DEVELOPMENT OF A LONG STROKE SHAKER

FOR STRUCTURAL EXCITATION

A thesis written at
SIEMENS
and submitted to
KETTERING UNIVERSITY
in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the
degree of
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
by
WILLIAM HAMILTON
2015

Author

Employer Advisor

Faculty Advisor

DISCLAIMER

This thesis is submitted as partial and final fulfillment of the cooperative work
experience requirements of Kettering University needed to obtain a Bachelor of Science
in Mechanical Engineering Degree.
The conclusions and opinions expressed in this thesis are those of the writer and
do not necessarily represent the position of Kettering University or Siemens, or any of its
directors, officers, agents, or employees with respect to the matters discussed.

PREFACE

This thesis represents the capstone of my five years combined academic work at
Kettering University and job experience at Siemens. Academic experiences in
mechanical engineering proved to be valuable assets while I developed this thesis and
addressed the problem it concerns.
Although this thesis represents the compilation of my own efforts, I would like to
acknowledge and extend my sincere gratitude to the following persons for their valuable
time and assistance, without whom the completion of this thesis would not have been
possible:
1.

Professor Mohamed El-Sayed, Ph.D., Professor of Mechanical Engineering and

Faculty Thesis Advisor, Kettering University

2.

Andrew Santangelo, Measurement Specialist, Siemens PLM Software

3.

Christopher Debusschere, Project Engineer, Siemens PLM Software

4.

My wife Katie, family, friends, Kettering University faculty, Siemens ES/CS, and
anyone else who offered assistance and encouragement along the way.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DISCLAIMER ....................................................................................................................... 2
PREFACE .............................................................................................................................. 3
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ................................................................................................. 5
I.

INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 9
Problem Topic ............................................................................................... 9
Background .................................................................................................... 9
Criteria and Parameter Restrictions ............................................................. 16
Methodology ................................................................................................ 16
Primary Purpose ........................................................................................... 17
Overview ...................................................................................................... 17

II.

DESIGN PROCESS ................................................................................................. 18

Magnets and Yoke Arrangement ................................................................... 19
Armature ........................................................................................................ 28
Coil................................................................................................................. 47
Circuit Analysis ............................................................................................. 49
Yoke ............................................................................................................... 55
Mounting and Centering ................................................................................ 57

III.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................... 61

REFERENCES .................................................................................................................... 63
GLOSSARY ........................................................................................................................ 65
APPENDICES ..................................................................................................................... 66
APPENDIX A: MISCELLANEOUS FIGURES AND TABLES ............................ 67
APPENDIX B: ENGINEERING DRAWINGS ....................................................... 74
APPENDIX C: SPECIFICATIONS ......................................................................... 91
APPENDIX D: ABET PROGRAM OUTCOMES................................................... 93

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figures

Page

1. The Tacoma Narrows Bridge shown before collapsing. ............................................... 12

2. Target bending modes for NASA Ares I-X rocket in free-free condition and on
mobile launch pad. ........................................................................................................ 13
3. Comparison of expected and actual mode shapes, NASA Ares I-X Rocket modal
analysis ........................................................................................................................... 14
4. Construction and operation of a typical voice coil. ....................................................... 14
5.

Lorentz force on a straight section of wire. .................................................................... 15

6. Electrodynamic force generator including yoke, coil, and magnets ............................... 18

7.

Field lines compacting when in parallel arrangement .................................................... 21

8. Two-Dimensional cut plane of air gap and Y-component flux density .......................... 22
9. Two-Dimensional flux density streamline plot, no current in coil ................................ 23
10.

One-Dimensional flux density plot, no current in coil ................................................. 24

11.

Two-Dimensional flux density streamline plot, six amps of current in coil ................ 25

12.

One-Dimensional flux density plot, six amps of current in coil .................................. 26

13.

Lorentz force contribution, Z-component (N) .............................................................. 27

14.

Armature hung in free-free condition during modal analysis ...................................... 30

15.

Mode shapes described by frequency response functions ............................................ 31

16.

Frequency response functions for all accelerometer locations .................................... 32

17.

Averaged frequency response function for all accelerometer locations ...................... 32

18.

Bandwidth selection between 0Hz-500Hz ................................................................... 33

19.

Polymax parameter stabilization used to select stable FRF peaks ............................... 33

20.

MIF function used to accurately select structure modes .............................................. 34

21.

Sum block synthesis plot for armature modal .............................................................. 36

22.

Triple geometry showing mode shape at 132.3Hz ....................................................... 37

23.

Triple geometry showing mode shape at 169.0Hz ...................................................... 38

24.

Triple geometry showing mode shape at 205.4Hz ...................................................... 39

25.

Triple geometry showing mode shape at 270.3Hz ...................................................... 39

26.

Triple geometry showing mode shape at 320.4Hz ...................................................... 40

27.

Triple geometry showing mode shape at 387.6Hz ...................................................... 40

28.

Triple geometry showing mode shape at 442.6Hz ...................................................... 41

29.

Modal Assurance Criterion (MAC) for selected modes .............................................. 42

30.

Triple geometry showing mode shape at 132.3Hz ...................................................... 44

31.

Modal Assurance Criterion (MAC) for selected modes after prediction ..................... 44

32.

Von-Mises stress calculation using Siemens NX Nastran ........................................... 46

33.

Nodal displacement calculation using Siemens NX Nastran ....................................... 46

34.

Hand wound square coil after potting compound is applied ........................................ 48

35.

Completely assembled armature with coil installed .................................................... 49

36.

Impedance vs. frequency plot for RL circuit ............................................................... 53

37.

Current vs frequency plot for RL circuit ...................................................................... 54

38.

Example of stinger attachment to a shaker .................................................................. 58

Appendices
A-1. NASA Ares I-X complete with two views ........................................................... 68
A-2. NASA Ares I-X segmented view ......................................................................... 69
A-3. Parallel magnet field lines compacting ................................................................. 69
A-4. Test set-up including Siemens LMS SCADAS Lab ............................................. 70
B-1. Stinger bar ............................................................................................................ 75
B-2. Weight attach bar - A ........................................................................................... 76
B-3. Weight attach bar - B ............................................................................................ 77
B-4. Coil holder (Flat) .................................................................................................. 78
B-5. Coil holder (Round) .............................................................................................. 79
B-6. Stinger arm ........................................................................................................... 80
B-7. Angled plate top outside .................................................................................... 81
B-8. Angled plate top inside ...................................................................................... 82
B-9. Angled plate bottom outside .............................................................................. 83
B-10. Angled plate bottom inside .............................................................................. 84
B-11. Spacer block ....................................................................................................... 85
B-12. Top plate view (1) ........................................................................................... 86
B-13. Top plate view (2) ........................................................................................... 87
B-14. Bottom plate view (1) ..................................................................................... 88
B-15. Bottom plate view (2) ...................................................................................... 89
B-16. Shaft .................................................................................................................... 90

Tables
1. Mode Table for Armature Modal Analysis ..................................................................... 35
2. Impedance and Current Values at Various Operating Frequencies ............................... 53
Appendices
A-1. Part Cost Index ..................................................................................................... 71
A-2. Armature Assembly Required Parts List .............................................................. 72
A-3. Yoke Assembly Required Parts List ..................................................................... 72
A-4. Frame Assembly Required Parts List ................................................................... 73

I. INTRODUCTION

Problem Topic
Currently, Siemens PLM Software possesses no such equipment to generate
controlled vibration input for analysis of some structures being tested. Existing methods
do not generate necessary vibration within required frequency levels, and purchasing or
renting existing commercial equipment is not a cost effective solution. Given the fact that
some of the structures being tested are extremely large, currently owned frequency
generators, or shakers are incapable of creating the required force input. Also to properly
test these structures, large displacements are needed in order to excite them, therefore
large forces are also required.
Background
There are a multitude of testing uses for a large displacement, or long stroke
shaker, however the main purpose for this thesis will focus on aircraft ground vibration
testing, also known as GVT. This testing is performed on all new aircraft designs as well
as proposed design changes to existing airframes, and is required by the FAA during the
aircraft flight certification process. According to NASA The GVT supports flight test
activities by assisting in flutter test planning and resolving in-flight aeroelastic related
anomalies. It is also used to detect structural flaws and troubleshoot flight control
dynamic problems.(NASA, 2010). If an airframe is to be certified by the FAA, both
static and dynamic aeroelasticity effects on an aircrafts structural integrity and flight
characteristics must be determined to ensure safe flight.

