Professional Documents
Culture Documents
PALAEO-04830; No of Pages 16
Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology xxx (2008) xxxxxx
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 25 April 2007
Accepted 13 October 2007
Available online xxxx
Keywords:
Climate
Atmospheric circulation
Precipitation
Climate variability
South America
a b s t r a c t
This paper documents the main features of the climate and climate variability over South America, on the
basis of instrumental observations gathered during the 20th Century. It should provide a modern reference
framework for paleoclimate research in South America, targeting high-resolution proxies over the past few
centuries. Several datasets suitable for present-day climate research are rst described, highlighting their
advantages as well as their limitations. We then provide a basic physical understanding of the mean annual
cycle of the precipitation and atmospheric circulation over the continent and the adjacent oceans. In
particular, the diversity of precipitation, temperature and wind patterns is interpreted in terms of the long
meridional extent of the continent and the disruption of the large-scale circulation caused by the Andes
cordillera, the contrasting oceanic boundary conditions and the landmass distribution. Similarly, the intensity
and timing of the interannual and interdecadal climatic uctuations exhibit considerable geographical
dependence, as some regions are more inuenced by large-scale phenomena rooted in the tropical oceans
while others are more inuenced by high-latitude phenomena. The impact of these large-scale phenomena
over South America is documented by a regression analysis between selected atmospheric indices and the
precipitation and temperature elds. We have included a discussion on the seasonality and long-term
stability of such impacts, and complemented our general description by an updated review of the literature
on climate variability over specic regions.
2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Owing to its considerable meridional extension and prominent
orography, South America exhibits diverse patterns of weather and
climate, including tropical, subtropical and extratropical features. The
Andes cordillera runs continuously near the west coast of the
continent with elevations in excess of 4 km from north of the equator
to the south of 40S (farther south it still rises over 2 km in many
places) and therefore represents a formidable obstacle for the
tropospheric ow. The Andes not only act as a climatic wall with dry
conditions to the west and moist conditions to the east at tropical/
subtropical latitudes (the pattern reverses in midlatitudes) but they
also foster tropicalextratropical interactions, especially along their
eastern side. The Brazilian plateau also tends to block the low-level
circulation over subtropical South America, and the large area of
continental landmass at low latitudes (10N25S) is conducive to the
development of intense convective storms that support the world's
largest rain forest in the Amazon basin. The variability of the South
American climate (i.e., interannual and interdecadal changes) results
0031-0182/$ see front matter 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.10.032
Please cite this article as: Garreaud, R.D., et al., Present-day South American climate, Paleogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. (2008),
doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.10.032
ARTICLE IN PRESS
2
Table 1
Main features of datasets commonly used in climate studies
Dataset
Key references
Station
GHCN
Gridded
GHCN
Gridded
UEA-CRU
Gridded
UEA-CRU05
Gridded
U. Delaware
Gridded
SAM-CDC data
Gridded
CMAP
Gridded
GPCP
NCEP-NCAR
Sfc. Obs
Precip and SAT
Sfc. Obs
Precip and SAT
Sfc. Obs
Precip and SAT
Sfc. Obs
Precip and SAT
Sfc. Obs
Precip and SAT
Sfc. Obs
Precip
Sfc. Obs.; Sat. data
Precip
Sfc. Obs.; Sat. data
Precip
Sfc. Obs.; UA Obs; Sat. data
1850()present
Daily and monthly
1900present
Monthly
1900present
Monthly
1901present
Monthly
19501999
monthly
19402006
Daily and monthly
1979present
Pentad and monthly
1979present
Monthly
1948present
Reanalysis (NNR)
N/A
Land only
5 5 latlon
Land only
0.5 0.5 latlon
Land only
0.5 0.5 latlon
Land only
0.5 0.5 latlon
Land only
1 1 latlon
South America
2.5 2.5 latlon
Global
2.5 2.5 latlon
Global
2.5 2.5 latlon,
17 vertical levels
Global
ECMWF
1948present
Reanalysis (ERA-40)
6 h, daily, monthly
6 h, daily, monthly
Notes:
Input data refer to the types of data used to construct the database: Sfc. Obs. = observations taken at near-surface meteorological stations; Sat. data: satellite estimates of several
variables (most commonly precipitation); UA Obs: upper-air observations most commonly taken from radiosondes.
