The impact of climate change on agricultural production in drought prone

areas. The case of Mbire (2000-2014)

By
Michael Tigere (R0723677X)
A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the
degree of Masters of Arts in Development studies of the Midlands State
University
Supervisor MS E NCIIZAH
June 2015

Approval form
The undersigned certify that they have supervised the student Michael Tigere dissertation
entitled: The impact of climate change on agricultural production in drought prone
areas. The case of Mbire 2000-2014 submitted in Partial fulfilment of the requirements of
the Masters of Arts in Development Studies (MADS) at Midlands State University.

SUPERVISOR

DATE

CHAIRPERSON

DATE

..

EXTERNAL EXAMINER

DATE

Declaration
I, Michael Tigere, declare that the thesis hereby submitted for the degree of Master of Arts
(MA) at the Midlands State University is my work and has not been previously submitted to
another University.

Signature:

Date

Place: Midlands State University

Dedication
First and foremost I dedicate this dissertation to my Lord and savior Jesus Christ who chose
me in my mothers womb and appointed me into this field .I appreciate the anointing that he
deposited upon my life that has enabled me to complete this work, I further appreciate the
inspiration from the Holy Spirit who enabled me to persevere through the good and the bad
times, the hunger and those days of great trial and tribulation.

PSMALS 91

Acknowledgements
Firstly I would like to thank the Almighty God who guided me in the writing of this masters
dissertation. I also want to extend my profound gratitude to MRS E NCIIZAH who was my
supervisor for her guidance and continuous encouragement in the writing of this dissertation.
My appreciation also extends to my family and friends for their unwavering support, may the
Lord bless you. I would like to thank Mbire district council, AGRITEX officers, ward
officers, meteorological department for their information and cooperation.

Acronyms

DA.District Administrator
EEA........................................................................................European Environmental Agency
FEWSNET..Famine Early Warning Systems Network
GHF.............................................................................................................Global Human Fund
IFAD..............................................................International Fund for Agricultural Development
IPCC.......................................................International Governmental Panel on Climate Change
MDG.........................................................................................Millennium Development Goals
NGOs.......................................................................................Non Governmental Organisation
UNEP.........................................................................United Nations Environmental Protection
UNFCCCUnited Nations framework Convention on Climate Change
USAID.United States Agency for International Development
WMA....................................................................................World Meteorological Association
WRI......................................................................................................World Resource Institute

Abstract
Climate change and variability are the major constraints to agricultural production in
drought prone areas. Small holder farmers are facing negative effects due to the changes of
the weather patterns in Mbire. Prolonged hot and dry temperatures have affected the growth
of plants and have resulted in low production. Climate change has led to, death of livestock,
bush fires, soil erosion, pest increase, poor plant germination, deterioration of infrastructure
and crop production. Livestock and crops have failed to quickly adapt to these harsh climatic
conditions which has negative effects on the overall food security plans for the nation at
large. Adaptation methods have significantly contributed to the reduction of negative impacts
of climate change and other changing socio-economic conditions. Due to the absence of
proper extension services to farmers, many farmers have kept up with their traditional
farming practices.

Table of Contents
APPROVAL FORM................................................................................................................... I
DECLARATION...................................................................................................................... II
DEDICATION....................................................................................................................... III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.......................................................................................................... IV
ACRONYMS......................................................................................................................... V
ABSTRACT......................................................................................................................... VI
CHAPTER ONE: THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING..............................................2
INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................... 2
BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY.................................................................................................. 2
STATEMENT OF PROBLEM...................................................................................................... 12
JUSTIFICATION OF STUDY...................................................................................................... 13
OBJECTIVES...................................................................................................................... 14
LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY.................................................................................................. 14
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS................................................................................................... 15
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK................................................................................................... 17
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW.............................................................19
INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................. 19
CLIMATE CHANGE TRENDS................................................................................................... 19
CONCERN ABOUT CLIMATE CHANGE........................................................................................22
IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE OF LIVELIHOODS...........................................................................26
CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION.............................................................................................. 33
CLIMATE CHANGE IN ZIMBABWE............................................................................................ 36
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY.................................................47
STUDY POPULATION............................................................................................................ 47
RESEARCH DESIGN............................................................................................................. 49
DATA COLLECTION.............................................................................................................. 49
CHAPTER FOUR - DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS...................................56
INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................. 56
AGRICULTURAL VULNERABILITY IN MBIRE DISTRICT...................................................................56
SOIL............................................................................................................................... 60
HEALTH........................................................................................................................... 61
DISEASES AND PESTS........................................................................................................... 66
LIVESTOCK....................................................................................................................... 67
CLIMATE CHANGE PERCEPTIONS............................................................................................. 70
DEFORESTATION AND CLIMATE CHANGE....................................................................................72
EFFECTS OF DEFORESTATION................................................................................................. 73
FOOD INSECURITY.............................................................................................................. 75
CLIMATE ADAPTATION AND AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT............................................................76
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS.................................93
RECOMMENDATIONS........................................................................................................... 96

Chapter One: The problem and its setting

Introduction
This is an introductory chapter, highlighting the background of study, description of study
area, aim of study, problem statement, justification of study, research objectives, delimitations
and limitations of the study. Theoretical framework and ethical considerations will also be
highlighted in this chapter.

Background to the study

Agricultural production is the most sensitive phenomena to climate because it depends on
natural heat for energy and water, which are both climate-related variables. According to
Murungweni (2009) approximately seventy percent (70%) of Africans or close to 700 million
people rely on farming as a means for living, more than 95% of it is rain fed. Changing
weather patterns due to climate change is therefore expected to decrease agricultural yields in
drought prone areas by as much as 50 per cent as early as 2020 (Hulme, 2006). Changing
weather patterns reinforces the need for the region to consider long-term constraints that any
future climate changes may place on agriculture (Eriaksen , 2007).

Climate change affects all countries in the world. Extreme weather conditions like drought
and floods have become more intense and more frequent with far reaching destructive effects
on the livelihoods of people especially those in developing countries and more so, those
engaging in climate sensitive economic activities such as agriculture. All categories of
agricultural workers are therefore affected. Droughts and floods are destroying crops and
harvest of farmers in developing countries leaving them in a miserable situation and
threatening their livelihood. As in most of the African countries, the majority of the
workforce in Zimbabwe (almost 60%) is working in the agricultural sector but contributes

just a little percentage to the national GDP (Ibid). Most of the farmers are living in abject
poverty, struggling with life and just managing to survive by scraping for a living through
multiple informal economic activities because the unpredictable nature of the weather pattern
has forced them to seek other new forms of making a living. These of course mean an
immense toll on the livelihoods of families, especially those in the rural areas.

Global climate change is one of the most critical challenges facing the international
community today. Climate change is threatening to undo decades of development efforts due
to its negative impacts on agriculture, health, environment, roads, and buildings especially in
developing countries (GoU, 2007; IPCC, 2007; Mendelssohn et al., 2006; Stern, 2007). From
a food security perspective, sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is arguably the most vulnerable region
to many adverse effects of climate change due to a very high reliance on rain fed agriculture
for basic food security, economic growth and entrenched poverty (Dixon et al., 2001; IPCC,
2007; Cooper et al., 2008). Climate change has become a huge global concern posing many
threats in most economic sectors around the world.

Zimbabwe is a landlocked country in southern Africa, lying between latitudes 15 and 23

south of the Equator and longitudes 25 and 34 East of the Greenwich Meridian. Its area is
390,757 square kilometers (Ibid). The country is bordered by Mozambique to the East, South
Africa to the South, Botswana to the West and Zambia to the North and North-west.
Zimbabwe has two major perenial rivers that is, the Zambezi River to the north and the
Limpopo River to the south, and these two rivers form Zimbabwes borders with Zambia and
South Africa, respectively (Knox, 2012). In Zimbabwe, there are three broad relief regions
which are generally recognized on the basis of elevation that is the Low-veld (below 900m),

the Middle-veld (9001200m) and the Highveld (12002000m) (Ibid). Moreover, a slender
belt of mountains (20002400 m), the Eastern Highlands that runs from the north to south
along the eastern border with Mozambique and the deep gap of the Zambezi River Valley
forms the border line with Zambia in the northwest (Ibid). The climate is largely influenced
by relief, as the rainfall increases with altitude. The average/mean annual rainfall varies from
below 400mm in the extreme south of the Low-veld to above 2000mm on isolated mountain
peaks in the Eastern Districts. In the middleveld, rainfall ranges from 500mm to 700 mm and
that of the Highveld from 800mm to 1000 mm (Ibid).

In Zimbabwe the pattern of rainfall is distinctly seasonal, with approximately 90% falling in
6 months from the first of October to the end of March. Rainfall pattern is in the form of
intense tropical downpours and is characterized by its extreme variability in both time and
space (Salick, 2007). In Zimbabwe, three seasons can be distinguished that is a hot and dry
spring from mid-September to the onset of the rains, a hot but moist summer covering the
rainy season, and a dry winter period consisting of cool nights and warm cloudless days
lasting from April to September. The sandy, relatively infertile soils that cover some twothirds of the country constitute the main soil type in the communal areas. Isolated areas of
heavier more fertile soils occur throughout the country, the largest pockets being on the
Highveld. Fertile irrigable basaltic vertisoils occur extensively in the southern Lowveld
(Takahashi K. 2007).

Agricultural production in Zimbabwe is diverse as compared with many tropical countries.

Maize, Cotton, Tobacco and sugar dominate crop production, with groundnuts, sorghum,
wheat, coffee, tea, citrus, coffee and vegetables making significantly smaller monetary
contributions (Salick, J. and Byg, A. 2007). Maize dominates crop production, covering more
land than all other crops (approx 1.5 million hectares). Tobacco is increasing amongst the
commercial and subsistence farmers; tobacco production has steadily increased since 1980.
Small scale communal farmers prefer burley tobacco because it requires less rigorous curing.
Rainfed cotton grown in the central and northern parts of the country and under irrigation in
the Lowveld supplies the needs of the local textile industry and provides 70% excess for
export (Ibid). Sorghum, maize and vegetables are the principal subsistence crops. Agriculture
production for family consumption remains paramount in the majority of peasant farmers in
drought prone areas. Cotton, sunflowers and groundnuts are the major cash crops for
communal farmers. Peasant farmers now produce half the total cotton crop, 75% of the
sunflower and 80% of the sorghum. Coffee has been promoted as a peasant crop in the
Eastern Highlands but production remains small (Ibid).

Zimbabwes economy is dominated by agriculture and small holder farming sector.

Agricultural sector in Zimbabwe provides employment and livelihoods for about 70% of the
population, including 30% of formal employment, and accounts for about 4050% of the
countrys total export revenues (Odenkule, 2006). Approximately three-quarters of the
population in Zimbabwe live in the rural smallholder farming sector and depend on
agriculture for their livelihoods). Moreover, the agricultural sector contributes about 17% to
the countrys GDP (FAO 2005). Agriculture is also an important source of raw materials,
providing about 60% of raw materials for the manufacturing sector in the country (Bautista,
2002).

Southern Africa has been severely affected by droughts since the 1990s, some areas of
southern Zimbabwe and south-eastern Botswana have received low rainfall amounts as low
as 10% of the average value during the rainy season ( Kandji 2006). In East Africa some
areas have experienced severe impact in terms of the availability of water resources, food and
agricultural security resulting from increased temperatures and decline in rainfall (Hulme,
2001). In Western Africa, Odekunle (2006) has attributed famine and food insecurity in the
savanna regions of Nigeria to crop failure due to insufficient and untimely rainfall.

There is increased concern in Southern Africa regarding the effects of climate change on
agricultural productivity. Low rainfall and increasing temperatures have had a negative and
severe impact on food security and agricultural production (Parry, 2009). Evidence from
scientists has revealed that average annual temperature has increased significantly and it is
expected to further increase at a rate of 0.05C per decade, while rainfall has been
unpredictable, decreasing on average at a rate of 5 to 10% per annum, with annual anomalies
mostly below normal (Kurukulasuriya 2006). Climate changes are expected to have serious
social and economic impacts, particularly on agricultural productivity and on rural farmers
who rely on climate-sensitive economic activities, such as rain-fed agriculture (Mannak,
2009).

Low levels of advanced technology and limited information on climate change exacerbates or
worsens farmers inability to adapt to climate change (Parry 2007).Farmers in Africa perceive
that there is an increase in temperature and a decline in rainfall. Many farmers have done
little to adapt to these changing circumstances. Studies which have been carried out on
African farmers responses to climate change suggests that there is limited information about
climate change and lack of access to institutions dealing with climate change strongly impede

farmers ability to adapt to such climate changes and this will eventually lead to low
agricultural production (Eyzaguirre & Iwanaga, 2009)

Why is Climate Change a Concern in Agriculture

Numerous factors shape and drive the agricultural sector which range from market
fluctuations, changes in domestic and international agricultural policies (such as the form and
extent of subsidies, incentives, tariffs, credit facilities, and insurance), management practices,
terms of trade, the type and availability of technology and extension, land-use regulations and
biophysical characteristics (availability of water resources, soil quality, carrying capacity, and
pests and diseases) are among the set of primary influences (S Gukurume, 2010). Given its
inherent link to natural resources, agricultural production is also at the mercy of uncertainties
driven by climate variation, including extreme events such as flooding and drought. Over the
last decade or so, climate change (in terms of long-term changes in mean temperature or
precipitation normals, as well as an increased frequency of extreme climate effects) has
gradually been recognized as an additional factor which, with other conventional pressures,
will have a significant weight on the form, scale, and spatial and temporal impact on
agricultural productivity (Hulme, 2006).

The general consensus to emerge from the literature is that in the absence of adequate
response strategies to long-term climate change as well as to climate variability, diverse and
region-specific impacts will become more apparent. Some impacts are expected to be
adverse; others, favourable (Takahashi, 2007). At times, impacts will be slow to unfold,
enabling local farmers and national governments time to respond. The distribution of impacts
will vary as both the ability to respond to impacts and resources with which to do so vary
across nations. In other cases, impacts will be unexpected, and appropriate responses may not

easily be known or implemented in advance. Impacts of climate variability and change on the
agricultural sector are projected to steadily manifest directly from changes in land and water
regimes, the likely primary conduits of change (Ibid). Changes in the frequency and intensity
of droughts, flooding, and storm damage are expected. Climate change is expected to result in
long-term water and other resource shortages, worsening soil conditions, drought and
desertification,, sea-level rise disease and pest outbreaks on crops and livestock (Ibid).
Vulnerable areas are expected to experience losses in agricultural productivity primarily due
to reductions in crop yields (Rosenzweig et al, 2002). Increasing use of marginal land for
agriculture (especially among smallholder farmers) is anticipated as the availability and
productivity potential of land begins to decline.

Zimbabwe has a sub-tropical climate with four seasons; cool season from mid-May to
August, hot season from September to mid-November, the main rainy season running from
mid-November to mid- March and the post rainy season from mid-March to mid-May. The
mean monthly temperature varies from 15oC in July to 24oC in November whereas the mean
annual temperature varies from 18oC on the Highveld to 23oC in the Lowveldt (Unganai,
2006). The lowest minimum temperatures (7oC) are recorded in June or July and the highest
maximum temperatures (29oC) in October, or if the rains are delayed, in November. The
climate is moderated by the altitude with the Eastern Highlands enjoying cooler temperature
compared to the low lying areas of the Lowveld. Zimbabwe is generally a semi-arid country
with low annual rainfall reliability. The average annual rainfall is 650 mm but geographically
it ranges from around 350 to 450 mm per year in the Southern Lowveld to 1,000 mm per year
in the Eastern Highlands (Ibid).