Static aeroelasticity can be described by two basic phenomena, control reversal

and divergence. These events can be detrimental to an aircraft structure as well as
introduce unintended handling characteristics during flight. Control reversal occurs when
an aircraft flight control surface experiences some change in shape due to bending
opposite of its intended design. This bending can cause the surface to react in a reverse
manner in which the pilot would be expecting. If this reversal is not anticipated, a fatal
loss of aircraft control can occur; such was the case with United Airlines flight 585. In
this incident a Boeing 737 crashed during final runway approach, killing 25 people on
March 3rd, 1991 near Colorado Springs Colorado.
The NTSB investigation that followed concluded that the cause of the accident
was attributable to a loss of control of the airplane resulting from the movement of the
rudder surface to its blowdown limit. The rudder surface most likely deflected in a
direction opposite to that commanded by the pilots as a result of a jam of the main rudder
power control unit servo valve secondary slide to the servo valve housing offset from its
neutral position and over travel of the primary slide.(NTSB, 2001). Divergence occurs
when an airfoil experiences an increased displacement due to applied aerodynamic loads.
Over time these unforeseen load increases can lead to total structural failure, usually
resulting in loss of the flight surface.
Dynamic aeroelasticity also include several phenomena such as transonic
aeroelasticity, buffeting, or the more concentrated concern of flutter, which is considered
to be the main focus during a ground vibration test. Flutter occurs when an aerodynamic
body experiences a simple harmonic motion while passing through a fluid medium such
as air. This uncontrollable oscillation is caused by a natural frequency being excited in

10

either an airfoil or flight control surface that builds in amplitude, eventually leading to
total structural failure due to an effective negative damping. The excitation can be
induced by either the fluid medium or some internal mechanism such as a hum
produced by a fly by wire hydraulic pack that moves the flight control surface.
Several examples of structures destroyed due to flutter can be examined, such as
the collapse of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge (Figure 1). The start of a resonance
vibration in torsional mode resulted in the collapse of the bridge. This is an example of
forced resonance with the wind providing an external periodic frequency that matched the
natural structural frequency of the bridge to eventually destroy the structure. This
vibration was caused by aeroelasticity flutter.(Aviation, 2015) Also, flutter can occur
instantaneously with a sudden decrease in structural dampening, also known as hard
flutter, or gradual decrease over time for soft flutter (Chen, 2008). Given this, it is
important to validate all airframe designs to ensure they will not experience a
catastrophic loss during flight.
One example of an aircraft GVT was performed by NASA on the Ares I-X crew
launch vehicle. This modal test was performed to verify the dynamic finite element
model (FEM) used in load assessments and flight control evaluations. (NASA, 2010).
The targets of the test were the first three bending modes of the structure as well as FEM
validation. The modal test was performed on individual segments, then as a full
assembly. Also, since the complete assembly (Figure A-1) weighed 1.8 million pounds at
a height of 327 feet, the modal analysis was performed on a mobile launch pad. The
assembled segments tested are shown in (Figure A-2) while the target bending modes of
the rocket are shown in Figure 2.

11

Figure 1. Tacoma Narrows Bridge before collapsing. (Detrick, 2013)

The launch vehicle structure was excited via four Team Corp. hydraulic actuator
assemblies with a displacement stroke of two inches and 560 pound peak dynamic load
capacity at 1,000 psi hydraulic pressure. When the results of the GVT were compared to
that of the simulated FEM results (Figure 3), the anticipated bending modes of the
structure are verified. Note that these natural bending modes occur at very low
frequencies, between 0.176Hz to 4.78Hz. These modes would not have been captured if
the structure had not been excited within this region of the 12.5 Hz bandwidth.

12

Figure 2. Target bending modes for NASA Ares I-X rocket in free-free condition and on
mobile launch pad. (NASA, 2010)

An excitation shaker used for vibration testing typically operates within a small
range of displacement and higher frequency ranges. This is due to the limitations of the
internal construction of the shaker, which uses a permanent magnet attached to an iron
yoke. The magnetically charged pole is located center of the yoke and an energized coil
moves in the air gap between the pole and yoke. The construction of this type of shaker is
similar to that of a voice coil found in most audio speakers such as in Figure 4.

13

Figure 3. Comparison of expected and actual mode shapes, NASA Ares I-X Rocket
modal analysis. (NASA, 2010)

Figure 4. Construction and operation of a typical voice coil. (Crane, 2015)

When a current is applied to the shaker coil, a magnetic field is generated around
the coil by electrons moving through the wire. The strength of the magnetic field
generated by the flow of electrons in the wire can be determined using Equation 1 for a
current carrying wire.

14


=

 
2

(1)

Where:

B is the magnetic field generated

 is the permeability of free space

I is the current in the wire

r is the radius of the wire

If the wire is placed inside of a small air gap between two poles of the permanent
magnet, a sufficient force is generated on the wire in a direction described by the right
hand rule. The force on a current carrying wire in a uniform magnetic field can be
calculated using the Lorentz force law described in Equation 2 and depicted in Figure 5.

= 


(2)

Figure 5. Lorentz force on a straight section of wire. (Brushed DC Motor Theory, 2011)

15

The repulsive force generated by the opposing magnetic fields is a function of the
strength of the permanent magnets used in construction, as well as the amount of current
supplied to the coil and number of loops of the conductor . In order to determine the force
generated by the Lorentz law, the length of wire in the coil, electric current supplied, and
the magnetic field strength in the air gap from the permanent magnet is needed for the
intended use.
Criteria and Parameter Restrictions
In order to ensure the shaker design meets the expected operating modes and
conditions, a design criterion has been outlined. This criterion includes a design that
capable of producing a sine wave function at around 400N of force. Also necessary is a
lightweight armature that is capable of accepting additional mass for shaker preloads. The
armature will also be required to be dynamically self-centering during operation in
vertical and horizontal positions.
Methodology
A design process was utilized to facilitate the completion of this thesis. This
process included research of existing shaker functionality and theory of operation, as well
as determining whether to create a new design or improve upon an existing one. After a
selection was made, a computer model and simulation was used to validate the design.
Lastly, several components of the shaker were built and tested in order to verify the
computer simulation data.

16

Primary Purpose
The purpose of this thesis is to present the results of the investigation and
development of a long stroke electrodynamic force generator, or shaker.
Overview
The subsequent chapters are to describe the process in which a mechanical design
can be implemented for an electrodynamic force generator. All components of the design
will be analyzed, with some being built in order to validate computer simulation models.
Once the test results fall within an acceptable error range, the testing will be considered
complete, and a successful design upon completion.

17

II. DESIGN PROCESS

A well-established shaker design (Electrodynamic Force Generator Patent # US

3816777 A) was selected as the basis of the new design for this thesis. This design
encompassed the directive of the project and followed similar operation of those already
in use. The patent design comprised of two sections, a lightweight coil armature and four
permanent magnets attached to an iron yoke. Within the iron yoke an air gap exists in
which a current carrying coil of wire can move freely, aided by linear ball bearings and
shafts on either side of the coil such as in Figure 6.

