited to such a great extent
use of modern handling equipment in bulk
from such developments. In liner The
handling operations such as mobile unloader
shipping, the principal restriction to connected to a conveyor system shown here will
the smooth movement of cargo at the
high handling rates has always been the facilitate
port interface.
large variety of packagings used for
general cargo, so that significant
improvements have only become possible by reducing the number of different forms
in which goods are presented for shipment.
Thus it is only with the adoption of unitisation that general cargo carriers have
achieved high transfer rates and been able to take advantage of handling techniques
similar to those which have been developed for homogeneous cargoes.
It is customary to distinguish between vertical and horizontal loading of ships as well
as other means of transport. With vertical loading, the cargo must pass over the rail of
the ship and into holds through hatches in
the deck. Derricks, cranes and conveyor belts
are commonly used for the transfer of dry
commodities. Liquids and gases are moved
through pipelines. This traditional method is
very useful for the handling of bulk cargoes.
Horizontal loading of cargo is done through
openings in the bow, side or stern of a ship.
Discharging of a train coach via the stern
These ships are commonly referred to as
door of a Ro/Ro ship.
roll-on/roll-off (Ro/Ro) ships as the cargo
can be accepted on wheeled vehicles.
Flexibility and fast port turnarounds are the essential feature of Ro-Ro operations, and
cargo handling rates can be significantly increased.
Not all horizontal loading ships are strictly Ro-Ro ships. Pallet carriers may, for
example, have side doors only and the cargo is loaded or discharged by fork-lift trucks
operating on the quayside.
Cargo stowage
The
shipowner
is
generally
responsible for the stowage of cargo
onboard the vessel. In the handling of
stowage and carriage of cargo, the
following general principles will
apply:
The safety of ship and crew
When loading a general cargo at a variety of ports for a variety of ports, the problem
of where to place the individual cargoes must be solved to secure minimum time in
port. The cargo must be stowed in reverse order of the intended discharge to avoid
rearrangements of the consignments. At the same time the amount of unused space
should be kept as low as possible to obtain the best economical use of the vessel.
It is common to distinguish between horizontal and vertical stowage of general cargo
in a ship. With horizontal stowage the cargo is spread over a relatively large area, while
in vertical loading the consignments are stacked on top of each other so that space
can be better utilised. Bulk cargoes present little difficulty in stowage, as they can fill
up the holds as appropriate. In some cases the cargo needs to be trimmed, i.e.
shovelled by hand from high piles in the centre of the hold to the perimeter so that
the vessel can be filled up and best utilised.
The given stowage factor of a particular cargo will normally take what is called broken
stowage into account. Broken stowage is space lost because of the shape of the
cargo and/or particular requirements in regard to stowing it in the cargo holds. For
example, there may be limitations on how many units or consignments which may be
placed on top of each other. For homogeneous bulk commodities, broken stowage is
usually small. For irregular packages, as often found in typical general cargo lot, it may
be substantial.
The stowage factor of any cargo is the volume which a certain amount in weight of
that cargo occupies. It is usually measures in cubic feet per long ton or alternatively in
cubic metres per metric ton. If the stowage factor is 20, it indicates a heavy cargo. If it
is 100, it indicates that the cargo is light.
The stowage factor is important for the loading of cargo in the various means of
transport, as it indicates the amount of the cargo which can go into the holds. Either
the volume or the weight will be the limiting factor. The stowage factors of various
products are given in published stowage tables.
While stowage of goods is important for the utilisation of space in containers and
holds, packaging and stowage must also be carefully considered in relation to
marketing and the needs and specifications of the customers as well as in relation to
minimising damage.
Cargo documents
Goods are carried by sea under a contract of carriage
between the shipper and the shipowner. The shipper
may employ a forwarding agent to arrange the
transport, while the Shipowner may employ a
loading broker to control the allocation of space and
advertise the service, and to make the loading
arrangements and prepare documents on the
shipowner's behalf .
