Chapter 1 All

:
CHAPTER 1:
MOLECULES OF LIFE
(7 HRS)
1.0 Molecules Of Life (7 hrs)

1.1 Water
(1)
1.2 Carbohydrates
(1)
1.3 Lipids
(1)
1.4 Proteins
(2)
1.5 Nucleic Acids
(1)
Learning outcomes
a) Explain the structure of water molecule
b) Describe the properties of water and its
importance
Learning Outcomes :
1.1 (a) Explain the structure of water molecule
O
H
Structure:
1 oxygen atom & 2 hydrogen atoms (H2O)

Joined together by sharing electrons ~ covalent bond
3 atoms ~ arranged to form a triangle
Angle ~ 104.5
Learning Outcomes :
2O
+
The sharing of electrons between O & H atoms are not equal

O atom ~ slightly negative charge (-)
H atoms ~ slightly positive charge (+)
Unequal charge distribution within a molecule ~ polar
molecule
Learning Outcomes :
+ H atom of one water

molecule is attracted to the
- O atom of nearby water
molecules
2+
+
Hydrogen
bond
Water molecules are held

together by hydrogen bonds
H bond is weak,
represented by dotted lines
2+
Learning Outcomes :
1 water molecule can

form maximum of 4
hydrogen bonds with 4
water molecules
Learning Outcomes :
1.1 (b) Describe the properties of water and its importance
Properties of water
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Universal solvent
High specific heat capacity
High latent heat of vaporization
High surface tension
Maximum density at 4C
Low viscosity
Learning Outcomes :
1. Universal Solvent
Powerful solvent for ionic & polar substances (eg: NaCl)
NaCl are held together by ionic bonds between Na+ & Cl-
Learning Outcomes :
Water is a polar molecule
The O atoms has a slightly negative charge & H atoms has a
slightly positive charge
O atoms are attracted to the positively charged sodium ions
H atoms are attracted to the negatively charged chloride ions
Ionic bonds between NaCl molecules become weaker
Learning Outcomes :
Water molecules gather around the Na+ & Cl- to form a

hydration shell, separating them from one another
Pulling these ions away from the salt crystal
Causes these ions to separate & dissolve
Learning Outcomes :
Importance:
Act as transport medium for solutes (eg: dissolved

nutrients are carried throughout the body in blood
plasma)
Water facilitates chemical reaction (solutes are more
reactive when dissolved)
Learning Outcomes :
2. High specific heat capacity

Definition : amount of energy needed to increase the
temperature of 1 g of a substance by 1C
Large amount of energy is needed to increase the
temperature of 1 g of water by 1oC
Heat is absorbed to break the H bonds between water
molecules
Value = 1 cal/g (most substances have lower value)
A large body of water (ocean/lakes) has a relatively constant
temperature although its surrounding temperature changes
(temperature rises & falls slowly)
Learning Outcomes :
2. High specific heat capacity

Importance:
Organisms can maintain their normal body
temperature
Aquatic organisms can live in a relatively stable
temperature (protected from rapid temperature
changes)
Learning Outcomes :
3. High latent heat of vaporization

Definition : Amount of energy needed to change 1 g of a
substance from liquid phase to vapor
A lot of energy is needed to change 1 g of water from
liquid state to vapor
Heat is absorbed to break the H bonds between water
molecules before they can move faster & vaporized
Value = 540 cal/g
Learning Outcomes :
3. High latent heat of vaporization

Importance:
Cooling effect in organisms due to sweating (animals) or
transpiration (plants)
Explanation:
As water absorbs heat, its energy increases

When water evaporates, it takes a lot of heat energy
away lowering the temperature of the organism
Learning Outcomes :
4. High surface tension

H bonds make water molecules stick to each other
cohesion
On the surface, water has greater attraction for each other
than for molecules in the air
Learning Outcomes :

Water are also pulled downward
by other water molecules
beneath them
Produce a strong layer on the
surface, hard to break the water
surface create high surface
tension
Water molecules can also stick to
other substances adhesion
Learning Outcomes :