Figure 6. Electrodynamic force generator including yoke, coil, and magnets. (Metzgar,
1974)

18

Magnets and Yoke Arrangement

Permanent magnets are available in various sizes, shapes, and physical chemistry.
If a shaker is to be built using permanent magnets, a value for the magnetic field strength
created by each magnet is necessary. In order to generate the force levels required for this
thesis design, a relatively strong permanent magnet will be needed.
Before selecting a permanent magnet, its flux density magnitude in open air was
determined. This value would assist in establishing how many turns of the coil would be
required, and maximum air gap allowable within the iron yoke, as well as necessary
magnet strength. For this design, Applied Magnets part number NB087 was chosen due
to space and cost restrictions, and were the limiting factor of the shaker design. The
permanent magnets used were stated by the manufacturer as having a remnant field
strength of 1.32 Tesla at the materials surface and are composed of Neodymium, type
N45. The numerical nomenclature for this magnet refers to its physical grade, and as
stated by (Grades of Neodymium, 2015) represents the maximum energy product in
Mega-Gauss Oersteds (MGOe) where 1 MGOe (cgs units) equals 7958kJ/m3 (SI units)
To determine the flux density of the axial magnet block at a given air gap,
Equation 3 was used. (FAQ, 2014)

=


tan 


24  +
 +  
tan 

2( + ) 4( +   ) +
 +  

19

!"

(3)

Using Equation 3 it was determined that the theoretical magnetic flux density for
a single N42 block magnet was about 0.3 Tesla, with no iron yoke attached and at a
specified air gap. This calculation was performed using a 6 x 6 x 1 magnet, an air gap
(Z) of 0.75 in, and a surface magnetic remanence field (Br) of 1.32T.
To quantify the magnetic field strength as accurately as possible, a simulation was
performed using COMSOL Multiphysics. This was completed to determine if the yoke
and magnet components, design, and assembly method chosen would be sufficiently
powerful enough to generate the desired 400N of force desired. Given that the magnetic
flux density calculated using Equation 3 only theoretically estimated the field for one
standalone magnet, no mathematical estimations could be made for how strong the field
would be from four magnets when arranged in the designed yoke.
According to HomoFaciens, when any two magnets are arranged in parallel, i.e.
both north and south poles aligned, the field lines between the magnets are very
compact. The field strength is higher at this area than it would be with just one magnet.
(Magnets, 2015), as seen generally in Figure 7, or also Figure A-3.
The maximum amount of increased field strength in this region was needed to
allow for as uniform a magnetic field as possible since the magnets would need a gap
between them, given their arrangement on the yoke as well as 1,000 pound of repulsion
force attempting to separate them. This increase in field strength would in turn allow for a
linear force output oven the entirety of the stroke, transmitted to the structure being
excited, which is necessary for accurate measurements.

20

Figure 7. Field lines compacting when in parallel arrangement. (Magnets, 2015)

Siemens NX9 was used to generate a CAD model that was imported into
COMSOL Multiphysics and a simulation for the magnetic field present in the air gap
between the magnets and opposite yoke, as well as field surrounding the coil was
performed. The results of the simulation confirmed the flux density calculation from
Equation 3 with a negligible degree of error. For operation of this machine it was
imperative that the results of this simulation be satisfactory or the design would need to
be altered.
When viewing the results of the simulation the best visually representation of the
air gap as well as the gap between magnets, a 2D cut view of the air gap is shown in
Figure 8. This image displays the Y-component flux density to be a value of around 0.7
Tesla at the surface of the magnets, as well as nearly 0.3 Tesla in the gap between the
parallel magnets.

21

Figure 8. Two-Dimensional cut plane of air gap and Y-component flux density.

Next, 2D streamline plots were made of the magnet, yoke, and coil while
operating in an on/off condition. Figure 9 shows the system in a static state, as no current
is supplied to the coil. In this case the magnet field is not being influenced or interacting
with the coil in any way, as can be seen in the relatively straight field lines and 0.3 Tesla
strength. The 1D plot in Figure 10 also shows the lack of interaction, as well as the
linearity of the field within the air gap

22

Figure 9. Two-Dimensional flux density streamline plot, no current in coil.

23

Figure 10. One-Dimensional flux density plot, no current in coil.

Likewise it can be seen in the 2D streamline plot (Figure 11) when there is six
amps of current supplied to the coil, there is substantial interaction occurring. This is
shown by the large increase of field strength, a pull of the magnetic field lines, as well as
an increase in air gap field strength linearity (Figure 12).

24

Figure 11. Two-Dimensional flux density streamline plot, six amps of current in coil.

25

Figure 12. One-Dimensional flux density plot, six amps of current in coil

A calculation was also performed using COMSOL Multiphysics to verify the

force level that could be expected by this magnet and coil arrangement. Figure 13 shows
a 3D cut view of the yoke assembly, as well as the applied direction of force on the coil
by the magnetic field interaction. This force was simulated to be around 374.3N on the

26

coil, which is around 94 percent of target. Given that there is less than a 10 percent loss in
required performance this was accepted as satisfactory.

Figure 13. Lorentz force contribution, Z-component (N).

Given the fact that the field is not completely linear in the air gap, a section of
around one inch experiences a smaller 0.3T field while the remaining section experiences

27

0.7T of field. Using Equation 2 and assuming about 70 turns per inch. The lower field
portion of the coil contributes 38.4N of force, while the upper field portion contributes
358.4N of force. This give a total force level of about 396.9N of force generated on the
coil as calculated by hand.
Armature
When building dynamic systems we need to concern ourselves with the way in
which they will operate throughout their lifetime. Occasionally a system will experience
a forced input, causing it to oscillate or vibrate continuously. These forced vibrations are
known as natural frequencies and can be found using Equation 4.

&
#$ = %
'

(4)

The values for determining the natural frequency for Equation 4 can be obtained
several ways, but are best described by a systems equation of motion in the form of
Equation 5 (Harris, 1996).

'() * + +() , + &()  = .(/)

(5)

Given this we can determine the solution to the differential equation, known as
the characteristic equation, from the single degree of freedom EOM described in general
by Equation 6.
' 0 + + 0 + & = 0

28

(6)

In this form we can gather the necessary information to determine the natural
frequency. This includes the equivalent mass, damping, as well as stiffness. What we are
concerned with is when a system enters a resonance frequency. This occurs when the
ratio of the forcing frequency to the natural frequency becomes a value of one.
To determine if any resonance frequencies within the armature would be excited
during operation, a modal analysis was necessary. Should any such resonances exist
within the operating range of the shaker, concern for damage is warranted. If one should
be present, appropriate design changes would need to be taken into account to shift these
natural frequencies outside of the operating envelope. These changes could be as simple
as shape design, mass addition, or stiffening of the structure in some way.
The modal analysis performed was done so using 14 PCB tri-axial ICP
accelerometers, one Siemens LMS SCADAS Lab data acquisition unit, a modally tuned
impact hammer with soft rubber tip for low frequency broadband excitation, and Siemens
LMS Test.Lab rev. 14A software. The test was completed in a climate controlled room
with minimum outside interference such as sound or other sources of shock. Images of
the overall test set-up including the Siemens LMS SCADAS Lab can be found in
Appendix A, Figure A-4.
First the armature was suspended by rubber surgical tubing from a vehicle lift in
order to create a free-free boundary condition (Figure 14). This arrangement allowed for
all six rigid body degrees of freedom to have less than one half hertz natural oscillation
when manually excited. The purpose of this arrangement is to isolate the rigid body
modes of the structure towards the lower end of the bandwidth in the response spectra,
preventing interference with the results of the resonance frequency peaks. These rigid

29

body modes are sometimes referred to as zero frequency modes since The zero
frequency modes are somewhat different physically in that no elastic deformation occurs.
Both the potential energy and the kinetic energy are constant, implying a uniform
translational or rotational motion (Greenwood, 1987).

Figure 14. Armature hung in free-free condition during modal analysis.