When a shipper wants to send a particular cargo with
a particular ship on a scheduled service, a "shipping
note" for the consignment is completed by the shipper and forwarded to the
shipowner or his agent. This note will have to contain a brief description of the
commodity. The loading broker then compiles a list of the consignments intended for
shipment, the booking list. This is sent to the ship to enable the Master to plan the
stow and to the stevedore to arrange the loading. The shipper may receive a "booking
note", which specifies that the carrier reserves space for a specified volume and kind
of cargo in a named vessel between named ports. The broker may also issue a "calling
forward notice" to the shipper, advising him of the time and place at which he is to
deliver the goods.
When the cargo is delivered to the warehouse or to the ship, a receipt for that cargo
must be obtained by the shipper. When the cargo is placed onboard, this is called a
"mate's receipt". This receipt acknowledges that the goods ha ve been loaded and
have been properly and carefully handled, loaded and stowed. If there are any
damages to the goods before loading, this will be recorded on the receipt, and it is no
longer "clean".
In some trades, it is customary for the shippers to have a "boat note" following the
cargo. When the "boat note" is signed by the cargo officer aboard the ship, it becomes
a "mate's receipt". With many shipping companies it is the practice to give an official
"mate's receipt" irrespective of the fact that a boat note may be provided by the
shipper. Modern practice is to present a copy of the shipping note as the boat note,
which when endorsed, become the "mate's receipt".
Special tally companies are engaged by the shipowner to check or keep record of all
cargo loaded into and discharged from a vessel. This is an essential part of cargo work
in order to prevent claims upon the ship for so-called "short" discharge, i.e. when
some of the cargo is missing. It is sometimes customary for the shipper or consignee
to provide his own tally clerks, particularly with cargoes of a straight nature, such as
bags, bales etc.
A copy of the "mate's receipt" will be returned to the shipowner, so that a "bill of
lading" can be issued to the shipper. The "bill of lading" acknowledges that the goods
have been "shipped in apparent good order and condition" if the "mate's receipt" is
clean. Otherwise, comments are transferred to the "bill of lading". This document is
issued under all forms of shipping, scheduled or not. The complete list of cargo
loaded, as compiled from the "bills of lading" form the "manifest" of the ship.
Customs regulations at most ports require at least one copy of the manifest and
copies are also required for stevedores at discharging ports.
While cargoes are in transit, they may be sold so that the goods change ownership.
Such a sale will be represented by the "bill of lading" changing hands. At the port of
discharge, the consignment will be handed over to the party presenting the original
"bill of lading".
Packaging of Cargo
As mentioned earlier, packaging perform the following three basic functions, which
we may call the three Ps of packaging, namely: protection, preservation and
presentation.
Guidelines on the choice of packaging
Some broad guidelines to be followed in the choice
of packaging technique include the considerations
which follow.
Goods should be well stowed within the package,
evenly distributed and properly secured. Items
completely filling the case or carton contribute to
the strength of the whole package. Items which do
not completely fill the package must be cushioned
against shock or vibration. There must be adequate internal bracing or securing using
battens (bars of wood) or dunnage (mats, wood shavings, etc.).
Where the consignment consists of a number of small packages, it is preferable to
consolidate them into one load by strapping and securing them to a wooden pallet
base (a portable platform for storing loads). The assembly of cargo into the largest
practical unit consistent with the handling, weight and dimension requirements
reduces the danger of theft to a minimum. There is also the advantage of reduced
handling stresses, as larger units require the use of mechanical handling equipment
rather than crude manual techniques.
Pallet packing is quite suitable for goods carried in containers although they may also
be carried by conventional methods. In this case, however, there is the risk of
breakage during transfer, or on forwarding and handling operations.
In selecting the appropriate type of package, account should be taken of the
probability of cargo being "overstowed" by other packages in warehouses and cargo
holds.
Appropriate strapping and banding techniques should be used for all packages.
The regulations of the destination country as well as those of any transit countries
should be checked in order to ensure that they do not prohibit certain types of
packing material, particularly material which is harmful to the environment.
The re-use of second-hand cartons or cases should be avoided as they are more liable
to collapse or and may invite pilferage (stealing in small quantities) if the contents
become exposed.
