Master PPT Uis

PPT-1
L1-3
PPT-2
L4-6
PPT-3
L7-9
PPT-4
L10-12
PPT-5
L13-15
What is Underwater Intervention?

Underwater Intervention could be defined as the
utilization of any form of vehicle, device or diving
equipment that enables underwater missions to be
accomplished.*
* Design Aspects of Underwater Intervention Systems, J G Hawley, M L Nuckols, G T Reader, I J
Potter, Kendall-Hunt Publishers, ISBN 0-7872-1510-4, 1996 (Modified).
G T Reader Winter 2015
Archimedes Principle and

The Law of Buoyancy - 1
1. The above underpins the design and construction of all underwater
intervention systems, especially underwater vehicles.
2. You will have already encountered these concepts in school physics and in
undergraduate fluid mechanics/dynamics courses.
3. One way of stating the principle is: If an object is wholly or partially
immersed in a fluid its weight appears to be reduced by an amount equal to the
weight of the fluid it displaces.
Archimedes Principle and

The Law of Buoyancy - 2
4. If the weight of the fluid displaced is greater than the weight of the object, the object will have
positive buoyancy (float); if the weight of the object is greater than the weight of the fluid the
object will have negative buoyancy (sink), and if the two weights are equal the condition will be
known as neutral buoyancy (hover).
5. These three conditions have important implications for the design and operation of any Underwater
Intervention System.
6. You may also recall from your previous studies that the total weight of an object can be considered
to act at an imaginary point called the Centre of Gravity* (G) whereas the weight of the fluid
displaced acts an imaginary point called the Centre of Buoyancy (B). The relative location of G and
B are also important factors in the design of underwater vehicles.
7. The fundamental concepts are well illustrated for a submarine in the following short video clip taken
from a US Navy training film of many years ago.
* Physicists usually prefer the term Centre of Mass
Buoyancy and Ballast
http://www.maritime.org/fleetsub/
Further Fundamental Concepts - 1

1. Obviously we will not be able to design, construct, and manufacture a UIS if we cannot
get the device to submerge under the sea surface. A UIS does not necessarily have to
have the ability to float or hover but it is usually a distinct advantage (!) especially if the
device is manned*.
2. The ability of a UIS to change its buoyancy is usually paramount. By changing its
buoyancy the UIS can achieve vertical motion through the water column. This property
is by itself put to good use in a class of UISs known as Profiling Floats 0r sometimes
Argo floats. These ocean data collection devices of which there are over 3,000
deployed ocean-wide are used extensively in oceanographic research.
* A generic term covering both genders.
Profiling Floats & Vertical Motion
http://www.noc.soton.ac.uk/JRD/HYDRO/argo/gallery/operation_park_profile.jpg
Horizontal Motion - 1
1. The profiling float does also move horizontally but in drift mode i.e., as a result of the
underwater currents. In most cases we also require the UIS to be able to move horizontally in a
desired direction and at a desired speed (velocity).
2. The desire for regulated and specified underwater* horizontal movement generally means we will
need some form of propulsion system for the UIS and if the underwater device is not reliant** on
a power feed from the surface, an onboard power system and energy convertor.
3. In recent years a novel solution to the horizontal-vertical motion needs has been developed based
on the buoyancy engines of the profiling float and Archimedess Law of Levers. These UISs are
called Underwater Gliders.
* Depending on the UIS we may also require horizontal movement on the water surface.
** Usually referred to as untethered.
Underwater Gliders
Bing images
Horizontal Motion - 2
1. If we wish to move the vehicle then we will have to overcome the resistance (drag) of the fluid to
the movement. Simply stated the power required to move the vehicle will then be;
Power = Drag Force x Velocity (speed)
2. The drag force will depend mainly on the form and shape of the underwater body and the viscosity
effects (skin-friction) of the fluid at the desired speed.
3. The drag force is proportional to the square of the velocity and hence:
Power Velocity3
4. These are two important relationships as they indicate that even a small increase in velocity will
require a significant increase in power and a large increase in drag. Thus, to reduce the power
requirement for a given speed the reduction of drag is a prime need.
5. The determination of drag forces is a complex subject.
6. Obviously a combination of vertical and horizontal motions will give us a wide-range of 3-D motions.
10
Manned UIS Developments - 1

1. According to a number of ancient
texts (Aristotles era) and more recent
books from the middle ages,
Alexander the Great of Macedon was
one of the first to venture underwater
in a vehicle. Although this cannot be
proven, and it would be another
century before Archimedes principle
was formulated, it would appear that
there is some evidence of submarine
operations in these early times.
http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/UnderWater.htm
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/bigs/nur09514.jpg
11
Manned UIS Developments - 2

2. Whatever the voracity of the Alexander story it would be another twenty centuries before
man ventured under the sea again, and the late 18th century before the construction of
combat versions were developed Bushnells Turtle.
3. However, in just over two more centuries the largest and, at the time, most sophisticated
was launched the Soviet Typhoon Class - a.k.a The Red October.
4. For almost the whole of the 20th century UIS development was in the hands of the military
following the initial success of the German U-Boats in the 1914-1918 World War.
5. By the 1960s manned submersibles began to appear, as the military in particular sought to
chart and characterize the deeper oceans.
6. The increasing electronic transparency of the oceans was one of the prime movers of the
needs for scientific investigations and engineering advancements
7. The fundamental design principles have remained the same.
12
Two Centuries of
Combat Submarine Development
Soviet Typhoon
Class
Muscle Powered
Nuclear Powered
Bushnells Turtle of the

American Revolutionary War.
U.S. Navy photo & text courtesy of chinfo.navy.mil.
US Navy Ohio Class

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:OHIOSSG
NCONVERSION.JPG
13
Relative Sizes
178m
Changzhou Tianning
Temple Pagoda
Typhoon
& Ohio
Class
Great Pyramid at Gaza
German
Type XXI 1945
HMCS
Windsor
RCN c.
1990
Holland
Turtle c.
1776
14
The
st
21
Century
1. Despite the almost monopoly of the undersea environment by the military (except for fishing*) for
many decades there has been an increasing focus on the underwater environment for non-military
purposes especially over the past 40 years and in particular in this new millennium.
2. In some instances underwater activities over-lap between military and non-military uses. For
example, the acquisition of basic scientific data on the structure and composition of the oceans and
lakes is required for both purposes.
3. The need for the development of UISs, supporting instrumentation, and sensors has in turn lead to
the requirement for the knowledge base of engineers, scientists, and technologies to become more
common throughout their global communities via education programs and research activities.
4. There is then a growing need for more underwater engineers which will likely lead to an almost
exponential rise in career opportunities as the 21st Century progresses and the emphasis on
sustainable development becomes a key to the future health of the planet.
* Although fishing, commercial and recreational, is an underwater activity the operational and control of the endeavor is from either the surface of the sea or
from land except for a few exceptions.
15
Underwater Engineers & Technology

1.
As yet there is no engineering discipline called underwater engineering.
2. However, in addition to Civil, Chemical (Petroleum), Mechanical, Materials, Electrical and Electronic
Engineers, there are Ocean Engineers (relatively new), Marine Engineers, Naval Engineers and Naval
Architects who are involved in what we can term underwater or subsea engineering.
3. As we shall see the involvement of System and Software engineers is becoming increasing
important in the underwater environment.
4. As we need to know the physical conditions of the environment or realm under which we, as
engineers, need to design, operate, and maintain the intervention systems then closer relationships
with specialized professions/scientists, in particular oceanographers, hydrographers, and military
strategists is crucial.
5. We also need to bear in mind that we must not repeat our historical ignorance of the sustainability
of land resources and the environmental impact of human activity as we move increasingly faster
to make greater use of the oceans.
16
The Underwater Realm - 1

Oceans, Seas, Lakes, and Rivers:
Our Studies will concentrate almost exclusively on the Ocean environment.
There is really only one ocean and all its parts are interconnected but generally the parts have
universally agreed names The Pacific (50% of the whole ocean), The Atlantic, The Indian, The
Arctic, and the Southern (Antarctic & Sub-Antarctic).
The underwater workplace is defined by:
(a) Pressure, Temperature (horizontal and vertical), Density
(b) Light and Sound characteristics.
(c) Chemistry, Geology, Biology
(d) Tides, Waves, Currents
(e) 3 Dimensional Space
17
The Underwater Realm & Essential Oceanography

1. Oceanography is the name given to the study of the oceans.
2. There are four main oceanography sub-disciplines: Geological, Physical, Chemical, and
Biological.
3. While all the sub-disciplines are of interest to underwater engineers it is Physical
Oceanography the study of ocean currents, waves, tides, wave circulations, and the air-sea
interface - that provides much of the realm data we will need in the design of the Underwater
Intervention Systems.
4. An excellent website dealing with many aspects of physical oceanography can be found at the
University of Texas A&M http://oceanworld.tamu.edu
5. The oceans are usually defined in zones and layers and the interchange of the some of the
terminology can lead to confusion at times.
18
Ocean Zone Terminology
http://www.srh.noaa.gov/jetstream//ocean/oceanprofile.htm
19

1. We live on the planet Earth yet over 70% of its surface is covered by the Ocean(s) which contain
almost 1.4 billion cubic kilometers of salt water.
2. Relative to sea-level the oceans are much deeper than the land is high.
3. Only 11% of the land is above 2,000m (6,561 ft*) whereas 84% of the sea bottom is below
2,000m**.
4. Forty times more CO2 is stored in the oceans than in our atmosphere*** .
5. Most of the O2 in the atmosphere comes from the Oceans***.
6. The oceans contain 97% of the planets available water.
* 6561 ft 85/32 in
**G L Pickard and William J Emery, Descriptive Physical Oceanography: An Introduction, Pergamon Press, 1993, 6th edition, 2011 with L D Talley & J H Swift.
*** http://oceanworld.tamu.edu/home/key-concepts.html
20

7. Sea water is 832 times denser than air and sounds travels over 4 times faster.
8. The air (atmospheric) pressure decreases with increasing altitude such that at the top of Mount
Everest (29,029* ft 8,484 m) the pressure is about 0.3 of that at sea level. In the deepest place in
the oceans Challenger deep (35,755 36,201 ft** or 11,034m) the water pressure is almost 1100
greater than at sea level.
9. A rule-of-thumb is that water pressure increases about 0.44 psi per foot or 1 atmosphere (101.325
kPa) per every 10 metres.
10. Thus, at the bottom of the Challenger*** Deep the pressure is equivalent to about 250 elephants
per ft2 or 16,000 psi.
11. So if we wish to operate below the water surface, even at modest depths we will need to be aware
of the engineering of pressure vessel design.
* Measured as high as 29,035 ft
** Various Sources
*** Named after HMS Challenger British Royal Navy Ship
21
The Underwater Realm 3a

http://www.nextgadgets.net/james-cameron-set-to-plunge-to-the-deepest-part-of-the-ocean-floor-the-abyss-irl/
This file is
licensed under
the Creative
Commons
AttributionShare Alike 3.0
Unported
license.
Attribution: I,
Kmusser
22
23
Underwater Realm - Density Variations

It has been stated previously that the density of water is many times that of air. Just how many
times depends upon whether the water is fresh or salty and the depth of operation.
The most important dynamic property of sea water is its density (). Density is generally calculated
from the equation of state of sea water*, which is expressed as a function of temperature (T),
salinity (S), and pressure (p). Typical values of surface oceanic density vary from 1020 to 1030
kg/m3 (63.7 - 64.3lbm/ft3).
Differences in water density can significantly affect the operation of any underwater work system such as a submersible - which uses water tanks for ballast and depth control purposes. For
example, the buoyancy effect per cubic unit of an empty ballast tank varies with the density of
water around it by as much as 2.57o between fresh and salt water. Thus, an underwater vehicle
designed for salt water operation will be more negatively buoyant and operate shallower in fresh
water, which is not as dense. As with temperature and salinity, density-depth profiles are given a
'cline' name, in this case pycnocline.
* A new equation was proposed in 2010 by an International Committee. The equation has to be solved by advanced numerical analysis.
24
Underwater Realm
Density Variations & Layering
As with temperature variations the ocean waters can be divided into three density layers:
the less dense top layer the surface mixed zone;
the pycnocline zone, just mentioned, is a transition zone between the surface mixed
zone, and
the bottom layer where the water remains cold and dense.
The pycnocline is a major controlling element within the ocean system as we shall now see
in a recent video from the Scripps Institute of Oceanography by Professor Peter Franks. The
information contained will also be useful background for our study of Tides, waves and
currents.
25
The Underwater Realm - Temperature

1. As engineers we know that the thermodynamic property we call temperature effects
many phenomena we have to deal with including ;
a. physical properties of materials including the physical properties of materials including the phase, density,
solubility, vapor pressure, thermal and electrical conductivity, and so on.
b. chemical reactions and the extent to which they occur and the rate of such reactions.
c. the amount and properties of thermal radiation emitted from the surface of an object (Stefan-Boltzman Law).
d. speed of sound ( which as we will see plays a crucial role in underwater communications).
e. The efficiency of energy conversion and so on.
2. Ocean surface temperature is effected by the amount of solar radiation it receives, as

illustrated in the next slide. As can be implied from the diagram, the water surface
temperature at the poles is lower than that at the equator.
3. The surface temperature also effects the ocean water circulations and global weather
patterns (El Nio).
26
Global Net Surface Radiation Annual Means*
* Averaged over a 40 year period
Oceanworld.tamu.edu modified from Kallberg et al, 2005

27
The Underwater Realm - Vertical Temperatures

As can be seen the
solar heating effect
only extends to a
relatively shallow
depth even in the low
latitudes either side
of the equator.
A thermocline is a zone
in the ocean where
temperature changes
dramatically with depth.
28
The Underwater Realm The Oceanic Temperatures Layers

In the deepest
parts of the ocean
the temperature
is nearly uniform
with an average
gradient of about
0.001 oC per
metre.
Precise knowledge
of the properties of
layers is a major
requirement for
both stealth and
detection
Hawley et al, Op Cit,1996

29
The Ocean Realm - Salinity

1. Salinity is essentially the saltiness of the oceans and seas relative to what we term freshwater*.
2. How to precisely define salinity (S) has been a problem for oceanographers for over a century but
for our purposes we can say it is the total amount of dissolved solutes or "salt" in the water. lt is
the total weight of solid material (in grams) found in I kilogram of sea water. The salinity is
commonly expressed in grams of solids per kilogram of sea water or parts per thousand (ppt), which
can be abbreviated to o/oo.
3. The amount of dissolved salt present is largely controlled by (a) evaporation and precipitation in
open ocean regions, (b) fresh water runoff in coastal zones,** and (c) ice formation, sublimation,
and melting in polar regions. Salinities of between 0 to 30 are found in estuaries and polar
regions, typically 30 - 34 in coastal regions, and in the open ocean salinities are in the range 33
37 .
4. Salinity-depth profiles shown on the next slide also have a cline name haloclines.
*Salinity is usually less than 0.5 ppt:
** The Black Sea is so diluted by river run-off that its salinity is only about 16 on average.
30
The Ocean Realm Salinity Haloclines

Of all the oceans the North
Pacific is the least saline and the
North Atlantic the most saline.
As with temperature, there is a
surface mixed layer where
salinity is sensibly constant but
below this, at about 200 m, a
strong halocline develops.
There tends to be a salinity
minimum of around 800 - 1000
m at mid-latitudes
31
The Ocean Realm - Salinity
Most sea salts are composed of 11 particular ions and compounds

and their composition has remained nearly constant for millions of
years the so called steady state or kinetic principle in Chemical
Oceanography*.
1. We often think of the salt in the sea is solely

sodium chloride (NaCl) but that is not the case as
the table on the left shows.
2. Salinity is very difficult to measure directly and so
the usual procedure is to measure the
conductivity of the water which can then be
related to salinity through an International
agreed set of equations.
3. Sea salts decrease the freezing point of water*
and the speed of sound increases as salinity
increases.
4. Ice formed from seawater is fresh and does not
include salts.
*W Corso & P S Joyce, Oceanography, Applied Science Review, 1995, ISBN
0-87434-608-8
32
But the Oceans contain more than Salt

A typical yet largely unknown example is Uranium*:
It takes 1200 tonnes of U to power a 5 GW power plant for 1 year
At the current consumption rate the global conventional reserves of
uranium (7.1 million tonnes) could be depleted in 100 yrs
Uranium in the ocean (3-3.3g/L3) is estimated at 4.5 billion tonnes!