30

Two driving point locations were then selected to attempt to excite all potentially
problematic resonance frequencies within the structure. Next the armature was then
impacted at the driving points in three polar coordinate directions. These vibration
responses were then captured by the accelerometers at 19 locations on the structure, and
input to the SCADAS frontend.
After two runs of data were taken, the appropriate modal data was selected. This
data, displaying the frequency response functions (FRF) of all accelerometer locations,
along with the average for the selected FRFs is shown in Figure 16 and Figure 17
respectively. An FRF shows the excitation of the structure and its response between two
points, along an assigned direction. These frequency response functions can be better
understood by thinking of them as a sum of individual FRFs such as in Figure 15. Using
superposition to look at how the vibrating object is distorted in pieces rather than a
whole, a representation of how an FRF can describe dynamic system responses to a
forced input.

Figure 15. Mode shapes described by frequency response functions. (Dossing, 1988)
31

In the averaged FRF (Figure 16), there are several peaks within the data. Due to
the fact that a super soft rubber hammer tip was used, a frequency range of interest from
0Hz-500Hz was selected. This selection is made because data above this bandwidth is
noisy, unreliable, and is therefore filtered out of the results. Also, this tip was used to
isolate the rigid body modes into the lower end of the bandwidth, preventing them from
distorting the natural modes of the structure.

Figure 16. Frequency response functions for all accelerometer locations.

Figure 17. Averaged frequency response function for all accelerometer locations.

32

Using Polymax Modal Analysis in Test.Lab, the bandwidth was shortened from
1024Hz down to 500 Hz leaving only seven distinct peaks. These peaks coincide with the
natural frequencies of the structure as shown in Figure 18.

Figure 18. Bandwidth selection between 0Hz-500Hz.

When a parameter stabilization function is applied to the curve, these peaks show
where the structures natural frequencies occur, and at what dampening percentage such as
in Figure 19.

Figure 19. Polymax parameter stabilization used to select stable FRF peaks.
33

Another feature utilized in Test.Lab is known as a Mode Indication Function was

applied since Mode indication functions (MIF) are normally real-valued, frequency
domain functions that exhibit local minima or maxima at the modal frequencies of the
system.(Harris, 1996). Using the MIF function helps ensure correct selection of the
structures modes while preventing false selections and can be seen in Figure 20.

Figure 20. MIF function used to accurately select structure modes.

For each stable peak an associated mode shape was given and plotted with both
maximum displacements in the oscillation, along with an un-deformed model to assist in
displacement visualization. Six rigid body modes were present but ignored as they ran
together in the lower end of the frequency range, and were not necessary since CAE
simulation was not being performed other than stress analysis. The main focus of this
modal analysis was the seven FRF peaks displayed in Figure 18, and whether of any of
these modes fall within the operating envelope. These peaks coincide with the mode

34

shapes of the structure and are listed in Table 1, Mode Table for Armature Modal
Analysis.
Table 1
Mode Table for Armature Modal Analysis
Mode No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Frequency (Hz)
132.3
169
205.4
270.3
320.4
387.6
442.6

Damping (%)
0.56
0.4
0.33
0.04
0.14
0.21
0.34

Description
First Bending, Out of Phase Rocking
Bending, Out of phase torsional loading
Torsional loading
Out of phase bending
In-Phase first bending
Out of phase bending
Bending, Torsional loading

Before accepting the chosen modal data results, verification of the curve fit
completed in Test.Lab Polymax is required. This is done by comparing the curve fit plot
to that of a synthesis plot, showing if any peaks are missed or discrepancies. The
synthesis FRF plot used in comparison is generated using Equation 7. (Siemens PLM
Software, 2012)

23(4#)5 = 6 
@

789
 789

2
>5
! + 2=>5 
+

(4# 0 ) (4# 0
#

Where:

23 (4#)5 is the frequency response matrix

0 is the system poles for mode r
789 is the mode shape r

7
9 is the modal participation factor vector for mode r

35

(7)

2=>5 is the upper residual

2
> 5 AB /D EFGD DBAHIJE

For the curve fit data a sum block synthesis plot was developed as previously
described. This plot, shown in Figure 21 depicts the relationship between the actual data
set captured during testing along with the curve fit data. Given this plot it can be seen that
the curve fit, or sum plot coincides fairly closely with the actual or synthesized plot.
There are some minor differences with the amplitudes of peak values for modes number
three and six. However, this can be attributed to the effects of the lower residual on the
curve fit due to ignoring the lower rigid body modes when curve fitting took place.

Figure 21. Sum block synthesis plot for Armature Modal.

36

We can begin to inspect the modes by looking at the first mode shape occurring at
132.3Hz. This shows first bending in the stinger arms just beyond the bolted joint, as well
as an out of phase rocking at the stinger bar connection points (Figure 22).

Figure 22. Triple geometry showing mode shape at 132.3Hz.

The second mode shape occurs at 169.0Hz and describes first bending in the
stinger bar and weight attachment assembly as well as out of phase torsional loading in
the stinger bar. This can be seen in Figure 23.

37

Figure 23. Triple geometry showing mode shape at 169.0Hz.

Mode shape three occurs at 205.4Hz and shows torsional loading of the weight
attachment assembly at the bolted connection point. This can be seen in Figure 24.
At 270.3Hz the mode is an out of phase bending in the stinger arms with some
distortion within the coil holder assembly. This can be seen in Figure 25.
The fifth mode occurs at 320.4Hz and is described as an in phase first bending of
the stinger arms as well as rocking at the bolted joint. This mode shape can be seen in
Figure 26.
At 387.6Hz the sixth mode shows an out of phase first bending of the stinger arms
along with some bending in the weight attachment assembly. This can be seen in Figure
27.

38

Figure 24. Triple geometry showing mode shape at 205.4Hz.

Figure 25. Triple geometry showing mode shape at 270.3Hz

39

Figure 26. Triple geometry showing mode shape at 320.4Hz.

Figure 27. Triple geometry showing mode shape at 387.6Hz.

40

Lastly the seventh mode that appears within the selected bandwidth occurs at
442.6Hz. This mode shows first bending and torsional loading about the Y-axis. This can
be seen in Figure 28.

Figure 28. Triple geometry showing mode shape at 442.6Hz.

Before the results of the mode selection can be concluded, verification must be
made to ensure that the modes chosen are linearly independent of one another. For this
the Modal Assurance Criterion or MAC matrix can be used, and is calculated using
Equation 8. (Siemens PLM Software, 2012)

KLMNO =

|7Q9R 2 57S9|
(7S9R 257S9)(7Q9R 257Q9)

41

(8)

Where X and Y are two complex vectors, [W] is the weighting matrix, and t*
defines the conjugate transpose. By using the MAC function in Test.Lab to form the
matrix we can establish the relationship, if any of one selected mode to that of another. If
such a linear relationship exists, we can expect a ratio of the modes selected to be one.
Likewise if no relationship exists between the modes, a ratio of or about zero can be
expected. In this case we would say that the modes being compared are linearly
independent of one another. This process is useful in determining if the same mode exists
at multiple frequencies or if a mode is selected more than once in error.
For the modal analysis performed, the resulting MAC matrix is shown in Figure
29.

Figure 29. Modal Assurance Criterion (MAC) for selected modes.

Since the modal analysis was performed on the armature prior to the coil being
added, the modes cannot be assumed accurate for the final assembly. For this reason a
mode predictor function in Test.Lab was used to estimate any shift in resonance
frequencies of the structure when the coil mass was added. Shifts in the peaks are caused

42

by the fact that the resonance frequencies are dependent upon the structures materials,
damping, mass, and assembly. When the coil is added the armature stiffness, mass, and
damping will change.
When the coil is installed, an additional weight of 7.25 pounds is divided equally
between each coil holder side. Then the mode predictor function determined that the first
natural mode would drop from 132.3Hz (0.56% damping), down to 90.9Hz (1.49%
damping) as seen in Figure 30. Since the operating range of the shaker is intended to be
between 0.5Hz to 30Hz, it is assumed that it can operate without damage caused by
vibration induced in the armature. Also, at this level we can expect a factor of safety
around three, which should take into account any issues arising from some unintended
drops in resonance frequencies after assembly.
In order to verify that the Modes predicted were not the same modes as prior to
the mass being added, an A-B MAC Matrix was constructed and can be seen if Figure 31.
As the case with the previous MAC matrix, we are looking for symmetry in the matrix to
validate that the modes selected are linearly independent, or no relationship exists
between them. This matrix is fairly symmetrical and we can say with some degree of
certainty that the modes selected before the prediction are independent of those selected
after.