To improve the handling of bigger volumes of cargo, the design of the package
should match the dimensions of the product so as to save packaging and freight costs.
From the shipper's point of view, it is desirable that the following considerations
should be borne in mind in order to minimize the cost of freight:
goods attracting different freight rates should not be packed together in one
package, in case the carrier charges freight for the whole package at the rate
applicable to the highest-rated commodity.
It is essential that waterproof wrapping for the contents and waterproof lining for
packages should be provided, particularly when the packages are likely to remain in an
unprotected area, such as the customs area.
Over-packaging in the name of protective
packaging should be avoided, in order to make
optimum use of the carrying capacity. This is
particularly important in air transport where
packages are consolidated into pallets, igloos3 or
containers.
Powdered or granular material should be packed
preferably in flexible multiwall bags which are
adapted to the requirements of the material,
taking into account its chemical and physical
3
An aircraft igloo
Igloo: An open front, bottomless, rigid shell made of fiberglass, metal or other suitable materials. The
slope conforms to the contours of the cargo aircraft envelope, i.e. the interior cabin cross-section.
characteristics.
In the case of pressed bales (canvas packages of merchandise), it is advisable to use an
inner wrap of waterproof paper below an outer or primary cover of fiberboard
material, over which heavy jute or a similar cover can be provided before strapping.
In designing or choosing a suitable package, it may be useful to consult, wherever
possible, the consignee and obtain reports from his end about the packaging of
specific products moving on specific routes. It would also be advisable to ascertain
from consignees to what extent handling gear, port equipment, etc., are available at
the port of destination, what inland transportation facilities are available and if the
goods have to be moved to inland centres.
In export packing, consideration should be given to the "presentation" aspect of the
package: the design; colour, embellishment of the packages, which could produce a
favourable reaction in the export market and improve the competitiveness of the
product.
Information required for packaging
The type of packaging required depends on the:
Mode of transport
Final destination
Volume
Weight
Number of packages
Types of packages
from carcasses), flour, copra, small items such as shells, raisins, etc., mail, salt, mineral
sands and ores, meal (fish, seed, copra, etc.), dried blood, dried milk etc..
Fibreboard boxes and cartons
Fibreboard boxes and cartons are very widely used
for the sake of economy and efficiency. Although
comparatively cheap, they are able to withstand
normal transport hazards and protect the contents
against loss or damage. They may be particularly
suitable in the case of goods carried in containers
from the point of origin to the destination provided
the goods are not fragile. But if the containers have
to be unloaded at the port of discharge for further
transport to their final destination, they may have to be placed on pallets and securely
strapped in order to protect them from pilferage and damage. Depending upon the
nature of the commodities, cartons of the right type of suitable strength and sizes
should be used.
Wooden cases
These have stood the test of time and their main
advantage is that they have the wall strength to support
superimposed loads. They are more expensive than the
carton-type packing due to the cost of wood. Wooden
cases are particularly suitable when the goods are
carried by conventional methods and, when they are
sensitive to heat, dampness, etc. The goods may
require protection by way of packing with layers of
insulating material, tar paper, sealed plastic covering
etc. There are different types of wooden cases,
including those made of plywood, which are being increasingly used by exporters.
Wooden crates
These are suitable for wooden packages built like a
skeleton. The open crate can be used when the
contents are sufficiently resilient to require a
minimal form of packing to facilitate handling and
stowage. Sometimes, it is used as an outer package
to consolidate fibreboard boxes or give cartons extra
protection. The skeleton crate is often used for the
carriage of large pieces of machinery.
Bales
For certain trades, the use of hessian-wrapped bales is suitable, particularly when the
product permits pressure baling or compression by banding. It is, however, vulnerable
to pilferage, damage by handling using looks, etc..
Either the container must be stowed tightly so that lateral and longitudinal
movement of the cargo within it is impossible;
Tight stowage
This can be achieved by making the shape and the dimensions of the package an
optimum module of the container or making the base of a unit load a module of the
container.
Restraint
It is always necessary to restrain the cargo for one or more of the following reasons:
To prevent the "face" of the stow collapsing and leaning against the container
doors to fall out when the doors are opened at the final destination or for
customs inspection.
