Goering, Carroll E., Marvin L Stone, David W. Smith, and Paul K. Turnquist. 2003. Engine design.

Chapter 6 in Off-Road Vehicle Engineering Principles, 111-130. St. Joseph, Mich.: ASAE. American
Society of Agricultural Engineers.

CHAPTER 6

ENGINE DESIGN
6.1 Introduction
A number of design problems must be solved to achieve a successful engine
design. Some general considerations include choice of the number of cylinders, bore
and stroke to achieve the desired power output. The load factor must be considered in
choosing the speed at which to rate the engine. Certain events must be timed to the
crankshaft rotation to achieve successful operation. Reciprocating and torsional
imbalances must be considered to avoid excessive vibration. A flywheel must be
designed to smooth the torque impulses generated via the pistons, connecting rods and
crankshaft. A harmonic balancer may be needed to protect the crankshaft from
premature failure. All of these issues are considered in Chapter 6.

6.2 General Considerations

The first step in designing a new engine is to choose the desired rated power output
and rated speed. The load factor must be considered in choosing the speed. It is
defined as
Load Factor =

Average power output

Maximum power output

(6.1)

Engines in tractors, heavy-duty trucks and other working vehicles have a much
higher load factor than automotive engines. An automotive engine typically uses only
a small fraction of its maximum available power while cruising at typical speeds on a
highway, but may need to accelerate the engine to very high speed and use maximum
power for brief periods. For example, an automobile engine might produce its
maximum power for a brief period while accelerating to 5000 rev/min when the
automobile is passing another vehicle on a two-lane road, but might have a normal
load factor of 0.3 while cruising at 2000 rev/min. Conversely, a tractor engine might
run at 2000 rev/min with a load factor close to one for long periods of time while

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CHAPTER 6 ENGINE DESIGN

pulling an implement in a field. Consequently, it is customary to rate an automotive

engine at a much higher speed than a tractor engine.
After the rated speed and power output are chosen, Equation 2.6 can be used to
calculate the engine displacement that would be required to produce the power output
at an acceptable pbme level. Experience with other engines has shown that pbme levels of
700 to 900 kPa are reasonable. After the engine displacement is chosen, the designer
must decide on the number of engine cylinders needed to achieve the required
displacement with a reasonable piston size. Then the displacement per cylinder can be
calculated. Choice of a bore-stroke ratio will then allow calculation of the bore and
stroke of the engine.
Choice of the bore-stroke ratio of an engine involves a design compromise.
Smaller bore-stroke ratios permit higher compression ratios and the consequent higher
combustion efficiencies. For a given compression ratio and cylinder displacement,
however, higher bore-stroke ratios have higher surface-volume ratios and thus more
heat loss through the combustion chamber walls. Engines with shorter strokes have
less piston travel and thus less friction. Use of higher bore-stroke ratios permits use of
larger valves, thus allowing greater air throughput and higher power output. Typically,
bore-stroke ratios are chosen within the range from 0.84 to 0.96, but ratios as low as
0.79 and as high as 1.3 have been used.
The above design procedure was presented as a set of step-by-step calculations. In
practice, the procedure would be iterative and would involve judgment at each step.
For example, if the answer from using Equation 2.6 was a displacement of 2.97 liters,
the designer might round the displacement to 3.0 liters. Similarly, the chosen borestroke ratio might be modified to achieve round-off in the engine bore.

6.3 Engine Timing, Firing Orders,

and Intervals
6.3.1 Firing Orders and Intervals
An engine will not run unless the following events are timed to the rotation of the
crankshaft:
1. Opening and closing of the valves,
2a. Firing of the spark plug in SI engines, or
2b. Start of fuel injection in diesel engines.
Also, in a multi-cylinder engine, the cylinders must fire in the proper order. Thus,
conventions have been established regarding the numbering of cylinders. Generally,
cylinders are numbered from the belt-pulley (front) end of the engine toward the
flywheel (rear) of the engine. If the engine is of the in-line type, the cylinders are
merely numbered in the order in which their connecting rods are attached to the
crankshaft. On V-engines, there are two numbering conventions. Cylinders can still be
numbered in the order in which their connecting rods are connected to the crankshaft,
in which case the numbering alternates between cylinder banks. Alternatively, some
manufacturers number all cylinders, front to back, in the right bank and then number
all of them in the left bank.