The most farmed crops in Mbire are small grains, maize, sugar beans and soya beans. The
farmers also engage in animal rearing and the common ones being cows, goats, pigs and
poultry. Due to the increasing demand for food and lack of jobs or any viable economic
activities that generate income for rural dwellers, it is now necessary for rural peasant farmers
to embark on small scale farming as a means of filling the food demand and supply gap and
providing income for other households requirements. In addition, the practice of rural
peasant agriculture has continued to increase in recent years with the structural adjustment of
the Zimbabwean economy around 1986. The rise in food price, un- employment and inflation
brought by the structural adjustment (World Bank, 1990) and the decline in the average real
income of both rural and urban households has compelled many rural dwellers to embark on
small scale farming to put food on the table and also in some cases to even provide for family
and relatives that dwell in the urban areas.

However, efforts of these small scale farmers are being weakened by climate change. Recent
reports produced by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2000, 2007,
2012) concluded that not only green-house gas emissions are already beginning to change the
global climates but also that Africa will experience increased water stress, decreased yields
from rain-fed agriculture, increased food insecurity and malnutrition, sea- level rise, and an
increase in arid and semi-arid land as a result of the climate change process.

Agriculture and its importance in Zimbabwe

Agriculture is a very important sector not only in Zimbabwe but also in the entire southern
African, in terms of subsistence, contribution to GDP is about 35 percent, employment 70-80
percent of the total labour force and foreign exchange earnings about 30 percent (Abalu and
Hassan, 1998). It also remains the main source of livelihoods for most rural communities in
the region. To the Zimbabwean economy, the agricultural sector plays an important role
through its impact on overall economic growth, households income generation, and food
security. This sector is, however, dualistic, comprising of large and small-scale sectors. The
large-scale sector, until recently, used to be well resourced and predominantly located in high
agricultural and economic potential areas of the country (Tekere and Hurungo, 2003). On the
other hand, the smallholder farmers are characterized by both marginality and remoteness in
that most of them are located in areas that experience low and highly variable rainfall, high
temperatures, have poor soils.

Mbire
Mbire district is located in region four, which traditionally receives very little rainfall. It is
one of the districts that have been greatly affected by climate change. Climate change in
Mbire is evidenced by droughts and floods. Previously first rains well-known locally as the
gukurahundi or bumharutsva used to be received in late September or early October.
Nowadays however, Mbire community receives rainfall, that is if they receive any rainfall at
all around December.

10

As a result of climate change, the population in Mbire can no longer rely on farming as a
source of livelihood as they used to do in the past. Farming is increasingly becoming a very
unreliable source of earning a living and means to adapt to climate change are being explored
which have ranged from depopulation in the area due to a mass exodus of farmers from areas
such as Mbire, Dande among others in that region to greener pastures. Former farmers in
Mbire have also been reported to have resorted to alluvial mining, cross border trading, small
scale trading and money lending as ways to earn a living since agricultural production has
proved to be a thorn in the flesh for most of them.

The change in climate in the past ten years has also created a host of other problems for the
inhabitants of Mbire which include a sharp increase in Malaria and sleeping sickness
epidemics. This has made the Mbire a no go area not only for farmers but also for
government workers such as teachers and nurses which has an overall impact of affecting the
entire development scope of the area. Thus, climate change has not only affected agricultural
productivity in Mbire but it has affected other areas of development in this region.

Mbire is located in a low-lying and semi-arid region which receives low annual rainfalls of
about 300mm per annum. This is confirmed by the Food and Agricultural Organization,
Zimbabwe, which averred that in semi-arid Zimbabwe, water is by far a greater constraint
than land (FAO, 2005). Receiving low rainfall and experiencing high temperatures, Mbire is
one of the most vulnerable regions to climate change in Zimbabwe. This in itself means that
the agriculture sector in the aforementioned area is quite vulnerable with marginally
productive areas probably shifting to non-agricultural use.
Statement of problem
The impact of Climate change in Zimbabwes agricultural sector has led to changing rainfall
patterns, temperature increases and more extreme weather patterns such as droughts and

11

floods. Longer and more frequent droughts have substantially led to the decrease in crop
yields and this has negatively impacted on overall food production in the country. This
Impact of climate change from the late 90s has created a vicious cycle of hunger pestilence
and social misery especially for the inhabitants in drought prone areas.

This above scenario has not only affected commercial farmers but also subsistence farmers to
the extent that most farmers are resorting to other means of survival besides agriculture and
areas such as Mbire are becoming more and more depopulated as this population exodus is
shifting to areas with adequate rainfall. If one compares the agricultural outputs of the mid
90s one can discover that bumper harvests were received even in these places. Starting from
the early 2000 these areas have recorded high levels of droughts and have been living from
NGO handouts. More so,

it has been known even during the advent of colonialism that

Zimbabwe only experienced droughts every 10 year period but currently droughts have been
recorded in these areas continuously.

However, one is forced to wonder that the continuation of droughts and famine in these areas
is not only a result of climate change but also a product of other factors such as the early
2000 land reform programme, economic limbo in the country, inexperienced farmers,
economic sanctions, lack of agricultural resources to name but a few. Hence there is need to
investigate the role of climate change along with other factors so as to come up with a
possible panancea to the decrease in agricultural production in drought prone areas such as
Mbire
Justification of study
The inhabitants will benefit from the information from the research since it will assist policy
makers to come up with new coping strategies to handle the adverse effects of climate change
in drought prone areas such as Mbire and others. In Mbire, this research has not been

12

conducted yet hence the research will help academias, researchers and policy makers. There
is consensus that climate is changing and that many sectors including agriculture will be
affected under future climates.

In Africa negative impacts are mostly expected and rural communities in this region are the
most vulnerable. It is also envisaged that current coping strategies against climatic variability
which the farmers are employing may not offset the impacts of future climates. The aforestated circumstances call for action to be taken if agriculture is to continue to play its pivotal
role of supporting national economies in Africa and ensuring household food security across
the regions. Agriculture is particularly important to the rural communities as they rely on
animal and crop production for their livelihoods.

Research aim
The research is mainly focused on showing the impact of climate change on agricultural
productivity in drought prone areas focusing on Mbire as a case study.

Objectives
The study aims to:

Show the impact of climate change on food security in Mbire

13

Identify and assess the coping mechanisms placed by individual households and the
community to cope up with climate change

Come up with possible solutions to deal with climate change

Research Questions

What are the best mechanisms that can be implicated to resolve climate change effects
in Mbire?

To what extent has climate change affected the agricultural output in Mbire?

How does climate change affect agricultural production?

Which farming methods are being used to cope up with climate change?

How effective are the methods which are being used to cope up with climate changes?

Limitations of the study

Accessibility of the area: its remote

Information/data concerning meteorological data which has to deal to Mbire is hard to

come by.

Inhabitants in Mbire are still a bit traditional so its quite difficult for them to accept
strangers/researchers. They would think you are spying on them or a political
henchman sent to investigate them concerning their loyalty to the government. As a
result, they gave responses that did not present the government in any negative
position for fear that they would lose their land.

However, the researcher had to come up with ways to combat these difficulties such as
getting meteorological data from the centers surrounding Mbire which have similar climatic
conditions. Concerning the suspicious responses of the inhabitants the researcher had to first

14

seek permission from local authorities such as politicians, chiefs and village heads and get
documents stating the mission of the researcher. This went a long way in dealing with
negative stereotypes which may try to withhold precious information on the grounds of
authenticity and suspicion of the research.

Delimitations
The research was conducted in Mbire district, Mashonaland Central Province of Zimbabwe.
In this research, the researcher investigated the impact of climate change on agricultural
productivity in Mbire.

Ethical Considerations
Ethical values of honesty, safeguard of privacy and well-versed agreement were used by the
researcher in a bid to legalize the research. In special cases pseudo names were used by the
researcher as a way of protecting peoples identities, a case in point, the researcher used
pseudo names through the use of alphabetical letters. This also greatly removed the fear of
respondents to partake in the interviews and questionnaires by so doing the respondents
identities were protected

Honesty - The researcher honestly reported data, results, methods and procedures. The
researcher did not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data.

Objectivity - The researcher strived to avoid bias in carrying out the research, data analysis,
data interpretation and other aspects of research where objectivity is expected or required

15

Integrity - The researcher kept promises and agreements; acted with sincerity; strived for
consistency of thought and action.

Carefulness - The researcher avoided careless errors and negligence. Records of research
activities such as data collection will be kept safe.

Openness - The researcher shared data, results, ideas, tools, resources.

Confidentiality - Protection of confidential communications, such as papers, personnel

records and patient records as has been highlighted above.

Informed Consent - Respondents were not be forced to participate in the research but they
all volunteered. The researcher will also seek authority from the district administrator to carry
out the research in Mbire

Conceptual framework
In this study, micro climates referred to the development of permanent weather patterns in
small geographical regions as a result of adverse human activities which have become
distinct from the general climatic conditions of the entire region. According to Iwanaga
(2009) micro climates is a local atmospheric zone where the climate differs from the

16

surrounding area. In this study climate change refers to changes in the state of the climate that
can be identified by changes in the mean or the variability of its properties, and that persist
for an extended period, typically decades, or longer" (Ibid). Climate change may be due to
natural internal processes or external forces or persistent anthropogenic changes in the
composition of the atmosphere or in land use.

Climate variability on the other hand, refers to variations in the mean state and other statistics
(such as standard deviations, the occurrence of extremes) of the climate on all spatial and
temporal scales beyond that of individual weather events (IPCC, 2007). The main driver of
climate change is global warming and the IPCC in its fourth assessment report states that,
Warming of the climate system is unequivocal as evidenced by observed increases in average
air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice as well as rising global
average sea level.

Theoretical framework
The theoretical framework of this study is the human forcings theory propounded by Joseph
Bast (2010). This theory espouses that mankind is the greatest impact on climate and is
responsible for the transformation of the Earths surface by clearing forests, irrigating deserts,
and building cities. This theory was used to explain climate change in Mbire as a result of
human activities that have led to droughts in the region. Roger Pielke, Sr., a climatologist at
the University of Colorado supports the human forcings theory, he asserts that although the
natural causes of climate variations and changes are undoubtedly important, the human
influences are significant and involve a diverse range of first-order climate forcings,
including, but not limited to, the human input of carbon dioxide .

17

According to Joseph Bast's (2010) deforestation theory of human activities whereby he

posited that, the removing of trees by burning, a common practice in developing countries
especially rural areas like Mbire, releases CO2 into the atmosphere and prevents forests from
sequestering carbon in the future. The pasture or crop land that replaces the forest lacks the
shade created by a forest canopy and tends to be warmer. The IPCC has estimated that
between one-quarter and one-third of anthropogenic CO2 emissions are due to deforestation,
not the burning of fossil fuels, though this estimate has been challenged as being too high.
This situation can be attested in Mbire, since the current environmental reports of the area
indicate that deforestation has been a menace that has ravaged the entire landscape changing
the weather patterns, creating

droughts or dry spells in the region

and reducing the

landscape to a mere desert. This has been caused by human activities such as cutting
firewood, building cattle perns, tobacco toasting, constructing houses among other activities.
These activities have shifted the climatic patterns of the region resulting in the depreciation of
agricultural produce forcing farmers to embark on a mass exodus southwards to Centenary
which still has more favourable weather patterns for agricultural activities.

This theory of human input in changing weather patterns will be used in this research as it is
the most plausible explanation concerning the situation in drought prone Mbire

18

Chapter Two: Literature review

Introduction
This chapter will survey both local and international literature on climate change especially
on issues pertaining to how climate change has positively and negatively affected agricultural
productivity. This area of climate change has been covered by various international scholars
in their regions but very little literature on local climate change is available. Many academias
have written about how climate change is affecting development on a broader basis. Other
scholars have covered about how climate change affects livelihoods and coping mechanisms
to climate change. Literature reviewed covered a broad spectrum of aspects such as climate
change and variability at global, regional and micro-scales. Literature review also covered
aspects of how climate change affects agricultural productivity, coping mechanism,
adaptation to climate variability and change.

Climate change trends

Climate change is among the most striking environmental challenges affecting the earth
(Weart, 2004). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines climate change as
change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or as a result of human
activity. According to the UNFCCC climate change refers to a change of climate that is
attributed directly or indirectly to individual activities that alter the composition of global
atmosphere and that is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable
time periods(Brown, 2004) . Climate change implies much more than how warm or cool
global temperatures are. Global warming can be defined as an increase in global

19

temperatures, climate change is defined by many factors such as temperature, air pressure,
rainfall, wind and humidity and severe weather events (Kandji, 2006). Adger identified
reasons which are for concern about climate change and showed schematically how their
seriousness would increase with global mean temperature change. Some of the reasons
outlined by Adger include, damage to ecosystems and their respective services upon which
economies and human survival survive; the increasing rate and severity of extreme climatic
and other natural events; the uneven distribution of climate change impacts, whereby low
income populations, mostly the rural, who make up the bulk or the majority of the population
in less developed countries are the most affected and vulnerable to climate change vagaries
(Archer, 2010). Increased global mean temperature of 2C above 1990 levels or less would
harm several such ecosystems, frequency and magnitude of many extreme climate-related
events will increase with a temperature increase of less than 2C above 1990 levels (Adger,
2005).

According to the IPCC, the average temperature of the earths surface has risen by 0.75C
since the late 1800s and it is likely to increase by1.8C to 4C by the year 2100 if no action is
taken. It is a fast and intense change in geological time, Even if it only gets another 1.8C
hotter, it would be a larger increase in temperature than any century-long trend in the last
10,000 years (Christensen, 2007). Average cold temperatures have increased at almost double
the global average rate in the past 100 years. According to Fischer global average sea level
rose at an average rate of 1.3 to 2.3mm per year during 1961 to 2003 and at an average rate of
about 2.4 to 3.8 mm per year from 1993 to 2003. Decreases in glaciers and ice caps have
contributed to about 28 percent of sea level rise and losses from the polar ice sheets (Fischer,
2005)). Higher temperatures cause ocean volume to expand, as the bright white of ice and
snow give way to dark sea green, less and less rays from the sun are reflected back into space,

20

intensifying the heating (IPCC, 2007). The above mentioned physical changes are among key
examples of potential vicious cycles identified by scientists that might result in global climate
reaching at a rate beyond human imagination.

Increased consumption of fossil fuels for power in the economies of the world, the fact that
almost all modern human endeavours produce carbon dioxide will result in climate change
extremely complex and intricately tied up in other difficult issues such as poverty, population
growth and economic development (Yohe and Schlesinger, 2002). Overwhelming evidence of
anthropogenic climate change risks and associated implications on the global community
resulted in the United Nations crafting the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC). Creation of the convention was fast, especially one on such a vastly
complex issue and this was in response to a clear message that global warming was
happening and something had to be done about it (Schneider, 2007). In Sub-Saharan Africa
climate change trends being experienced, have resulted in Chishakwe observing that the
region has been experiencing a warming trend over the past few decades. This is consistent
with the global trend of temperature rise in the 1970s, 1980s and the 1990s. Temperatures in
the sub-Saharan region have risen by over 0.50 C over the last 100 years (Smith, 2001).
Between 1950 -2000, Namibia experienced warming at a rate of 0.0230 C per year
(Government of Namibia, 2002). The Indian Ocean has also warmed more than 10 C since
1950. During this period, the region has also experienced a downward trend in rainfall
(National Center for Atmospheric Research, 2005).Moreover, according to Glantz this can
been characterized by belownormal rainfalls and frequent droughts for instance between
1988 and 1992 the subregion experienced over 15 drought events (Glantz, 1997). In subSaharan Africa, where there is a heavy reliance on natural resources for livelihoods, 61
percent of the population lives in ecologically marginalised and vulnerable areas

21

characterized by a high degree of climatic change and sensitivity, these areas have a low
degree of resilience (UNEP, 2002).