* Data Given by Alexander Slocum, Pappalardo Professor of Mechanical Engineering,
MIT at OSES Conference, Windsor, Ontario July 11, 2014
33
Underwater Realm Chemical and Biological

(Oxygen Factors)
1. The chemistry of the oceans is very complex and continues to be a major focus of scientific research. Of the many
chemicals, oxygen is one of the most, if not the most, important as some 45-85% of the oxygen in the atmosphere
comes from the oceans.
2. Most of this oxygen comes from tiny ocean plants called phytoplankton that live near the waters surface and
drift with the currents. Like all plants, they use sunlight and carbon dioxide to make food a process we call
photosynthesis. A byproduct of the process is oxygen.
3. However the amount of oxygen dissolved in water is typically less than 0.001% whereas in air it is approximately
21% (by volume).
4. Dissolved oxygen plays a pivotal role in UIS designs and operations, especially in manned operations. Humans
use their lungs to extract oxygen from the environment. Underwater the amount of water we would have to
process to extract sufficient oxygen is beyond the surface area of our lungs and requires more power than the
human body can generate. This is a major obstacle to human activity underwater, so UISs must carry their own
oxygen supplies. However, our bodies are every sensitive to oxygen levels and at certain levels we will face death
from oxygen poisoning*.
* If a human breathes 100% oxygen then at a depth of about 20ft, oxygen poisoning would occur.
34
Underwater Realm Chemical and Biological the

roles of Oxygen
1. Fish use gills to extract the oxygen but even they have to expend a great deal of
energy and process large quantities of water in the extraction process. This may then
be the reason that fish are cold-blooded.
2. So far, unsuccessful efforts have been made to develop artificial gills for humans but
the use of different breathable oxygenated liquids has shown more promise*.
3. Apart from manned missions requiring an onboard, synthetic, breathable atmosphere
containing oxygen a key design feature there are also other effects of dissolved
oxygen which will impact UISs.
4. Oxygen also plays a pivotal role is ocean-sea health as we shall see.
* A fictional version was used in the James Cameron Film, The Abyss, to allow a diver go to extreme depth.
35
Underwater Realm Chemical and Biological

Corrosion and Oxygen
Work site chemical and biological conditions become important if the intervention systems remain
on-site for extended periods or are not properly cleaned after each operation. Careful selection of
materials, especially those which are contiguous, is crucial to prevent galvanic action and resultant
corrosion. The US Navy, for instance, in the 1990s estimated its annual economic loss due to
corrosion failures at over $5 billion.*
Steels are still used extensively in underwater systems and their rate of corrosion in water is
governed by the dissolved oxygen content. The amounts of dissolved oxygen and other elements
vary with depth and location within the sea, and these must be known if the designer is to forecast
the potential for material rust or decomposition. The amount of oxygen dissolved in sea water may
vary from 1.0 to 8.0 mL per L as shown in the next slide*.
* Citied in Hawley et al, 1996, Op Cit.
36
Underwater Realm Chemical and Biological Biofouling

Corrosion may also be initiated by the attachment and growth of
bacteria and other marine organisms. The biological processes
associated with such organisms also affect the concentration and
distribution of oxygen in the oceans. Metallic interfaces and surfaces
provide sites for microbial activity and biofouling can occur at many
different depths being depending on the physical characteristics of
the individual site and the type of local organism. Biofouling can
have very adverse affects on underwater work system operation by
causing the impairment of optical and acoustic surfaces, the choking
of intakes, and the obstruction of rotating surfaces. The problem of
biofouling removal has been perennially expensive for the maritime
communities, but in more recent times some technological advances
have been made by trying to prevent rather than remove the biogrowths*.
* Citied in Hawley et al, 1996, Op Cit.
37
Underwater Realm Chemical and Biological Negative

Oxygen The Baltic Example
http://www.smhi.se/en/theme/oxygen-in-the-sea-1.11274
While surface water is usually saturated with oxygen in

deeper waters the oxygen is consumed when breaking down
the organic matter that sinks from the surface. The oxygen in
deep water comes from the vertical mixing of the ocean layers
or from the addition of new water brought to the area by
ocean currents. In regions with poor water turnover such as
the Baltic Sea, dissolved oxygen levels sink to 2 or less ml/l.
As the oxygen is used up, the organic material continues to
break down, as bacteria use the sulfates as an oxygen source,
producing hydrogen sulfide which is poisonous to all higher
organisms, and leads to dead zones on the sea floor. In these
situations the term "negative oxygen" is used, corresponding
to the amount of oxygen needed to oxidize the hydrogen
sulfide.
38
Underwater Realm Light Penetration.

Euphotic Sunlight Zone
Disphotic Twilight Zone
Aphotic Midnight Zone
1. The Sunlight Zone extends from a few cm to a maximum

of 200 metres depending on location and state of the
water. Its thickness is defined by the depth beyond which
less than 1% of sunlight penetrates. It is considered that
about 90% of marine life lives in this zone which supports
photosynthesis.
2. Almost no light penetrates to the Twilight Zone and
photosynthesis is not possible although there is some
marine life*.
3. The Midnight zone starts at depths of about 900-1000m
and includes about 90% of all the oceans. It is in
permanent darkness. We now know that there is marine
life in this zone such as the vampire squid**.
* In 1854, the scientist Edward Forbes proposed that no life existed below 600m. (He was wrong)
** A very small animal about 25 cm long, with large red eyes and a cloaklike appearance hence the name.
39
Underwater Realm Light Penetration 2

1. As was shown on the previous slide the wavelength of particular constituent of the visible light determines its
penetration into the oceans. The shorter wavelengths penetrate deeper with blue light* going the deepest. If
the water contains solid particles for example in coastal areas and river estuaries these effect the light
penetration and water appears brown or green in colour.
2. Most of the visible light spectrum is absorbed within 10 m of the surface and only a tiny percentage ~ 1% ,
reaches below 150 m at best.
3. This general lack of light penetration even in the clear open oceans means that we cannot see where we
going.
4. The lack of optical visibility then presents a serious challenge to the use of oceans by humans. However it has
produced a similar and perhaps more serious problem to the oceans and deep waters in general because of a
invariable out-of-sight, out-of-mind societal attitude. Thus the dumping of waste materials of every
conceivable type and cavalier fishing techniques have until recently continued without thought or indeed
knowledge of the consequences because we cant see the effects.
* This is why the deep ocean water and some tropical waters appear to be blue .
40
Underwater Realm Light & Sound Communication,

Navigation, Data Collection
1. The lack of light penetration in water has important ramifications for UIS design and operation for it
means we cannot see to navigate or to avoid obstacles. It can then provide unwanted stealth. In
shallower areas the spectrum of light penetration can however provide the basis for the colour(s) of
submarine hull camouflage, e.g., a green painted hull rather than the more traditional black.
2. In recent years the technological advances made in opto-electronics has enabled consideration of
using light e.g., lasers and high brightness Blue/Green LED sources for underwater
communication and navigation, at least over short distances*.
3. The submarine and radio telegraphy were initially developed in the early 20th century. However
there was no marriage of the two technologies because radio waves are severely attenuated in
water. Although Extremely Low Frequency (ELF) 3 to 300 Hz radio waves can to some extent
penetrate water, in essence radio communications and Radar are virtually useless underwater.
* See for example Study of Land-To-Underwater Communication by Yoshida et al, 2011 and The Role of Blue/Green Laser Systems in Strategic Submarine
Communications by Wiener et al, 1980 full citations on CLEW site.
41
Underwater Realm Sound & Acoustics

Communication, Navigation, Data collection
1. Sound travels much faster* in water than in air and more
efficiently than light; and it can penetrate the deepest parts of
the oceans.
2. Like light, sound is absorbed (attenuated) by water, especially at
the higher frequencies, but the speed of sound increases with
increases in salinity, depth (hydrostatic pressure), and
temperature, with the latter two being the primary controllers
of sound transmission. The sound speed is also related to the
frequency(n) and wavelength() of the sound by the usual wave
equation, c = n.
Sound speed as a function of depth at

a position north of Hawaii in the
Pacific Ocean derived from the 2005
World Ocean Atlas.
3. The wave equation and the equation relating the speed of

sound to the physical conditions give us the basis for the use of
underwater acoustics for navigation and data collection.
* 1500 m/s compared to 330 m/s under equivalent conditions
42

Communication, Navigation, Data Collection
1. The British used the echo-sounding concept which they called ASDIC to locate German
submarines in the 1914-1918 war. ASDIC is now more commonly known as SONAR.
2. SONAR then is the water equivalent of RADAR, although echo-location can also be used on land for
navigation and location purposes.
3. Nevertheless early submarine communication was by wireless telegraphy using Morse code.
These submarines which more accurately should be called submersibles would be at or close to
the sea surface when receiving the signals through an antenna (aerial). Communication was
essentially one-way because of the limitations of vessels transmitter-antenna systems. Even so by
the 1920s* low frequency (16 kHz) signals could be sent to submerged submarines over a range of
3,000 miles (4,800 km) at a depth of just of 6m (21 ft.).
4. So why the need for acoustic communications?
* D F Rivera & R Bansal, Towed Antennas for US Submarine Communications: A Historical Perspective, IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, Vol 46, No 1, p 23- 36, Feb 2004.
43

1. As Sonar (ASDIC) and Radar became more sophisticated in the 1940s it was dangerous for submarines
to go to the surface to check communications and their location. However they had been designed for
the majority of their operations to be on the surface.
2. Radar became increasingly effective and it was possible to detect a submarines snorkel mast which is
used to allow it to stay below the surface for longer periods of time.
3. The advent of the nuclear powered submarines and passive (listening) sonar resulted in the need for
two way communications and deeper operations to become crucial, if the vessel was to retain its
stealth but also receive operational orders especially during the so called Cold War.
4. Although submerged radio wave communication was improved by the development of towed array
antennas the depth at which communication was possible was still very limited. Accurate submerged
navigation now became a problem, compounded by the lack of knowledge of underwater topologies.
5. All these factors lead to investigations and development in underwater acoustic systems.
44

After over 70 years of investigations and development on Underwater Acoustic Signal Processing the
work continues. At the recent IEEE Workshop on the topic, held in October 2013 at the University of
Rhode Island, the intent was to review theoretical and experimental research at an early stage of
development*. The areas of particular interest were:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Adaptive processing in non-stationary interference

Detection, localization or tracking, and classification
Underwater acoustic communications
Marine mammal related acoustic signal processing
Multistatic sonar signal processing
Performance analysis for active and passive sonar
Physics-based signal processing algorithm design and analysis
Signal processing for AUVs or deployed autonomous systems
Synthetic aperture sonar
So the work continues and will need to be supported by ocean measurements

*IEEE Conference Announcement
45
Underwater Realm
Sound & Acoustics - Measurement
1. The basic equation for determining the speed of sound in sea water is:
C = (1/)0.5 where is the adiabatic compressibility and is the density
2. Both and depend upon salinity, temperature and depth(pressure), it could be expected than an
analytical equation can be derived. While this is the case the accuracy of such an equation is
insufficient for accurate predictions and so a number of semi-empirical equations have been derived
but these are far from simple, e.g., The Mackenzie equation*:
C(T, S, z) = a1 + a2T + a3T2 + a4T3 + a5(S - 35) + a6z + a7z2 + a8T(S - 35) + a9Tz3
where T, S, and z are temperature in degrees Celsius, salinity in parts per thousand and depth in
meters, respectively. The constants a1, a2, ..., a9 are:
a1 = 1448.96, a2 = 4.591, a3 = -5.30410-2, a4 = 2.37410-4, a5 = 1.340,
a6 = 1.63010-2, a7 = 1.67510-7, a8 = -1.02510-2, a9 = -7.13910-13
3. The Mackenzie equation is accurate over a wide range of ocean conditions but there are other
equations which are more accurate over wider ranges they are also even more complicated.*
*http://resource.npl.co.uk/acoustics/techguides/seaabsorption/
46
Underwater Realm
Sound & Acoustics - Measurement
4. For our studies the actual numerical details of the speed of sound equations are not important. The
point is that even the expression for the speed of sound is complicated and is symptomatic of the
area of underwater acoustics. The need for actual measurement is paramount for accurate design
and operation of UISs.
5. In the same way as the operation of high altitude military aircraft provided our initial encounters with
the phenomenon we now call the jet-stream, the need to measure sound speed and acoustic
penetration at increasing depths lead not only to the development of deep diving scientific
submersibles, but also our encounter with the Deep Scattering Layer (DSL).
6. The DSL was discovered when apparently false readings of depth were obtained using echosounders. These false readings were also variable in value depending upon the time of day and the
geographical location of the measurement. This horizontal layer is caused by the vertical
movements of certain marine animals which scatter the sound waves. As with the jet-stream we
have found ways of overcoming the difficulties, but for some it provided a good hiding place for the
submarines of the nations who knew of its existence.
47
Underwater Realm Tides, waves, currents