OFF-ROAD VEHICLE ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES

113

The standard direction of rotation of the engine crankshaft is clockwise, as viewed

from the front of the engine. Before electric starters, engines were hand-cranked for
starting and, for right-handed persons, turning the crank clockwise is much easier than
turning it counterclockwise.
Increasing the number of cylinders in an engine produces smoother power flow by
reducing the average firing interval. The average firing interval can be calculated by
AFI =

180 cy
n

(6.2)

where
AFI = average firing interval in crankshaft degrees
cy = 2 for two-cycle engines or 4 for four-cycle engines
n = number of cylinders in the engine
The firing order (FO) is simply the order in which the cylinders fire. In a twocylinder, four-cycle engine, the firing order is 1 - 2, and the average firing interval is
360. Because of the crankshaft arrangement, however, the firing intervals are not
uniform (Figure 6.1a). There are two power strokes in one crankshaft revolution,
followed by another revolution in which there are no power strokes. The student can
determine AFIs for engines with three or more cylinders, all of which have uniform
firing intervals. If the front half of the crankshaft in Figure 6.1c was used as the
crankshaft of a three-cylinder engine with a firing order of 1 - 2 - 3, the firing intervals
would be non-uniform. Instead, crank throws 2 and 3 are reversed from those shown
in Figure 6.1c, so that piston 3 reaches HDC before piston 2. The reader can verify
that the firing intervals of such a three-cylinder engine are uniform at 240.
More than one firing order is possible for some multi-cylinder engines. A firing
order tree is used to display all possible firing orders of an engine. The six-cylinder
engine will be used to illustrate the preparation of a firing order tree. The tree begins
with the firing of cylinder No. 1. The end view of the crankshaft in Figure 6.1c shows
that either cylinder 2 or 5 would be in position to fire next. Thus, two branches are
started on the tree. After either 2 or 5 fires, either 3 or 4 must fire, giving two choices
for each of the first two branches for a total of 4 branches. Next, either 1 or 6 is in
position to fire, but 1 has already fired. Thus, cylinder 6 is the only choice and the tree
branches cease multiplying. The rest of the tree is completed easily. Either 2 or 5 are
in position for fire next but, in the branch 1 - 2 - 3 - 6, for example, 2 has already fired
and the next element in the branch must be cylinder 5. By similar logic, the last
element in this branch must be cylinder 4. The full tree is shown below.
3-6-5-4
2
4-6-5-3
1
3-6-2-4
5
4-6-2-3

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CHAPTER 6 ENGINE DESIGN

Crankshaft
Angle,
deg.

(A)

Cylinder No.
1

Power

Compression

Exhaust

Power

Intake

Exhaust

Compression

Intake

0
180
360
540
720

(B)

Crankshaft
Angle, deg.
0

Cylinder No.
1

Power

Compression

Intake

Exhaust

Exhaust

Power

Compression

Intake

Intake

Exhaust

Power

Compression

Compression

Intake

Exhaust

Power

180
360
540
720

(C)

Figure 6.1. Firing order sequences for several engines (continued on next page).

OFF-ROAD VEHICLE ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES

115

(C) (diagram on previous page)

Crankshaft
Cylinder No.
Angle, deg.
0
1
5
3
6
2
4
60
Compression
Exhaust
Power
Intake
120
Compression
Exhaust
180
Power
Intake
240
Exhaust
Compression
300
Intake
360
Power
Exhaust
Compression
420
Intake
Power
480
Exhaust
Compression
540
Intake
Power
600
Compression
Exhaust
660
Intake
Power
720

(D)

Crankshaft
Angle,
deg
0
90

630
720

Intake

Exhaust
Intake
Intake

540
Compression

Cylinder No.
4
5
Intake

Exhaust

360
450

Power

180
270

Compression

CompresPower
sion
Power

Exhaust

Compression

Compression
Power

Power

Power
Intake

Power

CompresExhaust
sion

Exhaust
Exhaust

Exhaust
Intake

Power
Intake

CompresExhaust
sion

Intake

Compression

Figure 6.1. Firing order sequences for several engines (continued from previous page).

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CHAPTER 6 ENGINE DESIGN

INLET FROM CARBURETOR

Figure 6.2. Intake manifold for an in-line, six-cylinder engine.