Importance:
Allow some organisms to move on water (eg: water strider)
Learning Outcomes :
5. Maximum density at 4C
As water cools, the
molecules get closer
together
Reach maximum density
at 4C
At temperature below 4C,
water molecules expand
until it freezes/solidifies
(at 0C)
Learning Outcomes :
H bonds in ice space the water molecules far apart &

become stable
Ice is less dense than cold water floats
Learning Outcomes :
Importance:
Allow aquatic life to live under the frozen surface of water
in cold climate region
Explanation:
The floating layer of ice insulates the water below, prevent
them from losing heat & from freezing
Learning Outcomes :
6. Low viscosity
Weak H bonds between water molecules are constantly
breaking & reforming.
Water molecules can slide easily over each other
It flows with less friction through narrow vessels.
Importance:
Act as medium of transportation in living organisms
(eg: blood easily flow in the circulatory system)
Act as a good lubricant to reduce friction within body
(eg: mucus facilitates movement of feces through the bowel)

1.1 Water
(1)
1.2 Carbohydrates
(1)
1.3 Lipids
(1)
1.4 Proteins
(2)
1.5 Nucleic Acids
(1)
Learning outcomes
a) Describe various forms & classes of carbohydrates
b) Describe the formation & breakdown of maltose
c) Describe the structures & functions of starch,
glycogen and cellulose
Learning Outcomes :
1.2 (a) Describe various forms and classes of carbohydrates
Introduction
Composed of carbon, hydrogen & oxygen atoms
Ratio of C, H & O ~ approximately 1:2:1 (CH2O)n
n = number of C atoms
Learning Outcomes :
Classes of carbohydrates:
Classification
Monosaccharide
1 sugar unit
Disaccharide
Polysaccharide
2 sugar units
Many sugar units
Learning Outcomes :
MONOSACCHARIDES
1 sugar molecule; simple sugar (3-7 carbon atoms)
Characteristics:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Small
Sweet
Soluble in water
Can crystallized
White / colourless
Reducing sugar
Learning Outcomes :
Classes of monosaccharide:
Classification
Based on the position

of functional group
Aldose
Ketose
Based on no. of C atom
Triose 3C
Pentose 5C
Hexose 6C
Learning Outcomes
Outcomes ::
Learning
1.2 Describe
(a) Describe
various
forms
classes
of carbohydrates
(a)
various
forms
andand
classes
of carbohydrates
based on the position of functional group
Functional group ~ carbonyl group (C=O)

1. Aldose sugar
Carbonyl group is located at the end of carbon chain
Eg: glucose
2. Ketose sugar
Carbonyl group is located in the middle of carbon
chain
Eg: fructose
Numbering of carbon chain begins with the carbon nearest to

carbonyl group
Learning Outcomes :
Learning Outcomes :
based on the number of carbon atom
3 classes:
1. Triose sugar (3 C atoms)
Eg: glyceraldehyde & dihidroxyacetone; C3H6O3
2. Pentose sugar (5 C atoms) will be discussed in
nucleic acid
Eg: ribose, ribulose; C5H10O5, & deoxyribose; C5H10O4
3. Hexose sugar (6 C atoms)
Eg: glucose, galactose, fructose; C6H12O6
When dissolved in water, pentose & hexose form ring

structure; which is more stable
Learning Outcomes :
Hexose sugar (6 C atoms)
Same molecular formulas but

different arrangements of atoms
~ isomers
Glucose ~ blood sugar, moderate

sweetness, found in fruits &
vegetables
Galactose ~ less sweet, found in

milk & yoghurt
Fructose ~ fruit sugar, sweetest,

found in fruits & honey
Linear and ring forms of glucose. To form the glucose

ring, carbon 1 bonds to the oxygen attached to carbon 5.
Learning Outcomes :
Glucose
Each of these structure is glucose (C6H12O6)

a. All carbon atoms are clearly shown
b. The carbon atoms are omitted
c. The hydrogen atoms are omitted
Learning Outcomes :
Glucose
2 isomeric forms, according to the position of OH group at C1
above the ring plane = -glucose

below the ring plane = -glucose
Learning Outcomes :
Function of Monosaccharides
Energy source
Glucose ~ major respiratory substrate, primary energy source
Basic building units or monomers for disaccharide &

polysaccharide
Learning Outcomes :
1.2 (b) Describe the formation and breakdown of maltose
DISACCHARIDES
2 sugar molecules or two monosaccharides
Joined together by a condensation process (removal of a
water molecule)
Form covalent bond glycosidic bond
Can be broken down into monomers by hydrolysis process
(addition of water molecule)
Characteristics:
Disaccharide
1. Sweet
2. Soluble in water
3. Can crystallized
Maltose Sucrose Lactose
4. White / colourless
Learning Outcomes :
CONDENSATION PROCESS
Condensation
HYDROLYSIS PROCESS
Hydrolysis
Learning Outcomes :
MALTOSE
Malt sugar
Monomers : -glucose + -glucose
Joined together by -1,4 glycosidic bond (between C1 of one
glucose molecule and C4 of another molecule)