1. Tides are produced mainly by the solar and lunar gravitational forces acting on the oceans and
other water masses. The actual rotation of the earth also gives rise to the Coriolis effect which also
plays a role in the phenomenon we call tides.
2. Although there are different types of Tides the one we usually encounter is the "principal lunar
semi-diurnal tide when two high water and two low levels occur in a time period of half a lunar
day , ~ 12 hours 25.2 minutes. We can, because of the work of famous mathematicians and
physicists, and direct observations dating back at least to the 2nd century BCE, forecast the timing of
the tides with great accuracy and also the high and low water levels although it should be noted
that consecutive levels of highs and lows will not be the same.
3. The tidal range (difference between high water level and low water level) can vary from a few inches
(~6 cm) in the Great Lakes to as much as 53 feet (16m) in the Bay of Fundy in Nova Scotia, Canada.
4. For the Bay of Fundy this means that twice a day it is filled and emptied with a billion tonnes of
water*.
*http://bayoffundy.com/about/highest-tides/
48

1. Tidal knowledge is therefore very important for both the design and operation of ships and UISs in
coastal waters.
2. However, as we shall see, we can use tidal variations to drive water turbines to produce green
power. In essence, the ocean equivalent of land-based wind power.
http://www.openhydro.com/company.html
http://www.marineturbines.com/SeaGen-Products
3. In our studies we focus more on UISs that could produce power from tides, rather than the effect
of tides on more conventional UISs, e.g., submarines.
49

1. Waves are formed by wind driven forces and are essentially surface phenomenon. As
such they are not an area which we will focus on in our studies, except as they impact
the stability of those UISs who have to operate, even for a short time, on the surface.
2. We can also produce energy from waves but it far less predicable or reliable as tidal
power.
3. As we saw in the pycnocline slides/videos there are also internal waves in the oceans
a controversial concept in the 1960s. In the design and operation of certain UISs these
internal waves must be accounted for in the same way as air turbulence effects aircraft
design and operation.
50

1. Current is water flow. In the surface layers winds generates surface waves but also move the water. In the late
19th century the Norwegian zoologist, explorer and Nobel Peace Prize winner Fridtjof Nansen observed that the
ocean (Arctic) current direction was to the right* of the wind direction and postulated that the wind driven current
was also being effected by the earths rotation (Coriolis force) and hydrodynamic drag**. A theoretical model of this
effect was postulated by the Swedish physicist Walfrid Ekman from which it was predicted that (a) the current
direction would change in a spiral manner as the depth increased and (b) the strength (speed) of the current would
exponentially decrease with depth.
2. Although the Ekman transport model is idealized it explains the water
circulation (current) patterns down to the pycnocline layer which acts an
effective block to any further vertical motion.
3. Below the pycnocline factors such as temperature and salinity variations are
the major drivers of water circulation.
4. In the surface layers the current strengths may be in the region of the 2 m/s
(Gulf Stream) but in the deeper waters below the pyncocline the current is
usually in the region of 1-2 cm/day hardly a current at all!
*http://oceanmotion.org/html/background/ocean-in-motion.htm
* True in the Northern Hemisphere but in the Southern Hemisphere the direction is to the left. ** R
H Stewart, Chapter 9, Op Cit
51
Underwater Realm Tides, waves, currents.

The Great Ocean Conveyor Belt
Bing Images - cmore.soest.hawaii.edu
*(http://www.enviroliteracy.org/article.php/545.html)
1. While the surface layers of the oceans are in constant motion as a result
of winds and tides, in deeper waters the ocean motion is due to
thermohaline circulation, which acts like a conveyor belt as the oceans
absorb, store, and redistribute vast amounts of solar energy around the
globe. Without this circulation, places at the same latitude across the
globe would generally have the same average temperatures. However,
because of this circulation, Norway located at similar latitude to
Manitoba, Canada has an average annual temperature that is nearly 20F
warmer*.
2. One lap of the conveyor belt will take a millennium or more.
3. In general, the very weak currents below the surface layers will not have
a significant impact on UISs design. However, the conveyor belt
circulation is considered to have monumental effects on our global
climate
4. Direct measurements of the properties of belt circulation can only be
made by UISs.
52
The Underwater Realm - Summary

1. Water and especially sea (salt)-water have chemical, biological and physical
characteristics which are totally alien to air-breathing humans. If then we are to explore
and ethically exploit the oceans, we or surrogate robots need to go underwater using
UISs.
2. From an engineering viewpoint the colossal pressures and drag forces encountered
underwater pose many technical challenges on UIS design and operation as do the
difficulties we encounter in communications, navigation and the almost complete lack
of visible light.
3. To date, other than for military purposes, surface transportation, fishing (more
accurately over-fishing), and some oil and gas extraction, we have used the oceans
more as a large waste disposal site rather than as a source of renewable energy and a
means to counter climate change impacts caused by land-based human activities.
53
But how much do we know?

Maybe the underwater realm has been neglected because we are lacking in knowledge
and understanding? but the previous slides appear to indicate that human knowledge of
the oceans and seas is extensive. So as land-based resources become exhausted or too
expensive to extract or use we will turn, no doubt, to the ocean sources or alternatives.
But do we really know enough about the underwater realm?
The following video clip is of a short speech given by Craig Mclean of NOAA at the Oceans
2012 conference. (The URL is given on the CLEW site).
54
Next Lectures
In the next lecture on the (In)visible Ocean we will see how ocean engineers
and scientists together with computer specialists have been able to combine
most of our present knowledge about the underwater realm to produce a
visible topography of the oceans.
Then in the following lectures we will consider some of the attempts that have
already been made to design, develop, and operate UISs in this hostile
environment and in particular the efforts being made to use the oceans as a
source of renewable clean energy.
55
Underwater Intervention
Systems
92-590-54 & 88-590-28 21 January
92-590-64 & 88-590-38 15 January
Lectures 4-6
56
Brief Recap of L1-L3

1. We looked at the nature of the underwater work-site especially with regard to the oceans.
2. We found that the physical characteristics of the oceans, especially vertically, are hugely
different from those we encounter on land.
3. Water* is at least 800 times more dense than air.
4. Pressure rapidly increases with depth at a rate of 1 atmosphere per every 10 metres.
5. For underwater operations, especially vehicular buoyancy effects are the prime controlling
factor.
6. The oceans are virtually impenetrable to visible light** and radio waves, except near to the
surface layers.
7. Acoustics play a major role in the operation of UISs
* In the case of standard sea-water the factor is 832.
** Which is a form of EM radiation
57
The (In)visible Ocean

1. While it can appear that we know a great deal about our oceans, as we have seen that is
not the case.
2. However, we are adding to our knowledge on a daily basis and at an increasing pace. We
need this knowledge so we can design better, cheaper, safer UISs but we need UISs to
obtain the knowledge in the first place. So we have a chicken and egg problem or in
engineering language a iterative approach.
3. As with space exploration ways have been found of taking raw data and using leading
edge advanced software animation and modeling techniques, coupled with massive
processing power, to produce images of a visible ocean system.
4. This has enabled an incredible video of the ocean system to be produced where we can
see everything, or at least everything we think we know.
5. The URL will be given on the CLEW site but you may wish to take notes for future
reference in your project work.
58
LIGHT THE OCEAN VIDEO

The URL for this video can be found on the CLEW course site.
59
L4 L6 Applications and Uses of UISs

1. Basic Types of Underwater Vehicles.
2. Examples of Underwater Vehicle Types, Commercial,
Recreational, Naval and Scientific.
3. Example of recreational web submersible, underwater
scooters and future concepts.
4. The Arctic Challenge.
5. Energy from the Sea Tidal Power and OTEC.
60
Applications and Uses of UISs

1. Because of the close relationships between naval and scientific uses and applications
of UISs, especially over the past 50 years, these will be dealt with in tandem after we
first consider their commercial applications.
2. However, as we shall see, all three main areas of application (naval, commercial and
Scientific) are inter-related in many ways. For example, the advent of acoustic echosounders (SONAR) enabled fishermen to locate at what depth and geographical
location schools* (large groups) of fish could be found.
3. The ocean, lake, and river surfaces have been main platforms for recreational
(pleasure) vehicles for over a century. The manufacture and supply of these vehicles
represent a sizeable global industry. However, more recently, recreational marine
vehicles have been developed which can operate underwater.
* Sometimes called Shoals or apparently the more correct modern term is Host.
61
Basic Types of Underwater vehicle - 1

1. Not all Underwater Intervention Systems are vehicles, although the majority can be classified as
vehicles whether manned or unmanned.
2. Other than tourist submarines there have been few official attempts to standardize the
terminology. Some claimed that only vehicles which would never need to come to the surface
could be classified as submarines, all others should be called submersibles. Using this approach
the total number of submarines is zero since even nuclear submarines have to surface when they
run out of food for the crew!
3. In 1996 an attempt was made by Hawley et al*, to define as precisely as possible - the different
types of vehicles. Since that time new types of vehicles have been developed such as Diver
Propulsion Vehicles (DPV) and Underwater Gliders so the 1996 attempt needs to be updated.
4. However, for our studies we can use the Hawley list modified to take account of the new vehicle
types. A discussion on the terminology issue has been posted on the CLEW site.
* Hawley et al, 1996, Op Cit

62
Basic Types of Underwater vehicle - 2

5. In the main manned naval underwater vessels will be referred to as submarines although the
description submersible may be more accurate in some cases. These naval vessels are
usually known as conventional powered or nuclear powered submarines.
6. Conventional submarines almost without exception have diesel-electric power plants. If they
also include a third type of power system such as a Stirling Engine or Fuel cell the vessel is
referred at as an AIP (Air independent Propulsion)* submarine. This can be confusing to those
not in the underwater community since nuclear powered submarines are also airindependent in terms of power production.
7. It is common practice to call civilian submarines, submersibles but this traditional is by no
means a formal definition.
8. Unmanned Underwater Vehicles (UUVs) are simply those which do not have people on board.
There are several different types of UUV.
* Originally called hybrid submarines but as the term hybrid in engineering terminology means the use of 2 or more different power systems then all
conventional naval submarines are hybrids.
63
Basic Types of Underwater vehicle 3 (ROVs & AUVs)

Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs)
An ROV is an
unmanned tethered
vehicle connected by
an umbilical cable to a
surface ship. It is
controlled by a surface
operator and can
receive its power from
the surface, or from a
power pack, or both.
Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs)

An AUV is an
unmanned
untethered vehicle
which carries its own
power pack and can
operate
independent of
surface control
Bing Images
64
Basic Types of Underwater vehicle 4 (Unmanned)

The underwater industry continues to innovate in the design and construction of UUVs. While this is
exciting from an engineering point-of-view it also mean that the classification (and hence the
eventual formulation of globally acceptable codes and standards) of such vehicles is becoming more
challenging. Typical examples of these new UUVs are the vehicles shown below which are known as
ROV/AUV hybrids. In essence the ROV element is acting as a host platform for the AUV taking it to
and from the desired work-site.
MAYBE A BETTER NAME WOULD BE UNDERWATER ROBOTS?

65
Basic Types of Underwater vehicle 5

Naval Submarines
1. There are two basic types* of naval submarine conventional (diesel-electric) and nuclear. These
descriptions apply to the type of power plants onboard the vessel and NOT to the type of weapons
they carry.
2. Although the public perception is that all naval submarines are nuclear in fact the majority of the
submarines are conventionally powered. There are approximately 450 naval submarines in the
Worlds navies and of these at least 400 are of the conventional type.
3. As most of the major navies are more concerned these days with shallower water (Littoral or
brown-water) rather than deep-ocean (blue-water) operations there has also been a trend towards
equipping conventional submarines with an additional AIP power system. The Littoral zone
extends out from the coast to a depth of about 60m.
4. Conventional submarines are much smaller than nuclear submarines mainly because of the
different missions they perform or national policy regarding the use of nuclear power.
* See discussion on CLEW L4-L6 support materials.

66
Basic Types of Underwater vehicle 6

Naval Submarines
1. The exact number of naval
submarines is always difficult to
quantify especially with regard to
how many are in service, or at sea,
at any one time.
2. A naval rule-of-thumb is that out of
every three submarines, 1 will be at
sea, 1 will be in harbour, and 1 will
be undergoing an extended
maintenance period or upgrading
renovation*
* Known as a Refit
67
Examples of Naval Submarines

Conventional Powered
Nuclear Powered
Royal Navy
Japanese Defence Ship
US Navy
Russian Navy
German Navy
Royal Australian
Navy
68
Basic Types of Underwater vehicle 7 Submersibles

1. Although there are unmanned, as well as manned, submersibles we will concentrate on examples of
the latter. The navies of the world also use submersibles as distinct to submarines but for
exemplars we will use mainly scientific and commercial versions.
2. One type of submersible which was basically only used by navies until the late 1980s was the wet
submersible. A wet submersible is a manned submersible designed to be free flooding such that
the pilot, crew, and passengers require personal diving equipment.* These types of submersibles
are used as delivery vehicles for special forces divers (frogmen) but a Canadian company,
International Venturecraft Corp (IVC), started to develop them for security and recreational use in
1986, and a few years later developed an automatic buoyancy and depth control system together
with a system which did not require the user to wear scuba equipment.
3. We shall take a closer look at IVCs Sportsub wet submersibles when discussing recreational
applications.
Hawley et al, 1996, Op.Cit.
69
Examples of Submersibles - 1
Slingsby LR5, submarine
rescue submersible operated
by the Royal Navy. Can
operate at depths to 2,000 ft.
Built by Slingsby of Yorkshire,
UK.
Pisces IV examines the wreck of
an American landing craft from
WWII. Image courtesy of Terry
Kerby, Hawai'i Undersea Research
Laboratory. Can operate to 6,500
ft. Built by International
Hydrodynamics of Vancouver,
B.C., Canada .
Deepworker 3,300 ft operated

by NOAA built and designed by
Nuytco Research Limited, North
Vancouver, B.C., Canada
Information gleaned from NOAA, NavalTechnology.com and constructors websites.
70
Examples of Submersibles 2
Japan Agency for Marine-Earth

Science and Technology (JAMSTEC)
submersible, Shinkai 6500, depth
of 21,280 ft in service since the
1991.
The famous Alvin submersible has been

operated by Woods Hole Oceanographic
Institution (WHOI), since 1964. Now being
refitted to extend its maximum depth from
14,800 ft to 21,325 ft. Built by the US
companies General Mills & Litton Industries
(Now part of Northrop Grumman), owned by
the US Navy .
MIR 1 & 2, operated by the Soviet, now

Russian, Academy of Sciences built by the
Finnish Company Rauma-Repola has been
tested at depths of 20, 200 ft.
71
Comment on Naval Submarines and Commercial/Scientific

Submersibles
1. The manned submersibles we have just viewed all go to greater depths than naval
submarines.
2. The design of these deeper diving submersibles, is, as we shall see, different from
naval submarines especially with regard to the pressure hull shape and the
construction materials.
3. Naval submarines are designed to go much faster than submersibles and therefore
their shapes are more hydrodynamic.
4. The submersibles in slides 15 and 16 are used for specialist tasks such as deep sea
rescue, data gathering, and object location. The lease on one of these vehicles will
cost between $30,000 and $50,000 per day.
72
Recreational Uses of UISs -1