The need to balance air delivery to the various cylinders influences the choice of
which firing order is actually used. A typical intake manifold for a six-cylinder sparkignition engine is shown in Figure 6.2. The design is often called the Siamese-twin
design because each branch serves two cylinders. Note that, if either of the FO
branches beginning 1 - 2 were selected, there would be two consecutive air surges to
the front branch of the manifold and then oscillation between the center and rear
branches for remaining air surges. For uniform air delivery, it is better to eliminate the
two consecutive surges in a single branch by selecting a FO beginning with 1 - 5. By
far the most common firing order used for six-cylinder engines is
1-5-3-6-2-4
With this introduction, the student can work out firing orders and firing order trees
for any engine.

6.3.2 Valve Timing in an Engine

Within the combustible range of air-fuel ratios in an engine, the required air
delivery rate is much larger than the required fuel delivery rate. It is always easy to
deliver enough fuel to combust the air, and thus it is the air-handling capacity that
limits the power output of an engine. Engine designers have several methods for
maximizing the air pumping capacity of engines. Valve diameters are made as large as
possible within the constraints of the allowable diameter of the combustion chamber.
Sometimes four valves (two intake and two exhaust) are used within each cylinder to
achieve greater flow area. Valve lift is increased to the maximum extent consistent
with smooth operation of the valves. Also, the timing of the valves is arranged to
maximize airflow through the engine.
In a four-stroke-cycle engine, two revolutions of the crankshaft are required per
engine cycle. A valve-timing spiral (Figure 6.3) provides a convenient way of
displaying the full two revolutions of the crankshaft needed to show all valve events.
Note that intake valve opening (ivo, when the valve just starts to open) occurs before
head dead center (bHDC) to have the intake valve fully open when the piston starts the
intake stroke. Inertia causes the air to continue moving into the cylinder even after the

OFF-ROAD VEHICLE ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES

117

piston begins moving toward HDC; thus, intake valve closure (ivc, when the valve
becomes fully closed) occurs well into the compression stroke. Due to diminishing gas
pressure and unfavorable crank geometry, there is little torque production during the
latter part of the power stroke. Thus, exhaust valve opening (evo, when the valve just
starts to open) occurs well before crank dead center (CDC). The exhaust valve is kept
open throughout the exhaust stroke, so exhaust valve closure (evc, when the valve is
fully closed) occurs after HDC. Note that there is valve overlap, i.e., the intake and
exhaust valves are open simultaneously for a small part of the cycle. Some of the
exhaust gas can move into the intake ports because of the overlap, resulting in dilution
of the incoming charge in a SI engine. A richer mixture is needed at low idle to
overcome this dilution.
The optimum valve timing is a function of engine speed. The valve events are
closest to the respective ends of the piston strokes at low engine speeds and move
VALVE OVERLAP
HDC
10 10
IVO
EVC
C

E
50 50

EVO

IVC

CDC
C = COMPRESSION
E = EXHAUST
P = POWER
I = INTAKE
IVO = INTAKE VALVE OPENS
IVC = INTAKE VALVE CLOSES
EVC = EXHAUST VALVE CLOSES
IVO = EXHAUST VALVE OPENS
Figure 6.3. Typical valve-timing spiral for an engine.

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CHAPTER 6 ENGINE DESIGN

farther away from these dead centers as the engine speed increases. At present, it is
impractical to change the valve timing while the engine is running, so the timing is
compromised to provide maximum airflow over the normal range of engine speeds.
However, engine manufacturers are working on electro-hydraulically actuated valves
whose timing could be changed as a function of engine speed.

6.4 Engine Balance

There are several sources of potential unbalance in an engine. These include:
Rotating masses
Reciprocating masses
Rotational speed fluctuations resulting from torque pulses
Crankshaft twist resulting from torque pulses
In the following sections, we will discuss methods that are used to deal with these
unbalances.