Variables refer to the meteorological parameter included in each dataset: Precip = precipitation; SAT = Surface air temperature; temp = Air temperature at various levels.
Please cite this article as: Garreaud, R.D., et al., Present-day South American climate, Paleogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. (2008),
doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.10.032
ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.D. Garreaud et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology xxx (2008) xxxxxx
Fig. 1. (a) Map of surface stations reporting synoptic observations (surface pressure, air temperature, present weather, etc., every 6 or 12 h) during the year 2006. These stations are
operated by National Weather Services (NWS) that form part of the World Meteorological Organization. (b) As (a) but radiosonde stations (thus providing upper-air data). (c) Map of
GHCN mean temperature stations. Open circles indicate all the stations that have operated in South America regardless of its record length and continuity; lled circles indicate those
stations that began to operate in 1901 (or before) and have more than 80% of the data during the 20th century. (d) As (c) but for GHCN precipitation stations.
representation of the real climatic conditions. Here we use global, highresolution grids (0.5 0.5 latlon) from 19591999, produced by the
Center for Climatic Research, University of Delaware (Legates and
Willmont, 1990a,b). Fully global (land and ocean) gridded precipitation
data is only available since the late 70s, when satellite derived rainfall
estimates became available. The most popular products in this category
are the Climate Prediction Center Merged Analysis of Precipitation (CMAP;
Xie and Arkin, 1997) and the Global Precipitation Climatology Project
(GPCP; Adler et al., 2003).
Please cite this article as: Garreaud, R.D., et al., Present-day South American climate, Paleogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. (2008),
doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.10.032
ARTICLE IN PRESS
4
reanalysis data over the SH has improved after the late seventies due to
the availability of global satellite data (e.g., Kalnay et al., 1996).
Since its release in the mid 90s, the National Centers for Environmental PredictionNational Center for Atmospheric Research reanalysis
(NNR, Kalnay et al., 1996) has been extensively used in climate research.
The NNR data are available for the period been 1948 to the present on a
2.5 2.5 latlong global grid. The European Centre for Medium-range
Weather Forecast (ECMWF) also produced reanalysis data that cover the
40-year period 19572002 (the so-called ERA-40 product; Uppala et al.,
2005) with similar resolution as NNR. There are many studies comparing
NNR and ERA-40 (e.g., Wang et al., 2006); both data sets are in general
agreement and it is not possible to conclude that one product supersedes
the other. In this paper we use NCEP-NCAR reanalysis.
3. Mean elds and annual cycles
3.1. Tropical and subtropical features
Fig. 2a and b shows the long-term mean precipitation for July
and January, superimposed upon the corresponding low-level
(925 hPa, about 1 km above sea level [ASL]) winds. The precipitation eld exhibits several maxima: along a rather narrow, east
west oriented band over the tropical oceans called the Intertropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ), in a broad area over the continent
Fig. 2. Left panels: long-term mean CMAP precipitation (shaded scale at right) and 925 hPa wind vectors (arrows scale at bottom) for (a) January and (b) July. Right panels: longterm mean precipitation (shaded scale at right) and streamlines at 300 hPa (streamlines) for (c) January and (d) July.
Please cite this article as: Garreaud, R.D., et al., Present-day South American climate, Paleogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. (2008),
doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.10.032
ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.D. Garreaud et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology xxx (2008) xxxxxx
located to the north of the equator, almost in line with the oceanic
ITCZ, while the central part of the continent (including southern
Amazonia) experiences its dry season. By the end of October there is a
rapid southward shift of the convection, so that during the austral
summer a broad area of heavy precipitation extends from the
southern half of the Amazon Basin to northern Argentina. During
austral fall, the precipitation maximum returns gradually to northern
South America. Such migration has led many scientists to describe the
climate of the central part of South America as Monsoon-like (Zhou
and Lau, 1998; Vera et al., 2006). The climate is not fully monsoonal,
however, because the low-level winds never reverse their direction.
Throughout the year the trade winds over the Atlantic blow toward
the continent (albeit with different angles) where the pressure is
lower than over the ocean.