+
condensation
condensation
hydrolysis
hydrolysis
-1,4
glycosidic
bond
-glucose
(C6H12O6)
-glucose
(C6H12O6)
Maltose
(C12H22O11)
Learning Outcomes :
1.2 (c) Describe the structures and functions of starch, glycogen and cellulose
POLYSACCHARIDES
Many sugar molecules; polymer (vary in length)
Joined together by condensation process (removal of a water
molecules)
Form covalent bond glycosidic bond
Formation of polymer (large molecules made up of repeating
units of monomers) polymerization
Can be broken down into monomers by hydrolysis process
(addition of water molecules)
Polysaccharide
Characteristics:
1. Large molecule
Starch Glycogen Cellulose
2. Not sweet
3. Insoluble in water (form colloid)
Amylose
Amylopectin
Learning Outcomes :
STARCH
Energy storage in plants
Plants convert excess glucose into starch for storage in chloroplast
Monomers: -glucose molecules

Broken down by hydrolysis process with the help of amylase enzyme
Starch is a mixture of:
Amylose
Amylopectin
Learning Outcomes :
AMYLOSE
Joined together by -1,4 glycosidic bond

Helical, due to the formation of H bonds
Unbranched chain (variable length of monomers)
Folded ~ very compact (ideal for storage)

6
CH2OH
6
CH2OH
5
5
4 OH
O
6
CH2OH
2
OH
-glucose
4 OH
6
CH2OH
4 OH
1
2
OH
-glucose
2
OH
-glucose
-1,4 glycosidic bond
4 OH
1
O
1
2
OH
-glucose
Learning Outcomes :
AMYLOPECTIN
Joined together by -1,4 glycosidic bond & -1,6 glycosidic bond
Helical, branched chain (variable length of monomers)

Branches occur within 30 units
Folded & branched ~ very compact (ideal for storage)
Learning Outcomes :
AMYLOPECTIN
6
CH2OH
6
CH2OH
5
4 OH
O
4 OH
OH
OH
6
CH2OH
4 OH
3
6
C
6
CH2OH
2
OH
-glucose
4 OH
6
CH2OH
4 OH
1
2
OH
-glucose
2
OH
-glucose
4 OH
1
O
1
2
OH
-glucose
Learning Outcomes :
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN AMYLOSE &

AMYLOPECTIN
Features
Amylose
Amylopectin
Monomers
-glucose
-glucose
Bond

Shape
Helical, unbranched
Helical, branched (within

30 units)
Function
Ideal for energy storage

(insoluble, coiled, compact)
Learning Outcomes :
GLYCOGEN
Energy storage in animals (in liver & muscle)
Structure ~ similar to amylopectin
More branched than amylopectin
Learning Outcomes :
CELLULOSE
Major component of plant cell wall
Monomers: -glucose
Bond: -1,4 glycosidic bond

Broken down by hydrolysis with the help of cellulase enzyme
Unbranched, long straight chain
6
CH2OH
6
CH2OH
5
5
4 OH
3
6
CH2OH
1
2
OH
-glucose
4 OH
3
6
CH2OH
1
2
OH
-glucose
4 OH
3
1
2
OH
-glucose
4 OH
3
1
2
OH
-glucose
Learning Outcomes :
CELLULOSE
Learning Outcomes :
CELLULOSE
Straight chains are arranged parallel to one another
Linked together by hydrogen bonds (form microfibril)
Very stable & tough structure ~ provide support to plant cell
Learning Outcomes :
Functions of Polysaccharides
Energy Storage ~ eg: starch (in plant) & glycogen (in animals)
Major component of cell walls ~ provide structural support to
plant cell ~ eg: cellulose