43

Figure 30. Triple geometry showing drop in first mode as described by the predictor
function within Test.Lab.

Figure 31. Modal Assurance Criterion (MAC) for selected modes after prediction.

Given that the iron yoke is relatively heavy and contains no moving parts, only
the armatures material mechanics were considered during design. A stress analysis was
needed to verify the design would not fail under the anticipated maximum load. For this,

44

the NASTRAN solver in Siemens NX9 was used. To aid in simulating, the coil was
removed and replaced with a distributed load over its contact area. This simulation was
then split into two separate results, with one being the upwards force and the other the
downwards, with the stinger bar constrained as fixed. As seen in Figure 32, the VonMises stress in the armature is shown for both loading cases, and its maximum value is
around 1,000 Psi.
The stress from the applied loads appears to concentrate around the fixed
constraint at the stinger attachment point as well as bending stress in the stinger arms and
weight attachment bars. According to AZO Metals, the yield strength for 6061 Aluminum
is listed as 6,962 Psi (Aluminum Alloy, 2013). Therefore a failure due to bending is not
expected when the materials yield strength is compared to the stress computed by the
NASTRAN solver at around 1,064 Psi. Given this stress level and material strength, the
armature design has a 6.5 factor of safety. This is slightly larger than anticipated but
should take into account any unforeseen loading conditions.
The second result provided by the NASTRAN simulation was the armature
displacement under max anticipated loads. Again, loading in both directions were taken
into account and shown in Figure 33. At the given force level the simulation shows that
expected displacement of about 0.00123 inches of maximum displacement could be
expected in both directions of movement. Since there are no parts with extremely tight
tolerances within the armature assembly, this small level of displacement is deemed
acceptable.

45

Figure 32. Von-Mises stress calculation using Siemens NX NASTRAN.

Figure 33. Nodal Displacement Calculation using Siemens NX NASTRAN.

46

Coil
A test drive coil was hand wound on a custom square bobbin that could be
retracted after the proper rectangular shape had been achieved. To provide enough
current without overheating, 14 AWG enamel coated magnet wire (Brown Essex
AWG14-200C-11) was used for the coil. Also, a calculation for coil volume occupation
was made to ensure 350 turns of wire would fit in the available air gap with room
remaining to prevent rubbing on the magnets or yoke during operation, yet maximize the
space for the smallest air gap possible. The air gap is an important dimension as the
magnetic field falls off quickly, but space is needed for the coil to pass through.
Once the coil was wound, it was then potted with a clear high temp silicone
potting compound (Dow Corning 3145 RTV Adhesive/Sealant) such as in Figure 34.
This compound would serve to not only hold the shape of the coil during operation, but
allow for heat dissipation since the coil should experience some heat buildup from the
current drawn. Also, both the potting compound and enamel varnish of the wire have
relatively the same upper operating temperature limit. This temperature ceiling was used
for the coils maximum operating temperature, given that no external cooling apparatuses
are attached. Given the fact that the coil can pass through open air during operation, no
overheating is expected with short periods of use. A duty cycle for the shaker will be
performed to determine the maximum time of operation allowable.

47

Figure 34. Hand wound square coil after potting compound is applied.

After the coil was wound and sufficiently bonded, an electrical continuity test was
performed to verify the integrity of the coil insulation using an ohmmeter. The meter
showed no shortages or open circuits internally and gave a total resistance value of 1.35
ohms. The coil dimensions measure roughly 7.5 inches by 2 inches at 350 turns, at an
estimated unwound wire length of about 554 feet. To verify the correct resistivity and
length of the wire a calculation was performed using the nominal resistance value for
bare 14 AWG wire given by the manufacturer Superior Essex to be 2.524 ohms per 1,000
feet (Magnet Wire, 2009). Therefore at an estimated total length of 554 feet, the nominal
resistance of the coil is 1.398 ohms.
Since the final weight of the armature and coil assembly will impact the shaker
performance, the final overall weight needed to be established. The wire manufacturer
48

specified a nominal weight value of 12.44 pounds per 1,000 feet, the initial overall
weight of the coil is calculated to about 6.89 pounds. However, the final weight of the
coil also must take into consideration two tubes of RTV sealant used for wire bonding,
giving the final overall weight of the coil to be 7.25 pounds. The overall weight of the
armature with coil installed, which shown in Figure 35, was about 18.75 pounds total.

Figure 35. Completely assembled armature with coil installed.

Circuit Analysis
A circuit analysis was performed to determine what configuration would be
needed to produce the current level for proper operation. It was previously established
that in order to achieve the force level desired, at least six amps would need to be drawn
by the coil. The amperage would be supplied using an amplifier capable of 1,000 watt
49

continuous power output at DC-20kHz, with maximum of 70V output voltage and 18A
max current. From the amplifier specifications, the remaining circuit can be determined
using ohms law such as Equation 9.

>=

T


(9)

Using the amplifiers maximum 70 volts and the needed six amps, a system
resistance of 11.66 ohms is required. Therefore a 10 ohm resistor will be added in series
to the coil input lead to raise the system resistance to around 12 ohms. Also the power
produced is calculated using the power equation similar to Ohms law such as Equation
10.

U = T

(10)

From the six amperes drawn by the coil and the amplifiers maximum 70 volts, the
power generated in the coil is calculated to be about 420 watts. This is less than half of
the maximum power capabilities of the amplifier to be used. Since the power and current
levels fall well below half of the amplifiers capabilities, it is safe to assume this
configuration can undergo extended use without equipment damage.
Next, an analysis was completed to determine the circuit impedance as well as the
inductance of the coil. Since the coil is wound into a rectangular shaped loop, Equation
11 (Inductance Calculations, 2014) was used to calculate the inductance.

50


(VR X 

 
+  +  
2(G + ) + 2  +   EY 
!"


 EY 

 +  +  
2
2
! + EY   +  EY 


J
J

(11)

Where:

N is the number of turns of the coil

W is the width of rectangle (m)

h is the height of the rectangle (m)

a is the wire radius (m)

 is the relative permeability of copper wire 1.

After calculating using Equation 11, the inductance of the coil was determined to
be about 0.04566H.
The inductance calculated can be used to find the circuit impedance, which is
needed since the coil is operating with an alternating current. This can be calculated using
the total circuit resistance and inductive reactance, with Equation 12 (Irwin, 1984).

Z = [>\ + Q]

(12)

Equation 12 is used to determine the total opposition to the flow of current within
the circuit. Measured in Ohms and given by the symbol Z, otherwise known as
impedance, it is the combination of not only the total resistance of the circuit (>\ ), but

the inductive reactance (Q] ) as well. Since the coil circuit is a series circuit we can find

the total resistance by adding their values such as in Equation 13.

51

>\ = > + >

(13)

Next for the inductance (Q] ), we can use phasor circuit analysis since a sine wave
signal will be utilized within the circuit. This value for the circuit inductance can be
obtained using Equation 14. (Irwin, 1984)

Q] = 4#
\ # AY JH/BD_

(14)

Where j is the imaginary unit, L is the inductance and is the angular frequency
in radians per second. To determine the angular frequency we need to know the
frequency the circuit will be operating under (.) as well as Equation 15.

# = 2.

(15)

Lastly since the coil circuit is a series circuit, we can find its total inductor value by
adding them together such as in Equation 16.

\ =
 +

With a total resistance (>R ) of 12 and a total inductance (
\ ) of a varying
quantity, a graph (Figure 36) of the total system impedance was constructed using

52

(16)

Microsoft Excel. This allowed for a simple view on how the overall impedance affected
the performance of the coil at varying operating frequencies.