During austral summer a very deep continental low forms over the
Chaco region (25S; Seluchi et al., 2003) and forces the easterly winds
over the Amazon basin to turn southward, being channelled between
the eastern slope of the Andes and the Brazilian Plateau. The northerly
ow often exhibits a low-level jet structure (Saulo et al., 2000; Marengo
et al., 2004), with its core at about 1 km ASL, transporting large amounts
of moisture that feeds summertime convective storms over the
subtropical plains as far south as 35S. Also during summer, the latent
heat released by the Cumulus convection over the Amazon Basin leads to
the formation of an upper-level high-pressure cell (Lenters and Cook,
1997). The so-called Bolivian High is persistent enough as to appear in
the monthly and seasonal averages at the 200 hPa level (about 12 km
ASL; Fig. 2c) and it is accompanied by a cyclonic circulation downstream
over the northeast coast of Brazil (Virji, 1981; Chen et al., 1999). In
Fig. 3. (a) Latitudetime cross section of the long-term-mean 300 hPa (contours) and 925 hPa (shaded scale at bottom) zonal wind speed. Both variables were averaged between
80 and 75W. Black area at the right schematize the topography of the west half of South America (dominated by the Andes cordillera). (b) As in (a) but the shaded eld is long-termmean CMAP precipitation.
Please cite this article as: Garreaud, R.D., et al., Present-day South American climate, Paleogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. (2008),
doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.10.032
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Please cite this article as: Garreaud, R.D., et al., Present-day South American climate, Paleogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. (2008),
doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.10.032
Fig. 4. (a) Annual mean of the 925 hPa air temperature averaged between 100W and 20W ([T]). (b) Zonally asymmetric component of the annual mean 925 hPa air temperature ([T] was subtracted from the annual mean eld). Contour
interval is 2 C, negative values in dashed line, and the zero contour is omitted. (c) January minus July mean air temperature at 925 hPa. Contour interval is 2 C, negative values in dashed line, and the zero contour is omitted. (d) Interannual
standard deviation of the annual mean temperature, contoured every 0.4 C.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.D. Garreaud et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology xxx (2008) xxxxxx
connection with the Bolivian High, mid- and upper-level easterly winds
appear over the central Andes, favouring the transport of continental,
moist air that is crucial for the development of deep convection over the
Altiplano (e.g., Garreaud et al., 2003; Vuille and Keimig, 2004; Falvey and
Garreaud, 2005).
Three conspicuous dry regions are observed over the continent
(Fig. 2): the PeruChile coastal desert, the eastern tip of the continent
(Northeast Brazil) and the extratropical plains east of the Andes
(southern Argentina, see next section). The rst region corresponds to
the 100300 km strip of land between the coastline and the Andes
extending from 30S as far north as 5S, and its extreme aridity is due
to the large-scale subsidence acting in concert with regional factors
(Rutllant et al., 2003). The annual mean precipitation over NE Brazil is
only a third of the inland values at the same latitude, restricted to austral
fall (when the ITCZ reaches its southernmost position) and highly
variable from year-to-year (Rao et al.,1993; Nobre and Shukla,1996). The
aridity of this region seems to result from the local intensication of the
Hadley cell in connection with strong convection over the equatorial
Atlantic (Moura and Shukla, 1981). Modelling studies also suggest that
the heating of Africa is associated with a marked decrease in
precipitation over NE Brazil due to low-level moisture divergence and
dry-air advection (Cook et al., 2004).
3.2. Extratropical features
South of 40S, low-level westerly ow prevails year round over the
adjacent oceans and the continent (albeit weaker there), in connection
with a mean poleward decrease in pressure (Fig. 2a and b). The monthly
mean charts, however, don't reect the high day-to-day variability of the
pressure and wind observed in the extratropics; the region is populated
by migratory surface cyclones and anticyclones, an integral part of the
baroclinic eddies. The midlatitude westerlies extend trough the entire
troposphere reaching a maximum speed (the jet stream) in the upper
troposphere (Fig. 2c and d). The belt of westerlies is largely symmetric
over the Southern Hemisphere, due to the absence of signicant land
masses to the south of 35S, and has a rather modest annual cycle (e.g.,
Nakamura and Shimpo, 2004). In particular, over the southern tip of
South America and the adjacent south Pacic, the westerlies are
strongest during austral summer, peaking between 45 and 55S.