1.1 Water
(1)
1.2 Carbohydrates
(1)
1.3 Lipids
(1)
1.4 Proteins
(2)
1.5 Nucleic Acids
(1)
Learning outcomes
a) State the types of lipid
b) Describe the structure of glycerol & fatty acids
c) Describe the formation & breakdown of
triglycerides
Learning Outcomes :
1.3 (a) State the types of lipid: fats, phospholipids and steroids
LIPIDS
Consist of mainly carbon & hydrogen atoms; few oxygen atom
Group of hydrophobic molecules ~ insoluble in water
3 major types:
LIPIDS
Fats
Phospholipids
Steroids
Eg: oil, butter
Eg: lecithin
Eg: cholesterol
Learning Outcomes :
FATS
Most abundant
Also known as (a.k.a) : Triglyceride / Triacylglycerol
Building block
1 Glycerol
3 Fatty acids
Saturated
Unsaturated
a) Structure of glycerol and b) general structure of fatty acids
Learning Outcomes :
1.3 (b) Describe the structure of glycerols and fatty acids
Glycerol
.
A.k.a : glycerine
3C alcohol with 3 OH groups (soluble in water)
H
H
OH
OH
OH
Learning Outcomes :
Fatty Acids
.
Has 2 regions:
Hydrophilic head (a carboxyl group, COOH at 1 end ) ~
acid
Hydrophobic tail ~ long unbranched hydrocarbon chain
(known as side chain, R)
O
HO
C1 C
R2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 C10 C11 C12 C13 C14 H
H
Carboxyl group
Hydrocarbon chain
Learning Outcomes :
Fatty Acids
.
Hydrophobic tail vary in length

Different fatty acids has different number of C atoms
(usually 16 or 18)
O
HO
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 C10 C11 C12 C13 C14 C15 C16 C17 C18 H

H
Eg: Stearic acid (stearate) C18H36O2
Learning Outcomes :
Classification of Fatty Acids

Based on the presence of double bonds within hydrocarbon
chain:
Saturated fatty acids
~ no double bond between C atoms; eg: stearic acid
Unsaturated fatty acids
~ has double bonds between C atoms; eg: oleic acid
O
HO
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 C10 C11 C12 C13 C14 C15 C16 C17 C18 H

H
Eg: Stearic acid (stearate) C18H36O2
Learning Outcomes :
SATURATED FATTY ACID

Has maximum number
. of H atoms
Straight chain, fatty
acids can be closely

packed
Solid at room
temperature
Learning Outcomes :

Fats that consist of saturated fatty acids ~ saturated fat
. Mostly animal fats (eg: butter, lard)
Learning Outcomes :
Learning Outcomes :
UNSATURATED FATTY ACID

Double bond causes
bending in
unsaturated fatty
acids
Fatty acids cannot be
closely packed
Liquid at room
temperature
Learning Outcomes :
UNSATURATED FATTY ACID

Fats that consist of unsaturated fatty acids ~ unsaturated fat
Mostly plant & fishes fats (eg: oil)
Fatty acids stearic acid (saturated fat) and oleic acid (unsaturated fat).
Learning Outcomes :
Classification of Fatty Acids

Based on the ability to be synthesized in the body:
.
Essential fatty acids
~ cannot be synthesized in the body

~ must be present in the diet
~ eg: linoleic, linolenic and arachidonic acids
Non-essential fatty acids
~ can be synthesized in the body

~ eg: stearic acid & others
Learning Outcomes :
PHOSPHOLIPIDS
Major component of cell membrane; eg: lecithin
Amphipathic molecule
i.e one end hydrophilic polar, another end hydrophobic non-polar
Building block
1 Glycerol
2 Fatty acids
Phosphate group
Learning Outcomes :
PHOSPHOLIPIDS
Learning Outcomes :
1.3 (c) Describe the formation & breakdown of triglycerides
TRIGLYCERIDE
Composed of 3 fatty acids & 1 glycerol backbone
Fats are formed when 3 condensation reaction occurs ~ also
known as esterification
Water is removed by extracting the OH from the carboxyl
group (of fatty acid) and H from the glycerols hydroxyl group
Triglyceride can be broken down by hydrolysis
Learning Outcomes :
Formation of Triglycerides
H
H
O
OH
HO
O
O
O
H
OH
HO
OH
HO
C
O
H
1 glycerol
Condensation
Hydrolysis
O
H
3 fatty acids
Triglyceride
Ester bond
R
Ester bond
R
Ester bond
R
+ 3H2O
Learning Outcomes :
Importance of Lipids
Main energy storage in animals (due to higher number of
hydrogen atom)
1 g of fat has > twice energy than same weight of starch
Lighter ~ hydrophobic nature, doesnt associates with
water
Improve buoyancy in aquatic animals
Provide better thermal insulation of mammals
Act as padding for internal organs
Phospholipid ~ major component of plasma membrane
Steroid ~ some are hormones that regulates metabolism