6.4.1 Rotating Mass Unbalance

The crank throws on the crankshaft of multi-cylinder engines (Figure 6.4) are a
possible source of rotating unbalance. There are two types of crankshaft balancing,
static and dynamic. Static balancing is checked by laying the crankshaft on a pair of
knife edges. The crankshaft is in static balance if it can be placed in any angular
orientation and not roll on the knife edges. For example, the crankshaft of a twocylinder engine could have inherent static balance because the two throws are 180
apart. However, the two-cylinder crankshaft would not be in dynamic balance. When
the two-cylinder crankshaft is spun at a high speed, an oscillating couple appears in
the side view of the crankshaft because the inertial forces generated by each crank
throw are separated by a distance equal to the cylinder spacing. Dynamic balance is
achieved by use of counterweights installed opposite each crank throw, as can be seen
in Figure 6.4. Engine manufacturers spin each crankshaft on a balancing machine and
remove mass from the counterweights as needed to bring the crankshaft into dynamic
balance. Analysis of reciprocating unbalance involves the study of piston-crank
kinematics, as discussed in the next sections.

6.4.2 Piston-Crank Dynamics

Piston-crank kinematics affect engine balance and torque production. The piston
movement as a function of crankshaft rotation is given by an equation similar to
Equation 3.1, i.e.,
S
L
R
= [1 cos ] + [1 1 ( sin ) 2 ]
(6.3)
R
R
L
where
S = piston displacement from HDC, m
R = crank throw radius, m
= crankshaft position, radians, measured from HDC
L = connecting rod length, m

OFF-ROAD VEHICLE ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES

119

Figure 6.4. A crankshaft with counterweights and a flywheel.

Through the binomial series expansion, Equation 6.3 can be simplified to the
following approximate equation:
S
R
= 1 cos +
sin 2
R
2L

(6.4)

By differentiating Equation 6.4, the approximate piston velocity is

v = R [sin +

R
sin 2]
2L

(6.5)

where
v = dS/dt = piston velocity, m/s
= d/dt = crankshaft speed, rad/s
Note that is used instead of N to avoid the need for conversion factors in the pistoncrank dynamics equations. However, = (2/60) N.
By setting the derivative of Equation 6.5 equal to zero, the maximum piston speed
can be shown to occur when the crankshaft is at
= arccos[

L
8R 2
(-1 + 1 + 2 )]
4R
L

(6.6)

Typically, the L/R ratio is close to three and, from Equation 6.6, the maximum
piston speed occurs when the crankshaft is 1.27 to 1.31 radians (73 to 75) from

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CHAPTER 6 ENGINE DESIGN

HDC. Differentiating Equation 6.5 gives the following equation for piston
acceleration:
a = R2 [cos +

R
cos 2]
L

(6.7)

where a = piston acceleration, m/s2. Note that maximum acceleration occurs at HDC
and at CDC. From Equation 6.7, using Newton's second law, the piston inertia force is
given by
R
F = mR2 [cos + cos 2]
(6.8)
L
where
F = inertial force, N
m = translational mass, kg
The connecting rod is seldom analyzed separately. Instead, part of its mass is assigned
to the piston and part to the crankshaft pin (see Figure 6.5 for illustration of
connecting rod geometry) as
m c1 =

b
mc
L

Figure 6.5. Illustration of piston-crankshaft dynamics.

(6.9)

OFF-ROAD VEHICLE ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES

and
m c2 =

Lb
mc
L

121

(6.10)

where
mc = mass of connecting rod, kg
mc1 = translational mass assigned to piston, kg
mc2 = rotational mass assigned to crankpin, kg
b = distance from crankpin center to center of gravity of connecting rod, m
The appropriate mass to use in Equation 6.8 is the mass of the piston and piston pin,
plus mass mc1.

6.4.3 Reciprocating UnbalanceSingle-Cylinder Engines

In a single-cylinder engine, part of the vibration arising from the reciprocating
piston can be offset by increasing the mass of the crankshaft counterweights beyond
that needed to balance the crankshaft alone. The total oscillating force in the xdirection (the direction of piston movement, usually vertical) is
Fx = ( m p + m c1 ) R2 (cos +

R
cos 2) + ( m e + m c 2 ) R2 cos
L

(6.11)

where
mp = mass of piston and piston pin, kg
me = equivalent mass at the crankpin, kg
The equivalent mass at the crankpin includes the crankpin and counterweights, and
can be calculated using
me =

m cp R + 2m ca R a 2m cb R b
R

(6.12)

where
me = equivalent mass at crankpin, kg
mcp = mass of crankpin, kg
mca = material mass supporting crankpin, kg
mcb = counterweight mass opposite crankpin, kg
R = crankpin radius = half of piston stroke, m
Ra = radius to center of gravity of mca, m
Rb = radius to center of mass mcb, m
See Figure 6.5 for identification of the masses and radii in Equation 6.12. The first
term in Equation 6.11 arises from the reciprocating masses, while the second term is
the x-direction component of the rotating mass. In addition, the rotating mass produces
a force Fy perpendicular to the crankshaft centerline and to Fx, i.e.,
Fy = ( m e + m c 2 ) R2 sin