During the austral winter, the jet stream moves into subtropical latitudes
(its axis is at about 30S) and the low-level westerlies expand
equatorward but weaken, particularly at 50S (Fig. 3a).
Fig. 5. Time series (19202000) of monthly mean Multivariate ENSO Index (MEI), PDO Index and AAO Index. All indexes were smoothed using a 5-month running mean lter. Original
indices obtained from Climate Diagnostic Center (NOAA).
Please cite this article as: Garreaud, R.D., et al., Present-day South American climate, Paleogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. (2008),
doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.10.032
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Please cite this article as: Garreaud, R.D., et al., Present-day South American climate, Paleogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. (2008),
doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.10.032
Fig. 6. Spatial ngerprints of the leading atmospheric modes. Upper panels: correlation between the Multivariate ENSO Index (MEI) and Skin Temperature (SST over the ocean, SAT over continents, left panel), sea level pressure (SLP, middle
panel) and 300 hPa zonal wind (Uwnd, right panel). Middle panels: as before but for the Pacic Decadal Oscillation (PDO) index. Lower panels: as before but for the Antarctic Oscillation (AAO) index. In all cases, the correlation was calculated
using annual mean values for the period 19502005.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.D. Garreaud et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology xxx (2008) xxxxxx
Fig. 7. (a) Standard deviation of the annual mean precipitation (University of Delaware gridded dataset). (b) Standard deviation of the annual mean precipitation normalized by the
annual mean precipitation. Standard deviation and ratio are not shown where the annual mean value is less than 50 mm.
Please cite this article as: Garreaud, R.D., et al., Present-day South American climate, Paleogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. (2008),
doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.10.032
ARTICLE IN PRESS
10
Table 2
ENSO-related anomalies in precipitation in different regions of South America
Region
Key references
Sign
season
Basic mechanism
DJF
++
JFMAM
DJFMA
DJF
Decrease in convection due to relaxed landsea thermal contrast and extra subsidence from
convection over the ITCZ
Development of deep convection due to anomalously warm SST
DJFM
++
JJAS
Bolivian lowlands
Subtropical Andes and central Chile
Southern Chile
Argentina's Patagonia
NDJ
+
JJASON
++
SON
Increase in midlatitude storms over subtropical latitudes due to blocking in the southeast Pacic
DJF
Intense convection over the tropical Pacic leads to enhanced subsidence and rainfall
suppression over central Amazonia
MAM
ENSO projects upon a warm (cold) tropical north (south) Atlantic pattern, leading to reduction
of convection over NE Brazil
Notes:
Sign refers to the correlation between ENSO index and regional precipitation. + () indicates wetter (drier) conditions during El Nio (La Nia) events. Double (single) sign is for strong
(weak) relationship.
Season indicates the period of the year in which the previous relationship is strongest.
Fig. 8. Seasonal correlation map between MEI and precipitation (upper row) and surface air temperature (lower row). Gridded elds from University of Delaware (19501999). Only
correlations in excess of 0.2 are shown (roughly the threshold of the 95% signicance level).
Please cite this article as: Garreaud, R.D., et al., Present-day South American climate, Paleogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. (2008),
doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.10.032
ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.D. Garreaud et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology xxx (2008) xxxxxx
11
Please cite this article as: Garreaud, R.D., et al., Present-day South American climate, Paleogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. (2008),
doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.10.032
ARTICLE IN PRESS
12
Fig. 9. Time series of the correlation coefcient between OctoberNovemberDecember precipitation at Corrientes (27.5S 65.6W) and the contemporaneous Southern Oscillation
Index (SOI) considering a 30-year sliding window. The values are assigned to the 15th year within the corresponding 30-year window. The horizontal dashed line indicates the 95%
signicance level. Adapted and updated from Aceituno and Montecinos (1993).
Please cite this article as: Garreaud, R.D., et al., Present-day South American climate, Paleogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. (2008),
doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.10.032
ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.D. Garreaud et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology xxx (2008) xxxxxx
13
Fig. 10. Annual mean precipitation (upper row) and surface air temperature (lower row) regressed upon MEI (left column), PDO index (center column) and AAOI (right column).