1.1 Water
(1)
1.2 Carbohydrates
(1)
1.3 Lipids
(1)
1.4 Proteins
(2)
1.5 Nucleic Acids
(1)
Learning outcomes
a) Describe the basic structure of amino acids
b) Explain how amino acids are grouped
c) Describe the formation and breakdown of dipeptide

d) Explain primary, secondary, tertiary & quaternary levels of
proteins & the types of bonds involved
e) Classify proteins according to their structure

f)
Explain the effect of pH & temperature on the structure of

protein
Learning Outcomes :
1.4 (a) Describe the basic structure of amino acids
PROTEIN
Polymer
Building blocks ~ amino acids
Joined together to form a long chain ~ polypeptide
Protein consist of 1 or more polypeptide chains which folded &

coiled into specific conformation
Mostly composed of C, H, O, N & sometimes S
Learning Outcomes :
BASIC STRUCTURE OF AMINO ACIDS

Amino acids consist of 4 components attached to a central
carbon
These components include:
a. a hydrogen atom
b. a carboxyl group
c. an amino group
d. a variable R group (or side chain).
R
amino group
H2N
C
H
COOH carboxyl group
Learning Outcomes :
BASIC STRUCTURE OF AMINO ACIDS

2 functional groups:
i. COOH (carboxyl group)
ii. NH2 (amino group)
: acidic
: basic
Amino acids are amphoteric; have both acidic & basic

properties
R
amino group
H2N
C
H
COOH carboxyl group
Learning Outcomes :
1.4 (b) Explain how amino acids are grouped
GROUP OF AMINO ACIDS

20 types of amino acids commonly found in proteins
All have the same basic structure but differ in the side chain, R
Amino acids are grouped based on the properties of R group
R
amino group
H2N
C
H
COOH carboxyl group
Learning Outcomes :
4 groups
Non-polar
Hydrophobic
Glycine (gly)
Polar
Hydrophilic
Acidic
Basic
Has COOH group Has NH2 group
Serine (ser)
Aspartic acid (asp)
Lysine (Lys)
Learning Outcomes :
GROUP OF AMINO ACIDS

i.
Essential amino acids (for human)

Cannot be synthesized in sufficient amount, must be
obtained through food or supplement intake
8 amino acids; eg: isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine,
phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, valine
For infants : histidine
ii. Non-essential amino acids

Can be synthesized in the body
Eg: alanine, arginine, asparagine, aspartic acid, cysteine,
glutamic acid, glycine, proline, serine, tyrosine, glutamine
Learning Outcomes :
1.4 (c) Describe the formation and breakdown of dipeptide
Formation of the dipeptide

2 amino acids are joined by condensation process to
form a dipeptide
By removal of a hydroxyl group from the carboxyl end of
one amino acid and a hydrogen from the amino group of
another amino acid.
Form a covalent bond ~ peptide bond
Learning Outcomes :
(c) describe the formation and breakdown of dipeptide
Learning Outcomes :
Formation & breakdown of the dipeptide

H
R1
OH
Condensation
N-terminal
OH
Hydrolysis
H 2O
R1
R2
H2O
R2
Peptide bond
OH
C-terminal
Learning Outcomes :
Breakdown of dipeptide
Dipeptide is hydrolysed into 2 amino acids by hydrolysis
process (addition of water).
Peptide bond is broken down and produces 2 amino acids.
Learning Outcomes :
Formation of polypeptide
Many amino acids are joined by condensation process to form
a polypeptide
Bond ~ peptide bonds
Polypeptide backbone ~ repeated sequence of (-N-C-C-)
R1
OH
R2
Peptide bond
OH
Peptide bond
R3
OH
Learning Outcomes :
Formation of tripeptide
Learning Outcomes :
1.4 (d) Explain primary, secondary, tertiary & quaternary levels of proteins & the types of bonds involved
Classification of Protein
Two ways based on:Level of protein structure
i. Primary
ii. Secondary
iii. Tertiary
iv. Quaternary
Structure
i. Fibrous
ii. Globular
iii. Conjugated
Learning Outcomes :
(d) explain primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary levels of proteins and the types of bonds
Learning Outcomes :
involved
Learning Outcomes :
Primary structure
Refers to the linear sequence of amino acids joined by
peptide bonds within a polypeptide chain
Each protein has a unique sequence of amino acids,
determined by specific DNA code
Different sequence results in the formation of different bonds
between amino acids
Causes a polypeptide chain to fold & coil into a unique 3