(6.13)

From Equation 6.11, note that the oscillating force, Fx has two frequency components,
one at crankshaft speed (called the primary shaking force) and one at twice crankshaft

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CHAPTER 6 ENGINE DESIGN

speed (called the secondary shaking force). From Equation 6.12, by using large
counterweights, the equivalent mass, me, could be made sufficiently negative to
completely cancel out the primary shaking force, but at the cost of generating a large
lateral oscillating force, Fy. As a compromise in single-cylinder engines, the
crankshaft counterweights are made large enough to cancel out about half of the
primary shaking force, Fx.

6.4.4 Reciprocating UnbalanceMulti-Cylinder Engines

In multi-cylinder engines, adding the forces, Fx, of all of the cylinders (being sure to
provide the proper phase angles between the crank angles of the various cylinders)
shows that some of the forces cancel out while others do not. Table 6.1 summarizes
the primary and secondary shaking (inertia) forces of various engines. Note that the
two-cylinder and four-cylinder engines each have a secondary inertia force. In fourcylinder engines that are bolted directly to the vehicle frame, as in a farm tractor, a
Lanchester balancer is used to cancel out the secondary shaking force to protect the
operator from the vibration. The balancer consists of two counterweights that rotate at
twice crankshaft speed (see Figure 6.6). The counterweights are arranged to provide
zero net force in the y-direction and, if properly timed to the crankshaft, will
completely cancel the secondary inertia force. The counterweights are properly timed
when the masses are farthest from the crankshaft when any two pistons are at HDC.
Four-cylinder automotive engines do not require a Lanchester balancer; the rubber
engine mounts absorb the vibration and protect the operator. The two-cylinder engine
also has a secondary shaking force with half the amplitude of that of the four-cylinder
engine. Although a Lanchester-type balancer could be used on the two-cylinder
engine, the benefit has not justified the cost and secondary balancers are generally not
used on two-cylinder engines.
Table 6.1. Amplitudes of shaking forces and couples.
No. Cylinders

Primary Force,
N

Secondary Force,
N

Primary Couple,
N.m

Secondary
Couple, N.m

1
2

K[a]
Zero

KR/L
2KR/L

Zero
Ka

Zero
Zero

Zero

Zero

4
Zero
4KR/L
6
Zero
Zero
[a]
Half of this force can be counterbalanced.
All forces and couples are in a vertical plane.
Standard crankshafts are assumed, as shown in Figure 6.1.
K = mR2
= crankshaft rotational speed, rad/sec
R = crank-throw radius, m
L = connecting rod length, m
a = spacing between cylinders, m

3 Ka
Zero
Zero

3 KaR/L
Zero
Zero

OFF-ROAD VEHICLE ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES

123

Figure 6.6. A Lanchester balancer.

6.4.5 Inertia Couples

Table 6.1 also shows inertia couples or moments. These are calculated from the
inertia forces by taking moments about the center of the crankshaft as viewed along
the y-axis. Thus, the couples tend to make the engine rock (pitch) about the y-axis.
The primary inertial couple on the two-cylinder engine and the secondary inertia
couple on three-cylinder engines are generally left unbalanced. However, most threecylinder engines have provision for balancing about half of the primary inertial couple
through use of a counterweighted front pulley. By proper phasing of the
counterweighted pulley to the crankshaft, an inertia couple can be set up to oppose the
inherent inertia couple shown in Table 6.1. Unfortunately, the counterweighted pulley
sets up a new inertia couple around the z (vertical) axis, i.e., a yawing couple. Thus,
only about half of the rocking couple can be balanced without creating an excessive
yawing couple.