According to Calder, with reference to Zimbabwe there is evidence in the changing patterns
of rainfall or rainfall variability that ranges between 30 and 35 percent, implying that most
livelihoods in dry-land (or semi-arid) areas in are not only precarious but often unsustainable
since they are already at the edge of subsistence (Calder, 2003). In the early 1990s rainfall in
the region was 20 percent lower than that of the 1970s, with significant droughts in the 1980s,
early 1990s and in 2002 (Chagutah, 2010). Ragab asserts that sub-Saharan Africas climate
will be hotter and drier in the future than it is today; Ragab emphasizes that by 2050 in SubSaharan Africa the average annual temperature is likely to increase by between 1.5 and 2.50C
for countries in the Southern end of the subregion if contrasted to the 1961 1990 average
(Ragab, 2006). Calder observed that monsoons across southern Africa could be 1020 percent
drier than the 1950 1999 average. Annual regional precipitation or rainfall is expected to
drop by 10 percent, with greater reductions in the northern part of the subregion than in the
southern part (Ziervogel and Calder, 2003).

Concern about climate change

Climate change in Mbire has got direct impacts on the biophysical world, which in turn
happens to be the vital asset for human survival and economics. According to Thomas the
state of the biophysical environment determines the productivity and availability of
ecosystem services and goods to the human environment, livelihoods and wellbeing, among
the biophysical elements affected by climate change is amount of rainfall received and its
temporal distribution (Thomas, 2008). In the past decades in Mbire there have been
noteworthy changes in rainfall patterns. More rains are received in some parts of the regions
22

in Zimbabwe such as region 1 and 2 (Ziervogel and Calder, 2003). Globally areas affected by
droughts or which are receiving low rainfalls have increased since the 1970s; this has resulted
in increased prevalence and severity of the extremes of famine and food insecurity in some
regions and drought in others. Extreme floods and droughts constitute a big risk to the
economies, livelihoods, food security, health and general well being of the affected regions
and communities. Globally floods have impacted negatively of the livelihoods of the people,
floods in North America, Australia and Europe have become uncharacteristically more
frequent and more disastrous in the past decade than ever before (Ibid).

According to IPCC (2007), in spite of the uncertainties associated with climate change, it is
anticipated that warming will differ by region and be accompanied by significant changes in
rainfall, sea level rise and changes in the frequency and intensity of some extreme events. In
sub-Saharan countries such as Zimbabwe average annual temperatures have risen steadily
over the past decades and a higher increase is predicted for the years to come (IUFRO, 2010).
Current climate models project an increase in the mean temperature to rise from 3 to 4 _C
across the continent by the end of this century, which would be roughly 1.5 times the global
average increase. Climate change effects in Mbire have eventually exposed many people to
physical, mental, and health risks especially in the district leading to spreading of diseases
such as malaria which is influenced by climatic conditions, particularly humidity, rainfall,
and temperature (Sueur, 2003).

Climate change directly affects agricultural production, as agriculture sector is inherently

sensitive to climate conditions and is one of the most vulnerable sectors to the risks and

23

impact of global climate change (Parry et al., 1999). According to UNEP (2008) humanity is
living beyond its environmental means and running up ecological debts that future
generations will be unable to repay as a result of global climate change. Agricultural
production remains the main source of livelihood for rural communities in Africa, providing
employment to more than 60 percent of the population and contributing about 30 percent of
gross domestic product (Nhemachena & Hassan, 2007). Southern Africa is expected to
experience increases in temperature and declining rainfall patterns as well as increased
frequency of extreme climate events (such as droughts and floods) as a results of climate
change (Nhemachena, 2008).

According to Kgakatsi (2006) climate change can be regarded as the silent enemy likely to
affect already high risk and stressed agro ecosystems as the effects of climate change are not
immediately visible. Limpopo province is particular vulnerable to climate variability and
change as agricultural production depends on climatic conditions and largely on the quality of
the rainy season. According to Letsatsi Duba (2009) climate change in Mbire is taking place
in the context of other developmental stresses, notably poverty, unemployment and food
insecurity which it is feared that it will exceed the limits of adaptation in other parts of the
province. It is thus important to develop and implement effective adaptation measures so that
climate-related risks and opportunities might support development objectives within
provincial policy decision making processes (Kgakatsi, 2006).

Climate change affects agriculture in several ways, one of which is its direct impact on crop
productivity (Ziervogel et al. 2006) and as a consequence hindering the prospects of
achieving some of the Millennium Development Goals (MDG): to eradicate poverty and

24

hunger; health improvement and sustainability (UNDP 2010). Several factors have
contributed to the deepening poverty and underdevelopment. These include the difficulty in
coping with climate variability in a continent subjected to frequent droughts, floods, extreme
high temperatures and land degradation. In addition, various socioeconomic, demographic,
political, institutional, and policy trends have limited the abilities to adapt to climatic
variations (Rosenweig and Hillel 1998; Adger et al. 2007)

United Nations reports in Africa have shown that malaria constitutes 23% to 37% of child
deaths in sub-Saharan Africa (Snow, 2003). Remote areas which are vulnerable have no
refrigeration facilities thus the incidence of foodborne diseases is likely to increase
significantly during higher temperature periods (Bartlett, 2008). Furthermore, too much
rainfall in the community can transport faecal contaminants from shallow latrines into
waterways ending up in drinking water supplies hence this can lead to the spread of various
waterborne diseases. Zimbabwean economy is mainly agrarian; agriculture and the utilization
of natural resources remain the driving force of the country and local economic development.
Rural populations especially those in drought prone areas such as Mbire earn a living from
the ecosystem goods and services for basic resources, income generation and employment. In
Mbire the adverse effects of climate change conditions to which the country is exposed
openly has an effect on the ecosystem goods and services, thereby significantly having an
impact on the economic, social, and environmental dimensions of the national sustainable
development. In Mbire increased severity and frequency of droughts events have become a
major cause for concern. Africa has seen a growing proportion of the population becoming
food and water-insecure especially given the fact that more than 70% of the population in the
in sub-Saharan region depends on rain fed agriculture (Ziervogel and Calder, 2003).

25

Impact of climate change of livelihoods

In rural areas climate change has affected rural livelihoods, people of the world have evolved
ways of earning livelihoods and supplying their needs for food, water, shelter and other goods
and services that are adapted to benefit from the climates in which they live (Leary, 2007).
Climate is variable, changeable and deviations that are too far from the norm can be
disruptive or even hazardous. In Mbire small scale farmers are vulnerable to the
unprecedented climate variabilities and changes taking place from the past years and today,
though to varying degrees or extent (Tollatin, 2004). Changes in the climate in the district
have exposed communities particularly small scale farmers to new and unfamiliar conditions.
In Zimbabwe some farmers have taken advantage of the changes in climate thus a number of
farmers are now facing increased vulnerability, particularly in the developing world (Moyo,
20102).

Climate change is affecting the prospects for sustainable development in many nations
including Zimbabwe. Sustainable development is increasingly understood to encompass
economic, social and environmental sustainability. Some of the key concepts for sustainable
development are quality of life and survivability (Ayers, 2011). Impact of climate change on
biodiversity may result in reducing the options for economic growth and development
available to the present and future generations (Rajasree, 2010). Loss of biodiversity can also
have an impact on the functioning and resilience thus the ability to adapt to change and
handle stress of both natural and human systems (Biggs, 2004). Climate change effects on
biodiversity in Mbire district have led to increased costs caused by droughts and also
mudslides, fire and pests. Loss of the ecosystem such as nutrient cycling, water supply and
pollination has adversely impact on human welfare and their livelihoods (Thornton, 2006).

26

In Zimbabwe climate change implications on economies, human health and general well
being are projected to be far affecting rural livelihoods. According to the IPCC report
agricultural yields are expected to decrease in many parts of Sub-Saharan, if the projected
temperature increase is more than a few degrees. In the region crop productivity is expected
to increase slightly at mid-to high latitudes for local average temperature increases of upto 1
to 3C depending on the crop and then decrease beyond that in some regions (medium
confidence). Climate change studies in the region have shown that lower latitudes especially
those in the seasonally dry and tropical regions crop productivity is estimated to decrease (1
to 2C) which would increase the risk of hunger. Climate change trends have shown that
globally, the potential for food production is estimated to increase, with an increase in local
average temperature over a range of 1 to 3C, but above this range, food production potential
is projected to decrease (Mendelsohn, 2006).

In areas such as Mbire agriculture is affected by changing weather patterns such as changing
river flows and rainfall patterns. Agricultural production has been affected as a result of
changes in behavior of pests and species that are required for pollination and pest-control
(Reilly, 2005). The health sector is also affected by climate change; the health status of the
people in Mbire is projected to be affected through increases in malnutrition, increased
deaths, diseases and injury due to extreme weather events. Climate change has also increased
burden of diarrhoeal diseases, increased frequency of cardio-respiratory diseases due to
higher concentrations of ground-level ozone in urban areas related to climate change and the
altered spatial distribution of some infectious diseases (Archer, 2010). Changing weather
patterns in Mbire have resulted in diseases especially those carried by vectors like
mosquitoes, spreading to new areas in the province (Githeko, 2006). Vectors such as
mosquitoes which carry malaria and dengue survive and breed more efficiently in hotter

27

temperatures hence diseases such as malaria have resulted in deaths of thousands in rural
areas. The consequences are far reaching when a disease is introduced.

Changing rainfall patterns and temperature has lead to changes in runoff and water
availability. According to Arnell runoff and consequent river discharge are projected to
increase by 10 to 40% in higher latitudes and other populous areas in East and South-East
Asia due to the thawing of ice caps (Arnell, 2004). Drought prone areas are likely to increase
in extent, with the potential adverse impacts on multiple sectors such as agriculture
productivity, water supply, energy production and health. In Africa it has been noted that an
increase in irrigation water demand as a result of climate changes is projected (Bryceson,
2002). As compared to other regions in the world, the IPCC 2007 report suggests that subSaharan Africa is warming at a rate faster than the global average, and increasing aridity in
many countries. It is estimated by the IPCC that by 2020, between 80 and 255 million of
people are projected to be exposed to increased water stress due to climate change.

According to Chishakwe (2010), the extreme climatic events that the subregion has been
experiencing such as the El Nino related droughts are negatively impacting the inhabitants,
agricultural productivity and economies of Southern Africa. Elnino events that destroyed
livestock and human beings in 1965 and 1997 resulted in a significant decrease in agricultural
production, thereby worsening food insecurity situation in the subregion. Moreover,
warming of the Pacific Ocean in 1991 and 1992 resulted in one of the worst calamities the
subregion has ever experienced (Glantz, 1997). Since 2001, conservative dry spells in the
sub-region have led to food shortages. In Sub Saharan Africa six countries namely Lesotho,

28

Malawi, Mozambique, Swaziland, Zambia and Zimbabwe, faced a food deficit of about 1.2
million tonnes of cereals and nonfood requirements in 2001 and 2002. The droughts that
occurred in 2002 and 2003 resulted in a food deficit of about 3.3 million tonnes, it was also
estimated that 13.5 million people were in need of assistance (Ziervogel and Calder, 2003)
In sub Saharan Africa climate variability is projected to have severe macroeconomic
consequences in the form of increasing prevalence of droughts and floods (Unganai, 2009).
In Zimbabwe gross domestic (GDP) dropped by 3% and 11% due to the 1983 and 1992
droughts respectively, for instance the same droughts costed the Zambian government about
US$350 million, this led to a US$ 1.7 billion deficit in 1992 and translated into a 42% drop in
agricultural output produce and a 3% decline in the countrys gross domestic product
(Unganai, 2009).

In the region some farmers benefited from the long growing seasons and higher yields, the
general consequences for Africa is expected to be adverse for the poor and the marginalized,
who cannot withstand drastic changes. In sub Saharan Africa some areas are likely to emerge
as the most vulnerable to climate change by 2100, with probable agricultural losses of
between 2, 2 and 7, 5 percent of affected countries gross domestic product. African region has
a higher proportion of people living in absolute poverty than any other region of the globe
(Moyo, 2012).

In third world countries rural poverty accounts for 80% of total poverty and approximately
75% of the poor still depend on agriculture or farm labour for their survival in rural areas
(Otive, 2006). The number of people living in poverty in developing countries is increasing
significantly, for instance the United Nations human poverty index in 2008 placed Zimbabwe
amongst the 25 poorest nations in the world (UNEP, 2009). Poverty results in various

29

negative impacts such as shortened lifespan, malnutrition and spreading of diseases such as
HIV/AIDS (Anselm, 2010). The government of Zimbabwe has made efforts in attaining the
MDGs, policies and legislation have been put in place to attain the MDGs especially poverty
reduction. Global warming can adversely influence attainment of the MDGs; this can be as a
result of reduction in soil moisture and water runoff to rivers caused by a warmer and drier
climate that is triggered by increased frequency and intensity of El Nino events (Kandji,
2006). Global warming has affect crop production in Mbire hence this is critical in ensuring
food security and poverty reduction in the district (Goal 1 of MDGs). Loss of biological
diversity, land degradation and desertification has occurred as a result of increased aridity
(Kandji, 2006). Land degradation and desertification will have serious impact on
environmental sustainability (Goal 7 of the MDGs).

Climate disasters have affect children in Zimbabwe especially in Mbire thereby forcing them
out of school due to increased poverty, remoteness, isolation, food shortages and child
abandonment. Failure to attend primary education will affect the attainment of goal 2 of the
MDGs. Studies by anthropologist have shown that when there are anticipated climateinduced disasters women often get a disproportionate share of burden because they have
fewer opportunities than their male counterparts. Climate change disasters in Zimbabwe have
affected women severely than men further undermining their development, education and
reproductive roles thus affecting their welfare and that of their children. Climate change
disasters directly have an impact on the attainment of the MDGs 3, 4 and 5 (Kanji, 2006).

30

Zimbabwean economy is agro based it relies on agriculture and natural resources to an extent
that intensive and frequent droughts will impact on the critical sectors of national economies
(Chaguta, 2010). Climate change impact on agricultural production can result in collapse of
economies, the impact of a collapsed economy associated with disaster response operations
may reduce the ability of governments to invest in important socioeconomic sectors hence
affecting the attainment of MDGs 1 7 (Ayers, 2011).

World Bank (2006) survey revealed that out of every four of the worlds poor three live in the
rural remote areas and this is projected to continue for the foreseeable future. Development
aid and poverty alleviation strategies have failed to a greater extent in promoting sustainable
development and addressing rural poverty. The rural poor are have no power to influence
decision making and policy formulation thus they are less seen and even less in the nature of
their poverty understood.