1. With the odd exception, recreational use of underwater vehicles are designed to operate just
below the water surface in the top 10m* or so of the euphotic (sunlight) zone.
2. Recreational (sometimes called Scuba) diving is the most popular of human underwater
activities we will return to this topic later when we discuss life-support systems.
3. In recent times the most popular underwater recreational UISs has become the Diver
Propulsion Vehicle** (DPV) or underwater scooter, but manned, shallow depth submersibles
have also been built, or are under investigation or development.
4. A detailed study of these recreational vehicles is out of the scope of this course but as they
appear to be increasingly popular, and are part of a growing commercial enterprise, we shall
briefly review the application area.
* On average 80% of visible light is absorbed by the time this depth is reached.
** Also used by Naval Special Forces
73
Recreational Uses of UISs -2

1. Because these vehicle types will not be operating at great depths the pressure effects on
structural integrity is not as a significant design concern unless transparent materials are
used.
2. Moreover the tourist type vehicles will be designed to operate in the upper layers of
the euphotic zone as 60% of visible light is absorbed within a metre of the water surface
and 80% within the top 10 m. As we know the top layer of the photic zones may be as
shallow as 10 m in coastal waters but could extend to 100 m or sometimes 200 m in
open ocean waters.
3. The DPVs and underwater scooters are commercial versions of the special forces naval
vehicles but are used for the same purposes (except stealth) to enable longer or faster
transits to be made. They are invariably powered by a battery-electric system and the
battery of choice is increasingly lithium ion.
74
Examples of Submersibles -3 - Recreational

Tourist (Recreational)
Submersibles
Sportsub wet
submersible
75
Examples of Other Recreational UISs
seabobamerica.com
Aqua Star (of Florida USA) AS 2
Underwater Scooter
The Sub Aviator designed to

dive to 1000ft!
http://www.hydrodome.com/hydrobob.html
76
Future Recreational/Personal UISs

1. The idea of underwater habitats for humans is not new and indeed has been tried. These
specialized UISs may become a reality as the 22nd century approaches and futuristic
designs for underwater cities are already being conceptualized by leading international
companies. We will also need personal underwater vehicles to move between the land
and these habitats should we desire the same type of freedom of movement that the
automobile provides on land.
2. However, we have also seen that the use of the underwater environment for personal and
recreational use is on the increase. This growing market has also attracted the interest of
commercial companies both large and small. Here too, concept vehicles (perhaps
without too much thought to actual design and manufacture challenges) have been
showcased.
3. In the next video clip we take a look at these future vehicle concepts.
77
Commercial Uses Resource Exploration and Exploitation

1. The four main uses of the Oceans, Seas, Lakes, and Rivers have, and continue to be as: (a) a method of transporting
people and goods; (b) a food supply (fishing); (c) a place to dump waste, and (d) a source of fossil fuels although
only in more recent times.
2. The transportation of people, goods and services involves the surface shipping. This topic is beyond the scope of
this course except that these so-called SLOCs (sea lanes of communication) can be threatened or protected by naval
submarines and UISs.
3. Similarly as fishing in a surface ship activity albeit using underwater appliances (nets) we will only briefly
consider this use of the oceans as it impacts the need for scientific UISs.
4. In terms of waste disposal and fossil fuel extraction we will only briefly consider them in this lecture but more
information will be provided on certain aspects especially from a Canadian viewpoint during Lectures 15 and 16.
5. To these four uses we can now add a fifth renewable energy. Energy can be produced from the oceans using the
thermal energy that can be extracted from the temperature differences in the vertical water column or by using the
potential and kinetic energy of the ocean tides and waves.
6. In this lecture section we will focus mainly on the renewable ocean energy aspects but here again we will return to
this topic when considering the technical design aspects of UISs.
78
Fishing and the Need for Scientific UISs -1

1. Ocean & Lake Fishing has always been a
crucial source of food for humans.
2. As we can see from the United Nations
Data for some countries and areas, fish
products account for over 20% of the daily
human protein intake.
3. In recent years because of overfishing and ignorant fishing at least 75% of
the natural stocks of fish have been depleted and to compensate the
Aquaculture (Fish farm) industries what we may term grow your own fish
having been rapidly increasing in production and also seeking ways to
genetically modify fish to reduce the time-to-market.
4. Is this fishing problem just a result of global population increase?
Data from UN: http://www.theglobaleducationproject.org/earth/fisheries-and-aquaculture.php
79

1. As the ocean fishing industry became more
automated and ways of finding fish (e.g.,
echo-location) were significantly improved
the rate of fish extraction increased more
rapidly than the global human population.
2. By the early 1990s the fish stocks could not

cope with the extraction rates and nations
started increasing their aquaculture
activities.
3. For some species the rate of extraction
depleted the stocks to such an extent that
recovery was almost impossible the
Atlantic Cod situation is an example.
80

1. The disastrous cod
situation lead to a Canadian
moratorium cod fishing.
2. It is estimated that cod
stocks are now 1% of what
they were in 1977 and show
no signs of recovery.
3. The cod type situation has been
Northwest Atlantic Cod Fishing

replicated globally with about 75% of the

other main fish species.
81
Cod & The Northwest Atlantic are not the only problem
Oceanworld.tamu.edu
There are many examples of overfishing and ignorant fishing as shown in the diagrams above but
there is a third factor ocean acidification which is also considered to impact the marine-life food
chains above the pycnocline. This acidification is thought to be due to the increases in atmospheric
CO2 caused by fossil fuel usage although this is not universally accepted.
http://www.terpconnect.umd.edu/~mvanhove/climatemyth.html
82

1. Scientific knowledge of fish migration, reproduction and their
place in the oceanic food chain has not kept pace with the
technology of fishing. So the impact of the rates of extraction
and the timing and location of extraction were not known or
acknowledged by the fishing industry.
2. For some countries notably the USA the impact of fishing
on national GDP was and is only in the region of 4% - which is
not an attention grabber.
3. For many other nations, especially China and Japan, the ocean
fishing resources are crucial.
4. Scientific Fish research has rapidly increased worldwide but
the collection of data is hampered by the need to deploy
underwater instrumentation (UISs) from surface ships.
http://pmel.noaa.gov/co2/file/Puget+Sou
nd+Cast
83

1. Scientific advances in sampling techniques such as DNA
identification of fish species from water samples are opening
up the opportunities for the design and construction of
autonomous underwater vehicles, especially gliders, as more
cost effective and efficient platforms for fish research than
surface ships.
2. Most of the ocean resources exploited by nations are
contained in the coastal waters of their continental
shelves. Thus, many have announced EEZs (Economic
Exclusion Zones) stretching out about 200 nautical miles
from their coastlines. In these areas the nations claim that
all the resources are theirs and theirs alone.
3. However, the definition of coastline is problematic.
84
EEZs and Resource Conflicts
Established in 1982. By 1994, 60 countries have ratified the

convention and by 2012 this has increased 3-fold. The country
noticeable by its absence is the USA.
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the

Sea (UNCLOS III*) defines the rights and
responsibilities of nations in their use of the world's
oceans, establishing guidelines for businesses, the
environment, and the management of marine
resources.
It is not clear whether UNCLOS can be claimed to be
International Law or is effective in resolving
competing national claims.
The Arctic Ocean is a particular hot area as the USA
do not agree with Canadian claims, and the Canadian
do not agree with Russian claims. All three countries
are increasing their military presence in the area
because the prize is oil.
85
Oil Resources in The Oceans The Arctic
Green area high potential
About 30% of the global

oil production comes
from the 8,000 or so
offshore drilling rigs. At
the moment the worlds
proven
oil
reserves
appear to be mainly on
land in the Middle East
but geological surveys
have indicated that large
oil and gas reserves are in
the Arctic region.
http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/LOP/researchpublications/prb0807-e.pdf
86
Oil Resources
1. There are 4 main types of offshore drilling of
which three are in common use, semisubmersibles, jackups (platform legs on sea floor)
and drill-ships. In all cases ROVs are used to
support rig maintenance and diver operations,
pipeline laying and pipeline inspections. The
drilling operations themselves can be considered
to be UISs but we generally see just the surface
portions of the oil platforms themselves. The
drilling depths are getting increasingly deeper and
further from the coastline.
2. Offshore is particularly important for the USA but
the recent promising surveys from the Dakotas
may change the priority.
3. Offshore oil drilling, extraction and transportation
is an expensive activity.
http://www.thecqiscotland.org/North/n_reports.htm
Although artists impressions the above diagrams are

reasonably accurate with a number of different
underwater robots being involved in offshore oil
operations.
87
Ocean Pollution Oil in the Oceans 1

1. In any use of the ocean on the surface or under the surface - we must take account of the
environmental impact, but it is really only relatively recently that the focus on such matters in the
invisible oceans has been made.
2. Invariably the public and media perception of pollution and environmental impacts is flawed. For
example, whenever air pollution is mentioned we are shown pictures and videos of steam (wet
gaseous water) rising from power station cooling towers as an example of the effect of human
produced CO2 on climate change even when the power plant is nuclear!
3. In the same way oil spills always make the headlines and can often result in Governments calling
a halt or a moratorium on drilling, pipeline, and tanker shipping activities. Although their impact
should not ever be underestimated they are almost always exaggerated and measures to negate
their effects usually achieve the reverse.
88
Ocean Pollution Oil in the Oceans 2*
The largest accidental oil spill in history, The Lakeview Gusher occurred on land in Kern County,
California 1910-1911, and released 1.2 million tons of US Crude. The recent, 2010, Deepwater
Horizon disaster in the Gulf of Mexico released 492,000 tons also in the Gulf of Mexico in 1979. The
IXTOC 1 spill released 454,000 tons.
* Mainly Modified from data and links on University of Texas A&M website http://oceanworld.tamu.edu
89
Oceans Oil Spills

Oil spills from oil tankers operating at sea world-wide account for only 7.7% of oil in the ocean, yet
large spills attract far more attention than other much larger sources of oil pollution. The
International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Historical Data has information on all spills, large
and small. They note that "The average number of large spills per year during the 1990s was about a
third of that witnessed during the 1970s."
Exxon
Valdez
* Modified from University of Texas
A&M website
http://oceanworld.tamu.edu
90
Oceans Pollution Oil in the Oceans 3
Natural seepage accounts for 60% of oil in North American Marine waters.
http://oceanworld.tamu.edu
http://dels.nas.edu/global/osb/Pollution-In-The-Ocean
91
Ocean Pollution - Waste & Dumping

1. While the impact of oil spills is not to be under estimated it is greatly exaggerated by those with
particular political and obdurate environmental agendas. Yet, even if we eliminated all oil spills there
would still be 92% of the oil contamination sources left of which one-half to two-thirds would be
from natural sources.
2. According to the data compiled by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA),
approximately 1.4 billion lbs of trash is dumped in the oceans every year.* Over 80% of waste
dumped into the sea is from land-based human activities.
3. What is more concerning is that munitions, chemical, and nuclear waste has been dumped into the
oceans over the last 60 years. UISs are now giving a means of locating, identifying, and monitoring
the dump sites and the accidental waste sites. It is a very disturbing picture. We shall briefly return
to this area later in the course.
*http://www.buzzle.com/articles/ocean-pollution-facts.html
92
Energy Extracting UISs

1. As with all renewable and sustainable energy sources the main drivers for development are the
desire to reduce the use of, and reliance on, fossil fuel sources, and to reduce the production of
Carbon Dioxide. Nuclear power which could address these issues is still not popular among the
public and some national governments.
2. The use of wind power and solar power has significantly increased in recent years although the
financial costs remain higher than conventional power generation in terms of capital investments
and operations.
3. The use of the physical characteristics of the oceans to produce energy by no means a new idea
has attracted increasing attention over the past decade or so.
4. The main Ocean Energy developments have been the use of tidal power and thermal energy. The
latter is known as OTEC (Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion) and uses the temperature difference
between the cooler deep and warmer surface ocean waters to run a heat engine.
93
Energy Extracting UISs

The Underwater Wind (Tidal Power) Farm
BING Images
94
Energy Extracting UISs Tidal Power 1

1. Tidal Power is the ocean version of wind power on land and many of the same
technical and operating principles apply.
2. The four main differences between tidal and wind power is that (a) water is much
denser than air, (b) maintenance can be more challenging,(c) installation is more
challenging and (d) the level of tidal power generation is predictable
3. However tidal power can produce a higher level of power and it is not as visible or
noisy to the land based humans.
4. The tidal power devices can be in the form of what are essentially the underwater
equivalent of 2/3 bladed wind turbines, or multi-bladed fluid turbines normally
encountered in turbo-machinery. They are usually all known as marine current
turbines.
95

1. We will look at some of the design aspects including efficiency limitations in a later lecture.
Underwater turbines also experience high axial forces* and the hydrodynamic phenomenon
cavitation**.
2. A series of review papers will be uploaded to the CLEW site dealing with tidal power to give you
some insight into the technical design processes and information suitable for a course project. For
this lecture section a paper by P L Fraenkel has been placed on the website.
3. Tidal power depends mainly upon the water flow rate*** which itself depends upon the tidal
range (differences between high water and low water levels). There are certain places in the world
that are particularly attractive for tidal power because of the size of the range these are usually
close to shore or in river estuaries or deltas. However there are many other factors involved in the
design, construction, and operation of these UISs
* These are caused in the direction of the flow because the turbine is extracting energy i.e., reducing the velocity and changing the momentum.
** We shall see a description of what is cavitation in a later video clip.
*** The fluid dynamics cube rule.
96

1. There are a number of Tidal power plants in use or under investigation globally.
Some have been in operation for many years. Two of particular interest are the
SEAGEN project in Northern Ireland and the FORCE* project in Nova Scotia,
Canada.
2. The Nova Scotia project is taking place in the Bay of Fundy which has the largest
tidal range in the world. For the FORCE project a number of different marine
current turbines are being considered.
3. We will take a look at these two projects in the following video clips, whose URLs
will be posted on the CLEW site.
* The Fundy Ocean Research Center for Energy
97
THE FUNDY FORCE PROJECT 1

FORCE Fundy Ocean Research Centre for Energy.
This is a not-for-profit organization which works
closely with the University of Arcadia, especially on
environmental issues, and Nova Scotia Power, Inc on
Tidal Power. There are projects with five major tidal
power companies. Each of the companies, Alstom,
OpenHydro, Lockhead-Martin, Marine Current
Turbines-Siemens, and Atlantis Resources Corp will
install different trial systems in the Fundy area.
Note that the following website is worth visiting as a portal of information on energy research http://fern.acadiau.ca/fundy-tidalenergy-demonstration-facility.html
98
THE FUNDY FORCE PROJECT 2