6.4.6 Instantaneous Torque and Flywheels

Piston-crank kinematics can also be used in calculating the instantaneous torque
produced by each cylinder. The instantaneous torque is force, Qt, (see Figure 6.5)
multiplied by the crank radius, R. The end result of the analysis is summarized as
T
= [1 +
Fp R

cos
2

L
sin 2
2
R

] sin

(6.14)

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CHAPTER 6 ENGINE DESIGN

Figure 6.7. Instantaneous torque from an IH5288 engine.

where
T = instantaneous torque, N.m
Fp = instantaneous force on piston, N
R = crank-throw radius, m

OFF-ROAD VEHICLE ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES

125

The force on the piston at any time is the piston top area multiplied by the
instantaneous cylinder pressure. The radial force, Qr, is also of interest, since it
provides loading on the main bearings. It is
R 2
sin
Qr
L
= cos
(6.15)
Fp
R2
2
1 2 sin
L
Neither the instantaneous torque nor the radial bearing loads can be calculated until
the cylinder pressure is known as a function of crank angle. Figure 6.7 shows
instantaneous torque for a specific CI engine. Inserting the engine L/R ratio into
Equation 6.14 produced the diagram T/FpR shown at the top of Figure 6.7. The middle
graph shows instantaneous cylinder pressures as measured with a transducer, and the
bottom graph shows instantaneous torques. The piston strokes and valve events are
also shown on the diagram. Note that the exhaust valve was opened well before CDC,
to permit the early start of the exhaust process with very little loss of instantaneous
torque.

6.4.7 Flywheel Design

Note that the instantaneous torque in Figure 6.7 is less than the average torque, Tave,
during most of the cycle. The average torque output is equal to the average torque
imposed by the load on the engine; when Tave is less than the load torque, the engine
will stall unless a flywheel is used to supply part of the torque demand. The flywheel
accelerates and stores kinetic energy when the instantaneous torque is greater than
Tave; it decelerates and gives up kinetic energy when Tave is greater than the
instantaneous torque. The flywheel design consists of providing sufficient inertia such
that cyclic speed changes are within desired limits.
In a multi-cylinder engine, the contributions of the cylinders combine to produce an
instantaneous torque curve that is less peaked than the one in Figure 6.7. Figure 6.8
shows typical combined instantaneous torque curves for a four-cylinder and a sixcylinder engine. Each of the shaded areas illustrated for the six-cylinder engine are
where the instantaneous torque exceeds the mean load torque; on a torque versus crankangle plot, the area of each shaded region is equal to the kinetic energy that can be stored
by the flywheel for release when the mean torque exceeds the instantaneous engine
torque. It can be shown that the required mass moment of inertia of the flywheel is
900 E k
(6.16)
If =
2 N e2
where
If = required mass moment of inertia, kg m2
Ne = average engine speed, rev/min
E = kinetic energy transfer (J), = W
where = ratio taken from Table 6.2
W = indicated work per revolution, J/rev
k = 50/p = coefficient of speed variation
where p = percent by which the speed is permitted to vary from N

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CHAPTER 6 ENGINE DESIGN

Figure 6.8. Total instantaneous torque curves for four- and six-cylinder engines.

Table 6.2. Approximate values of flywheel constants

for standard crankshaft arrangements
(Figure 6.1) and four-stroke cycle operation.
=E/W

Engine Type
One-cylinder
Two-cylinder
Three-cylinder
Four-cylinder
Six-cylinder

2.40
1.50
0.70
0.30
0.10

The indicated work per cycle can be estimated by

W=

60,000 Pb
N eem

(6.17)

where
Pb = brake power, kW
em = mechanical efficiency, decimal (estimated at 0.8 when Pb is full load)
The inertia calculated using Equation 6.16 is the total inertia required to control the
speed variation through each engine cycle. The clutch may contribute up to 40% of the
required inertia, leaving 60% to be provided by the flywheel itself.

OFF-ROAD VEHICLE ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES

127

6.4.8 Crankshaft Twist and Vibration Dampeners

The torsional flexibility of the crankshaft, coupled with the inertia of the flywheel,
forms a torsional spring-mass system. The natural frequency of oscillation of this
system depends on the crankshaft torsional stiffness and on the flywheel inertia. The
longer the crankshaft and the heavier the flywheel, the lower is the natural frequency
of the crankshaft-flywheel system. The instantaneous torque fluctuations excite
oscillating twisting of the crankshaft. Each cylinder generates an excitation cycle once
each two revolutions of the crankshaft and, at normal speeds, this fundamental
frequency is typically far below the natural frequency of the crankshaft-flywheel
system. However, as shown in Figure 6.7, the instantaneous torque curve is not
sinusoidal. Through a Fourier series expansion, the instantaneous torque curve can be
represented as a sine wave at the fundamental frequency plus other sine waves whose
frequencies are multiples of the fundamental frequency, i.e., as a fundamental sine
wave plus higher harmonics. Some of these higher harmonics can approach the system
natural frequency, causing the oscillations in crankshaft twist to become large enough
to cause crankshaft failure. The problem is most likely to occur in long crankshafts,
for example, in an in-line, six-cylinder engine. To correct the problem, a small
flywheel is flexibly mounted to the front pulley of the engine. Figure 6.9 illustrates

Figure 6.9. A vibration dampener.