dimensional shape of protein
Eg : lysozyme & all protein that has been sequenced
Learning Outcomes :
Primary structure
Learning Outcomes :
Secondary structure
Linear chain of amino acids will coil or fold spontaneously
Due to the formation of H bonds between the backbones
(between H of the NH groups & O of the C=O groups of
amino acids in the primary chain)
2 types
-helix
-pleated sheet
Learning Outcomes :
Secondary structure
Learning Outcomes :
-helix
Helical coil
H bonds is formed between 1 amino
acid & the 4th amino acid away from it
Can stretch under tension ~ provide
elasticity
Because the hydrogen bonds can be
reformed
Eg: keratin in hair, nails & wool
|
S
|
S
S
|
S
|
Learning Outcomes :
-pleated sheet
Zig-zag pattern ~ provide strength & flexibility
Eg: silk, spider web
Learning Outcomes :
Tertiary structure
1 polypeptide chain in secondary structure may further coiled
into a globular shape which is maintained by bonds and
interactions among R groups
Globular shape unique to each polypeptide chain

Mantained by 4 interactions between R groups: Disulfide bonds (covalent bonds) between R groups with
sulfhydryl groups
Ionic bonds between +ve & -ve charged R groups
Hydrogen bonds between + & - charged R groups
Hydrophobic / Van der Waals interaction between nonpolar R groups
Learning Outcomes :
Tertiary structure
Learning Outcomes :
Tertiary structure
Eg: enzymes, hormones, antibodies
Type of bonds exist in different levels of protein:
Features
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
Type of
bond exist
i. Peptide
bond
i. Peptide bond
ii. H bond (between
C=O & NH group of
backbone)
i. Peptide bond
ii. H bond (between C=O
& NH group of
backbone)
iii. Disulfide bond
iv. Ionic bond
v. H bond (between R
groups)
vi. Hydrophobic (van der
Waals) interaction
Learning Outcomes :
Quaternary structure
Refers to a single protein that is formed when two or more
polypeptide chain joins
Bonds exist ~ same as tertiary structure
Eg: hemoglobin (consist of 4 polypeptide chains, two chains
and two chains)
Learning Outcomes :
4 Levels of Protein
Learning Outcomes :
1.4 (e) Classify proteins according to their structure
Classification of Protein
Based on Structure
Fibrous
Globular
Conjugated
FIBROUS
Mostly secondary structure
Form long parallel filaments or strands
Insoluble & stable
Function : mechanical & structural support
Eg:
Keratin, actin, myosin, collagen, silk
Learning Outcomes :
Globular Protein
Mostly tertiary/quaternary structure
Folded to form compact spherical shaped
Relatively unstable
Relatively soluble ~ colloid
Function : metabolic & chemical process
Eg:
Enzyme
Hormone
Antibodies
Hemoglobin
Learning Outcomes :
Conjugated Proteins
Protein that can function well if it joins with other compound
Non-protein compound ~ prosthetic group
Conjugated Protein
Prosthetic group
Location
Glycoprotein
Polysaccharide
Component of cell membrane

Mucin (in saliva)
Lipoprotein
Lipid
Component of cell membrane

Lipid transported in blood
plasma
Chromoprotein
Pigment
Myoglobin, hemoglobin
Nucleoprotein
Nucleic acid
Chromosome, ribosome
Learning Outcomes :
1.4 (f) Explain the effect of pH and temperature on the structure of protein
Effect of pH and Temperature

Structure of protein is affected by:1. pH
2. temperature
Globular protein is relatively unstable because it is maintained
by weak ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds & hydrophobic
interactions
When protein is heated or exposed to an extreme pH
changes, those bonds are broken
Causes it to uncoiled & change its conformation
Lose its biological function ~ denatured protein coagulate
Usually irreversible (sometimes, renaturation may occur)
Learning Outcomes :
1.4 (f) Explain the effect of pH and temperature on the structure of protein
Effect of pH and Temperature
Factor
Effect to the protein structure
Heat or radiation
Increased kinetic energy