THEIR VISION
Tidal devices operating in the Bay of Fundy may endure tides moving at
speeds up to 5 metres per second, rising up to 16 metres vertically, and
expanding up to 5 kilometres horizontally. The Bay of Fundy has been called
the Everest of tidal energy. If you can produce power under those
conditions, and produce it safely and reliably, you have met the Fundy
Standard. If you can make it here, you can make it anywhere.
99
THE FUNDY FORCE Project Hopes and Concerns Video

Note the concerns expressed and the attempts being made by
University scientific researchers to address these concerns.
2. The relationship between the power extracted and the impact
on tidal ranges is also discussed.
3. Details on how to obtain this movie will be given on the CLEW
site.
1.
100
The Fundy Force Project The practicalities

video
1. The video demonstrates what happens with most large
and innovative engineering projects and usually results in
the project team going back to the drawing-board and
also updating their simulations.
2. The URL is posted on the CLEW site.
101
Tidal Power Progress towards Reality including new

ideas
1. We have seen that hopes, expectations, and simulations are not always realized in practice at least
initially. This is the nature of Engineering and Design; we often have insufficient data but we dont
always know it until we try it!
2. One of the Fundy industrial collaborators ALSTOM has obviously learned some lessons and
revamped its approach but the next movie clip is still part reality, part simulation. One of the lessons
they dont appear to have learned is that the Bay of Fundy is in Canada!
3. We shall see that, when we take a closer look at turbine design, the maximum efficiency of such
devices appears to be governed by the so-called BETZ Law. Others have challenged this Law as
giving efficiencies that are unrealistically high, whilst others claim it is too low! Of the latter, the
Australian company Tidal Power claim their new Davidson Hill Venturi (DHV) Turbine is an example.
4. The DHV movie clip shows perhaps one of the future directions for Tidal Power research.
102
The ALSTOM system video

1. Note that the system appears to have been optimized for one-way flow.
2. Important aspects of Tidal Power are stressed.
URL is on the CLEW Site.
103
The DHV Turbine video

1. It has to be remembered that this short movie clip is a promotional and marketing
video and not surprisingly some sweeping claims are made.
2. It is nevertheless an interesting video in that it also provides the context for tidal
power research and its potential impact.
3. The URL is available on the CLEW site.
4. Note that in June 2012 TE commenced a Joint Venture with Thailand company
Potential Energy Ltd (PE) and registered a new company "Tidal Energy Asia" (TEA) in
Singapore as a vehicle to hold a regional license for 10 Far Eastern countries.
104
Energy Extracting UISs OTEC - 1
1.
As we saw in slides 44-47 (lecture 1-3) the solar radiation

especially around the latitudes close to the equator
causes the surface water temperature to be in the region of
250 C but not far below the thermocline the temperature
drops rapidly to 3-50C. The difference in temperature in the
water column can then be used to drive a heat engine for
the main purpose of producing electricity. Although even
the highest possible thermal efficiency Carnot - will be low
the colossal amount of available heat energy can result in
very large amounts of (gigawatts) work transfer (Laws of
Thermodynamics).
2.
The concept of OTEC dates back to the latter part of the 19th
century and OTEC plants have been in operation for several
decades but on a relatively small scale.
3.
There are 3 main types of OTEC system, open-cycle, closedcycle, and hybrid cycle.
105
Energy Extracting UISs OTEC - 2
The Closed Cycle version is considered to have the highest efficiency and is the one which is attracting more present
day attention.
These diagrams have been taken from the paper On the ocean heat budget and ocean thermal energy conversion by Mohammed Faizal and M. Rafiuddin Ahmed, which has
been uploaded to the CLEW site.
106
The Lockheed-Martin System

1. This company is a global engineering company with over 120,000 employees and is
one of the worlds largest defence contractors.
2. Its interest in OTEC is driven by the defence needs of the country it is working with,
in the sense of ensuring the security of energy supplies.
3. Note that the video indicates it is working in a region where the 200C difference is
not coming from particularly warm surface waters.
4. Although as with the Tidal Power video the following video is a promotional video it
does contain some useful information. The URL is on the CLEW site.
107
Any Questions?
108
Systems
L7-9 : Naval and Narco Submarines; Submarine
Developments & Technical Design Estimates (1)
109
NAVAL UISs & NARCO Submarines
Bing Images
110
NAVAL Submarine Developments -1
There were many attempts in the

second half of the 19th century to
develop combat submarines but
the ones that caught the attention
of navies was the CSAs (
Confederate States of America)
CSS Hunley as this 40 ton humanpowered submarine during the
American Civil War was the first
submarine to sink an enemy ship,
the USAs (then the Union of
States of America) 1200 ton USS
Housatonic.
111
1. The CSS Hunley demonstrated that a small inexpensive submarine could

sink a large costly surface ship even with a very crude weapon the spar
torpedo which was basically a bomb on a stick.
2. There were many other 19th century attempts to develop combat
submarines and better underwater weapons but the one that revolutionized
this kind of UIS was the submarine type invented by J P Holland originally
constructed for an Irish-American terrorist group later versions were
bought or constructed by the Governments of the USA, the UK, and British
Columbia (taken over by the Canadian Government a few weeks later). The
original Holland used a two-stroke Brayton* IC Engine.
3. The Holland submarines in terms of design were way ahead of their time
but were not particularly successful in operation because of a variety of
factors.
* The Brayton engine was a reciprocating engine, it was only later that the Brayton thermodynamic cycle was considered to be the ideal cycle for the gas turbine.
112
The picture at the top left is of a model of the

Royal Navys Holland submarine. A Wolseley
170 hp petrol engine was used together with
an Electric motor; a torpedo tube was added
and the shape was in the style of a porpoise,
ideal for submerged operation.
Many of the submarines developed at this
time were designed with submerged
operation in mind, but the choice of power
systems was variable most navies favoured
steam engines while usually their inventors
didnt! Eventually the diesel engine became
the prime mover of choice for most Naval
submarines and remains so even today.
Scientific America 1898
113

1. Many navies were not that enthusiastic about using submarines from either an operational,
or an ethical, viewpoint. Consequently, leading up to the Great War of 1914-1919*, the
submarine was seen more as a small coastal craft serving in support of a surface fleet.
2. As it was envisaged that the submarine would spend most of its time on the surface the
advanced porpoise-type hull shape designs were radically changed as these were excellent
for submerged operations but not ideal for surface operations. The main armament was to
be the deck gun although some would have torpedoes.
3. Internal Combustion engines were to provide surface propulsion and the new
electrochemical batteries were to power electrical motors when underwater. Prior to the
start of the war the German Navy successfully developed closed cycle kerosene (SparkIgnition (SI)) and Diesel (Compression-Ignition) engines which could be operated on the
surface and when submerged. The work was stopped completely when a worker was killed
in an explosion with the SI engine fuel system.
* An armistice was signed in 1918 but the peace treaty was not agreed until 1919 and indeed in Russia the war continued into the 1920s.
114
Naval Submarine Developments - 5
The 2nd World War started with the Japanese invasion of China in 1937, not the German invasion of Poland in 1939 or the attack on the Malay States (Malaysia) Hawaiian
Islands in 1941. It did not finally end until September 1945 .
1. The use of submarines quickly spread to the oceans and the underwater
campaigns by the British in the Gallipoli campaign, and the Germans in the 1st
Battle of Atlantic achieved some success. On the British side a significant number
of the submariners were Canadians.
2. Submarine operational tactics were in their infancy and the escorted convoy
system eventually negated the submarine threat.
3. Between the two major 20th century wars navies continued to develop submarines,
especially with regard to power systems, and again tried to use steam engines, but
the diesel-electrical system dominated. There were no game-changing advances in
either design or concepts of operational use until the 1937 1945* war. Advanced
submarines of the type developed by the Germans (shown in the next slide) were
still very much state-of-the art in terms of design concept over 20 years later.
115
The U140 (Project 46)*
Diving depth ~ 75m with a pressure

hull thickness of 25mm
As the technology rapidly developed,

the submarines, especially of the
German Navy, became more
sophisticated. The one shown in the
photograph was 1,950 tons
displacement:
Propulsion: 2 x 1750 hp (1300 kW) 4 stroke
* The U-Boat, Eberhard Rssler, Arms & Armour Press, 1989, ISBN
0-85368-115-5.
diesel engines (surface), Battery-Electric

(submerged), ~ 500 hp (370 kW).
Speed: 15 knots on the surface, 8 knots
when submerged.
Range: 12,000 nautical miles @ 10 knots
surface, 90 nautical miles @ 4.5 knots when
submerged.
Crew: 55-70.
Weapons: Torpedoes plus 2 6 (15cm) deck
guns.
116
Naval Submarine Developments - 6

1. As the second world war approached improvements in naval UISs began to appear. The Italians and the
Dutch had separately and independently* developed the snorkel** - a means of taking atmospheric air to
run the diesel engines without the need to surface. The Japanese significantly improved torpedo design both
for submarines and surface ship use.
2. The British together with Canadian physicists started to develop sound location systems (ASDIC) which they
gave freely to the USA and which became SONAR (Sound Navigation and Ranging). At the same time
scientists all over the world were working on radio direction finding and radio navigation systems. A
successful system for detection and ranging was developed first by the British for enemy aircraft location in
the 1940s and became known as RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging). Within a couple of years RADAR
systems could also detect submarines, and even the snorkel masts, forcing submarines deeper for longer.
3. With the increasing electronic transparency of the oceans, and the need to significantly improve what is
called the Indiscretion ratio (the ratio of time spent snorting to not snorting), towards the end of the
1937-45 War, and especially in the decade following, the design of submarines basically reverted to the hullshape concepts originally developed by J P Holland and the early pioneers for submerged operations.
4. The next big thing was the development of a successful underwater nuclear powerplant.
* Give Credit Where Credit Is Due, Mark C Jones, Journal of Military History, p987-1012, October 2005 available through the Leddy Library.
** The Dutch called the device a Snulver, the Germans - a Schnorkel, the British - a Snort and the Americans a Snorkel. ibid
117
NARCO Submersibles & Submarines

1. There is now a great deal of information available in the public domain though the web
and electronic databases on semi-submersible, submersible, and submarine design. There
are also a number of former defense personnel looking for work.
2. It was perhaps only a matter of time before drug cartels began to use underwater vehicles
to transport illegal narcotics into countries such as the USA. Although most of these
vehicles are semi-submersibles, which skim the surface of the oceans to avoid detection,
recently discovered vehicles are true submersibles/submarines and they have used some
ingenious solutions to design and construct them.
3. These Narco UISs can carry between 5 and 10 tonnes of cocaine per trip.
4. As these illegal vessels have become more sophisticated (and are not subject to
operational and constructional codes!) the methods of interdicting them have had to
improve.
118
Narco
Submarines
and
Submersibles
According to a recent story

in the British Newspaper The
Daily Telegraph* torpedo
pods filled with narcotics
are also being fixed (welded)
on to merchant ship
bottoms to avoid normal
custom inspection
procedures.
The use of small inexpensive
ROVS for harbour
surveillance may provide a
countermeasure.
* 27 April 2013
119
Recap
1. We have now considered the environment and worksites in which UISs

must be designed to operate.
2. We have looked at the majority of different types of UISs that have been
developed and why they are needed.
3. We have also considered some of the issues surrounding the exploration and
exploitation of ocean resources, especially the potential for renewable
energy potential and increasing oil fuel extraction.
4. Now we will consider some aspects of the fundamental technicalities of
actual UISs design.
5. Supporting materials (mainly technical papers) associated with these aspects
will be placed on the CLEW site along with the course presentations.
A mixture of units will be encountered when dealing with the design aspects of UISs although increasingly the SI system is becoming the most
popular. A set of conversion factors has been placed in the CLEW resource folder.
120
Propulsive Power Estimates

1. For all UISs there are two elements of power/energy needs that we need to consider.
These are Hotel Load and Propulsive Power. The hotel load is the amount of
energy/power that will be needed to fulfill the functions of UISs mission other than
that which will be needed to move the UIS. In most cases, but not all, the propulsive
power will be the greater of the two.
2. In the analytical treatment that follows, the equation numbers refer to those used in
Chapter 3 of the previously citied book by Hawley, Nuckols, Reader and Potter whose
work will be used in this part of the course.
3. To start with we will assume that the buoyancy (weight-displacement) and stability
requirements have been met for the vehicles under consideration.
4. Now we need to predict:

(a) The amount of power required to move the submersible through the water at a
given speed, and
(b) The amount of energy that must be made available/stored to meet the
power/speed mission of the vehicle, as well as the hotel load.
121
Propulsive Power Estimates -2
We saw earlier that the propulsive power required is drag (or resistance to motion) times the desired
velocity. In the first instance then an understanding of the resistance that will oppose the motion is required.
122
123
So now that we have the basic relationships we will first use the Hydrodynamic approach
to estimate the drag resistance, and hence the propulsive power requirements.
Hydrodynamics, as previously mentioned, is the study of the physics of motion and action
of water as compared to Aerodynamics, which is a similar study but with air as the medium.
The principles of fluid mechanics and dynamics apply equally to both hydrodynamics and
aerodynamics but of course underwater we are dealing with a liquid.
124
The Total Resistance Coefficients
These are the resistances

to motion which we will
need to evaluate in order
to estimate the propulsive
power requirement (EHP).
125
Propulsive Power Estimates - 5