In Mbire it has been confirmed that climate change is happening with significant impacts on
ecosystems, communities, agriculture and economies. Climate change effects have affected
everyone in the community; it is expected to have a disproportionate effect on those living in
poverty, especially in developing countries. Rural people constitute the bulk of the population
in Zimbabwe hence they are more exposed to the changes in the climate because they are
closer to the biophysical and experience limits of climate and because their adaptive capacity
is lower (Kuik, & Smith, 2004). Climate change in Zimbabwe especially drought prone areas
constitutes an additional burden to the already existing and persisting problems such as
poverty, diseases, illiteracy, civil unrest, weak institutional capacity, unstable governments,
poor infrastructure, and other global environmental change issues (e.g. land degradation,

31

land-use change, desertification and biodiversity loss). Climate change implications in remote
areas include the inability to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger and to ensure
environmental sustainability, as a result the recognition of how climate change is likely to
influence development priorities may therefore be a first step toward building cost-effective
strategies/interventions and integrated, institutional capacity in third world countries to
respond to the changes in climate (Beg et al., 2002).

Climate change impacts and vulnerability in Zimbabwe have proven to have considerable
effects on all sectors of development. Changes induced by climate change will have an effect
on natural and human systems directly or in synergy with other determinants to alter the
productivity, diversity and functions of many ecosystems and livelihoods around the world.
In Zimbabwe, climate variability may undermine many years of development efforts (IPCC,
2007). In drought prone areas like Mbire the vulnerability of the poor or the less privileged is
compounded by the fact that poverty exacerbates and is exacerbated by the impacts of
environmental change. In Mbire most of the recent natural disasters are weather, climate and
water related (Ayanji, 2004)

In Mbire rural livelihoods are highly dependent on climate-sensitive resources; over reliance
on the ecosystem services can place their welfare and survival at the mercy of environmental
conditions (Ayanji, 2004). The quality and availability of natural resources decline due to
natural and human-induced pressures, so does the viability and security of their livelihoods
and low adaptive capacity. Drought prone areas in Zimbabwe, the population in areas which
are affected by climate change are at the high risk of climate hazards. Climate change hazards
frequency and severity of climate shocks are repeatedly eroding the coping mechanisms
adopted capacity in most of these areas, thus constraining their ability to meet basic needs

32

and move out of poverty trap (Ibid). Vulnerability analysis can help to come up with possible
solutions how and where society can best invest in vulnerability reduction.

Climate change adaptation

Climate change adaptation is one of the major areas under discussion in the multilateral
climate change process; this has increasingly turned out to be a key focus of the policymaking and scientific communities in recent years (Sonwra, 2013). UNFCC is the legal
institution which provides a foundation for concerted international action to lessen climate
change impacts and to adapt to its effects on agricultural production (United Nations, 1992).

Environmental transformations caused by changes in the climate are expected to be

unprecedented (IPCC, 2007), local knowledge and coping mechanisms may provide a crucial
foundation for community-based adaptation measures and complement broader scale
scientific research with local precision. With current climate change impacts mitigation
policies and related sustainable development strategies, global greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions will continue to grow into the next century (Agrawwal, 2004). Concentrations of
all global greenhouse gas and aerosols have been kept constant at year 2000 levels; a further
warming of about 0.1C per decade would be expected. Anthropogenic warming and sea
level is likely continue for years to come due to the time scales associated with climate
processes and feedbacks, even if global greenhouse gas concentrations were to be stabilized
(Mirza, 2003). Unsafe climate change future calls for innovative livelihood interventions to
cope up with and adapt to the changing environment (Chagutah, 2010). Climate change
adaption refers to taking measures to adjust to a new set of climatic attributes, either different
from those already existing, or changed parameters of existing attributes (Ayers, 2011).

33

Adaptation can be defined as adjustments in ecological, economic, social systems in response

to actual or expected climatic stresses and their effects or impacts on production (IPCC,
2007). The above definition includes both reactive and anticipatory adaptation.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change definition also includes both climate variability
and change (Carney, 1998). Climate change adaptation is the process through which people in
an area reduce adverse effects of climate variability on their health and well-being and take
advantage of the opportunities that their climatic environment provides. Successful climate
change adaptation to changing weather/environment patterns is a function of the means
available to the affected people in an area and this is to do with adaptive capacity (Pittock and
Jones, 2000). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change defines adaptive capacity as the
ability of a system to adjust to the changes of climate, including climate variability and
extremes to moderate potential damages, to take advantage of opportunities, or to cope with
the consequences (IPCC WG II, 2001). Adaptive capacity is one of the determinants of a
system that will influence the occurrence and nature of adaptations, other determinants
susceptibility, coping range, sensitivity, vulnerability, stability, resilience, and flexibility
(Adger, 2004). Sub Saharan countries are often regarded as having the lowest adaptive
capacity to cope with climate change as they do not have access to technology, the least
degree of development of social institutions, as well as the highest historical and existing
stresses associated with climate change (Chagutah, 2010). Adaptive capacity is inversely
correlated with vulnerability, hence in theory a society with high adaptive capacity
experiences successful adaptation capacity and low vulnerability to changes of climate.
Formal or direct indicators of adaptive capacity and vulnerability to determine vulnerable
situations in communities and these include factors such as income, education, infrastructure
and state of civil society among others.

34

IPCC notes that adaptive capacity is aimed dealing with climate risks and it is closely related
to sustainable development and equity (Pilifosova, 2001). Some of the key determinants of
adaptive capacity to sustainable development and climate change are improved access to
resources, improved education, reduction of poverty, information, improved infrastructure,
active participation by concerned parties to ensure that actions match local needs and
resources (Moyo, 2012).

Coping and adapting may be used synonymously, but some are of the view that there are
distinct differences between these terms (Rennie and Singh, 1996). Coping strategies are
generally considered to be short-term in drought prone areas to ward off immediate danger,
rather than to adjust to permanent or continuous threats or changes (Fankhauser, 1998).
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change defines coping range as the variation in climatic
stimuli that a system can absorb without producing significant impacts (Smith, 2001). From
the definition above it clearly indicates that there are limits to coping mechanisms, which
imply that in going beyond these a system will break down. Coping is not a sustainable
solution which allows for adjustment but rather it is a temporary response. Coping strategies
are regarded as part of the portfolio of options for responding to threats and events,
particularly for poor households and communities in drought areas (Chambers, 1989).

Coping strategies are the strategies or interventions which are taken when faced with
unfavourable climate conditions and not part of an ideal livelihood strategy thus coping can
be regarded as a response to abnormal seasons or years (Madamombe, 1996). Some scholars
are of the view that coping strategies do not necessarily indicate adverse conditions/situations
to which an adjustment needs to be made, but rather a normal element of survival in sporadic

35

conditions, faced particularly by subsistence farmers in sub Saharan Africa (Adger and
Vincente, 2005).

In drought prone areas coping strategies are associated with increasing long-term
vulnerability or the introduction of a different state of vulnerability through the
implementation of actions. These actions which fulfil short-term needs and do not explicitly
consider the consequences of these actions such as the excessive resource extraction or
selling off assets during drought (Fankhauser, 1998). Some of these strategies may also be
damaging to our environment in the future which will eventually lead to natural resource
depletion or other problems that could compound the adverse impacts of hazards (Chagutah,
2010). Coping strategies make up a potential basis for the development of adaptation
methods. Adapting and coping to changes in the climate are two relative and different ways to
respond to climate risks that cannot be interchanged (Chishakwe, 2010).

Adaption and coping strategies may optimise trade-off between reducing sensitivity and
increasing resilience and ultimately it is necessary as part of a response package to climate
variability and change (Unganai, 2009). Food and Agriculture Organisation operationalisation
framework for adaptation proposes a number of strategies to be used for sustainable climate
change adaptation that can be used in the agriculture and food sector. It is also important to
protect local food supplies, livelihoods and assets from the effects of the increased frequency,
weather variability and intensity of extreme weather events.

Climate change in Zimbabwe

The department of meteorological services in Zimbabwe has increasingly seen more hot days
between 1950 and 1990(UNEP/GRIDA, 2002). An increase in average temperatures by 2C
36

will result in a decrease of Zimbabwes wetlands from 9% to 2.5% and a 4C increase would
reduce the summer water-surplus zones to less than 2% (Bohle et al., 1994: 47). Climate
change will affect especially changes in temperature will affect agricultural production in
drought prone areas particularly crop yields. Temperature increase by 4 C in Zimbabwe will
result in a decline of maize by 27% in the north-east, and 20% in the south-east region,
bordering Mozambique (Magadza, 1994). Climate change global simulation models such as
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO) and National
Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) model have revealed that the cessation, duration
and onset of the effective rainfall seasons have become unpredictable and variable. Global
warming has resulted in increased average temperatures in Zimbabwe causing the shifting of
the traditional farming seasons and agro-ecological zones (natural farming regions). The
period of 1960s, 70s, 80s and 90s droughts occurred after very decade that is every 10 years,
the trend has changed as a result of the changes in the climate that have made the rainfall
patterns in Zimbabwe difficult to predict and more unreliable. The frequency of dry spells
and droughts in the 90s increased to four to five years in the late 90s. By 2000 the situation of
droughts had worsened as droughts, erratic and unpredictable rainfalls become more
successive from 2002-2003, 2004-2005 and 2007-2008. Successive occurrence in the country
affected agricultural and food production significantly since the government had not adopted
concise adaptation measures to mitigate the impact climate change.

It is projected that climate change will significantly affect agriculture production in drought
prone areas in Zimbabwe to an extent that by 2050 there will be a general decrease in areas
suitable for maize production growing from 80% to 75% while some areas in the South
Western part of the country will become totally unsuitable for maize growing
(www.zbc.co.zw). Maize is the staple food in Zimbabwe and diet, hence in nothing is done to
37

address the effects of climate change the country will inevitably faces a major food security
crisis in the coming years and exacerbating poverty. The worst affected drought prone areas
are the drier parts of the country such as Chivi, Zvishavane, Mbire and Buhera were
precipitation has declined significantly (Gogo, 2012). Increased deviation from the mean
precipitation in the periods 1984-2002 shows that the level to which rainfall patterns is
changing in Zimbabwe. There is need to promote the planting small grains or drought
resistant crops such as millet, cow peas and sorghum to cope with the effects of climate
variability and changes to ensure food security. Changes in the climate have posed a drastic
threat to the agriculture industries in Zimbabwe as they continue to suffer from natural
disasters and frequent occurrence of droughts. Droughts, cyclones and erratic rainfall have
contributed to poor performance and low agricultural production in the country. Smallholder
farmers will be especially vulnerable to the impacts of climate variability and change (IPCC,
2007). Their susceptibility is driven by all three elements of vulnerability: exposure,
sensitivity and adaptive capacity (IPCC, 2007).

Smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe face biophysical and socioeconomic challenges, most

notably degrading land resource bases and poorly functioning markets (Nyikahadzoi et al.,
2012; Mapfumo et al., 2013). The adverse effects of climate change will interact or combine
with existing and emerging biophysical and socioeconomic challenges to add an extra burden
on smallholder farms (Vermeulen et al., 2012). Thus, apart from climatic risk, the extent of
yield decrease will also depend on other factors, particularly on soil fertility management and
market access (Chipanshi et al., 2003; Mapfumo et al., 2013). It is clear that smallholder
farmers are sensitive to possible adverse changes in climate.

38

Climate change will increase the intensity of climate variability, extreme events and change
variables that are critical for agricultural production such as air temperature (Unganai, 1996).
Rainfall is a major driver for agricultural production in Zimbabwe. Given that surface air
temperature has increased by 0.1C per decade between 1933 and 1993 and is projected to
further increase by between 2C and 5C by 2100 in Zimbabwe (Unganai, 1996). A
combination of droughts and temperatures are projected to reduce agriculture production in
Zimbabwe (Lobell et al., 2011). There is already evidence that yields of major staple cereal
food crops of the region such as millet, maize and sorghum will decline due to change in
rainfall patterns and increased temperatures (Zinyengere et al., 2013).

The capacity of smallholder farmers in drought prone areas to adapt to the changing weather
patterns and in particular to climate change and variability, is constrained by poverty and a
limited capacity to switch to alternative livelihood options (Mapfumo et al., 2013). These
circumstances have been exacerbated by lack of supporting policies and institutions
(Nyagumbo and Rurinda, 2012).

Climate is a primary determinant of agricultural productivity and any adverse changes in it

would likely have devastating effects in this sector causing crop failures and concomitantly
affecting the livelihoods of the majority of the population that hinge on rain-fed agricultural
practices for their mainstay, accounting for about 97% of the agricultural land (Calzadilla
2009). Community based adaptation is capable of reducing the vulnerability as well as
improving on the resilience of the local people to climatic variability and change. Although
subsistence farming thus far have a long history of coping and adapting to some of these
changes, effective adaptation strategies and actions should therefore be aimed at securing the
well-being of the subsistence farmers in the face of climatic changes (Ibid). However, until
39

recently, most adaptation efforts have been top-down, and little attention has been paid to
communities experiences of climatic variability and their efforts to cope with their changing
environments. The top down focuses on multi-decadal global climate predictions involving
quasi-linear responses dominated by increases in greenhouse gases which are downscaled to
societal environmental impacts (Solomon et al.2007). Adaptation strategies should be geared
towards a blend of the top-down and bottom-up platforms; starting from a sequence of
analytical steps in the physical vulnerability, moving through the biophysical impacts and
terminating at the socio economic response to climate which tend to be location specific
(Dessai and Hulme 2004). Effective adaptation strategies aimed at securing the well-being of
subsistent farming communities requires the involvement of multiple stakeholders ranging
from policy makers, extension agents, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs),
researchers, communities and to a greater extend the subsistence farmers.

Crop production
The principal crops produced in the Zimbabwean communal areas are maize, cotton, sugar,
groundnuts, beans and cow peas. While the minor crops in commercial terms such as beans,
cow peas and groundnuts are considered to be the crops for women. The major commercial
crops which generate cash income are seen as mens crops, and these include Tobacco, CutFlowers, Raw Sugar Cane, Cotton, Chilled Vegetables, Coffee, Fruit, Tea (FAO, 2002). More
often than not, the significant part of the crops that are produced commercially, are being
exported to other countries. On the other hand, most of the crops that are produced in the
communal area are for consumption. Although, the initial post independence period saw a
major boom in commercial crop production in communal areas, the trend went down later.
Cotton is one of the major crops produced for commercial purposes in both the communal
and FAO (2002) observes that since 1950 cottons share in total fiber consumption has

40

declined from over 80 to 40% in recent years. Cotton prices in the first nine months of 2001
declined by 14% compared to 2000. This was in response to a 6% increase in global
production in 2001. Similarly, the decline was in part a result of US policies of increased
public support to cotton production, although increased production in China and India also
played a role. Prices were predicted to decline still further in 2002 by 4%. Furthermore,
maize is another major crop in Zimbabwe. According to Unganai (2002), 80% of the
population is directly involved in its production. The Grain Marketing Board of Zimbabwe
receives 75% of its grain from Small holder/communal farmers. Thus maize is a very
important income earner in the rural areas. From 1980 to 2001, the annual production of
maize in Zimbabwe had been well above 200,000 Metric tonnes with the exception of 1990
when it fell drastically to 1,585,800. This drastic reduction was mainly accounted by the low
production in the commercial sector. The communal sector however, continued to witness a
general expansion in maize production despite annual fluctuation and inefficient production.
Maize is not only a basic crop for household food security but also an important source of
household cash income (Ibid). Therefore, any trade arrangements, which allow the import of
cheap subsidised maize at prices that undermine local prices, will depress rural household
incomes. Thus, this needs to be seen against the background of an existing situation of
rapidly escalating input costs in the agricultural sector. The escalating costs have hampered
production and reduced the economic benefits of maize production as a cash earner.
Consequently, any reduction in the maize price as a result of the availability of cheap
imported maize would compound this situation.