Table 2
Impedance / Current Values at Various Operating Frequencies
Frequency (Hz)
0.5
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
200
300

Impedance ()
12.00085732
12.33817657
13.30121815
14.76737652
16.60390366
18.70200594
20.98336574
23.39443206
25.89900513
28.47241972
31.09759001
58.61945426
86.89960265

Circuit Current (A)

5.832916609
5.673447742
5.262675886
4.740178452
4.215876064
3.742914008
3.335975786
2.992164966
2.702806522
2.458519532
2.25097829
1.194142813
0.805527274

Impedance of RL Series Circuit

100
80
60
Impedance ()
40

Impedance

20
0
0

100

200

300

400

Frequency (Hz)

Figure 36. Impedance vs. frequency plot for RL circuit

53

Current in RL Series Circuit

7
6
5
4
Current (A)
3

Current

2
1
0
0

100

200

300

400

Frequency (Hz)

Figure 37. Current vs. frequency plot for RL circuit

For example, if the shaker were to be operated at 100Hz, the expected impedance
of the coil circuit would be 31.64. This can be applied to ohms law (Equation 9), and at
the maximum available of 70 volts, the coil would only draw 2.21 amps. Since the force
of the coil is directly proportional to the instantaneous current supplied, we can expect a
significant drop in performance at this frequency level. Likewise at the lowest expected
operating level of 0.5Hz the impedance so small it can be considered zero, leaving the
coil with the expected 6 amps of current. Since the shaker will operate the majority of its
life within the 0.5-30 Hz frequency range, this can be considered as acceptable for the
circuit design.
Many of the long stroke shakers already in production, such as the APS Dynamics
model 113, are designed with a configurable drive coil. This is achieved by when the
drive coil is wound, multiple sections or layers of coils are made and stacked together. If

54

needed, the shaker coils can be wired to either run as one in series, or several in parallel.
If the shaker were needed to operate with sine, or narrowband excitation then the coil
would need to be arranged in series. Likewise, if random or broadband excitation were
needed the coil could be configured for a parallel arrangement. This configuration change
can be controlled by switching jumper wires located near the ends of the stinger arms.
Two other aspects that were taken into consideration were breakdown on the coils
potting compound due to over temperature operation, and excessive current draw. Since
the amplifier selected is designed for shaker use, electrical damage prevention features
are already present within its internal circuit. As for thermal protection, a resettable
thermal fuse will need to be potted to the coil and wired to the amplifier output plug.
There are also an over travel limit switch and an interlock for an external blower that are
wired into the amplifier and will not be used. These two interlock switches that will not
be used must be wired to ground in order for the amplifier to operate.
Yoke
A proper design for the yoke was necessary to produce a balanced magnetic
circuit that is relatively safe. There still exists some stray magnetic field strong enough to
cause some interference or attract nearby items that are susceptible to magnetic influence.
Once these items become attached to the yoke it would be very difficult to remove them,
especially if they entered the air gap. Care must be had when working around the
magnetic yoke at all times, even when stored.
When assembling the two yoke halves alignment pins are used to keep the halves
from rotating or flipping when being brought together. These pins should be inserted in
one half of the yoke assembly and lightly glued in place with a small amount of super

55

glue. This will prevent the field in the pin holes from pushing the steel pins out,
becoming projectiles, or being pulled out by a magnet on the opposite side. Once the two
halves are relatively close together force can be applied to the top and bottom until two
1/4-20 socket head cap screws can be used to further clamp the yoke together.
The iron yoke material needed to carry a maximum amount of magnetic flux in
order to generate the maximum possible force. To achieve this, low carbon content A36
HR steel was selected. According to Alro Steel, this material has a carbon content of only
0.26 percent, maximizing the capacity of magnetic flux that can effectively carried by the
yoke (ASTM A36, 2015). This is important due to the fact that if the magnetic flux can
be properly guided to form a complete loop or circuit, the magnetic potential across the
air gap will be maximized, creating the strongest possible air gap magnetic field strength.
In order to understand this concept it may be beneficial if we think of the iron as a
conductor of magnetic field, where the irons magnetic permeability is equated to the
conductivity of an electrical conductor. In the electrical domain, the opposite of
conductivity is resistivity while in the magnetic domain; the opposite of magnetic
permeability is magnetic reluctivity. Just as the goal is to reduce the resistance in a total
circuit for electrical components, the magnetic reluctivity should be reduced in the total
circuit for magnetic components.
This magnetic circuit consists of an iron yoke in series with an air gap. We can
change the magnetic reluctivity of the air gap by altering its width, but then we are forced
to change the iron yoke to further ensure minimum reluctivity. This is the reason the air
gap dimension previously stated is a critical dimension. In order to keep the shaker

56

functioning as efficiently as possible the air gap will need to be maintained at a minimum
since the magnetic field falls off with a distance squared.
Given that the yoke assembly is made of untreated steel, it was necessary to find
some means of preventing corrosion. For this electroless nickel plating was chosen at a
thickness of 0.0003-0.0005 for all yoke parts. This process was chosen for nickels
corrosion resistance, final aesthetics, and non-magnetic properties. Also, it was ideal to
correct microscopic surface imperfections of the steel faces to ensure that the magnetic
field lines were able to leave as straight as possible. This would also increase the
efficiency of the magnetic yoke.
Mounting and Centering
This shaker design, being intended mainly for aircraft GVT must take into
account the need to operate in a multitude of directions when mounted. There are three
main operating conditions that are addressed for basic operation, vertical on ground,
horizontal on ground, and horizontal on hoist. There is a possibility for the shaker to be
mounted at any given angle by the means of a trunion, but would have to be
manufactured and is not required to operate at this time. In any mounting condition, the
shaker is to be attached to the test surface by a section of brass 10/32 threaded rod,
referred to as a stinger such as in Figure 38.
The reason for using a stinger for attachment of the shaker to a structure is
Basically, the stinger decouples the shaker system from the structure and applies force to
the structure. The stinger is designed to be rigid in the axial direction and flexible in the
lateral direction. Force transducers measure axial force but still transmit forces into the
structure through the transducers stiff casing. Therefore, any side loads transmitted to the

57

structure by the stinger through the force transducer are unmeasured and contribute noise
on the measurement. A stinger that is properly designed, selected and aligned will reduce
or eliminate this potential problem. (Modal Shaker FAQ, 2015)

Figure 38. Example of stinger attachment to a shaker. (Modal Shaker FAQ, 2015)

The first mounting condition called vertical on ground, will allow for vertical
attachment of the shaker to aircraft flight control surfaces such as ailerons, elevators,
even wing tips if needed. In this configuration the shaker will be sitting flush on its
bottom plate, which can be bolted to the floor if necessary. Also, the armature will need
to be centered so that the coil will not impact the yoke during operation. In order to center
the yoke a section of bungee cord will need to be attached at the centering band
connection points on the yoke as well as on the armature. If added mass is to be used,
then either a tightening of the centering band is required or a stronger bungee cord must
be used.
The second mounting condition, horizontal on ground, allows the shaker to lay on
its side such at the top and bottom plates are used as supports. In this state the shaker has

58

two 3/8-16 holes used to receive vibration reducing rubber machine feet. If the operating
conditions are severe enough to warrant such, the feet can be bypassed for a direct
connection. There should be some concern for additional mass added to the shaker to
ensure that there is sufficient clearance between the mass and the ground. Also, the
centering bands will need to be adjusted such that the coil will return to center as well as
prevent impacts.
Lastly the horizontal on hoist configuration is used to hang the shaker at elevated
test locations where it is impractical to build a stand for it. This set-up is similar to the
horizontal on ground except the rubber feet holes will be utilized for lifting eye bolts.
There should be four total lifting points used at all times and no personnel should be
permitted to occupy the space below the shaker when hoisted. Again, centering bands
should be used to maintain coil center.
Regardless of what angle or configuration of the shaker used, the shaker will need
a rigid connection between the stinger and the test structure as well as a force transducer
in-line to capture the inputs to the system. There are some pre-manufactured threaded
mounting lugs available for purchase and will be used for the purpose of this thesis. This
mounting lug had a threaded stud protruding from its flat mounting face so as to attach to
the force transducer, opposite the stinger. In turn the flat side of the mounting lug will be
attached to the structure by means of adhesives. Care must be given when attaching the
stinger to the structure to ensure proper alignment, which could lead to inaccurate force
transducer readings, inconsistencies in force input, or even coil damage is severe.
There are several adhesives used for attaching instrumentation, including
cyanoacrylate (super glue), hot glue, wax, etc. For a stronger, more semi-permanent

59

adhesive to attach the shaker mounting lug an industry standard is dental cement such as
Dentsply Grip Cement. This adhesive is a two part liquid and powder mix that hardens in
an exothermic chemical reaction to a strong and rigid solid. After testing has concluded
the mounting lug can be freed from the structure easily by breaking the cement bond,
typically with no surface damage.