Bare Hull Resistance (RBH)
This is also known as the skin drag or sometimes viscosity drag and is found from
basic fluid mechanics such that:
126
There is a large body of analytical work on attempts to determine the values of these various coefficients.
Numerical analysis has become both increasingly popular as advanced computational facilities have been
developed and more readily accessible, but nevertheless model testing is still required. Each coefficient has
a range of values depending upon the type of vehicle, the envisaged mission, and the work-site environment
(ocean properties).
127
Frictional Resistance, Cf
While there are a number of different semi-analytical expressions for the frictional resistance
coefficient none are universally accepted although the most commonly accepted* is:
As the kinematic viscosity of sea water for

submerged operation is approximately
constant at 1.28 x 10-5 Ft2 / sec the
frictional resistance becomes a function of
velocity and length.
* Adopted at the International Towing Tank Conference in 1957: http://ittc.sname.org/ - see notes on next slide
128
Comments on Tow Tanks
In order to determine the various coefficients required in design calculations, tow or towing tanks are
constructed where dimensionally similar models can be pulled through the water at various speeds with
specified wave types and the resistance to the motion determined. Many of the major maritime nations plus
a small number of universities have these facilities*. The tanks have high capital and operating costs and
require expert technical support. They are constructed to ITTC (see previous slides) specifications and
operate in terms of experimental methodology** in accordance with ITTC procedures.
Example of a
Tow Tank
*The nearest one in this region is at the University of Michigan.
** http://ittc.sname.org/2002_recomm_proc/7.5-02-03-01.1.pdf
129
Residual Resistance, Cr
Table 3.1
130
Propulsive Power Estimates - 7
To complete the calculation for the bare hull resistance (eqn 3.4) we need to
evaluate the surface roughness correlation allowance, Cf and the wave making
resistance, Cw. In the latter case this resistance can be ignored if the UISs is
operating at depths greater than the equivalent of 5 hull diameters.
As its description implies, the coefficient, Cf takes account of the resistance due
to the roughness of the bare hull and the holes which are required for venting
or taking on ballast, and several other factors. Typical values for this coefficient
vary between 0.0004 to 0.0009 depending upon the vehicle/UIS. For nuclear
submarines a range of 0.00052 to 0.0007 has been suggested*.
Once we have sufficient information for the bare hull resistance then we will
need to evaluate (estimate) the appendage resistance in order to use eqn. 3.1 to
eqn. 3.3 to determine the propulsive power needs of the UIS.
* V Bukalov and A Narusbayev, Atomic Powered Submarine Design, Sudostroyeniy Publishing House, Leningrad, USSR ( 1964) now St. Petersburg, Russia.
131
Comment of Surface Roughness
Although it may seem that the surface

roughness is not a significant factor, this is not
the case. The effect will vary from UIS to UIS
and there are many variables involved, as
indicated in the list on the LHS of this slide*.
The situation is complicated. For example,
fouling (biofouling) will increase on a daily basis
in temperate waters and particularly in tropical
oceans. Analytical modeling of the roughness
effects is very difficult for even a simple shape
(flat plate) so for UISs we usually have to use
the estimated values as given on the previous
slide. The effect of roughness on the fluid flow
resistance over a flat plate is shown in the
graph*.
*Some Aspects of Submarine Design, Part 1. Hydrodynamics, P N Joubert, Australian Department of Defence, report DSTOTR-1622, October 2004.
132
Appendage Resistance, RAPP
Once again as the name implies the appendage resistance is caused by those physical
features which stick out from the basic hull shape. In the case of naval submarines, these
features will include the conning tower (fin or sail), snorkel, and other masts, sonar domes
etc. In commercial UISs these include the robotic arms and exostructure. The exostructure
is defined* as the framework on which everything else hangs: the pressure hull being
merely one of the cargo units suspended within or beneath it.
(3.8)
* W Penzias and M W Goodman, Man Beneath the Sea, Wiley & Son, New York, USA ,1973.
133
Appendage Resistance - 2
1. If there were no appendages then obviously RAPP would be zero. From a

practical point-of-view the elimination of all UIS appendages is just not
possible, especially with manned vehicles.
2. As each different type of UIS will have different appendages there will be
uncertainty in the value of Ct-app but in the initial propulsive power needs
calculations it is useful to have at least a reliable coarse estimate.
3. Bukalov and Narusbayev, (Op.Cit), studied a number of actual submarine
designs and developed an algorithm for the estimation of Ct-app based on the
length of submarine and its maximum diameter.
Ct-app = (1.09065 x 10-3 x L x Dmax ) + 1.125
134
Appendage Resistance - 3
1. In one of the standard and most important books on underwater vehicle design,
Allmendinger*, has presented a table of coefficients for appendage resistance based on the
type of appendage .
Note that the area basis for the coefficients is

also important, in particular wetted surface
area. This is not an easy parameter to specify
without knowing the precise shape, form and
dimensions of the UIS. For this reason the
frontal area is often used in preliminary
design assessments.
2. Because of the difficulties of separating and precisely defining drag elements in eqn. 3.5,
other than Cf, some designers have adopted a more pragmatic approach.
* EE Allmendinger (Ed), Submersible Vehicle Systems Design, SNAME publication, 1990, ISBN 0-939773-06-6.
135
Total Drag Coefficient Estimates

1. The hydrodynamic approach has improved significantly especially with the continuing
developments in computational fluid dynamics. However for initial estimates of the total
drag coefficient, Ct, the simple algorithms developed for Hoerner* in the 1960s are still very
useful. These are based on a particular range of hull geometries and can be applied if the
frontal area or the wetted surface area are known or can be calculated.
(3.10)
(3.11)
*S F Hoerner, Fluid Dynamic Drag, Self-published, 1965 Occasionally copies become available on sites like Bookfinder
136

1. We have seen that a pure hydrodynamics approach can be problematic in making
preliminary estimates of propulsive power. Hoerners hybrid analytical-empirical
approach (eqn. 3.10 and 3.11) has however given us further tools to use with the
previous set of equations to determine the power requirements.
2. The concept of using actual data from a number of vehicles to produce single analytical
expressions which can be used for propulsive power estimates and which take into
account the physical parameters of the UIS usually a submarine/submersible were
developed further in the 1980s. This parametric approach will be dealt with in the next
series of slides.
3. Of course the navies of the world and some commercial designers have very
sophisticated computational methods and programs for calculating power requirements
based on hydrodynamics and coefficients based on actual vehicle and model testing.
These represent Classified or Proprietary information. Thus, other researchers have to
use open literature information in preliminary propulsive power estimates.
137
Propulsive Power Estimates Parametric approach

1. We have seen that estimates of the propulsive power needs of UISs mainly vehicular
can be made using basic fluid dynamics (hydrodynamics).
2. Estimates of the power requirements by parametric evaluation is the study of specific
quantities which vary predictably in relation to circumstance.
3. The design of an underwater vehicle (submarine) must adhere to certain physical laws
which implies certain similarity between different vehicle classes. Therefore, this
similarity can be used to make meaningful "parametric" studies to indicate the
relationship between the physical parameters that govern their design, such as: length,
diameter, horsepower, displacement, and speed.
4. However, these parametric studies have in the main, been confined to the examination
of large military type vessels. The philosophy behind such an approach is to produce a
series of generic curves which indicate the relationship between the parameters listed
above such that they can be used in preliminary sizing of a new submarine design.
138
Propulsive Power Estimates Parametric approach -2

1. Extensive work in this area was undertaken by Jackson (Jackson, 1983*) and the
reference provides an extremely comprehensive and clear account of the philosophy of
this approach. A cursory account of Jackson's work is described here to highlight the
dominant factors that affect submarine design. Jackson, a former naval officer, taught
submarine design for many years at graduate and professional course level at MIT.
2. Jackson based his work on the following relationship for estimating the horsepower
required for cargo submarine hulls at various speeds, developed by Russo et al**.
(3.12)
* H A Jackson, Submarine Parametrics, paper #3, Proceedings of the International Symposium on Naval Submarines, RINA, London, UK, 1983.
** V L Russo, H Turner and F W Wood., Submarine Tankers, SNAME, Vol 68, pp 693-728, November 1960, presented at the annual meeting.
139
Propulsive Power Estimates Parametric approach -3

The terms in equation 3.12 were extensively modified by Jackson using certain coefficients from open
literature sources and by considering the geometric shape of the submarine hull as a body of
revolution with and without a parallel middle body (Jackson, 1983). Subsequently it becomes possible
to express the wetted surface area and displacement in terms of length (L) and diameter (D). This
results in the expanded version given as equation 3.13 in the next slide.
The diagram on the left is taken from Joubert, Op Cit,
figure 12* shows:
(a) the ideal form of a UISs body of revolution** for
minimizing drag, and
(b) a modified hull form with a more easily constructed
(and hence cheaper) parallel middle-body shape
(cylindrical). Jackson considered both types in his
research work.
*Some Aspects of Submarine Design, Part 1. Hydrodynamics, P N Joubert, Australian Department of Defence, report DSTO-TR-1622, October 2004.
** You will recall that a body of revolution is a symmetrical body having the form described by rotating a plane curve about an axis in its plane.
140
Jacksons Equation
(3.13)
The sail is the fin on

the top of the
submarine which will
contain the conning
tower and various
masts.
141
Hull Shape 1 Geometric Effects

1. On slide 35 the comment was made that the ideal shape of a submarine/submersible hull
for drag reduction is a body-of-revolution. Most classical literature on this subject
indicates that a body with a well rounded nose and a streamlined tail, with a length to
diameter ratio of about 6, and a maximum diameter at a position 40% aft of the forward
end, offers the least resistance. This is usually referred to as the 'tear-drop' shape.
2. As we saw in the submarine development video, the conventional diesel-powered USS
Albacore, built in 1953 specifically to test a new hull form based on the classical tear-drop
shape of low drag airship practice, transformed postwar submarine design.
3. The Albacore could achieve 26 knots when submerged compared with 23.3 knots for the
nuclear prototype USS Nautilus. Later, when equipped with the new silver-zinc batteries
instead of the conventional lead-acid, the Albacore made 33 knots*.
* N Friedman, Submarine Design and Development, US Naval Institute Press, ISBN 0-87021-954-5, 1984.
142
Hull Shape - 2
1. Most submarines have a parallel middle body section. This is due to a number of
requirements. Firstly, maximum draft size is generally determined by the depth
of water in harbors and the size of dry docks rather than an inability to make the
submarine larger in diameter. Secondly, if more displacement is required (as in
the case of a nuclear weapons fit) and the diameter cannot be increased, then
this results in an extra section of parallel middle body being inserted at the point
of maximum diameter.
2. Hull forms have certain geometric characteristics which influence drag resistance.
Three of the major geometric parameters that strongly influence vehicle
resistance are the L/D ratio, the prismatic coefficient, and the wetted surface
area*.
** B R Clayton, Mechanics of Marine Vehicles, Springer Publishers, ISBN 0-419-12110-2.
143
Hull Shape 3
144
Hull Shape - 4
Figure 3.9 shows the resistance of deeply submerged, steadily moving,
submarines each with a volume of displacement of about 2800 m3,
deduced from model tests on bare hulls. As the slenderness ratio
increases there is a decrease in viscous pressure resistance and a
corresponding increase in vessel surface area, skin friction, pressure
gradient over the rear of the body, and the size of the wake. Alternatively,
a reduction in the slenderness ratio increases both the size of the wake
and the viscous pressure resistance. Between these two extremes is a
minimum value of total resistance which occurs when the slenderness
ratio is about 6. The geometry of the USS Albacore, point 1 on the
diagram, is seen to be near the optimum, which accounts for its success
when operating fully submerged. The USS Nautilus, point 4, was a test
bed for a nuclear power plant and not shape optimized. It is interesting
to note that the Holland submarine of 1895 had a slenderness ratio of
5.26!
Fig. 3.9 is from Hawley et al, 1996 Op Cit.
E S Arentzen and P Mandel, Naval Architecture Aspects of Submarine Design, Trans SNAME Vol 68, p 622676, 1960.
145
AUV Propulsive Power estimates.

1. The approaches we have used so far to estimate
the propulsive power of submarines and
submersibles can also be applied to AUV designs.
However the importance of using low drag energy efficient hull shapes is even more crucial
for AUVs.
2. The need for AUV hull shapes have resulted in

two particular types of vehicle being favored:
(a) the torpedo shape, mainly cylindrical with a
hemispherical nose and a long tapering
afterbody, and
(b) the low-drag shape, with a varying diameter
(length-wise) with an almost semi-elliptical
forebody and an afterbody tapering to a point.
146
AUV Shape Pros & Cons

From a purely hydrodynamic point of
view, the ideal shape of AUVs which will
exhibit low drag characteristics are the
laminar flow axi-symmetric bodies. For
a given body shape and internal volume
then the length and diameter can be
altered to determine the geometric
specifications to satisfy the minimum
drag requirements*. The drag
resistance, R, for an elongated tear-drop
shaped hull is estimated by Hoerners
volumetric formula** given as eqn.
3.16.
(3.16)
* I W Dand, The Naval Architecture of an Unmanned Submarine , Trans Institute of Marine Engineers, Vol. 104, Pt 4, p233 -253, 1991.
** S F Hoerner, 1965, Op. Cit.
147
AUV Propulsive Power Estimates - 2

1. For the tear-drop shape then we can use eqn. 3.16 with eqns 3.2 and 3.3* to determine the propulsive
power requirements and then the energy requirements once we have defined the mission.
2. Another expression available in the technical literature, based upon the philosophy used by Jackson,
but based on a large volume of model test data, has been found to be a satisfactory power predictor
for torpedo shaped vessels such as AUVs. The developers claim that the relationship has proven fairly
accurate over the last 30 years in comparing theoretical with actual measurements**. This parametric
relationship is given by eqn. 3.17.
* With consistent
units
**
C Hillenbrand, AUV Primary and Hovering Propulsion Systems Conceptual Design, NUSC, Newport, RI, USA, Report TM #87-2101,1987
148
AUV Shape Selection

1. In practice the shape that allows good packaging of equipment, in particular the power/energy
conversion and stowage, coupled with the requirements of directional stability, maneuverability,
and operating depth will be the deciding factors which will govern 'shape selection'.
2. Good directional stability suggests a vehicle whose main hull has a large length/diameter ratio.
Long thin bodies, with stabilizing fins at the rear, have good directional stability and maintain a
straight course well; examples include an arrow and a torpedo.
3. A craft that has to exhibit good maneuverability implies a low length/diameter ratio, good control
surfaces (or thrusters) and, consequently, poor directional stability.
4. Furthermore, if the vehicle has to operate at great depths and its systems are to be enclosed in a
pressure vessel then from structural considerations this implies a cylindrical vessel with
hemispherical end caps or a vessel which becomes a series of spheres.
5. Subsequently there may well be a number of design conflicts with the initial vehicle requirements
and trade offs will have to be made.
149
ROV Propulsive Power Estimates - 1

1. When designing a ROV, it is usual to use lightweight components to keep the overall vehicle weight
within practical limits. It is conventional operating procedure to have vehicles positively buoyant
when operating.
2. The reason for this is:
a. To allow for near bottom maneuvering without thrusting up and stirring up sediment.
b. Eliminates the need for continual thrust reversal when hovering.
c. For emergency situations should the vehicle's power be lost or its tether severed.
3. There are some exceptions to this approach especially with very large ROVs.
4. As with the other types of vehicular UISs in the first instance it is necessary to estimate the drag
resistance and a now familiar looking equation is used:
(3.14)
Where:
150

For a tethered vehicle such as an ROV the resistance equation is divided into two parts:
(3.15)
Subscripts c and v refer to the umbilical cable and vehicle respectively.
Typical values of Cd are 1.2 for cables and 0.8 for vehicles based on the frontal area being used as the
characteristic area for non-dimensional coefficients. Obviously, thrust must equal drag when the
vehicle is not accelerating. If we determine the drag resistance then we can estimate the power
requirements using a rule-of-thumb approach whereby a thrust of 160 to 180 Newtons can be
produced for every 0.75 kW of power. This rule-of-thumb was developed by the Canadian company
International Submarines (ISE) based on extensive and thorough testing of various ROVs.*
* Hawley et al, 1996, Op Cit
151