Animal production
The commercial ranching sector of Zimbabwe provides a rare opportunity for estimating the
efficiencies of extensive cattle and wildlife production systems. This is because there is a

41

long history of commercial cattle ranching, and that landowners have the right to
commercially use wildlife on their lands (Kreuter and Workman, 1996). In semi-arid African
savannas, multispecies wildlife communities tend to use heterogeneous vegetation more
completely than cattle alone (Kreuter and Workman, 1996). Although, erratic rainfall has
generally restricted agricultural activities in these semiarid regions; hence wildlife has been
used commercially since 1970s. Wildlife production may thus be the ecologically the most
rational form of land use in these areas. Hence, wildlife that are common in Zimbabwe
especially in the Midlands and Mashonaland central areas consists mainly of plains-game
species but a few larger herbivores, like elephant, rhino, hippopotamuses, giraffe and buffalo.
However, the most valuable game-species are leopard, eland, water buck, kudu, tsessebe,
zebra, baboons, and different types of antelope (Kreuter, 2007). Considering the importance
of livestock, a unit known as Department of Livestock Production and Development was
established in 2002. The department is responsible for general animal husbandry and consists
of two divisions. The livestock production division supports animal production and is the
livestock outreach arm. While livestock development and schemes division links up with
technology transfer, multiplication and breeding of animals and forage, responsible for
breeding nucleus heads, gene banks for fodder and grass as well as new initiatives.

Agricultural manpower
Given that agriculture is a key industry in the economy of Zimbabwe, a large number of the
countrys population depend directly or indirectly on land for their means of livelihood. For
example, the industry provides employment for 70% of the Zimbabwean population with
employment (Weiner, Moyo, Munslow and OKeefe 1985; APRODEV, 2002). Further
analysis shows that 71% of the total female population in Zimbabwe gain employment as

42

communal area farmers, 20% are employed outside the subsistence sector, while 9% are
classified as unemployed. The 20% of women employed outside the subsistence sector are
involved in a wide variety of different occupations, such as casual laborers on commercial
farms and in some instances as permanent laborers. A small minority are involved in farming
under resettlement schemes (Ibid).

Climate change maladaption in Zimbabwe

Mal-adaptation can be changes in human or natural systems that inadvertently increase
vulnerability to climatic stimuli, an adaptation that does not succeed in reducing vulnerability
but increases it instead (Desanker, 2002). In Zimbabwe it has been evidenced that maladaptation may not only increase vulnerability but can also generate new risks. Some of the
planned strategies or interventions have resulted in negative consequences for some in the
rural areas. Climate change studies have shown that what can be perceived by one group as
an adaptation and what is experienced by another as increased peril, actions taken in attempt
to minimise risk that have negative ancillary impacts could be considered maladaptive. Maladaptation hazards have proved that the impacts of particular measures aimed at increasing
the ability of one group to adapt or cope with certain changing conditions must therefore also
be considered in a larger picture.

In Southern Africa especially Zimbabwe, farmers in rural farming areas adaptation to climate
change at micro levels concurs that agricultural production remains the main source of
earning a livelihood for rural communities, providing employment opportunities to more than
65% of the population and contributing about 35% of GDP. It has been noted that in drought
prone areas in Zimbabwe small-scale farmers have a low capacity to adapt to changes in
climatic conditions, policies that help these farmers adapt to global warming and associated

43

extremes are particularly important (Brown, 2012). In Mbire farmers are detecting a rise in
temperature over the past years, drier conditions and pronounced changes in the timing of
rains and frequency of droughts (Unganai, 2009).

Some of the adaptation measures used by farmers in Zimbabwe include diversifying crops,
planting different crops or crop varieties, crop rotation, changing planting and harvesting
dates, replacing farm activities with nonfarm activities, increasing the use of irrigation and
increasing the use of water and soil conservation techniques. Small scale farmers in drought
prone areas in Zimbabwe barriers to sustainable adaptation measures include insufficient
access to inputs, lack of credit, and lack of information on climate (Unganai, 2009).

Rural people in Mbire are mostly depended on forest resourcebased on household

implements such as axe, hoe handles, pestles and mortars, cooking sticks, plates and bowls,
ox yokes, ox-carts, drums, and hunting tools (Hulme, 2012). Income generating activities
such as carving, carpentry, craft work, roof mending, thatching, selling wood fuel, thatching
grass, wild fruit and vegetables constitute the largest source of woodland/forest based income
for rural households in Zimbabwe and Southern Africa (Berkes, 2003).

Conclusion
In this chapter the theoretical and empirical literature on the impact of climate change on
agricultural production have been discussed from global level to district level. Spatial
patterns, concepts, and trends variability and climate change were introduced and discussed
from a global to Mbire district level. Temperature and rainfall are the two key climate
variables most notable in climate change assessments from a socio-economic perspective.
Rainfall patterns, there is a notable declining trend in many African countries. Climate is one

44

of the most important determinants of human survival, livelihoods and culture, all of the
world population is vulnerable to the unprecedented climate variability and changes taking
place in the present Africa. In the world and regionally impact of climate change is multidimensional such as direct impact on agricultural productivity, the biophysical world which
in turn happens to be the vital asset for local livelihoods, economies and human wellbeing.
Three dimensions of vulnerability to climate change can be outlined from the perspective of
local livelihoods assessment; the three dimensions are the physicalenvironmental dimension,
the socioeconomic dimension and the availability and nature of external assistance. Climate
change adaptations strategies are natural systems and human systems, which have interacting
and interdependent functions.

Whereas, the whole world is subjected to climate change impacts, the distribution of the
impacts is uneven. The low-latitude, third world countries or less-developed parts of the
world are generally at greatest risk due to both higher sensitivity and lower adaptive capacity.
In the world, some regions and communities may be able to adapt to the changing climate,
many parts of the world and their inhabitants are facing increased vulnerability. In SubSaharan Africa amongst other developing countries or less developed regions are particularly
vulnerable to climate change. In sub-Saharan Africa the majority of the populations and other
less developed regions are rural subsistent farmers whose living depends mostly on rain-fed
agriculture and climate-sensitive natural resources-based livelihoods.

Literature review also distinguished that in an attempt to cope with climate change impacts
on agriculture some communities run the risk of plunging into mal-adaptation. Rural
communities lack knowledge, technical and other material assets, many rural communities in
drought prone areas in Zimbabwe adopt climate change coping methods that are short or

45

long term generate negative ancillary impacts to the wellbeing or other communities . A
amalgamation of local actions together with incorrect policy interventions and other external
forces often result to greater vulnerability to climate change.

46

Chapter Three: Research Methodology

This chapter outlines the methods and techniques, which were used by the researcher in
carrying out the research. This chapter is mainly concerned with the detailed research
methods through which data was collected and the more general philosophies upon which the
collection and the analysis of data were based (Haralambos and Halborn, 1995). This chapter
includes an evaluation on the research methodology that was used by the researcher thus
involving research design, the methods of data collection, identification of the population,
sample size, sampling procedures and methods of data analysis. These methodologies were
considered under the broader framework of qualitative and quantitative research methods
adopted. The study again involved data collection obtained from both primary and secondary
data sources. The chapter also outlines the instruments which were used for data collection as
well as giving the disadvantages and advantages of the instruments. The researcher made use
of the questionnaires, focus group discussions and interviews as instruments for collecting
data.

Study Population
Mbire district has a population of about 20 000 (Parliament review, 2009) and is furthest to
the north of Zimbabwe and shares the border with Mozambique. The district has areas which
include Hunyani, Chikafa, Angwa-Bridge, Masoka, St Cecilia, Muzeza, Kanyemba, Chidodo
and Musengezi. The majority of residents of Mbire are mainly involved in forms of economic
activities such as cotton and maize farming, gold panning, fishing, barter trading and small
scale business traders. The district has abundant wildlife and is also prone to droughts and
malaria. Poverty levels and food insecurity in the district are relatively higher than in most
districts of the country. The majority of Mbire residents are very poor and depend on
agriculture for survival. Most of Mbire's population are scattered throughout the region

47

especially in farms which meant that the researcher had to cover much of Mbire to access
relatively representative information.

Sample
The questionnaires were answered using purposive sampling technique and 100
questionnaires were distributed with 95 answered hence making the methodology and
attainment of the research aim obtainable. Questionnaires were distributed in all wards to
farmers, community members, agricultural extension workers, local authorities (DA,
Councilors, Ward Officers) and teachers in Mbire. 50 males received questionnaires as
compared to 50 females who received questionnaires for the research in order to come up
with a balanced assessment.

The researcher interviewed 25 individual residents of Mbire which included farmers, gold
panners, small scale business owners and also district agricultural specialists. This sample of
100 individuals was sufficient for the research since the majority of Mbire's population are
children of which they are still dependents. The study population included all local leadership
(District Administrator, Councillors, Agritex officers and Ward officers), health professional,
teachers and village herdsman. Data collection tools were used to collection information from
the study population in Mbire district such as Dictaphones, laptops, questionnaires, data
collecting forms, tape recorders among others.

48

Research Design
To understand the impact of climate change on agricultural production in Mbire the
researcher used quantitative and qualitative research (Triangulation).

Qualitative research aimed at gathering comprehensive understanding of human behaviour

and the resources that governs it (Denzin, 2005). In this research, qualitative methods were
used to gather information which had much to do with the feelings and emotions of the
residents of Mbire since feelings and emotions cannot be measured quantitatively. This was
carried out as an attempt to interpret or make sense of the phenomena in terms of the
meanings people bring to their understanding and knowledge of climate change (Denzin,
1994). Qualitative research was useful as it helped to penetrate to the deeper significance that
the participants of the research ascribed to the implications of climate change on agricultural
production in their area.

Quantitative research was used to quantify the problem by way of generating numerical data
or data that can be transformed into useable statistics. Quantitative research was useful to
quantify attitudes, opinions, behaviours, and other defined variables and generalize results
from a sample population (Denzin, 1994).
Data collection
Questionnaire
The research information was gathered through the use of questionnaires since they are more
objective than interviews. Generally it was relatively quick and faster to collect information
using a questionnaire. Questionnaires were used in this study because information can be
collected from a large portion of a group faster and more efficient without much repetition to
the researcher. The researcher administered questionnaires which contained both closed49

ended questions and open-ended questions. Open-ended questions were meant to ask
respondents to formulate their own answers, whereas as closed-ended questions asked
respondents to pick an answer from a given number of options. For example an open ended
question was how climate change has affected agricultural production? Whilst examples of
closed questions included questions such as sex, age to name but a few?

Open ended questions were used by the researcher to allow research participants in the
community to explain and express their experiences and scenarios in the best way they can,
clearly illustrating how climate change has affected their livelihoods, wellbeing and
agriculture. Open ended questions gave respondents time, space and allowance to explain,
this was important as it ensured that the researcher receives feedback.

Closed-ended questions were useful in generating specific information required such as the
age range and sex of the participants. Response options for close-ended questions was limited
and comprehensive such that the questionnaires ensured participants confidentiality. Data
collected was to be kept safe and strictly used for the purpose of the study.

The researcher distributed questionnaires in Chikafa, Muzeza, Hunyani, Angwa -Bridge,

Masoka, St Cecilia, Kanyemba, Chidodo and Musengezi 100 questionnaires were distributed
in all the areas. The questionnaires were distributed equally and without any bias to the study
populations. Households, individuals and local leaders were also given a chance to fill out
their questionnaires. Questionnaires were useful as they were significant in collecting
information on the impact of climate change on agriculture production.

50

Area

Number

of Number

of Number

questionnaires

questionnaires

distributed

respondented to

Chikafa

10

10

Muzeza

10

Hunyani

10

10

Masoka

10

10

St cecilia

10

10

Kanyemba

20

18

Chidodo

10

Angwa-Bridge

10

10

Musengezi

10

Total

100

95

of

spoiled

questionnaires

The above table shows the response rate of questionnaires in the collection of relevant
information so as to get research results. The table indicates that 100 questionnaires were
distributed as a way of collecting data. 95 respondents responded to the questionnaires in
Chikafa, Muzeza, Hunyani, Angwa -Bridge, Masoka, St Cecilia, Kanyemba, Chidodo and
Musengezi and 10 questionnaires were spoiled

Interviews

51

Structured interview were used by the researcher as a way of collecting data because they
were useful in accessing peoples perceptions, experiences, thoughts and meanings of climate
change. Interviews were appropriate for collecting data on respondents knowledge,
perceptions and experience on the effects of climate change.

Qualitative research interview is aimed at gathering descriptions of life-world of the

interviewee with respect to interpretations of the meanings of the described phenomena
(Kvale, 1996). Interviews are data collecting tools containing an organized or planned
conversation with a view to explore the unknown information from the interviewee. An
interview is a two way method which permits an exchange of ideas and information; it is
unique in that it involves the collection of data through direct verbal interaction between the
interviewer and the interviewee (Carter, 1999).

Interviews served a number of distinct purposes in gathering information about persons

perceptions on climate change, knowledge, values, attitudes and climate change adaptation
strategies. The researcher used interviews to gather detailed information on the experiences,
knowledge on the impact of climate change on agricultural production in Mbire. However, it
should also be noted that interviews are time consuming since it takes time to interview the
whole population sample.

25 interviews were conducted by the researcher in Mbire with farmers, herdsmen, teachers,
health professionals, Agritex officers, meteorological department and other local
representatives.

Focus Group Discussions

52

5 Focus group discussions were conducted by the researcher in Mbire. Focus group
discussions were carried out with villagers, farmers, local authorities, herdsmen and Agritex
officers. Focus groups were aimed identifying the impact of climate change on the
livelihoods, wellbeing and agriculture. Focus group discussions were useful they gave more
information on the climate change adaptation methods, climate change perspectives and its
impact on crops. Focus group discussions were carried out to explore people's knowledge and
experiences and to examine not only what people think but how they think and why they
think that way. Focus group discussions were useful in obtaining detailed information on how
climate change has affected the drought prone area.

Desk Research
Desk research can be classified as secondary research; it involved the synthesis or collation of
existing. Desk research is the most convenient starting point of any research or study. The
researcher made use of desk research because literature and information on the impact of
climate change on agricultural production is readily available. Desk research allowed the
researcher to work within the limitations of one small area using all forms of literature
available like books and the internet, thus it was cheaper and effective in gathering data.
The researcher made use of several sources for information available of climate change from
a global to district level. These included Published Electronic Sources, Magazines, Journals,
Newspapers and E-journals.

Observational research
Observational research was mainly concerned with naturally occurring events which were
observed in natural contexts, which are deemed to be less biased and are realistic. The
research used the technique to bring gather data which is unbiased and assert what people are

53

doing in the communities to cope with effects of climate change. Observational research was
effective as the researcher managed to visit some of the water sources which were used by the
inhabitants and livestock. The researcher managed to observe the impact of climate change
on livestock and crop production.

Summary
The research has sought to adopt the appropriate methodological techniques for the process
of the study. This is manifested in choosing appropriate and best suited data collection
methods, analysis approaches and above all conduct the research in the most efficient and
ethical manner. The employment of the qualitative and quantitative methodologies in this
research topic enabled the researcher to utilize focus group discussions, interviews,
observations during the research process and questions to the attainment of new facts which
are brought to light in other parts of this research paper. Interviews and questionnaires were
distributed with information obtained from both males and females. The researcher employed
purposive sampling in the quest to have the questionnaires addressed, thus placing into
consideration the intensity of the topic hence such a sampling technique eroded the concept
of mistrust on the part of the interviewee. The researcher made use of other material like
reports, newspapers, researches by other non-governmental organizations and any material
relevant to the study so as to cross check and confirm some of the information collected
thence coming up with a reliably solid research.