60

III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

After the analysis and testing has been completed, it can be said with some degree
of certainty that this machine design has met all necessary criteria, and can operate
effectively and safely. If a full model were to be constructed an estimated cost of
production per unit would be approximately $3,585.00 USD at this time. A cost break
down of all materials, parts, and services needed to produce this shaker are listed in the
cost index in Appendix A-5 and parts required lists in Appendix A-6 through A-8. A
comparable long stroke excitation shaker currently in production with similar force level
specifications is listed at $7,700.00 USD in standard configuration. If this thesis model
were to be built rather than purchasing the comparable model a savings of roughly 50%
could be had, increasing with each shaker built.
Even though this design satisfactorily met all requirements some future changes
or improvements could be made. First a supplier might be located to purchase raw
materials at a discounted rate to lower manufacturing costs. This would be most
beneficial when purchasing permanent magnets as they comprise about 1/3 of the
material cost to produce the yoke assembly. It may also be more practical to reduce the
force input level from 400N to 100N, allowing for a smaller, cheaper magnet to be used.
Also there was attempt to design the armature assembly to be as light as possible,
allowing for maximum operating efficiency. Although the design is fairly lightweight
currently, some future efforts could be made to optimize the design further, including
possibly skeletonizing the armature frame to remove material. There could also be use of

61

welded joints rather than bolted ones to save on weight as well as material costs and
assembly / fitting issues.
Lastly, some consideration should be given to having the coil professionally
wound rather than hand winding it. This would allow for more windings per inch of the
coil, reducing the amount of copper wire needed, therefore decreasing space needed to
allow for coil movement. If the coil can operate with less space, the air gap also
decreases, while increasing the operating efficiency. This service could include dipping
the coil in a lacquer potting compound rather than using a silicone surface sealant. Such a
process would reduce cost and save space as the sealant would use the internal area of the
coil rather than on top of them.

62

REFERENCES

Aluminum Alloy 6061 Composition, Properties, Temper and Applications of 6061

Aluminum. (2013, June 11). Retrieved February 27, 2015, from
http://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=3328
ASTM A36 Hot Rolled Plate. (n.d.). Retrieved June 2, 2015, from
http://www.alro.com/datacatalog/005-plate.pdf
Aviation: 081 Principals of Flight: Limitations: Flutter. (n.d.). Retrieved July 1, 2014,
from http://aviation.cours-de-math.eu/ATPL-081-POF/flutter.php
Brushed DC Motor Theory. (2011, February 16). Retrieved January 28, 2015, from
http://hades.mech.northwestern.edu/index.php/Brushed_DC_Motor_Theory
Chen, X., & Kareem, A. (2008). Identification of critical structural modes and flutter
derivatives for predicting coupled bridge flutter. Journal of Wind Engineering and
Industrial Aerodynamics,96,1856-1870
Crane, C. (n.d.). How Speakers Work. Retrieved June 4, 2015, from
http://www.centerpointaudio.com/howspeakerswork.aspx
Detrick, D. (2013, November 5). Galloping Gertie: Telling the story of the Tacoma
Narrows Bridge. Retrieved June 19, 2014, from
https://douglasdetrick.com/2013/11/galloping-gertie/
Dossing, O. (1988). All Structures Exhibit Modal Behaviour. In Structural Testing, Part
II: Modal Analysis and Simulation (pp.4-5). Naerum: Bruel & Kjaer
FAQ- Frequently Asked Questions. (n.d.). Retrieved June 4, 2014, from
http://www.supermagnete.de/eng/faq/How-do-you-calculate-the-magnetic-fluxdensity
Grades of Neodymium. (n.d.). Retrieved June 1, 2015, from http://www.ndfebinfo.com/neodymium_grades.aspx
Greenwood, D. (1987). Vibration Theory. In Principals of Dynamics (2nd ed). Englewood
Cliffs, NJ,:Prentice-Hall Inc. (Page 489, chapter 9-3)
Harris, C. (1996). Experimental Modal Analysis. In Shock and Vibration Handbook.
Blacklick, OH,: Mcgraw-Hill. (Page 21.57, chapter 21)
Inductance Calculations Rectangular Loop. (n.d.). Retrieved September 16 2014, from
http://www.cvel.clemson.edu/emc/calculators/Inductance_Calculator/rectgl.html

63

Irwin, J. (1984). Sinusoids and Phasors. In Basic Engineering Circuit Analysis. New
York, NY,:Macmillian inc. (Page 332, Chapter 9-5)
Magnet Wire / Winding Wire Engineering Data Handbook. (2009, December 1).
Retrieved June 1 2015, from
https://www.superioressex.com/uploadedFiles/Magnet_Wire_and_Distribution/N
orth_America/Magnet_Wire_-_Winding_Wire/EngData_book_linked.pdf
Magnets Inside Magnetic Fields. (n.d.). Retrieved March 19, 2015, from
http://www.homofaciens.com/technics-magnets_en_navion.htm
Metzgar, K., & Tillou, F. (1974). U.S. Patent No. 3816777A. Washington, DC: U.S.
Patent and Trademark Office.
Modal Shaker FAQ. (n.d.). Retrieved March 23, 2015, from
http://www.modalshop.com/excitation/Modal-Shaker-FAQ?ID=336
NASA (2010). Ares I-X Flight Test Vehicle Modal Test: NASA/TM-2010-216182.
Hampton, VA. Langley Research Center
NTSB Press Release National Transportation Safety Board Office of Public Affairs.
(2001, June 5). Retrieved April 15, 2014, from http://www.ntsb.gov/news/pressreleases/Pages/NTSB_adopts_revised_final_report_on_the_1991_crash_of_Unite
d_Airlines_Flight_585_in_Colorado_Springs_CO.;_calls.aspx
Siemens PLM Software. (2012). The LMS Test.Lab Modal Analysis Testing Manual.
LMS Test.Lab Documentation, 4-14

64

GLOSSARY

Armature:

The framework to which a coil of wire is attached to move

linearly or rotate in a magnetic field.

FEM:

Finite Element Method. A computer driven solution technique

for deriving approximate solutions to boundary value
problems.

Modal Test:

A test that is performed in order to determine natural

frequencies, damping ratios, and mode shapes of a particular
structure.

Neodymium:

A chemical element, symbol Nd. Typically used in the

production of the strongest permanent magnets available.

Remanence:

The amount of magnetism induced into a body once it leaves

a source of a strong magnetic field.

Resonance:

The point at which a system will oscillate with increasing

amplitude, as well as store vibrational energy and transfer
energy.

65

APPENDICES

66

APPENDIX A

MISCELLANEOUS FIGURES
AND TABLES

67

Figure A-1. NASA Ares I-X complete with two views. (NASA, 2010)

68

Figure A-2. NASA Ares I-X segmented view. (NASA, 2010)

Figure A-3. Parallel magnet field lines compacting.

69

Figure A-4. Test set-up including Siemens LMS SCADAS Lab.