The Cd values appear to suggest that the drag on the cable could be greater than the drag
on the vehicle. This is in fact usually the case and we can illustrate this situation by a
simple numerical example.
Consider an ROV which has a frontal area of 0.4 m2 operating in a 3 knot* current. The
ROV is deployed from a surface ship by an umbilical cable of 18mm diameter with a length
of 91 meters. We can then determine the cable drag resistance using eqn. 3.14 (3.15), i.e.,
Cable drag = x 1025 x (0.018 x 91) x (3 x 0.51)2 x 1.2** = 2399. 4 N
Similarly we can determine the vehicle drag resistance,
Vehicle drag = x 1025 x 0.4 x (3x 0.51)2 x 0.8 = 383.9 N
*1 knot = 1.852 km/h or 0.51 m/s
** Typical value for Cd
152
1. Now we know the drag resistances we can calculate the estimated power requirements using the ISE
rule-of-thumb of say 220 N per kW to show that the power required to propel the cable will be 10.9
kW and for the vehicle, 1.75 kW. From which it is clear that improving (streamlining) the vehicle
geometry will not significantly change the power requirements due to the overriding influence of the
cable drag.
2. The actual power requirements will likely be higher than these rough estimates because of a number
of factors associated with the operational mission of the ROV. For example the value of the drag
coefficients, Cd, will vary according to the direction taken by the vehicle, i.e., up, down, sideways,
reverse, and moreover the interaction of the water flow in open structured vehicles and those with
appendages will impose additional resistances. It should also be noted that the length of the cable
and the depth of operation will have two different values because the cable hangs in the water. The
cable length will then be approximately 20% longer than the operating depth.
3. When all these factors are taken into consideration, and depending upon the energy conversion
efficiency of the thrusters (motor-propeller combination), the estimated power requirements may
have to be factored by as much as 3 to achieve the operational power needs*.
* J M Anderson and D R Yoerger, Autonomous Bethnic Explorer Model Development, Intervention 92 Conference, p 333-338, San Diego, Ca, USA, 1992.
153
Propulsive Power-Energy Estimates

1. We have seen that we can make preliminary estimates of the propulsive power requirements using
eqns. 3.13, 3.14, and 3.17 for submarines, ROVs* and AUVs respectively which are parametric
versions of the more analytical basic hydrodynamic functions. While these equations only put us in
the ball-park of the actual requirements especially for ROVs they provide useful initial
information on the type of power demands we can likely expect for our planned missions.
2. For submarines and AUVs which will not have the surface support of ROVs the amount of energy
storage required will also be a critical design factor.
3. We can only determine this storage amount if we know what the intended mission is to be, e.g., how
fast for how long a duration. The maximum speed requirements of the vehicle will determine the
physical size of the energy conversion system (cube law) whereas the endurance (range)
specifications will determine the physical size of the energy storage system. In simple terms the
slower we can go the greater the endurance for a given volume allowance within the vehicle design.
* Together with the ISE rule-of-thumb.
154
Mission profiles Depth Effects

1. Another crucial factor in a mission profile which will impact the preliminary design of the UIS is
depth or depths of operation. The maximum desired depth of operation will define the type of
structure that we will need for our UIS.
2. The design, construction, and subsequent performance of an underwater vehicle depends very
much on the vehicle's structural weight. Range, maneuverability, top speed, payload capacity,
and mission capability are all affected by vehicle weight, a large fraction of which may be
attributed to the pressure-resistant components, or the pressure hull.
3. Basically, an underwater vehicles pressure hull structure must resist the hydrostatic pressure to
which the vehicle is subjected during its operation. Hence, the operating depth of the UIS is the
major consideration when undertaking a preliminary vehicle design. However, as with many
engineering problems, designing to a working value can be extremely dangerous. For this
reason, a factor of safety is usually imposed on the design of underwater vehicle pressure hulls.
In the next series of lectures we will consider how we can address the issue of depth.
155
Next Steps
1. As we have seen from the power equations we will also need to know some
of the physical dimensions of the UISs, e.g., length and diameter, if we which to
calculate the power needs.
2. In the first instance these dimensions will come from the calculations of the
required strength of the hull for the particular mission. In essence if the UIS is
to operate at even modest depths we will need to consider pressure vessel
design. So we will address this issue in the next series of lectures.
3.Finally in looking at the preliminary design of vehicular UISs we will need to
consider the fundamental property of buoyancy.
156
Systems
From Slide 15 L 7-9; + L10-12
157
L10-12 Presentation Sequence
1.Depth Aspects of UISs

Preliminary Designs
Buoyancy & Strength
2.Deepest Place on Earth
158
Pressure Vessels Buoyancy and Strength

1. As previously stated if a preliminary design of the UIS is to be attempted we need to know the
maximum desired depth of operation of the mission as this will define the type of structure that
we will need for our UIS.
2. The design, construction, and subsequent performance of an underwater vehicle depends very
much on the vehicle's structural weight. Range, maneuverability, top speed, payload capacity,
and mission capability are all affected by vehicle weight, a large fraction of which may be
attributed to the pressure-resistant components, or the pressure hull.
3. Basically, an underwater vehicles pressure hull structure must resist the hydrostatic pressure to
which the vehicle is subjected during its operation. Hence, the operating depth of the UIS is the
major consideration when undertaking a preliminary vehicle design. However, as with many
engineering problems, designing to a working value can be extremely dangerous. For this reason,
a factor of safety is usually imposed on the design of underwater vehicle pressure hulls.
159
Pressure Vessel Preliminary Design

1. The following slides are based on chapter 4 of Hawley et al, 1996.
2. For those unfamiliar with basic thin-shell theory, it is recommended that you view
the two Purdue University Lectures ( approx 20 mins) on You Tube at the
following URLs:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MbtSiFF8TUo
And https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-6uTOzwnrjI
160
Pressure Vessel Shapes Buoyancy Factor

1. A term commonly used to express the "structural efficiency" of pressure hulls is the Buoyancy
Factor, this factor is defined as the empty hull weight (W) to displaced water weight () ratio and
is usually expressed as the weight-to-displacement ratio. This term expresses the efficiency of the
structure to provide for an excess of displacement over that required to support its own weight and
is sometimes referred to as the "hull fraction". This excess of displacement being used to support
the weights of other items within the vehicle.
2. A W/ ratio of 1 implies that a hull will barely support its own weight in water.
3. A ratio less than 1.0 means it will not only support itself but also other equipment which we wish
to place inside the hull.
4. Hence, the lower the W/ ratio, the more efficient the structure is for a given depth.
5. However, none of the commonly used metals such as steel, offers a positive buoyancy at pressures
found in the deepest depths.
161
Pressure Vessel Shapes Pros and Cons

Pressure hull shapes, with a few variations, are predominantly spheres or cylinders in various
combinations. The most common being those shown in the figure below. A sphere is the most
efficient structural form to obtain the minimum W/ ratio but each shape has advantages and
disadvantages as summarized in the table.
162
Pressure Vessel Shapes Simplified Guide to Structural Strength

1. The structural analysis of pressure hulls is extremely complex, in part due to the shapes that are
often used, however, the main problem is the reliability of the equations when compared to
actual model and full scale test results. In general the problem lies with the ability to construct
the shape without inducing problems of out-of-roundness and localized stress generation. A
detailed study of pressure vessel technology is however out of the scope of this course*. So
what follows is a simplified guide to the theory for unstiffened and stiffened shells, useful for
preliminary design approaches.
2. In general, when designing pressure vessels, the aim will be to contain pressurized substances
and stop them for escaping, whereas in the underwater environment the aim is to resist the
external pressure of the water and stop it entering the vessel. All these vessels are considered to
be shells and there are two basic types thin walled and thick walled shells. These
classifications basically depend on the thickness to diameter ratios. Almost without exception
underwater pressure vessels are taken to be thin.
* There are a number of national and international (e.g., ASME) codes dealing with pressure vessel design and there is a huge database of books, technical papers, and
Theses available through the Leddy Library. The IEEExplore database has a number of papers dealing with AUV and submersible pressure vessel research.
163
Spherical Shell Under an External Pressure - 1

So consider a thin walled sphere as shown in the diagram under the
influence of an external uniform pressure. The shell will be subject to
local yielding and what is termed general instability. The yield
strength can be determined from basic high school strength of
materials theory:-
(4.1)
164

The main equation that we use in the preliminary design calculations together with the basic
equation (4.1) comes from the classical Timoshenko* theory of elastic buckling for small deflections
for a thin wall sphere, which is:
(4.2)
* S Timoshenko, Theory of Elastic Stability, McGraw-Hill Publishers, 1936
165

However, when Equation 4.2 was tested using models, it was found that the results varied considerably
from that predicted by the equation. This was not due to an error in the development of the equation,
but because of the departures from the model spherical shape and uniformity of thickness. Even with
high precision tooling, the construction of a perfect sphere is still extremely difficult. Hence, to make
allowance for the imperfections, a shape efficiency factor is often incorporated into Equation 4.2, such
that:
(4.3)
166

Although a global value can be used for the shape factor especially in the preliminary
design phase effects to provide a better way and more analytical-empirical method of
specifying the Sphericity continue.
Sphericity can be defined as Maximum Local Radius / Average radius of the sphere.* So
basically if the sphericity is equal to 1 the sphere has been perfectly fabricated.
An example of how the equations can be used to determine the various parameters,
weight-displacement, buoyancy factors etc., for various materials will be posted on the
CLEW project Resources site. Students selecting a design based project may find this useful.
* Y Yano & S Takagawa, Study on spherical pressure of ceramics for deep-sea buoyancy module buoyancy applications IEEE paper 0-7803-8669-8/04,
2004.
167
Unstiffened Cylinder Shells -1
168
Unstiffened Cylinder Shells -2

(4.16)
169
Stiffened Cylindrical Shells-1

To prevent an instability collapse of a cylinder without increasing its thickness by an excessive amount,
ring stiffeners are generally added, as shown in the diagram. Although the stiffeners induce bending in
the structure and their use adds fabricating difficulties, these are not serious disadvantages. Although
there are several ways of actually stiffening the cylinder, one of the most common is to use "T" section
rings. In general the failure of the structure occurs in three primary modes. These are, yielding of the
shell between ring stiffeners, buckling between the shell and the ring stiffeners, and general instability.
170
Stiffened Cylindrical Shells-2
Other equations have also been developed to forecast the buckling of the stiffened cylinders and
general instability. An example of how the local yield equation (4.17) and the buckling and general
instability equations can be used will also be posted to the project Resources folder in CLEW both for
information and for students selecting particular project topics.
171
Concluding Comments on Technical Design Aspects

1. We have reviewed some of the technical aspects of the preliminary design and
specifications of UISs especially underwater vehicles such as submarines
(submersibles), AUVs, and ROVs.
2. We have looked at power needs, shape selection, and strength considerations. These
are core areas but literally the tip-of-the iceberg in the factors involved in UISs design.
3. You are not expected to memorize the equations presented but be familiar with their
existence, appropriate use, and their limitations.
4. The deeper we go the engineering demands on pressure vessel design, construction
and manufacture rapidly increase. If we wish to go to the bottom of the oceans then
the challenges are enormous even with unmanned vehicles, as we will see now.
172
The Titanic film-maker goes to the bottom of the Ocean!

1. Of all the challenges facing designers of underwater vehicles with respect to depth
and buoyancy there is none greater than the environment encountered at the bottom
of the Marianas trench.
2. Until recently only 2 individuals have ever travelled to the Challenger deep and
then only stayed for a few minutes. However, in this decade, the explorer and film
maker James Cameron embarked on a project to design and build, with the help of
many experts, a vehicle capable of reaching this deepest place on earth and making
a 3D film of the experiences.
3. The following short clips are a record of project and its success. Note the comments
from an Electrical Engineering Graduate who worked on the project.
4. Why and how the deepest place was formed and the full details of the environment
at the bottom of the Marianas Trench are presented in the following reference.
173
1. In the next series of lectures we will look at underwater robots & drones
and complete our look at Arctic resources.
2. The Knowledge quiz on take place 12 February (64 & 38). This 1 hr
multiple choice quiz will cover materials presented in class, not including
the videos, and will be open book, i.e., you will be able to use your class
notes and the slide decks you have received. The materials to be covered
are up to and including slide 17 of Lecture 12.
ANY QUESTIONS?
174
Systems
Lecture 13-15, Drones, Swarms and the Arctic
06-88-590-38 & 06-92-590-64 Thur 5 Feb 2015
06-88-590-28 & 06-92-590-64 Wed 11 Feb 2015
175
Recap:
1. We have studied the underwater environment and some of its oceanographic aspects
in order to grasp the challenges we face in the use and design of UISs.
2. We have explored the use and development of UISs for naval, commercial, scientific
and recreational purposes. We have also investigated the increased use of UISs for
energy generation and certain criminal activities.
3. We have seen that in order to attempt the preliminary design of vehicular types of
UISs we need methods of calculating propulsive power, buoyancy and strength ( using
thin-shell theory).
4. The vehicular UISs we have considered in detail have been mainly manned vessels
although AUVs and Gliders have been mentioned.
176
Remaining Course Sequence.