Precipitation and surface air temperature from University of Delaware gridded dataset.
Please cite this article as: Garreaud, R.D., et al., Present-day South American climate, Paleogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. (2008),
doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.10.032
ARTICLE IN PRESS
14
Please cite this article as: Garreaud, R.D., et al., Present-day South American climate, Paleogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. (2008),
doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.10.032
ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.D. Garreaud et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology xxx (2008) xxxxxx
Cook, K., Sieh, J.S., Hagos, S.M., 2004. The AfricaSouth America Intercontinental
Teleconnection. J. Climate 17, 28512865.
Diaz, H.F., Markgraf, V., 1992. El Nio. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Daz, A., Aceituno, P., 2003. Atmospheric circulation anomalies during episodes of
enhanced and reduced convective cloudiness over Uruguay. J. Climate 16, 31713185.
Dima, I., Wallace, J.M., 2003. On the seasonality of the Hadley Cell. J. Atmos. Sci. 60,15221527.
Elliott, W., Angell, J., 1988. Evidence for changes in Southern Oscillation relationships
during the last 100 years. J. Climate 1, 729737.
Falvey, M., Garreaud, R., 2005. Moisture variability over the South American Altiplano
during the SALLJEX observing season. J. Geophys. Res. 110, D22105. doi:10.1029/
2005JD006152.
Folland, C., Colman, A., Rowell, D.P., Davey, M., 2001. Predictability of Northeast Brazil
rainfall and real-time forecast skill, 198798. J. Climate 14, 19371958.
Francou, B., Vuille, M., Favier, V., Cceres, B., 2004. New evidence for an ENSO impact on
low latitude glaciers: Antizana 15, Andes of Ecuador, 028S. J. Geophys. Res. 109,
D18106. doi:10.1029/2003JD004484.
Fu, R., Zhu, B., Dickinson, R.E., 1998. How do atmosphere and land surface inuence
seasonal changes of convection in the tropical Amazon? J. Climate 12, 13061321.
Garca, N., Vargas, W., 1998. The temporal climatic variability in the Ro De La Plata Basin
displayed by the river discharges. Clim. Change 38, 359379.
Garreaud, R., 2007. Precipitation and circulation covariability in the extratopics. J.
Climate 20, 47894797.
Garreaud, R.D., Battisti, D.S., 1999. Interannual (ENSO) and interdecadal (ENSO-like)
variability in the Southern Hemisphere tropospheric circulation. J. Climate 2, 21132123.
Garreaud, R.D., Aceituno, P., 2001. Interannual rainfall variability over the South
American Altiplano. J. Climate 14, 27792789.
Garreaud, R.D., Aceituno, P., 2007. Atmospheric circulation over South America: mean
features and variability. In: Veblen, T., Young, K., Orme, A. (Eds.), The Physical
Geography of South America. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 4566.
Garreaud, R., Vuille, M., Clement, A., 2003. The climate of the Altiplano: observed current
conditions and mechanism of past changes. Paleogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol.
194 (3054), 118.
Genta, J.L., Perez-Iribarren, G., Mechoso, C.R., 1998. A recent increasing trend in the
streamow of rivers in southeastern South America. J. Climate 11, 28582862.
Giannini, A., Chiang, J., Cane, M., Kushnir, Y., Seager, R., 2001. The ENSO teleconnection to
the tropical Atlantic Ocean: contributions of the remote and local SSTs to rainfall
variability in the tropical Americas. J. Climate 14, 45304544.
Gillett, N.P., Kell, T.D., Jones, P.D., 2006. Regional climate impacts of the southern annular
mode. Geophys. Res. Lett. 33, L23704. doi:10.1029/2006GL027721.
Goldberg, R.A., Tisnado, G., Scoeld, R.A., 1987. Characteristics of extreme rainfall events
in Northwestern Peru during the 19821983 El Nino period. J. Geophys. Res. 92
(C13), 14, 22514,241.
Grimm, A.M., 2003. The El Nio impact on the summer monsoon in Brazil: regional
processes versus remote inuences. J. Climate 16, 263280.
Grimm, A.M., Barros, V., Doyle, M.E., 2000. Climate variability in southern South
America associated with El Nio and La Nia Events. J. Climate 13, 3558.