54

Chapter four - Data Presentation and Analysis

Introduction
The findings of the impact of climate change on agricultural production, climate change
perceptions and adaptation are analysed, presented and discussed in this chapter. The findings
were obtained through the use of data collection tools. Quantitative data was analysed using
SPSS version 22. This chapter will outline how climate change has affected agricultural
production in Mbire.

55

Agricultural vulnerability in Mbire District

Mbire district smallholder farmers are exposed to the harshest climates in the country as a
result of its location in Natural Region four. The district has low rainfall generally below
450mm per season and erratic for meaningful agricultural production of any crop under rainfed conditions. Agriculture has been affected by drought occurrence, 1991/92 drought
resulted in Mbire district receiving a seasonal rainfall of 127mm. Crop production was
greatly affected as most crops were totally a complete failure and also livestock such as
cattle, goats, sheep just to mention a few perished in thousands. Drought resistant crops such
as millet and sorghum provided only marginal yields in the district under existing climate
changes. Agricultural production will be greatly affected if no adaptation interventions or
measures are taken, yields from rain-fed agriculture will decrease. Maize is the staple crop in
the country, in Mbire only a few are growing maize since it is vulnerable due to its
intolerance to drought. Climate change is exacerbating food in security in the district
especially when there are droughts which are becoming more and more frequent and intense.
The district is likely to incur agricultural losses, reduction in crop yields, decline in crop
revenues and small scale farmers bearing disproportionate impacts. One farmer in the area
said
Kare

taimborima

chibage

chekutotengesa

tichiwana

mari,

iye

zvino

chibage

hachichanyotsoite nekuda kwemvura shoma yava kunaya. Mvura yava kunaya shoma zvekuti
inoenda chibage chisati chamboita muchekechera kana kutumbuka. Ruzhinji rwevarimi vari
mu Mbire vari kuchema nekunaya kwemvura shoma, mvura ye bumharutsva or gukurahundi
yainaya mune September ikozvino yavakunaya muna December kana kutanga kwa Ndira.
(We used to grow maize for selling but as a result of erratic and unpredictable rainfall farmers
are are no longer growing maize. First rains were received in September in the past years but
now days in December or January.

56

Climate change can also result in plant based toxic contaminants for instance the aflatoxin
which is a metabolite of the fungal species Aspergillus. Aflatoxin is a very dangerous
contaminant which is infectious to food grains and it is harmful to both humans and animals
health. Climate changes including increased prevalence of drought shift in temperature,
unseasonal rains and changes in relative humidity will affect the population of aflatoxinproducing fungi. Climate change has resulted in the multiplication of the population of fungal
pathogens thus increasing their opportunities to attack food grain crops. Pathogens have
affected crop production especially in dry conditions during grain filling and maturity
pathogens infect the cracked grains which can get more easily infected by this fungal
pathogen. The disruption of established rainfall patterns in Mbire district negatively impact
agricultural production since agriculture systems have developed their cropping patterns
dependent on regional weather conditions.

Persitent drought in Mbire has negatively strained surface and ground water systems,
contributing to Zimbabwes deteriorating water supply. Surface water mostly from dams and
rivers is the major source of water in Mbire accounting to 90% of supply. Population in the
district does not have the potential to use ground water due to the unaffordability of the
required technology. In Zimbabwe there is limited knowledge on how much ground water the
country has. Surface water is prone to high loses as a result of evaporation caused by high
temperatures. Changing precipitation patterns, increasing frequency of extreme weather
events and rising temperatures are the main reasons for reducing water availability and

57

impacting hydrological cycles of evaporation and precipitation. This has drastically affected
agriculture production in Mbire where over 80% of the agriculture is rainfed.

Water availability is a key component sustainable agricultural production and food security in
drought areas. Temperature increase and decrease in rainfall has resulted in water scarcity in
the drought prone area. Majority of the farmers emphasised that rivers were drying up as a
result of increased temperatures and decreased rainfall for example the Angwa River. One
farmer claimed that the previous years rivers would receive high rainfalls and would be full
to capacity to the extent that some school children failed to go to school as it was dangerous
to cross the rivers. Water shortage is one the challenges facing farmers, inhabitants had wells
in their backyards as way to cope with water problems. This strategy has failed to be
sustainable as the wells are drying up due to high temperatures. One woman in Kanyemba
said that

Mvura yakakoshera vanhu, zvirimwa uye nezvipuka. Kushaikwa kwe mvura munharaunda
kunokonzera zvirwere ku vanhu, zvipuka neku kanganiswa kwezvirimwa. MuMbire
kushaikwa kwemvura kuri kukanganisa zvirimwa zvedu, tiri kutadza kuwana zvokudya
zvinoriritira mhuri kwegore rese nekuda kwemvura shoma. Matsime atiri kuchera ari kupwa
nekupisa kwakuri kuita. Matsime anotibatsira kudiridza ma gardens uye ne mvura yekumwa
nekushandisa mabasa epamusha. (Water is important for human, crops and animals hence
without water there will be diseases and low crop production. Water scarcity in Mbire has led
to food insecurity. High temperatures have resulted in wells drying up)

58

Picture of one of the rivers that dried as result of high temperatures

Inhabitants are relying on wells for their home gardens and domestic purposes, wells are
drying up hence most people are now using boreholes. The boreholes are not being
maintained properly and they are serving around about 5 to 6 villages. This has resulted in
many boreholes not functioning. The boreholes in Mbire are not enough to meet the number
of villages hence this has created conflicts amongst villagers. NGOs such World Vision,
Africare have drilled boreholes to assist villagers to have access to safe and clean water.

Soil
Climate change also affects precipitation patterns and soil processes negatively thus, changes
in the precipitation and temperature will influence runoff water and erosion affecting soil,
nitrogen, salinity and organic carbon in the soil. This severely has an impact on the
biodiversity of soil micro-organisms. These parameters are very important and relevant to soil
fertility. In Mbire higher air temperatures have increased soil temperature hence increasing
the speed of organic matter decomposition and other soil processes that affect fertility.
59

Research studies have shown that global warming in Zimbabwe is reducing soil organic
carbon by stimulating decomposition rates. Increasing carbon dioxide has the effect of
increasing soil organic carbon. Climate change also leads to reduction of nitrogen availability
in drier soil conditions. Researchers have shown dry soils in drought prone areas affects root
growth and the decomposition of organic matter that affect the activity of nitrogen fixing
bacteria. Soil fertility is reduced by the reducing nitrogen fixation. Smallholder farmers have
resorted to using chemical fertilisers to compensate for soil degradation and fertility loss is
commonly thought of as a solution or measure to decreased soil fertility. Some of the
methods which have been used to cope with soil fertility have contaminated ground water and
also decreasing natural soil fertility in the future. Excessive use of fertilisers destroys the
living processes of the soil and makes it more vulnerable to climate variability. Use of
chemical fertilisers will lead to the emission of nitrous oxide, a potent greenhouse gas. An
increase in the rate of land degradation and soil erosion will result in desertification and
climate change will eventually lead to the expansion of arid zones.

Health
Climate change in Mbire has affected the health of the rural population through droughts,
fires and changing rainfall patterns. Changes in the climate have contributed to the spread of
infectious disease vectors including the geographical range of malaria and other mosquitoborne diseases such as dengue in communities in drought prone areas. This has increased the
burden of diarrhoeal diseases and water-borne pathogens such as cholera, typhoid. Changes
in the climate have exacerbated the effects of human-induced ozone depletion in the Southern
hemisphere, further worsening this situation (Karoly, 2003). Changes in precipitation and
temperature have altered the distribution of malaria in Zimbabwe with previous unsuitable
areas of dense human population becoming suitable for transmission (IPCC, 2007). Cases of

60

diarrhoea in Mbire district have been severe to the extent of weakening immune systems
among infected people in rural areas. Lack of adequate sanitary facilities and water supply
are of the utmost importance in reducing infectious diseases and diarrhoea.

Climate change induces health problems as a result of hunger and starvation, water stress,
pests and diseases, resource conflicts, injuries and stress from extreme weather events (Ozor,
2009). Health is an important aspect when it comes to development prospects as it is
considered as one of the most contributors to social capital. For the agricultural sector to
progress the farmers have to be healthy just like in any other sector.

Mbire inhabitants are exposed to climate change directly through changing weather patterns
which are intense and frequent extreme events changes in air, water, food quality and
quantity, ecosystems, agriculture, livelihoods and infrastructure have indirectly affected the
population in Mbire. Malaria cases in the district have increased to the extent that some
agricultural production has been affected. Time is spent caring for the sick instead of
planting; weeding and harvesting hence malaria cases are affecting agriculture production in
drought prone area. One farmer in Chidodo claimed that starvation and hunger are also
hindrance to good health; he noted that in 2008/09 season it was a difficult task to carry out
farm activities when there was an outbreak of cholera. Climate change has affected crop
production hence families have failed to sustain their families. Hunger and starvation have
led to malnutrition in the district, without energy farm workers have stayed out of work. One
farmer in Chikafa described the effects of hunger and starvation has led to some villagers
stealing livestock as a survival strategy. One man in the district said

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Vadzidzisi, vanachiremba, ma nurse havachada kuuuya kuzoshandira ku Mbire nekutya

kuzoita malaria. Kupisa kuri kuita munzvimbo kwakonzera kuti ruzhinji ruite malaria izvi
zvinova zvinokanganisa kurima kwezvirimwa. Avo vanotarisirwa kunge vachiita basa
rekusakura, kurima muminda vakaita zvirwere mbesa dzinokanganisika sezvo vange vasina
samba rekubata badza. Avo vanenge vaita urwere vanoda kubikirwa, kuriritirwa izvo zvino
konzera kuti vanozoshanda muminda vaite vashoma zvinozokonzera kuti bundo riwande
muminda. (Teachers, doctors and nurses are shunning away from the district as a result of
high temperatures which have led to outbreaks of malaria. Malaria has affected labour force
for agricultural production in the community hence contributing to low agricultural
production)

Biodiversity
IPCC report states that climate change is the main cause of biodiversity loss in Zimbabwe.
Agricultural production in Mbire has been affected by an increase in temperature hence plants
and animal species have been threatened. Changes in the climate have increased pressure on
land degradation and habitat loss hence this has resulted in genetic erosion.

Reduced crop production in Mbire has resulted in loss of income for small scale farmers and
may result in malnutrition. Health issues have arised which have further diminished
economic activities as farm labourers, family members become too weak to work. Changes in
the climate combined with financial instability have forced populations to migrate to areas
which are suitable for farming such as Mazowe, Concession. Population growth in areas such
as Mazowe, Mvurwi, Gururve exacerbates the impact of climate change by increasing human
exposure to environmental stresses.

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Through a complex set of effects, climate change impacts human health, society, livelihoods,
and safety

Food security: More poor people, especially children have suffered from hunger due to
reduced agricultural yield and death of livestock and as a result of environmental degradation.

Poverty: Livelihoods have been destroyed when income from agriculture and livestock is
lost due to changes in the climate
.
Health: Health threats like diarrhoea and malaria have affected more people when
temperatures rise.

Water: Increased water scarcity has resulted in a decline in the overall supply of clean water
and more frequent and severe droughts.
Security: More people are living under the continuous threat of potential conflict and
institutional break down due to migration, weather-related disaster and water scarcity.

Displacement: More climate-displaced people are expected due to droughts and increased
temperatures in Mbire.

Gender
Climate change has posed a threat to human security especially the women who constitute a
higher population than men in Mbire. Changes in the climate have exacerbated gender
dimensions of vulnerability which arise as a result of the existing gendered divisions of
labour and social inequalities. Moreover, disproportionate effects of disasters on womens

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morbidity and mortality, changes in the climate is likely to jeopardise rural womens
livelihoods by reducing their economic opportunities especially female headed households in
the drought prone area. Gender studies reports have shown that in Zimbabwe 65% of the rural
women are smallholder farmers who dependent on rain fed agriculture and climate sensitive
resources. Women are more vulnerable to the knock on effects of climate change and
changing rainfall patterns. For example, women in some areas of Mbire such as Kanyemba,
Hunyani, Masoka and Angwa reported a shift in livelihood strategies to beer brewing
(Kachasu) which led to higher alcoholism and an increase in the cases of violence amongst
the youths, elders in the community and women. Cases of domestic violence have also
increased as a result of kachasu, men are now spending the whole days drinking Kundari
instead of doing daily chores. Climate change has affected the roles men women play in their
communities such as changes over gender ascribed roles like water collection which have
increased the burden on women (Chagutah, 2010). One woman in the area said that

Isu semadzimai kushaikwa kwe mvura munharaunda kunotiwomesera sezvo tinenge

takunochera mvura kuzvibhorani kana rwizi rwuri kure. Madzimai akawanda havacharima
sezvo kushaikwa kwemvura kuri kukanganisa mbesa vava kuita zvekubika doro vachitengesa
kuti vawane mari. Doro iri rinobikwa nezviyo zvavakurimwa sezvo zviyo zvisingade mvura
yakawanda. (Women are forced to travel long distances in search of water to the nearest river
or borehole. Women are now concentrating on beer brewing since climate change is affecting
their crops)

Crop productivity
Climate change has reduced crop yields in Mbire because agricultural systems are seasonally
dependent and also sensitive to climate change. Livestock and crop production require

64

specific weather conditions at particular times for optimal growth. Recurrent droughts cycles
disrupt crop growth especially where crops are grown in drought prone areas. High and low
temperatures have resulted to physical injuries to plants and damaged grains for example
seedlings have dehydrated quickly when soil temperature rises. Temperature rise has
accelerated the rate of respiration which has led to sub optimal growth. Maize and small
grains productivity decrease under climate change due to its highly sensitivity to temperatures
that damage the plants. High temperatures have multiple effects on crop production in the
district depending with the type of biological characteristics of the crop. High day time
temperatures have increase the rate of plant maturity and this has resulted in reduced grain
filling, while temperatures in the night have increased yield losses due to the high rate of
respiration. Climate change has led to the production of poor quality crops or yields; this has
been worsened by the erratic and unpredictable rainfall in the district. The most affected
crops by erratic and unpredictable rainfall in the drought prone are maize and beans.

Farmers have faced a challenge of timing their crops, unpredictable rainfall has led to some
farmers falling to produce good grades of crops especially beans. Farmers clearly expressed
that for one to harvest beans he has to do a proper timing of the rains because require lots of
rain during its plantation to the stage of flowering but when the bean seed starts to develop it
requires less water. In the last decade farmers would plant beans during the peak of the rainy
season after they had already planted maize and other crops, farmers in Mbire harvested but
this method in no longer yielding due to the changes in the climate. According to one farmer
in Muzeza the last three years have made this strategy a failure as most farmers tried it and
the rains did not come and this led to the harvesting of a very low grade of beans and other
crops. He further pointed out that it has become a challenge to plant crops since timing has
contributed in crop production, hence this has become a setback to the farmers because beans

65

and other small grains they grow to sell to earn a living are affected by climate change. One
bucket of beans cost about $20-25 hence climate change has resulted in low quality beans
thus farmers have field to earn money in the market. Agriculture extension officer in
Kanyemba pointed out that unpredictable rainfall has led to the harvesting of poor quality,
low grade and immature crops and this has exacerbated poverty in the area. The researcher
noted that maize is manageable when it comes to low rainfall and also other farmers pointed
out that they have used other strategies when it comes to maize. Researcher derived that
unpredictable rain has caused lots of damage particularly to the growing of crops.
Diseases and pests
Research studies have shown that the severity of diseases caused by bacteria, fungi, insects
and viruses are anticipated to global warming. The spur of the population of vectors and other
pest is related to the interplay of different factors such as changes in moisture concentration,
rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide and increases in temperature. Climate change has created
favourable conditions for the proliferation of insects and pests in warmer climates.
An armyworm outbreak was reported in Mbire and Muzarabani, Mashonaland Central
Province, where the pest is reported to have destroyed at least 26 hectares of sorghum and
pastures. Plant Protection Research Institute Deputy director in the Ministry of Agriculture,
Mechanisation and Irrigation Development Dr Godfrey Chikwenhere, said the first
armyworm outbreak this year was reported on December 23 in Mbire. "We recorded the first
armyworm outbreak on December 23 in Mbire District where about 22 hectares of pastures
and sorghum were destroyed," (Herald, Tuesday, 30 December, 2014)

Pollen
Good grain formation needs high a percentage of germinated pollen grains followed by
vigorous growth of pollen tube in the ovule. These factors are highly sensitive to changes in

66

the climate such as any fluctuations in the temperature during flowering season affect
effective pollination and subsequent grain development.