Cartons strapped on
pallet
Always use the built-in securing points which are provided. For obvious reasons
comply with the safe loading limitation on the securing points.
Any timber used - i.e., dunnage or filler pieces - should be dry. It may also have to
comply with certain quarantine regulations in force.
If nails have to be used to secure cargo to a wooden floor, they should only
penetrate about two-thirds the thickness of the floor to achieve adequate grip
without total penetration. Holes must not be drilled in walls or floor. Never use
nails in a reefer container (a refrigerated container).
Any shoring which presses against the container wall should have extra timber
laid longitudinally between the wall and point of support to spread the weight
over two or more side posts.
Useful filler pieces for wedging or preventing rubbing, sometimes called chafe,
are old tyres, paper pads softened by soaking (macerated) or, for light packages,
rolled-up cardboard.
Heavy weights should be secured to stout ring-bolts (sited in the container floor
and side walls) and/or be shored with timber. They should be chained or wired
with bottle-screws (e.g., 1/2 in chain; 11/4 inch bottle-screws; three ton D
shackles are adequate for lashing cargo up to 18 tons in weight).
Resilient loads can cause lashings to slacken - this may sometimes be overcome
by introducing elasticity (e.g. rubber rope) into the lashing pattern.
Stowage precautions
In the majority of cases, there is a space (1" to 24") left between the face of the cargo
and the container doors. It is important that the cargo does not collapse into this
space. It can be prevented in a variety of ways, such as:
(a) Using suitably positioned lashing points with wire, rope, strapping, etc., woven
across
(b) Inserting a simple wooden gate for the wider gaps and heavier cargo
(c) Providing filler pieces i.e., macerated (water-softened) paper pads, wood-wool
pads made of fine shavings and used for packing, etc., for narrower gaps and
lighter cargoes (like cartons of biscuits).
It is also important to ensure that the cargo does not fall out when the container
doors are opened. This is particularly relevant to a container which has been
completely packed (as with cartons or sacks). Although this can sometimes be
achieved by interlocking tiers of packages, it is better to use the fixing points located
in the door posts of general cargo container. Nylon strapping in polypropylene cord
or wire (1/4" diameter or less) threaded through these points forms an effective
barrier.
Other stowage precautions to be taken are:
Securing the goods in their packages and making the pack itself as full as possible
so as to resist external pressures.
Making packages sufficiently rigid to withstand the weight imposed upon them
when stacked to a minimum height of 8ft.
Making sure, if more than one type of cargo is stowed in a container, that they are
compatible and cannot cause contamination or become contaminated.
Placing heavy items and liquids at the bottom, with light and dry items on the top.
Within practical physical limitations of handling, the unit package should be as large as
possible, since this can reduce costs by up to 20 percent and increase the
efficiency in volume by up to 10 percent.
Where relevant, stowing should be carried out in a sequence which will permit
rapid checking and storage operations during and after unloading. Should the
consignment include cargo subject to customs pre-entry procedures, customs
examination would be made easier and unloading avoided if the cargo were
stowed at the end of the container by the door.
One should try to arrange for any unavoidable gap in the stowage to be along the
centre line of the container and not at the sides. It is much easier and cheaper to
restrain the shifting of cargo in this way.
A lighted cigarette end can destroy the contents of a container and even endanger
the ship. When stowing a container the rule should therefore be NO
SMOKING.
Load factors
Heavy loads must be assessed according to their shape, dimension and weight. However, as a guide, the weight or loads should be distributed over the container floor by
means of suitable bearers or dunnage as follows:
(a) Width: distribution should be over the entire width of the container;
(b) Length: each ton weight of cargo should be spread over at least two floor
members, which run transversely under the container floor at 1 foot centres (e.g.,
a 13 ton integral load would require to be distributed over 14 floor members i.e.,
14 foot run of container floor).
The total load should be distributed as evenly as possible, but in certain circumstances
the closed end half of the container can carry more than 65 per cent, or conversely the
door end half more than 60 per cent, of the total load.