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CHAPTER 6 ENGINE DESIGN

two types of flexible connections. One is a spring-loaded friction disk between the
small flywheel and the pulley. The other consists of rubber bushings around the bolts
that hold the small flywheel to the pulley. Of course, only one type is used in each
installation. In attempting to transmit the oscillations from the pulley to the small
flywheel, the flexible connection tends to convert the vibrational energy to heat, which
is dissipated by convection and radiation. In absorbing the vibrational energy, the
vibration damper thus prevents crankshaft failure. The modification to the front pulley
is called either a vibration dampener or a harmonic balancer. Typically, a vibration
dampener is used on in-line, six-cylinder engines, but not on four-cylinder engines.

6.5 Chapter Summary

By choosing the desired brake power output and rated speed of a new engine and
assuming a reasonable value of brake mean effective pressure, the engine designer can
calculate the required engine displacement, and then choose the number of cylinders
needed to achieve the displacement with a reasonable piston size. Selection of the
bore-stroke ratio then determines the engine bore and stroke. In choosing the power
output and rated speed, the designer must consider the engine load factor. Automotive
engines have very low load factors and, by being rated at a very high speed, can
achieve a much higher power output from a given displacement than can heavier duty
engines with high load factors.
The valves and either the injection timing in a CI engine or the spark in an SI
engine must be timed to the crankshaft to allow the engine to run. For a four-cycle
engine, valve timing is conveniently shown on a valve timing spiral. Valve timing is
selected to maximize airflow into an engine. The average firing interval of an engine
decreases with numbers of cylinders. Two-cylinder engines have nonuniform firing
intervals while intervals are uniform for engines with three or more cylinders.
A number of engine unbalance problems were presented in the chapter.
Counterweights opposite each crank throw are used to put a crankshaft in dynamic
balance. By use of oversized counterweights, up to half of the primary shaking force
in a single-cylinder engine can be cancelled. The Lanchester balancer is used on large,
four-cylinder engines to cancel out inherent secondary shaking forces. On threecylinder engines, a counterweighted front pulley is used to cancel out about half of an
inherent pitching couple.
A flywheel is used to smooth the power impulses from engines. The flywheel
accelerates and stores energy when the instantaneous torque is greater than the load
torque, then decelerates and gives up the energy when the instantaneous torque is less
than the load torque. Increasing the number of cylinders decreases the required
flywheel size needed to control cyclic speed fluctuations.
In engines with long crankshafts, frequencies of higher harmonics of the
instantaneous torque curve can approach the torsional natural frequency of the
crankshaft-flywheel system, resulting in crankshaft failure. To prevent such failures, a
vibration dampener or harmonic balancer is attached to the front pulley. The flexible
connection between the balancer and the pulley drains off vibrational energy, thus
preventing crankshaft failure. Typically, vibration dampeners are used on in-line, sixcylinder engines but are not used on engines with four or less cylinders.