Moisture
Moisture also plays an important role in the activities of the pathogens as optimal breeding
conditions are usually created when moisture is high. Simultaneous increase in temperature
and moisture creates especially favourable conditions and affects both hosts and pathogens in
various ways

Livestock
Livestock, poultry and other animals reared on the farm have been affected by climate
because higher temperatures increase the number of new infections and diseases directly and
indirectly affecting them. For example exposure to excessive humidity, heat and drought has
rendered cattle more vulnerable to infections. Climate change has resulted in disruption of
natural ecosystems and subsequent changes in species ecological range, altering predatorprey interactions, decoupling animals from food sources and reducing habitat span. In
addition to loss of pasture resulting from climate change, it is likely that livestock and
wildlife will experience pressure from increased pests and diseases IPCC 2013.

Mbire inhabitants expressed with concern that their livestock were facing a great danger as
result of the unavailability of pastures. Unpredictable rains have made it rare for communal
lands to be green for a long time and this has created problems for the livestock. In Mbire
culturally livestock especially cattle symbolises wealth and cattle can be assets when it comes
to farming. The councillor in ward 8 pointed out that diseases have emerged and some
farmers have lost their livestock as a result of climate change. Livestock has been threatened
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by water scarcity in the district especially in Chidodo the dams that have been provided water
to livestock have dried up and the situation has worsened to an extent that cattle drink water
from boreholes. Villagers have allocated duties to each and every farmer who has a cattle to
pump borehole water for the animals. Due to the large numbers of cattle, most of the
livestock especially goats and sheep wont be able to quench their thirst. One man in the
district said that
Zvipfuyo zviri kufa nekushaikwa kwemvura munharaunda, voruzhinji vakuchinjisa mombe,
mbudzi, hwai, nehuku vachipiwa chibage. Kushaikwa kwe mombe kuno kanganisa varimi
sezvo vakawanda munharaunda havana ma tractor vanoshandisa mombe kurima. (Water
scarcity has resulted in the deaths of livestock hence some have resorted to trading livestock
for maize. Cattle are used for oxen drawn ploughing in the district)

Source of water for livestock

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The above picture shows the source of water for watering gardens and for livestock. This is a
small opening which has been dug in a dried river.

Kanyemba lies in the Lower Manyame sub-catchment, which forms part of the Lower Middle
Zambezi Valley, one female farmer in Kanyemba with a poultry project pointed out that
climate change has also affected her project. It has become difficult for chickens to lay eggs
in high temperatures; poultry projects require cereal crops for feeding with climate change
cereal crops have been affected hence only a few farmers have managed to harvest tonnes.
Yields in Mbire have decreased both maize and cereal crops have been affected thus framers
involved in poultry projects have failed to meet the feeding demand of the livestock. Pig
breeders have also been affected, pigs are affected by high temperatures they are generally
weak animals that require cool conditions and proper care.

Climate change perceptions

One of the prerequisites to adapt to climate change in the district is the recognition that
change is taking place. In most cases farmers in the area must first perceive that changes are
in fact taking place (Mubiru, 2009). Respondents were asked how the weather has changed
over the past years that is what the weather was in the 1990s and what changes have been
observed in the 2000s. Almost all the respondents that is 95% believe the climate is changing
and compared to the previous years. The researcher noted that respondents indicated that the
changes were mainly associated with temperature, rainfall amount and distribution. Only 5%
of the respondents indicated that they were not aware of any changes in the weather patterns.

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%
95

100
80

60
40
20

0
Aware of climate change

Not aware of climate

Deforestation
Deforestation is another cause of climate variability. Inhabitants of the district are cutting
down trees in preparation of agricultural land, construction of roads, infrastructural
development to mention a few. The consistent power outages in the country have resulted in
massive cutting down of trees for firewood thus worsening deforestation. Forests are however
being destroyed or damaged at an alarming rate yet they are important in that they act as
carbon sinks and protect the planet by absorbing carbon dioxide which is the most abundant
type of pollution that causes climate change.

United Nations Environmental Protection (UNEP) states that Africa is losing more than four
million hectares (9.9 million acres) of forest land every year which is twice the world's
average deforestation (UNEP 2008).This cutting down of trees and clearing of land for
agriculture and livestock releases larger amounts of carbon dioxide and harmful greenhouse
gases into the atmosphere (Ibid). According to Forest Commission, Zimbabwe is losing up to
330 000 hectares of forested land each year and forests are estimated to have been lost at an
alarming rate of 20% since 1990-2005 (Sunday Mail, 2013) and this has had negative impacts
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on climate change. Deforestation also affects other regions' ability to absorb carbon pollution.
Scientists estimate up to 20% of global carbon emission come from deforestation (WWF
2013).
Causes of deforestation
There are many causes of deforestation in Mbire. Some other common reasons are to make
more land available for housing, to create room for cattle ranching and to harvest timber to
create commercial items such as furniture and homes

Deforestation and climate change

Deforestation is considered to be one of the contributing factors to climate change in
Southern Africa. According to Michael Daley (2006), associate professor of environmental
science at Lasell College in Newton, Massachusetts, the Number one problem caused by
deforestation is the impact on the global carbon cycle. Gas molecules that absorb thermal
infrared radiation are called greenhouse gases. If greenhouse gases are in large enough
quantity, they can force climate change, according to Daley. While oxygen (O 2) is the second
most abundant gas in our atmosphere, it does not absorb thermal infrared radiation, as
greenhouse gases do. Carbon dioxide (CO 2) is the most prevalent greenhouse gas. In 2012,
CO2 accounted for about 82 percent of all U.S. greenhouse gas, according to the Environment
Protection Agency (EPA). Trees can help, though. 300 billion tons of carbon, 40 times the
annual greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuels, is stored in trees, according to Greenpeace
(Michael, 2006).

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The deforestation of trees in the district not only lessens the amount of carbon stored, it also
releases carbon dioxide into the air. This is because when trees die, they release the stored
carbon. According to the 2010 Global Forest Resources Assessment, deforestation releases
nearly a billion tons of carbon into the atmosphere per year, though the numbers are not as
high as the ones recorded in the previous decade. Deforestation is the second largest
anthropogenic (human-caused) source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere, ranging between
6 percent and 17 percent. (Van Der Werf, G. R. et al., 2009)

Carbon isn't the only greenhouse gas that is affected by deforestation. Water vapor is also
considered a greenhouse gas (Ibid). The impact of deforestation on the exchange of water
vapor and carbon dioxide between the atmosphere and the terrestrial land surface is the
biggest concern with regard to the climate system (Daley, 2006). Changes in their
atmospheric concentration will have a direct effect on climate. Deforestation has decreased
global vapor flows from land by 4 percent, according to a study published by the National
Academy of Sciences. Even this slight change in vapor flows can disrupt natural weather
patterns and change current climate models.
Effects of deforestation
Forests are complex ecosystems that affect almost every species on the planet. When they are
degraded, it can set off a devastating chain of events both locally and around the world.
Loss of species, seventy percent of the worlds plants and animals live in forests and are
losing their habitats to deforestation, according to National Geographic (2003). Loss of
habitat can lead to species extinction. It also has negative consequences for medicinal
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research and local populations who rely on the animals and plants in the forests for hunting
and medicine (Ibid).
Trees are important to the water cycle. They absorb rain fall and produce water vapor that is
released into the atmosphere. Trees also lessen the pollution in water, according to the North
Carolina State University (2011), by stopping polluted runoff. In the Amazon, more than half
the water in the ecosystem is held within the plants, according to the National Geographic
Society (2003).
Tree roots anchor the soil. Without trees, the soil is free to wash or blow away, which can
lead to vegetation growth problems (Ibid). The WWF states that scientists estimate that a
third of the worlds arable land has been lost to deforestation since 1960. After a clear cutting,
cash crops like coffee, soy and palm oil are planted. Planting these types of trees can cause
further soil erosion because their roots cannot hold onto the soil (WWF, 2009). The situation
in Haiti compared to the Dominican Republic is a great example of the important role forests
play in the water cycle, Both countries share the same island but Haiti has much less forest
cover than the Dominican Republic. As a result, Haiti has endured more extreme soil erosion,
flooding and landslide issues Dailey, 2006).

Forestry
Forestry plays a critical role in climate change mitigation, as forests sequester carbon from
the atmosphere and act as carbon sinks (Michael, 2006). It also plays a role in adaptation to
climate change, for example acting as a buffer against extreme weather events and providing
resources during and after disasters (Ibid). Mbire forests are under tremendous pressure due
to increased demand for new agricultural land, increased tobacco production among resettled
farmers, and fuel demands in both urban and rural areas. This has been exacerbated by an
73

absence of policy and institutional coordination across the different sectors that affect forestry
(Michael, 2006). According to Nhemachena (2008) Zimbabwe urgently needs an intersectoral
platform to guide forestry policy one that bring together stakeholders expertise around land
use, agriculture, finance, environment, national parks and climate change. The role of forests
as carbon sinks is less well articulated. Zimbabwe needs to assess, quantify and monitor
existing carbon stocks in the countrys forests (Ibid). One way to achieve this is to become a
partner country in the United Nations Collaborative Programme on Reducing Emissions from
Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing Countries (UN-REDD) programme
(Ibid). This will ensure that the country obtains UN support and assistance to develop
analyses and guidelines on measurement, reporting and verification of carbon emissions and
flows. More importantly, it will ensure that forests continue to provide multiple benefits for
livelihoods, economic growth and the environment (Nhemachena, 2010). Reforestation is
important in restoring the ecosystem services provided by forests including carbon storage,
water cycling and wildlife habitat, rebuilding wildlife habitats and reducing the buildup of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

Food insecurity
With changes in rainfall patterns many rural households in the district are failing to meet their
basic food requirements due to poor harvests. Rural households are finding it hard to have 3
meals a day because of food shortage. About 3% of rural households are estimated to have
insufficient means to meet their daily food requirements between April and June 2013
(ZimVAC 2013). Rural people are the one who are affected most with the impacts climate
change since they are depended on rain fed agriculture. low functional irrigation schemes in
Mbire rural communities is a sign that they rely on rain fed agriculture thus making them
vulnerable to climate variability. Changes in the weather patterns have not only affected

74

agricultural production and livestock but also nutrition of the rural people which has resulted
in malnutrition especially in children. Rural livelihoods are under threat of climate change
and variability because it affects people's normal health due to water stress, droughts and
unpredictable rainfall.

Changes in the climate in Mbire has resulted in food insecurity and water stress amongst
households for usage and drinking. Natural disasters such as droughts and pests infestation
have posed a threat to the community. These have greater impacts mainly on communities
that are reliant on agriculture as their source of income and food for household consumption
(Lundi, 2009). Agriculture in Mbire is heavily affected by an increase in population,
industrialisation, urbanisation, competition over resources and insufficient public spending
for rural infrastructure and services (Lundi 2009).

Climate adaptation and agricultural development

Climate change adaptation in Mbire is aimed at mitigating and developing appropriate coping
measures or interventions to address the negative impacts of climate change on agriculture. In
Zimbabwe agricultural systems have measures of in built adaptation capacity which is
autonomous adaptation, but the current rapid rate of change in the climate will impose new
and potentially overwhelming pressures on existing adaptation capacity. Secondary changes
which have been induced by changes in the climate are expected to undermine peoples
ability and ecosystem to cope with, recover from extreme climate events and other natural
hazards. IPCC has encouraged planned adaptation that is deliberate steps aimed at creating
the capacity to cope with climate change impacts (IPCC, 2007).

75

Effective adaptation measures and strategies should be aimed at securing the well being in the
face of climate change and climate variability. Climate change adaptation should focus on
support for the decision-making and capacity building processes that shape social learning,
technology transfer, innovation and development pathways (Stainforth et al., 2007).
Adaptation is most relevant when it influences decisions that exist irrespective of climate
change, but which have longer-term consequences (Stainforth et al., 2007). A key component
of climate adaptation involves building resilience, where resilience is the capacity of a system
to tolerate disturbance without collapsing into a qualitatively different state that is controlled
by a different set of processes: a resilient system can withstand shocks and rebuild itself when
necessary (Ibid).

Changes in the climate has resulted in negative impact on poor farm households in Mbire as
they have the lowest capacity to adapt and cope to climate change conditions (Nhemachena
and Hassan, 2007). Adaptation strategies are important as they help communities to better
face the adverse effects of climate change. Adaptation significantly contributes to the
reduction of negative impacts of climate change and other changing social economic
conditions. Appropriate measures which have been used to cope with climate change have
contributed to sustainable development and poverty alleviation (Magrath, 2008). Physical
adaptation measures in the agriculture production and development sector include mixed
crop-livestock farming systems, crop diversification, developing and promoting early
maturing & animal breeds, Small scale irrigation and drought-tolerant plant varieties. Water
resources management and protection are sector the main physical adaptation methods are
sustainable and appropriate water harvesting, utilization and storage, sanitation and safe
water supply using appropriate technologies and the provision of water sources such as
community best practises of collaborative water resources, communal dams. Physical

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adaptation measures in the ecosystem and environment are promoting community best
practices of collaborative NR management, tree planting, implementing clean drinking water
and sanitation programs e.g. hand washing and water boiling promoting health systems that
meet future demands.

Conservation farming
Conservation Agriculture (CA) is a broad term, which encompasses activities such as
minimum and zero tillage, tractor powered, animal powered and manual methods, integrated
pest management, integrated soil and water management, and includes conservation farming
(CF) (Muchinapaya, 2009). Conservation Agriculture is generally dened as any tillage
sequence that minimizes or reduces the loss of soil and water and achieves at least 30% soil
cover using crop residues. Conservation farming is conservation agriculture practiced by
smallholder farmers using small farm implements such as the hand hoe to create planting
basins. It is actually a modication of the traditional pit systems once common in southern
Africa (Mando et al., 2006). Farmers in Mbire have become vulnerable to climate change as a
result of over tillage of the soil composition which has led to poor crop yield. Farmers have
used conservation farming as a measure to curb this challenge by digging pits to plant the
seed popularly known in Mbire as Kutimba makomba. Kutimba makomba is done to
reduce soil tillage and also retain moisture for a longer period rather using ploughs and oxen.