70

Table A-1
Part Cost Index
Item Name
Neodymium Magnet
Enamel Magnet Wire
Linear Ball Bearings
Shaft
A36 HR Plate Steel
6061 Aluminum Bar
Rubber Feet
Lifting Eye Bolt
Magnet Wire RTV Sealant
Nickel Plating
Loctite Thread Locker
Electrical Enclosure (Small)
Electrical Pig Tail Connector
Hardware (misc.)
Machining
Bungee Cord
Termination Strip
14 Ga. Braided Wire
Thread Locking Insert
Pig Tail Wire

Quantity
4 ea.
1 box
4 ea.
2 ea.
12 pcs
10 pcs
4 ea.
4 ea.
2 tube
1 tube
1 ea.
2 ea.
1 roll
1 ea.
3 ft.
1 ea.
3 ft.

71

Individual Price
Total Price (USD)
(USD)
267
1068
115
115
54
216
12
24
220
135
3
12
3
12
20
40
126
5
5
10
10
10
20
40
1500
20
2
5
5
10
10
5
5
$3,585
Project Total

Table A-2
Armature Assembly Required Parts List
Armature Assembly Part
Name
Stinger Bar
Weight Attachment Bar (A)
Weight Attachment Bar (B)
Coil Holder (Flat)
Coil Holder (Round)
Stinger Arms
Coil Magnet Wire 14Ga
Thread Locking Insert 10/32 to
3/8-16
Stainless Steel 10/32 Cap
Screw
Stainless Steel 1/4-28 Cap
Screw

Drawing
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
-

Quantity

Manufacturer / Part No.

1
2
2
4
4
2
1
1

*
*
*
*
*
*
Essex AWG14-200C-11
McMaster-Carr 90266A342

Standard Hardware

28

Standard Hardware

Drawing
No.
7
8
9
10
11
-

Quantity

Manufacturer / Part No.

2
2
2
2
4
4

*
*
*
*
*
Applied Magnets NB087

4
8
4

McMaster-Carr 92066A031
Standard Hardware
Standard Hardware

Table A-3
Yoke Assembly Required Parts List
Yoke Assembly Part Name
Angled Plate Top Outside
Angled Plate Top Inside
Angled Plate Bottom Outside
Angled Plate Bottom Inside
Spacer Block
Permanent Magnets Neodymium
Alloy Steel Insert Nuts 3/8 - 16
Steel 1/4 in. Locator Pins
Steel 3/8-16 x 7.5 Cap Screw

72

Table A-4
Frame Assembly Required Parts List
Frame Assembly Part Name
Top Plate
Bottom Plate
Shaft - Hardened
Linear Pillow Block Bearing
1/2 Shaft
Stainless Steel 10/32 x 3/4
Mach Screw
Stainless Steel 3/8-16 x 1 Cap
Screw
Threaded Rod Stinger 10/32
No. 10 Jam Nut

Drawing
No.
12
13
14
-

Quantity

Manufacturer / Part No.

1
1
2
4

*
*
McMaster-Carr 6061K433
McMaster-Carr 9338T1

16

Standard Hardware

Standard Hardware

1
2

Standard Hardware
Standard Hardware

73

APPENDIX B

ENGINEERING DRAWINGS

74

Figure B-1. Stinger bar.

75

Figure B-2. Weight attach bar-A.

76

Figure B-3. Weight attach bar-B.

77

Figure B-4. Coil holder (Flat).

78

Figure B-5. Coil holder (Round).

79

Figure B-6. Stinger arm.

80

Figure B-7. Angled plate top outside.

81

Figure B-8. Angled plate top inside.

82

Figure B-9. Angled plate bottom outside.

83

Figure B-10. Angled plate bottom inside.

84

Figure B-11. Spacer block.

85

Figure B-12. Top plate view (1).

86

Figure B-13. Top plate view (2).

87

Figure B-14. Bottom plate view (1).

88

Figure B-15. Bottom plate view (2).

89

Figure B-16. Shaft.

90

APPENDIX C

SPECIFICATIONS

91

Technical Specifications:
o Force... 400N (90 lbf)
o Displacement.. 6 in. (+/- 3 in)
o Armature Weight........ 18.75 lbs
o Total Weight....193.5 lbs
o Max Voltage Input (AC).... 70V
o Max Current Input (AC).. 8A
o Frequency Range DC 30Hz

92

APPENDIX D

ABET PROGRAM OUTCOMES

93

PROGRAM OUTCOMES
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Upon graduation, students receiving the Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering
Degree from Kettering University will have the following knowledge, skills, and
abilities:

A. An ability to apply knowledge of mathematics, science and engineering.

This thesis required an understanding of physics, magnetism, waves and vibration,
circuit design, CAD/CAM, and mathematics to complete.
B. An ability to design and conduct experiments, as well as to analyze and interpret data.
Experimental testing was performed on sections of the design. The corresponding
data was then analyzed and interpreted in order to for conclusions regarding the
design and its performance.
C. An ability to design a system, component, or process to meet desired needs within
realistic constraints such as economic, environmental, social, political, ethical, health
and safety, manufacturability, and sustainability.
The thesis developed under health and safety considerations as well as budget
requirements and the capability of producing the machine as designed.
D. An ability to function on multi-disciplinary teams.
In order to satisfactorily complete the thesis, work was performed with several
different company divisions and offices within the organization, as well as outside.
E. An ability to identify, formulate, and solve engineering problems.
Beginning with a design basis for the thesis, many challenges were met and
overcome. These problems were solved using testing, analysis, and scientific
reasoning.
F. An understanding of professional and ethical responsibility.
Given the fact that this thesis would be using extremely strong magnets and operating
relatively close to people, it was imperative that the device could not only operate but
be stored in a relatively safe manner. Also, the device would be attached to very
expensive aircraft, which could cause significant property damage if not designed
properly

94

G. An ability to communicate effectively.

The thesis design demanded that clear and effective communication be used so that
the design could be followed by anyone needing to build one. Special consideration
was made to ensure that the thesis could be read and understood fairly easily.

H. The broad education necessary to understand the impact of engineering solutions in a

global, economic, environmental, and societal context.
This thesis contains a device which tests for a serious condition for aircraft during
flight. If this issue is not accurately defined, serious loss of human life as well as of
public, private, and commercial property could result.

I. A recognition of the need for, and an ability to engage in lifelong learning.

It was realized that this project would be representative of how they will be
performed in the future. If the ability to create successful designs is to continue,
staying current with changing technology will be important.

J. A knowledge of contemporary issues.

Given the fact that the design assists in solving a complex problem experienced by
others all over the world, a greater understanding of these issues were has as a result.

K. An ability to use the techniques, skills, and modern engineering tools necessary for
engineering practice.
Not only was the design tested using Siemens LMS Test.Lab software, but will
operate with it after being built as well. Along with this, all of the components were
tested and simulated using CAD/CAM software for analysis.

L. Familiarity with statistics and linear algebra.

Some questions of reliability and durability were covered to assure the design would
operate safely and efficiently for as long as possible.

95

M. A knowledge of chemistry and calculus-based physics with a depth in at least one of

them.
Understanding the principals of electromagnetism was critical for this thesis design.
This includes electronics circuitry such as inductors, resistors, coils, etc.

N. An ability to model and analyze inter-disciplinary mechanical/electrical/hydraulic

systems.
This thesis design incorporated several systems, including mechanical, electrical, and
electromagnetic. Without an understanding of these fields as a whole, this design
could not have been determined.

O. An ability to work professionally in the area of thermal systems including the design
and realization of such systems.
Since there is a good deal of heat generated by the system, efforts to cool the system
as well as duty cycle performance was key to the success of the design. Without such
consideration, the design would not last much beyond its first use and could
potentially cause damage.
P. An ability to work professionally in the area of mechanical systems including the
design and realization of such systems.
The mechanics of the system were imperative of the overall operation of the design.
If the design parameters were not correct internal damage could occur fairly easily,
leading to failure. Also the thesis design needed be simple enough to follow when
building or for further improvements and changes.

96