Protein atoms vibrate
H & ionic bonds, van der Waals interaction break
Strong acids &

alkali
H & ionic bonds, van der Waals interaction break

Breakdown of peptide bonds occur if exposed very long

1.1 Water
(1)
1.2 Carbohydrates
(1)
1.3 Lipids
(1)
1.4 Proteins
(2)
1.5 Nucleic Acids
(1)
Learning outcomes
a) Describe the structure of nucleotide as the monomer
of nucleic acid (DNA & RNA)
b) Describe the structure of DNA based on the Watson
& Crick Model
c) State the types & function of RNA
d) State the differences of DNA & RNA
Learning Outcomes :
1.5 (a) Describe the structure of nucleotide as the monomer of nucleic acid (DNA and RNA)
Introduction
Nucleic acid is polynucleotide ~ polymer of nucleotides
Building blocks ~ nucleotide
Mostly composed of C, H, O, P & N
Learning Outcomes :
NUCLEIC ACIDS
2 types
Deoxyribonucleic Acid
(DNA)
Ribonucleic Acid
(RNA)
Learning Outcomes :
Structure of nucleotides
Each nucleotide has 3 components:Nucleotide
Pentose sugar
Ribose
(in RNA)
Deoxyribose
(in DNA)
Nitrogenous base
Phosphate group
Learning Outcomes :
Pentose Sugar (5 C sugars)
C5H10O4
C5H10O5
Ribose
~ component of RNA nucleotide
Deoxyribose ~ component of DNA nucleotide
At 2nd carbon atom
~ in deoxyribose; one H atom
~ in ribose; one OH group
Learning Outcomes :
Nitrogenous base
Based on the number of C ring
2 groups
Double rings
Single ring
Pyrimidine
Cytosine (C)
Purine
Uracil (U)
Thymine (T)
In RNA
In DNA
Guanine (G)
Adenine (A)
Learning Outcomes :
Learning Outcomes :
(a) Describe the structure of nucleotide as the basic composition of nucleic acid (DNA and
RNA)
Nitrogenous base
Nitrogenous base in DNA:
i. Guanine
ii. Adenine
iii. Thymine
iv. Cytosine
Nitrogenous base in RNA:

i. Guanine
ii. Adenine
iii. Uracil
iv. Cytosine
Learning Outcomes :
Learning Outcomes :
(a) Describe the structure of nucleotide as the basic composition of nucleic acid (DNA and
RNA)
DNA nucleotide
RNA nucleotide
Nitrogenous
Base
Phosphate
Group
OH
HO
P
O
Nitrogenous
Base
Phosphate
Group
OH
CH2
HO
deoxyribose
H
3
OH
Pentose Sugar ~
deoxyribose
P
O
CH2
ribose
H
3
OH
OH
Pentose Sugar ~
ribose
In a nucleotide :
nitrogenous base is joined to the 1st carbon of the pentose
phosphate group is joined to the 5th carbon of the pentose
Learning Outcomes :
FORMATION OF DINUCLEOTIDE
2 nucleotides are combined by condensation process ~
dinucleotide
Between OH group in phosphate group (of 1 nucleotide)
and the OH group at the 3rd carbon in pentose sugar (of
the other nucleotide)
Joined together by phosphodiester bond
Learning Outcomes :
FORMATION OF DINUCLEOTIDE
OH
HO
P O
O
OH
5
CH2
HO
deoxyribose
P O
OH
P O
O
H
2
H
O
CH2
HO
deoxyribose
H
2
OH
condensation
OH
HO
deoxyribose
CH2
P O
O
phosphodiester
bond
CH2
deoxyribose
H
2
OH
Learning Outcomes :
FORMATION OF POLYNUCLEOTIDE
Many nucleotides
joined together ~
polynucleotide
Elongation ~ from 5
to 3
Forming a backbone
with repeating sugarphosphate units
Breakdown by
hydrolysis process
3
Learning Outcomes :
1.5 (b) Describe the structure of DNA based on the Watson & Crick Model
DNA Structure
Based on Watson & Crick Model
Learning Outcomes :
DNA Structure
Consist of 2 polynucleotide chains
Both polynucleotide chains are twisted to
form a double helix
Each polynucleotide chain is made up of
nucleotide
Nucleotides are joined together by
phosphodiester bond
Each full turn of a double helix has 10 base

pairs
Learning Outcomes :
DNA Structure
5'
2 polynucleotide chains
are arranged in opposite
direction (antiparallel)
One strand ends with a 3
hydroxyl group while the
other strand ends with a
5 phosphate group
3'
3'
5'
Learning Outcomes :
DNA Structure
Sugar-phosphate forms the backbone
The 2 backbones are on the outside,