Gupta, A.S., England, S., 2006. Coupled oceanatmosphereice response to variations in
the southern annular mode. J. Climate 19, 44574486.
Horel, J., Cornejo-Garrido, A., 1986. Convection along the coast of Northern Peru during
1983. spatial and temporal variation of clouds and rainfall. Mon. Weather Rev. 114,
20912105.
Horel, J., Hahmann, A., Geisler, J., 1989. An investigation of the annual cycle of the
convective activity over the tropical Americas. J. Climate 2, 13881403.
Hoskins, B.J., Valdes, P.J.,1990. On the existence of storm-tracks. J. Atmos. Sci. 47,18541864.
Kalnay, E., Kanamitsu, M., Kistler, R., Collins, W., Deaven, D., Gandin, L., Iredell, M., Saha,
D., White, G., Woollen, J., Zhu, Y., Chelliah, M., Ebisuzaki, W., Higgins, W., Janowiak, J., Mo,
K.C., Ropelewski, C., Wang, J., Leetma, A., Reynolds, R., Dennis, J., 1996. The NCEP/NCAR
40-years reanalysis project. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 77, 437472.
Kidson, J., 1988. Indices of the Southern Hemisphere Zonal Wind. J. Climate 1, 183194.
Kiladis, G.N., Diaz, H., 1989. Global climatic anomalies associated with extremes in the
Southern Oscillation. J. Climate 2, 10691090.
Kiladis, G.N., Weickmann, K.M., 1997. Horizontal structure and seasonality of large-scale
circulations associated with submonthly tropical convection. Mon. Wea. Rev. 125,
19972013.
Kistler, R., et al., 2001. The NCEPNCAR 50 year reanalysis. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 82,
247267.
Klein, S.A., Hartmann, D.L., 1993. The seasonal cycle of low stratiform clouds. J. Climate
6, 15871606.
Kodoma, Y., 1992. Large-scale common features of subtropical precipitation zones (the
Baiu frontal zone, the SPCZ and the SACZ). Part I: characteristic of subtropical frontal
zones. J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn. 70, 813836.
Legates, D.R., Willmont, C., 1990a. Mean seasonal and spatial variability in gaugecorrected, global precipitation. Int. J. Climatol. 10, 111127.
Legates, D.R., Willmont, C., 1990b. Mean seasonal and spatial variability in global surface
air temperature. Theor. Appl. Climatol. 41, 1121.
Lenters, J.D., Cook, K.H., 1997. On the origin of the Bolivian high and related circulation
features of the South American climate. J. Atmos. Sci. 54, 656677.
Liebmann, B., Marengo, J., 2001. Interannual variability of the rainy season and rainfall in
the Brazilian Amazon Basin. J. Climate 14, 43084318.
Liebmann, B., Allured, D., 2005. Daily precipitation grids for South America. Bull. Am.
Meteorol. Soc. 86, 15671570.
Liebmann, B., Kiladis, G., Marengo, J., Ambrizzi, T., Glick, J.D., 1999. Submonthly
convective variability over South America and the South Atlantic Convergence
Zone. J. Climate 11, 28982909.
Madden, R., Julian, P., 1994. A review of the intraseasonal oscillation in the Tropics. Mon.
Weather Rev. 122, 814837.
15
Mantua, N.J., Hare, S., Zhang, Y., Wallace, J.M., Francis, R.C.,1997. A Pacic interdecadal climate
oscillation with impacts on salmon production. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 78, 10691079.
Marengo, J., 1992. Interannual variability of surface climate in the Amazon basin. Int. J.
Climatol. 12, 853863.
Marengo, J., 2004. Interdecadal and long-term rainfall variability in the Amazon basin.
Theor. Appl. Climatol. 78, 7996.
Marengo, J., Nobre, C., 2001. The Hydroclimatological framework in Amazonia. In:
Richey, J., McClaine, M., Victoria, R. (Eds.), Biogeochemistry of Amazonia. Oxford
Univ. Press, Oxford, pp. 1742.
Marengo, J., Liebmann, B., Kousky, V.E., Filizola, N., Wainer, I.C., 2001. Onset and end of
the rainy season in the Brazilian Amazon Basin. J. Climate 14, 833852.