OFF-ROAD VEHICLE ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES

129

Homework Problems
6.1

6.2
6.3

6.4

6.5

6.6
6.7

6.8
6.9
6.10
6.11
6.12
6.13

6.14
6.15

(a) Prepare a firing order tree for a four-cylinder engine with a standard
crankshaft.
(b) Calculate the average firing interval for this engine if it is a four-stroke cycle
engine.
Rework Problem 6.1, except the engine is a three-cylinder engine.
Draw a complete valve timing spiral for an engine with the following valve
events: ivo, 12 bHDC; ivc, 48 aCDC; evo, 50 bCDC; evc, 10 aHDC. Label
all strokes and all valve events.
Draw a complete valve timing spiral for an engine with the following valve
events: ivo, 8 bHDC; ivc, 55 aCDC; evo, 47 bCDC; evc, 12 aHDC. Label all
strokes and all valve events.
(a) Assuming L/R = 3.0, plot S/R for one complete revolution of the crankshaft
using Equation 6.3.
(b) On the same graph, plot S/R using Equation 6.4.
(c) Comment on the extent to which the approximate equation (6.4) is accurate
in calculating piston movement.
Rework Problem 6.5, but use an L/R ratio of 3.2.
(a) Assuming L/R = 3.0 and using Equation 6.5, plot normalized piston velocity,
V/R, for one complete revolution of the crankshaft.
(b) On the same graph, mark the crank angle at which maximum piston velocity
occurs as indicated by Equation 6.6.
(c) Does the crank angle of (b) agree with the maximum velocity plot of (a)?
Rework Problem 6.7, but use L/R = 2.95.
Beginning with Equation 6.8, verify all entries for the one-cylinder engine in
Table 6.1.
Beginning with Equation 6.8, verify all entries for the two-cylinder engine in
Table 6.1.
Beginning with Equation 6.8, verify all entries for the three-cylinder engine in
Table 6.1.
Beginning with Equation 6.8, verify all entries for the four-cylinder engine in
Table 6.1.
Using Equation 6.14, plot T/FpR for one complete revolution of the crankshaft.
Plot three curves on the same graph, one each for L/R = 2.8, 3.0, and 3.2. How
much influence does the L/R ratio have on the curves?
Rework problem 6.13, but plot curves for L/R = 2.9, 3.1, and 3.3.
Using Equation 6.15, plot Q/Fp for one complete revolution of the crankshaft.
Plot three curves on the same graph, one each for L/R = 2.8, 3.0, and 3.2. How
much influence does the L/R ratio have on the curves? At what crank angle

130

CHAPTER 6 ENGINE DESIGN

would the absolute bearing load be greatest? (Note that the cylinder pressure at
HDC is not the same as at CDC).
6.16 Rework problem 6.15, except plot curves L/R = 2.9, 3.1, and 3.3.
6.17 Derive Equation 6.16. (Hint: Let E = the change in rotational kinetic energy
between the states of maximum and minimum cyclic speeds.)
6.18 You are to evaluate possible rated speeds for a four-cylinder, four-cycle engine
with displacement of 4.8 L.
(a) Assuming the brake mean effective pressure is 800 kPa, calculate and plot
the brake power output for speeds ranging from 2000 to 2400 rev/min.
(b) On another graph, plot the required inertia of the flywheel-clutch assembly if
the cyclic speed is to vary no more than 0.5% from the mean crankshaft speed.
6.19 Rework Problem 6.15, but use a six-cylinder engine with a displacement of
7.2 L.
6.20 Rework Problem 6.15, but use a two-cylinder engine with a displacement of
2.4 L.
6.21 Rework Problem 6.15, but use a three-cylinder engine with a displacement of
3.6 L.

References and Suggested Readings

Bremer, R. 1979. A practical treatise on engine crankshaft torsional vibration control.
SAE Paper No. SP-445-750763. Warrendale, PA: SAE.
Erickson, M.A. 1971. Fatigue testing and crankshaft development. Transactions of the
ASAE 14(1): 1-2, 6.
John Deere Service Training. 1991. Fundamentals of ServiceEngines. Moline, IL:
John Deere Corp.
SAE. 1992a. Maximum allowable rotational speed for internal combustion engine
flywheels. SAE Standard J1456. SAE Handbook, vol. 3. Warrendale, PA: SAE.
SAE. 1992b. Flywheel spin test procedure. SAE Standard J1240. SAE Handbook, vol.
3. Warrendale, PA: SAE.
SAE. 1992c. Engine flywheel housings. SAE Standard J617c. SAE Handbook, vol. 4.
Warrendale, PA: SAE.
SAE. 1992d. Flywheel dimensions for truck and bus applications. SAE Standard
J1857. SAE Handbook, vol. 3. Warrendale, PA: SAE.
SAE. 1992e. Flywheels for single-plate spring-loaded clutches. SAE Standard J618.
SAE Handbook, vol. 3. Warrendale, PA: SAE.
SAE. 1992f. Flywheels for two-plate spring-loaded clutches. SAE Standard J619. SAE
Handbook, vol. 3. Warrendale, PA: SAE.