1. This sequence of lectures will complete our formal study of Underwater
Invention Systems.
2. In Lecture sections 16-18, there will be a Knowledge Quiz followed by a
discussion of projects/papers and the annotated bibliography.
3. Project teams/individuals will be able to use the lecture rooms at the
scheduled class times and either myself and/or Mr Xie and Mr Jeftic will be
available for consultation.
4. The annotated bibliographies are to be submitted on Thursday 12 or
Wednesday 18 March as indicated in the course description (syllabus
section on CLEW).
5. The next formal class after lecture sections 16-18 will be on Wednesday 8
or Thursday 9 April depending upon your section.
177
Drones, Swarms & Arctic Resources

1. In this series of lectures we will review some of the latest developments and
applications of UISs, particularly underwater drones.
2. Finally, in terms of UISs developments we will look at how DCNS the major French
underwater company - envisage the future of naval UISs.
3. We will conclude by looking at the situation regarding Arctic Resources as briefly
mentioned earlier in the course.
4. It should be noted that the specific content of the digital media that will be viewed
in the Arctic Resources section will not form part of the topics covered in the
Knowledge Quiz.
5. However, for the upcoming project work the Arctic digital media may prove useful.
178
Underwater Drones & Swarms
179
Comments on Terminology
1. The terms drone and more recently swarm have come into common usage to describe
unmanned systems on land, sea and air, whether used for military, scientific, commercial or
recreational purposes. Drone, referring to an individual system, and swarm, to a co-operating
cluster of drones.
2. However as we seen there are many different types of unmanned systems and using catch-all
terms such as drone and swarm, can lead to misunderstandings and must be used with care.
3. For example the US Army (Air Force) use what the popular media may call drones but they refer
to them as UASs (Unmanned Aircraft Systems). The Army also use the term swarm but to them
this means Smart Warfighting Array of Reconfigurable Modules. *
4. There are many other examples and as we have discovered there is a multitude of acronyms,
abbreviations and terms in use to describe what often is the same device.
* p59, US Army Roadmap for UAS 2010-2035, www.army.mil
180
Drones, Robots and UUVs - 1

1. There is no doubt that underwater drones like their airborne counterparts will be
increasingly developed and used in a variety of ways as UISs.
2. Unlike the airborne and terrestrial systems the major problem will be the ability to
communicate continuously with the unmanned UISs (UUVs).
3. Although we talk of AUVs autonomous underwater vehicles the question is just

how autonomous can these vessels be? For example, aerial drones have the ability to
carry weapons, but who decides when to use them and against what targets. Can we
allow the robots to make such decisions or only human operators? These are ethical
as well as technical challenges. If we allow only human operators to make such
decisions how do we communicate that order?
4. A precise definition of autonomous is therefore problematic.
181

1. For the future it would appear that underwater drones can at best be considered to be semiautonomous or quasi-autonomous whether used as weapon platforms or for scientific and
security (surveillance) purposes.
2. Such vehicles will therefore need pre-planned missions or periodic updates via a surface or
near surface communication system. This is largely the case today.
3. The concept of using UUVs as underwater sentinels for surface ships and naval submarines is
not new and has been researched, especially at Universities, for almost 50 years. The
challenges to such uses, as described in (1) have been mainly to do sensor and processing
capabilities in addition to the proverbial communication issues.
4. As the advances in electronic and computer technology are said to be doubling almost every
2 years the possibility of using groups or swarms of underwater robots has significantly
increased.
182

1. The limitations of time preclude an in-depth study of the engineering aspects of
unmanned* underwater robot technologies. However we can take an initial look
at how we arrived at the technologies and at some of the more recent
developments.
2. Like many other technology developments the origins of the UUVs and the AUVs
came about because of armed conflicts and usually because of the lesser powerful
states or nations needing to defend their territories, especially those with
coastlines. To prevent amphibious landings, Greek-fire, torpedoes and sea-mines
were developed.
* To re- emphasize the term is historical and not intended as a gendered title.
183
Greek Fire:
1. The origins of attacking surface ships at a
distance appears to have been in the Greek
States. Although surface ships were built
with underwater rams nevertheless the
attacker had to get up close and personal.
The next stage was then the Greek*
flamethrower.
2. The figure on the right illustrates the
possible use of Greek-fire.
* Known by other names throughout history see:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_fire
184
Origins of the Torpedo

1. Greek-Fire was not an underwater weapon but the idea of using an incendiary
device to attack an opposing navys ship at a distance, was rescued from antiquity by
Muslim chemists and engineers to develop a torpedo.
2. In between these two developments the Chinese developed an early form of
gunpowder. While historians argue over who did invent gunpowder once again it
was the Muslim Empires who further developed and improved it for use in weapons.
3. The Islamic Torpedo an innovative self-propelled and guided device was then the
next important step in the development of the naval torpedo and todays UUVs,
AUVs and drones.
185
Torpedo Developments 1
1.The Islamic torpedo* cannot be described as an UIS but the concept of sinking or
damaging ships at a distance by a self-propelled device would attract more interest
after the attack by the Turtle on the British Warships during the so-called American
War for Independence.
2. The development of the torpedoes we know today came about in the 19th
century. However, even then although the torpedoes operated underwater they
could be launched from underwater vehicles, surface ships or land. Later the ability
to launch torpedoes from aircraft was developed almost as soon as military aircraft
were developed in the early 20th century.
* The term torpedo was used to describe all manner of naval weapons until the development of the
Whitehead torpedo.
186
1. A number of torpedo designs were developed in the late 19th century but the first truly
effective self-propelling torpedo was designed and developed by the British engineer
Robert Whitehead when he was working at Fiume in Italy, then part of the AustroHungarian Empire, now Rijeka in Croatia.
2. The American inventor, Admiral Howell, developed a self-steering torpedo which used a
spinning flywheel to produce a bubble-free wake. The Howell torpedo was used
extensively by the US Navy for over two decades.
3. The British (Irish) mechanical engineer Louis Brennan, whilst in the then Australian
colony, invented what was the practical underwater guided missile. It was used by the
British Army in coastal defence installations.
4. Nikola Tesla, by the turn of the century, had demonstrated radio-controlled torpedoes but
no-one was interested.
187
1. The Ottoman Navys submarine Abdl hamid a British built steam powered
submarine in 1888 was the first to fire a torpedo while submerged. The weapon
sank a target ship.
2. However, until the first world war torpedoes were usually launched from surface
ships.
3. In the first world war several nations used submarine launched torpedoes as well as
surface and aerial torpedoes. However, the favored submarine weapon was the
deck gun.
4. This practice continued during the second world war although the submarine
launched torpedo became increasing popular amongst the worlds navies.
5. Today the torpedo (and the guided missile) are the prime armament of the worlds
navies.
188
The Whitehead Torpedo
Here we can see the classic AUV shape emerging.

189
The Brennan Torpedo
The Guided Underwater Missile

190
The next major leap - gliders.

1. As we have seen the shape of the torpedo has changed since the advent of the Whitehead,
Howell, and Brennan devices mainly due to operational requirements (in particular launching
from a submarine) and ease of manufacturing .
2. However from the 1940s onwards all torpedoes have had a familiar shape a cylindrical main
section with a hemispherical front cap and a Whitehead et al shaped tail section. Improvements
in propulsion, propeller and powertrain sub-systems have been made but these have been
incremental.
3. In the 1960s the concept of underwater gliders powered by some kind of buoyancy engine
began to attract some attention. One of the outcomes was the Argo floats we looked at earlier
in the course. A number of countries, the USA, the then USSR, Canada, and Japan started to take
an interest in unmanned gliders.
4. By the first decade of the 21st century a number of gliders had been developed and they had
been used to cross the Atlantic Ocean.
191
Gliders-2
1. Over the past 10-15 years underwater gliders have become increasingly sophisticated
and are now widely used by the oceanographic community.
2. Naval forces have also started to take an interest in the use of gliders and indeed have
sponsored research at a number of US and International* universities.
3. World-wide a number of university design competitions have been held involving
underwater gliders.
4. While some universities have worked on the development of existing gliders the
University of Washington (State of Washington) have developed and tested their own
gilder the SeaGlider. While not the only group involved in this glider development
their work is representative of the most advanced R&D.
* e.g., IIT Bombay (Mumbai)
192
SWARM
1. Although we have seen that there is a
military specific definition of SWARM,
the concept of a swarm of bees or ants
working together against a larger
adversary or undertaking a larger mission
impossible with one individual has been
applied to groups of small unmanned
vehicles working in the same way as
bees or ants.
2. Once again universities have become
increasingly involved in the study of
underwater swarms.
193
CoCoRo Swarms
1. CoCoRo Collective Cognitive Robots
2. Developed by a collaborative team of European Universities lead by the

Austrian University of Graz.
3. There are a number of CoCoRo swarm videos on You Tube, the two
short videos presented in the next slides explain what they are, how they
work and the potential uses of such underwater swarms, e.g.,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XUk-qLfiwlc
194
Multi-vehicle operations.
1. With the advent of increasingly effective electronic sensors and controls the idea of
multi-vehicle operations is coming to fruition.
2. The Graz Swarm is a proof-of-principle lab sized demonstration. Another EU
(European Union) team involving the University of Porto (Portugal) and the University
of Rome have developed larger vehicles which they call drone submarines, but as we
shall see are small AUVs. These drones can work together in groups.
3. Although the two groups mentioned above, along with others, have demonstrated in
the laboratory and at sea, there are still a number of engineering challenges to be
addressed when trying to operate multi-vehicle groups as we shall see from the MIT
video.
195
Dedicated Military Drones

1. Other than the conventional type of AUVs the Military are also in the market
for dedicated unmanned underwater vehicles who missions will be in support
of Littoral (coastal) operations.
2. Major defense contractors have been developing such drones which at least
initially would work as a single vehicle, but of course could be used in groups
or clusters (swarms) as the mission dictates.
3. Some of these underwater drones are only concepts while others have
progressed to the prototype stage (and maybe beyond).
4. One of the more advanced drones is the Talisman developed by British
Aerospace.
196
UIS Vehicular Summary

1. We have seen in this course how naval submarines still the main type of vehicular UISs have
developed and some of the challenges their design and operation have encountered.
2. Originally naval submarines were considered to be part of a surface fleet or task group but that
proved almost impossible.
3. In the Second World War, the increasing menace of detection and the air threat proved decisive
in countering the U-Boat threat.
4. While the nuclear powered submarine has provided awe-inspiring capabilities to the worlds
navies the majority of submarines are still powered by a combination of diesel engines and
electrochemical batteries but with an increasing number using AIP systems.
5. Over the past 70 years other type of UISs have been developed e.g., DPVs and AUVs, along with
guided missiles that can be launched from under the sea.
6. Moreover the increasing sophistication of drones is starting to provide naval submarines with
new capabilities.
197
The DCNS SMX Ocean Submarine

1. DCNS is a French company whose origins can be traced back to the 17th century.
2. In recent years they have developed a number of SMX vehicles both surface and
underwater. They are also involved in maritime current turbines developments.
3. One of the SMX vessels is a relatively small submarine [1000 t] the SMX-26 which can
operate in very shallow waters. However the SMX vessel which has attracted a lot of
attention is the SMX-Ocean. This is a large conventional submarine (4,750 t) whose
design is based on the Barracuda class nuclear submarine and which has not only an
advanced diesel-electric system but also Fuel Cells and Lithium-Ion batteries.
4. The SMX-Ocean can operate with surface fleets, use AUVs, DPVs, fire torpedoes, lay
mines, launch cruse missiles, and attack aircraft.
198
The ARCTIC Video COMPILATION

1. One of the objectives of the UISs course was to explain the role
Arctic resources play in Canadas national policy, especially with
respect to oil and gas reserves and Economic Exclusion Zones (EEZ).
2. The information included in the video clips presented in the movie
will not be part of the Knowledge Quiz but is provided for general
course information and for use within a technical paper if selected
as a project topic.
199
CLIP SEQUENCE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
ARCTIC OCEAN OIL AND GAS RESERVES

RUSSIAS BIG ARCTIC OIL AMBITIONS
GLOBAL WARMING BRINGING TENSIONS IN ARCTIC
RUSSIA CREATES ARCTIC MILITARY FORCE
LATE BREAKING NEWS 15 MAY 2013 CHINA AND INDIA
JOIN ARCTIC COUNCIL
200
ARCTIC OCEAN OIL AND GAS RESERVES

ANOTHER OPPORTUNITY TO VIEW A SHORT VIDEO CLIP ON THE RESOURCES LEVELS
IN THE ARCTIC (A RATHER FAST AND BREATHLESS COMMENTARY)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0KqOFMVDmsw
201
RUSSIAS BIG ARCTIC OIL AMBITIONS

RUSSIA STARTS COMMERCIAL DRILLING TO STAKE CLAIM
ON ARCTIC RESOURCES AND RUSSIAN-AMERCIAN OIL
COMPANIES SIGN JOINT VENTURE AGREEMENT.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3GMO4S0eIy0
202
GLOBAL WARMING BRINGING TENSIONS

Canadians are becoming aware that, as a result of climate change, the Northwest
Passage could become a viable shipping route and the newly accessible Arctic sea
bed could prove to be a source of mineral riches. Like a blast from the Cold War
past the Russians even sent a submarine four kilometres down to the sea bed near
the North Pole to plant a Russian flag.. Hence the decision that from now on
Canada will deploy a three ocean navy.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KuQKHtZsh3U
203
RUSSIA CREATES ARCTIC MILITARY FORCE

Russian military expert Igor Khokhlov, a researcher with Moscowbased Institute of World Economy and International Relations,
comments on the public plans of Russia's National Security Council
to create a new Arctic military force to defend the country's
interests in the disputed polar region.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cFAnaNtXOvw
204
A TECHNICAL PAPER DEALING WITH THIS

TOPIC WOULD ALSO INCLUDE A
DISCUSSION OF THE TYPE OF UISs THAT
WOULD BE NEEDED FOR THE MISSIONS IN
THE ARCTIC REGION.
205

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PPT-1

What is Underwater Intervention?

Archimedes Principle and

intervention systems, especially underwater vehicles.

G T Reader Winter 2015

Archimedes Principle and

Buoyancy and Ballast

G T Reader Winter 2015

Further Fundamental Concepts - 1

Profiling Floats & Vertical Motion

G T Reader Winter 2015

G T Reader Winter 2015

Manned UIS Developments - 1

Manned UIS Developments - 2

Bushnells Turtle of the

US Navy Ohio Class

G T Reader Winter 2015

Great Pyramid at Gaza

G T Reader Winter 2015

Underwater Engineers & Technology

As yet there is no engineering discipline called underwater engineering.

The Underwater Realm - 1

The Underwater Realm & Essential Oceanography

Ocean Zone Terminology

G T Reader Winter 2015

The Underwater Realm - 2

The Underwater Realm - 3

* Measured as high as 29,035 ft

*** Named after HMS Challenger British Royal Navy Ship

G T Reader Winter 2015

The Underwater Realm 3a

G T Reader Winter 2015

The Underwater Realm - 4

G T Reader Winter 2015

Underwater Realm - Density Variations

G T Reader Winter 2015

The Underwater Realm - Temperature

2. Ocean surface temperature is effected by the amount of solar radiation it receives, as

Global Net Surface Radiation Annual Means*

* Averaged over a 40 year period

Oceanworld.tamu.edu modified from Kallberg et al, 2005

The Underwater Realm - Vertical Temperatures

G T Reader Winter 2015

The Underwater Realm The Oceanic Temperatures Layers

Hawley et al, Op Cit,1996

The Ocean Realm - Salinity

The Ocean Realm Salinity Haloclines

G T Reader Winter 2015

The Ocean Realm - Salinity

Most sea salts are composed of 11 particular ions and compounds

1. We often think of the salt in the sea is solely

G T Reader Winter 2015

But the Oceans contain more than Salt

Uranium in the ocean (3-3.3g/L3) is estimated at 4.5 billion tonnes!

Underwater Realm Chemical and Biological

Underwater Realm Chemical and Biological the

G T Reader Winter 2015

Underwater Realm Chemical and Biological

G T Reader Winter 2015

Underwater Realm Chemical and Biological Biofouling

Underwater Realm Chemical and Biological Negative

While surface water is usually saturated with oxygen in

Underwater Realm Light Penetration.