Marengo, J., Soares, W., Saulo, C., Nicolini, M., 2004. Climatology of the LLJ east of the
Andes as derived from the NCEP reanalyses. J. Climate 17, 22612280.
Marengo, J., Nobre, C., Tomasella, J., Sampaio, G., Camargo, H., 2008. The drought of
Amazonia in 2005. J. Climate 21, 495516.
Marshall, G.J., 2003. Trends in the southern annular mode from observations and
reanalyses. J. Climate 16, 41344143.
Masiokas, M., Villalba, R., Luckman, B., Le Quesne, C., Aravena, J.C., 2006. Snowpack
variations in the Central Andes of Argentina and Chile, 19512005. Large-scale
atmospheric inuences and implications for water resources in the region. J.
Climate 19, 63346352.
Mitchell, T.P., Wallace, J.M., 1992. The annual cycle in the equatorial convection and sea
surface temperature. J. Climate 5, 11401156.
Mitchell, T.D., Jones, P.D., 2005. An improved method of constructing a database of
monthly climate observations and associated high-resolution grids. Int. J. Climatol.
25, 693712.
Montecinos, A., Aceituno, P., 2003. Seasonality of the ENSO-related rainfall variability in
central Chile and associated circulation anomalies. J. Climate 16, 281296.
Montecinos, A., Daz, A., Aceituno, P., 2000. Seasonal diagnostic and predictability of rainfall
in subtropical South America based on tropical Pacic SST. J. Climate 13, 746758.
Moura, A.D., Shukla, J., 1981. On the dynamics of droughts in Northeast Brazil:
observations, theory and numerical experiments with a general circulation model.
J. Atmos. Sci. 38, 26532675.
Nakamura, H., Shimpo, A., 2004. Seasonal variations in the southern hemisphere storm
tracks and jet streams as revealed in a reanalysis dataset. J. Climate 17, 18281844.
New, M., Hulme, M., Jones, P., 2000. Representing twentieth-century space-time climate
variability. Part II: development of 19011996 monthly grids of terrestrial surface
climate. J. Climate 13, 22172238.
Newman, M., Compo, G.P., Alexander, M.A., 2003. ENSO-forced variability of the Pacic
Decadal Oscillation. J. Climate 16, 38533857.
Nobre, P., Shukla, J., 1996. Variations of sea surface temperature, wind stress and rainfall
over the tropical Atlantic and South America. J. Climate 9, 24642479.
Nogues-Paegle, J., Mo, K.C., 1997. Alternating wet and dry conditions over South America
during summer. Mon. Weather Rev. 125, 279291.
Nogus-Paegle, J., Mo, K.C., 2002. Linkages between summer rainfall variability over
South America and sea surface temperature anomalies. J. Climate 15, 13891407.
Nogus-Paegle, J., Byerle, L., Mo, K.C., 2000. Intraseasonal modulation of South
American summer precipitation. Mon. Weather Rev. 128, 837850.
Peterson, T., Vose, R., 1997. An overview of the global historical climatology network
temperature database. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 78, 28372849.
Poveda, G., Jaramillo, A., Gil, M., Quiceno, N., Mantilla, R., 2001. Seasonally in ENSOrelated precipitation, river discharges, soil moisture, and vegetation index in
Colombia. Water Resour. Res. 37 (8), 21692178.
Quadrelli, R., Wallace, J.M., 2004. A simplied linear framework for interpreting patterns
of northern hemisphere wintertime climate variability. J. Climate 17, 37283744.
Rao, V., de Lima, M.C., Franchito, S., 1993. Seasonal and interannual variations of rainfall
over eastern northeast Brazil. J. Climate 6, 17541763.
Robertson, A.W., Mechoso, C.R., 2000. Interannual and interdecadal variability of the
South Atlantic Convergence Zone. Mon. Weather Rev. 128, 29472957.
Ronchail, J., Gallaire, R., 2006. ENSO and rainfall along the Zongo valley (Bolivia) from
the Altiplano to the Amazon basin. Int. J. Climatol. 26, 12231236.