the nitrogenous bases are paired
inside the helix
Learning Outcomes :
DNA Structure
5'
Both chains are held together

by hydrogen bonds between
complementary base pair;
Adenine with Thymine,
Cytosine with Guanine
Between Adenine & Thymine
~ 2 hydrogen bonds
Between Cytosine & Guanine
~ 3 hydrogen bonds
Specific base-pairing rule
~ the numbers of A=T, G=C
3'
3'
5'
Learning Outcomes :
DNA
Importance:
As genetic material which carries

genetic information that control all
activities of a cell
Learning Outcomes :
1.5 (c) State the types & function of RNA
RNA
Single stranded polynucleotide
Pentose sugar ~ ribose
Nitrogenous bases ~ Guanine, Adenine, Cytosine, Uracil
3 types:
RNA
Messenger RNA
(mRNA)
Ribosomal RNA
(rRNA)
Transfer RNA
(tRNA)
Learning Outcomes :
mRNA
Function :
Carries genetic information copied from DNA which act
as a template for protein synthesis
Learning Outcomes :
rRNA
Function :
Forms ribosomal subunits (together with proteins)
Learning Outcomes :
tRNA
Function :
Transfer specific amino acids to ribosome during protein
synthesis
Learning Outcomes :
RNA
Learning Outcomes :
1.5 (d) State the differences of DNA & RNA
Differences between DNA & RNA

DNA
RNA
2 polynucleotide chains
1 polynucleotide chain
pentose sugar ~ deoxyribose
pentose sugar ~ ribose
nitrogenous base ~ G, A, T, C
nitrogenous base ~ G, A, C, U
shape ~ double helix
shape ~ linear (mRNA)
longer chain / larger molecular

mass
shorter chain / smaller molecular

mass
Only 1 type
Has 3 types : mRNA, rRNA &

tRNA
Reference
Campbell N.A & Reece, J.B., Biology, 6th ed.
(2002), Pearson Education, Inc.
Solomon E.P & Berg, L.R, Biology, 7th ed. (2005)
Thomson Learning, Inc.
Mader, S.S Biology, 8th ed. (2004) McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc.

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1.0 Molecules Of Life (7 hrs)

1.5 Nucleic Acids

1 oxygen atom & 2 hydrogen atoms (H2O)

The sharing of electrons between O & H atoms are not equal

+ H atom of one water

Water molecules are held

1 water molecule can

Ionic bonds between NaCl molecules become weaker

Water molecules gather around the Na+ & Cl- to form a

Act as transport medium for solutes (eg: dissolved

2. High specific heat capacity

2. High specific heat capacity

3. High latent heat of vaporization

3. High latent heat of vaporization

As water absorbs heat, its energy increases

4. High surface tension

4. High surface tension

4. High surface tension

H bonds in ice space the water molecules far apart &

Ice is less dense than cold water floats

1.0 Molecules Of Life (7 hrs)

1.5 Nucleic Acids

Many sugar units

Based on the position

Based on no. of C atom

Functional group ~ carbonyl group (C=O)

Numbering of carbon chain begins with the carbon nearest to

When dissolved in water, pentose & hexose form ring

Hexose sugar (6 C atoms)

Same molecular formulas but

Glucose ~ blood sugar, moderate

Galactose ~ less sweet, found in

Fructose ~ fruit sugar, sweetest,

Linear and ring forms of glucose. To form the glucose

Each of these structure is glucose (C6H12O6)

2 isomeric forms, according to the position of OH group at C1

above the ring plane = -glucose

Glucose ~ major respiratory substrate, primary energy source

Basic building units or monomers for disaccharide &

Joined together by a condensation process (removal of a

glucose molecule and C4 of another molecule)

Joined together by condensation process (removal of a water

Monomers: -glucose molecules

Joined together by -1,4 glycosidic bond

Folded ~ very compact (ideal for storage)

-1,4 glycosidic bond

Helical, branched chain (variable length of monomers)

-1,6 glycosidic bond

-1,4 glycosidic bond

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN AMYLOSE &

-1,4 glycosidic bond

-1,4 glycosidic bond

Helical, branched (within

Ideal for energy storage

More branched than amylopectin

Bond: -1,4 glycosidic bond

-1,4 glycosidic bond

-1,4 glycosidic bond

plant cell ~ eg: cellulose

1.0 Molecules Of Life (7 hrs)

1.5 Nucleic Acids

Eg: oil, butter

a) Structure of glycerol and b) general structure of fatty acids