Ronchail, J., Cochonneau, G., Molinier, M., Guyot, J., Goretti De Miranda, A., Guimares, V.,
Oliveira, E., 2002. Interannual rainfall variability in the Amazon basin and seasurface temperatures in the equatorial Pacic and the tropical Atlantic Oceans. Int. J.
Climatol. 22, 16631686.
Ropelewski, C., Halpert, M., 1987. Global and regional scale precipitation patterns
associated with the El Nio/Southern Oscillation. Mon. Weather Rev. 115, 16061626.
Rutllant, J., Fuenzalida, H., 1991. Synoptic aspects of the central Chile rainfall variability
associated with the Southern Oscillation. Int. J. Climatol. 11, 6376.
Rutllant, J., Fuenzalida, H., Aceituno, P., 2003. Climate dynamics along the arid northern
coast of Chile: the 19971998 Dinmica del Clima de la Regin de Antofagasta
(DICLIMA) experiment. J. Geophys. Res. 108 (D17), 4538. doi:10.1029/2002JD003357.
Satyamurty, P., Nobre, C., Silva Dias, P.L., 1998. South America. In: Karoly, D.J., Vincent, D.
(Eds.), Meteorology of the Southern Hemisphere (Monograph Series No. 27). Am.
Meteor. Soc., Boston, USA, pp. 119140.
Saulo, A.C., Nicolini, M., Chou, S.C., 2000. Model characterization of the South American
low-level ow during the 199798 springsummer season. Clim. Dyn. 16, 867881.
Schneider, N., Cornuelle, B.D., 2005. The forcing of the Pacic Decadal Oscillation. J.
Climate 18, 43554373.
Schwerdtfeger, W., Landsberg, H.E., 1976. Climate of Central and South America. World
Survey of Climatology, vol. 12. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Seluchi, M.E., Saulo, C., Nicolini, M., Satyamurty, P., 2003. The northwestern Argentinean
Low: a study of two typical events. Mon. Weather Rev. 131, 23612378.
Silvestri, G.E., 2005. Comparison between winter precipitation in southeastern South
America during each ENSO phase. Geophys. Res. Lett. 32, L05709. doi:10.1029/
2004GL021749.
Please cite this article as: Garreaud, R.D., et al., Present-day South American climate, Paleogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. (2008),
doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.10.032
ARTICLE IN PRESS
16
Silvestri, G.E., Vera, C.S., 2003. Antarctic Oscillation signal on precipitation anomalies
over southeastern South America. Geophys. Res. Lett. 30 (21), 2115. doi:10.1029/
2003GL018277.
Thompson, D.W.J., Wallace, J.M., 2000. Annular modes in the extratropical circulation.
Part I: month-to-month variability. J. Climate 13, 10001016.
Thompson, D.W.J., Solomon, S., 2002. Interpretation of recent southern hemisphere
climate change. Science 296, 895899.
Trenberth, K.E., 1991. Storm tracks in the Southern Hemisphere. J. Atmos. Sci. 48,
21592178.
Uppala, S.M., et al., 2005. The ERA-40 re-analysis. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 131, 29613012.
van Loon, H., 1972. Temperature, pressure, wind, cloudiness and precipitation in the
Southern Hemisphere. Meteorology of the Southern Hemisphere, Meteorological
Monographs, N 35. Amer. Meteor. Soc. 25111.
Vera, C.S., Silvestri, G., Barros, V., Carril, A., 2004. Differences in El Nio response over
the Southern Hemisphere. J. Climate 17, 17411753.
Vera, C., Higgins, W., Amador, J., Ambrizzi, T., Garreaud, R., Gochis, D., Gutzler, D.,
Lettenmaier, D., Marengo, J., Mechoso, C.R., Nogues-Paegle, J., Silva Diaz, P.L., Zhang, C.,
2006. Towards a unied view of the American Monsoon System. J. Climate 19,
49775000.
Virji, H., 1981. A preliminary study of summertime tropospheric circulation patterns
over South America estimated from cloud winds. Mon. Weather Rev. 109, 599610.
Vuille, M., 1999. Atmospheric circulation over the Bolivian Altiplano during dry and wet
periods and extreme phases of the Southern Oscillation. Int. J. Climatol. 19,15791600.
Please cite this article as: Garreaud, R.D., et al., Present-day South American climate, Paleogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. (2008),
doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.10.032