Non governmental organisations (NGOs) such as World Vision, Africare have promoted
conservational farming in the district to enhance food security and poverty alleviation in the
drought prone area. Conservation farming has been embraced as the antidote to the impact of
climate change and variability on agriculture in drought prone areas (Gukurume, 2010).
Farmers in the district have adopted farming practice systems that conserve the fragile soils
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and improve their fertility especially in marginal rainfall regions. Kutimba makomba method
has been emphasised by the farmers as the ideal method to cope with climate change and
variability in most drought prone areas. Farmers in areas such as Chikafa, Hunyani, AngwaBridge, St Cecilia, Muzeza and Masoka pointed out that Kutimba makomba strategy found
this type of farming strategy as tiresome, time consuming and demanding physical manpower
to do it. Some of the respondents the researcher spoke were elderly who were no longer
flexible and capable of carrying out kutimba makomba method. Most farmers have used the
plough and an ox as kutimba makomba method is strenuous.

Conservation agriculture means ways of farming that conserve natural resources of soil and
water resulting in improved and sustainable production. Conservation agriculture techniques
have been adopted by farmers with resources such as animals and implements as well as by
those farmers who have no draught power or equipment. In Zimbabwe less than 40% of
farmers have access to draught power. FAO defines conservation agriculture as: a way of
farming that conserves, improves and makes more efficient use of natural resources through
integrated management of the available resources combined with external inputs.

Principles of conservation agriculture

Conservation agriculture takes advantage of natural ecological processes to conserve
moisture, enhance soil fertility and improve soil structure. It reduces soil erosion and the
presence of diseases and pests. These benefits are achieved through the application of six key
principles.
Minimum soil disturbance
Mulching and minimal burning of crop residues
Mixing and rotating crops
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 Timely implementation
Precise operations
Efficient use of inputs

Minimum soil disturbance

A key principle is to move the soil as little as possible. Only disturb the soil where the seed
and fertility amendments such as fertilizer and manure are to be placed. Minimum soil
disturbance has numerous benefits, and overcomes many of the disadvantages of ploughing.
Soil is formed in layers. If we disturb these layers by ploughing or turning the soil, we
damage the structure of the soil, which makes it harder for rainwater to infiltrate into the soil,
as natural drainage pathways are disrupted. It also makes the soil susceptible to erosion.
Ploughing destroys organic matter in the soil. Soil organic matter is acted upon by micro
organisms to form humus a stable compound which stores nutrients and water in the soil.
Soils with poor organic matter content are less capable of storing nutrients and become less
fertile. Soils with high organic matter content can store nutrients and water for longer.

Minimum tillage
reduces destruction of the soil structure;
does not expose soil to wind and water erosion;
improves infiltration rates;
slows the rate at which organic matter is mineralized and oxidized, so organic matter buildup occurs;
causes little disruption to the organisms that live in the soil, improving the soil structure and
mineralization of the organic matter;

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 compared to whole-scale ploughing, minimum tillage saves time, energy and money
because less land is tilled.
reduces soil compaction because the crop plant roots are left undisturbed. The root systems
prevent soil from slumping under its own weight.

Mulching and minimal burning of crop residues

Mulching means the spreading of crop residues (stover), dry grass and leaves, and other dead
plant material on the field. It is a fundamental principle of conservation agriculture and is
probably the biggest difference from conventional practice. In the past agriculturists
encouraged clean fields free of crop residues or other organic materials. They thought that
organic materials caused poor germination, contained pests and diseases and interfered with
operations like planting and weeding. Traditionally crop residues are burned after harvesting
or animals allowed to freely graze in the fields. Conservation agriculture promotes the proper
management of crop residues where they are placed carefully between rows during land
preparation in the dry season. Mulching has the following benefits when properly managed
reduce direct raindrop impact and so reduce soil erosion, reduce runoff and helps water to
seep into the soil, reduces evaporation and so conserves moisture for the crop, inhibits weeds
from emerging; organic residues improve organic matter content and soil nutrient status,
provides a beneficial environment for soil organisms, such as worms and millipedes, that are
important for biological tillage and moderates soil temperatures

However, there are challenges to promoting the use of crop residues for mulching when
farmers convert from conventional approaches to conservation agriculture of crop residues.
Crop residues are not the only mulch available: farmers can harvest grass, leaves and kitchen
compost to place on the soil as a blanket.

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Mixing and rotating crops

Intercropping and crop rotation has been promoted in Mbire since the early 1990s and it is
not a new concept to farmers. Mixing different crops in one field echoes processes found in
nature and can maximize plant nutrient use by synergy between different crops. Conservation
agriculture encourages profitable and agronomically efficient rotations: usually cereal and
legumes or cash crops. Taken together, these practices have the following advantages of
replenishing soil fertility: intercropping with nitrogen fixing legumes adds top-dressing
fertilizer to the soil, enabling crops to use the nutrients in the soil more effectively:
intercropping different crops with different feeding zones which do not compete for nutrients
my help prevent a hard pan forming, helping to control weeds, diseases and pests by breaking
their life cycles through the introduction of a new crop and reducing the risk of total crop
failure in cases of drought and disease outbreaks.

However farmers in Mbire rarely practice rotation for a number of reasons. Shortages of
legume seed restrict planting. Legumes are normally grown for local consumption only, so if
production is increased then additional output markets will be needed in which to sell the
surplus. Farmers often give priority to growing cereal crops because cover crops compete for
moisture. This last reason is a problem that conservation agriculture helps to overcome and
thus helps intercropping to become a viable

Timely implementation
A key principle of conservation agriculture is the need for timely implementation. This means
preparing the land in good time before the rains start, planting soon after an effective rainfall

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event, weeding at appropriate times and intervals, during the winter usually two to three
weeks after emergence, then at six weeks, and finally at the end of the rains and doing
effective pest and disease control before either spread too widely.

Where conservation agriculture has not produced the expected results, it is often due to a lack
of timeliness of operations. Practitioners of conservation agriculture have learned not to cut
corners in the early part of the season as this will cause more work and lower yields later on.

Problems with conventional farming

Conventional land preparation methods along with removal or burning of crop residues, poor
rangeland management and inadequate crop rotations have contributed to a worsening
situation in Mbire. In conventional agriculture, soil tillage is considered one of the most
important operations for creating a favourable soil tilth, preparing a seedbed and controlling
weeds. However, mechanical implements destroy the soil structure by breaking down the
aggregate size and currently conventional tillage methods are a major cause of soil loss and
desertification in many developing countries. Erosion as a result of tillage can lead to soil
losses exceeding 10 tonnes per hectare annually from sandy soils in southern Zimbabwe. Soil
erosion accelerated by wind and water is responsible for 40% of land degradation worldwide.
The most widely practised method of land preparation in Mbire is ploughing using an animaldrawn mouldboard plough.

The advantages of ploughing are that it helps to bury weeds, mix soil with fertilizers and
manure. It also helps in the short term to control pest and diseases by burying them under the

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soil. The disadvantages of ploughing are that it delays planting as farmers have to wait for the
rains before they plough, hence planting is usually late. It form plough pans especially when
done to shallow depths (less than 23cm). These are hard layers that prevent good root growth
and reduce crop yields, leaves bare soil, at risk of erosion, and which forms crusts that stop
rainwater from soaking in. Ploughing breaks down soil structure making it easier for soil to
be washed away; it requires draught power which is often difficult and expensive to access. It
can also destroy healthy pathogens and predators in the soil. Ploughing also destroys many of
the beneficial aerobic and anaerobic micro-organisms through inversion, increases soil
surface evaporation and destroys the root anchorage in the soil. This anchorage stabilises the
soil, reducing lateral movement and preventing wet soil profile from slumping under its own
weight. Ploughing buries weed seeds at different levels allowing them to germinate in
subsequent seasons when they are brought up again during later ploughing, moves and
spreads runner grasses and weeds throughout the field.

Crop variety
Crop variety has been used as a strategy to cope with climate change; it involves switching
from one crop variety to another. This is demonstrated in adoption of climate-resilient crop
varieties that are able to withstand a single or a range of climate stresses. Crop variety is more
or less the same with crop rotation except one farmer can plant different crops in the same
piece of land and this can also be called multi cropping. Farmers in Mbire district have
resorted to multi cropping after realising that climate changing is resulting low productivity.
One farmer in Chikafa noted that since crops are being affected by the changes in the climate
multi cropping method is significant as there is a possibility that one of the crops can suit the
weather at the present time. Most farmers in the district have planted a combination of maize
and beans in their fields. One woman in the district said
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Kunaya kwava kuita mvura makore ano iri kurasisa varimi vakawanda, varimi vavakudyara
mbese dazakasiyana siyana pamwe chete kuitira kuti mvura ikaita shoma panogona kuita
chirimwa chinobudirira. (Farmers have resorted multi cropping as way to cope with the
erratic and unpredictable rainfall)

Multi cropping has contributed in enhancing food security in the district as one of the crops
planted has led to bumper harvest. Multi cropping has increased soil fertility, after harvesting
the crops there remains that is the residue of different types of crops. Some farmers pointed
out that they plant the same crop using different seeds from different companies for example
some farmers would use the seed co seeds and others panner. Multiple cropping is not a new
form of agricultural technology, but instead is an ancient means of intensive farming.
Multiple cropping has been practiced in Mbire as a way to maximize land productivity in a
specific area in a growing season. Generally, the practice of planting two or more crops on
the same field is more common in drought prone areas with high temperatures. As population
is increasing the need for agricultural production is also increasing, the use of multicropping
systems is more prevalent. Though the history of multiple cropping is old, the concept has
received very little attention from agricultural scientists.

Multiple cropping systems use management practices where the total crop production from a
single piece of land is achieved by growing single crops in close sequence, growing several
crops simultaneously, or combining single and mixed crops in some sequence. The most
important aspect of multiple cropping is the intensification of crop production into additional

84

dimensions. Multiple cropping includes the dimensions of time and space; for example, when
two crops share the same space at the same time.

Small grain crops

Farmers have resorted to traditional small grains such as sorghum, millet and rappoko.
Drought resistant crops are resistant and can with stand the increasing high temperatures thus
farmers are now planting hectors of drought resistant crops. Drought resistant crops have
been grown to ensure food security and for selling to the market in order to raise money for
farming inputs. Drought resistant crops have served as cash crop and also for food, the crops
have also been for beer brewing ceremonies. One farmer pointed out that I grow millet,
rappoko and mhunga every year because I brew beer for the rainmaking ceremonies, nhimbe,
funerals and other occasions. 1996 regional workshop on climate change promoted the of
small grain crops such as sorghum, pearl millet, finger millet, cowpeas soya beans and
groundnuts as panacea to counter the effects of drought that are a direct consequence of
climatic variability (Chazovachii, 2012). Drought resistant crops can survive for long periods
without rainfall and they less fertilisers hence they tend to mature early. The researcher noted
that every farmer in Mbire has got potion planted drought resistant crops.

One of the challenges facing farmers growing small grains is limited marketing opportunities.
Lacks of markets have led to the low production of small grains in Mbire. Farmers and agro
dealers have faced a challenge of a ready market for the small grains.

Changing cropping calendar

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Changing the cropping calendar is one of the common adaptation strategy used in Mbire to
cope with the changing weather patterns at farm level. This involves altering the timing of
farm activities to suit the prevailing climate change variations (Lasco and Boer 2006). This
method has been referred to as by crop staggering by some farmers. Crop staggering is a
process when farmer grows or plants his or her crops on strategically different days. Crop
staggering is a mitigation method which has been used by farmers in Mbire as it reduces their
vulnerability to drought; farmers have noted that one batch is likely yields. Erratic and
unpredictable rainfall has made farmers to change their dates of planting their crops. One of
the farmers in Muzeza indicated that the previous years we used to plant our crops in October
but the situation has changed some are even planting their crops in mid December. In 2013
the majority of the farmers had to replant their crops as a result of the erratic and
unpredictable rainfall.

Water harvesting
Water harvesting is referred to as a process or any form of collecting water usually rain in
large quantities for future purposes. Lack of water is a challenge which has made life difficult
and it has become a challenge threatening farmers. Some farmers have tried water harvesting
as way to deal with shortage of water in the district.

Community based adaptation

Community based adaptation is a strategy to mitigate the effects of climate change.
Collective adaptation influences individual adaptation decisions and resilience to climate
change by facilitating information diffusion and risk sharing (Boahene, Snijders, and Folmer
1999; Isham 2002; Fafschamps and Lund 2003; Bandiera and Rasul 2006). Given that
86

adaptation is often location specific, local forums frequently are the best site for co
production of forecasts and discussion of strategies to be taken up by individuals (Valdivia et
al, 2010) Community workshops have helped individuals to identify local climate trends and
adaptation strategies. Some of these strategies being put in place by farmers in the Mbire
community are community gardens, reforestation and meeting up as groups to discuss about
climate change its effects on crop production and possible ways to address the changing
weather patterns. One Agricultural extension officer (Agritex) noted that farmers in the
district are meeting regularly to discuss, share their skills, experience and advising each other
on the best adaptation measures. Farmers in Mbire are encouraging each other to grow trees
especially indigenous and exotic trees. Farmers in Chikafa were given gum trees to plant at
the back of their fields.

Picture of a community garden in Masoka

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Small-scale miners pose a unique threat to the environment in the district. They exploit
mostly alluvial gold and have no capacity to mitigate environmental damage. In addition,
small-scale miners lack the skills necessary for efficient mineral extraction so achieve low
yields. Small-scale miners are driven by limited opportunities elsewhere in the economy, such
as limited jobs in agriculture due to droughts (Salick, 2007). The damage caused by smallscale mining methods threatens surface water resources and flooding is exacerbated by
deforestation and the siltation of water courses. But climate change offers important
opportunities for the mining sector to reduce emissions and trade carbon credits on the
international carbon market (Parry, 2007). Gold panning is one of the alternatives that people
have resorted to in the district as a source of livelihood. According to villager in Kanyemba
for the past 5 years we have actually resorted to gold panning for survival or earn income
since our farms are not helping us anymore. However, gold panning is illegal and it is
attributed with causing land degradation, erosion and siltation of rivers which may explain
why some of the rivers are drying up.

Challenges being faced by farmers in trying to implement these strategies

Lack of capital - most of the farmers in the Mbire area do not have enough money to
help them build resilience against climate change

Lack of physical strength - some of the farmers that the researcher issued with
questionnaires were people over the age of 65 and as required by the aspect of
conservation farming that people have to dig the pits to plant the seeds using hoes for
some farmers who are now elderly it has really proved to be hard and strenuous and in
some instances they cannot afford to hire labour so they end up using the plough and
oxen method and still remain vulnerable to climate change.

88

Lack of unity - as indicated above there is a community based approach where all
member of the community are supposed to come together and discuss on the measures
to cope with climate change. Some farmers pointed out that not all of them are willing
to cooperate irrespective of their political backgrounds.

Lacks of accurate information some farmers were not aware of the effects on
climate change and the possible measures to cope with the changing weather
variability.

Efforts taken by the government to enhance agricultural production

The government of Zimbabwe has made efforts to improve agricultural production in drought
prone areas such as Mbire. The government of Zimbabwe in trying to improve agricultural
production has strengthened research institutions, provided funding to smallholder farmers
with seeds, fertilisers, capacity building and other agricultural inputs. The government is
improving agricultural production because Zimbabwe economy is agriculture based.
According to the government of Zimbabwe (1995), agricultural production contributes to 1519% to annual gross domestic product depending on the rainfall patterns (Government of
Zimbabwe 1995).

The government of Zimbabwe has restructured the institutions that are crucial for enhancing
agricultural growth. Changes have been made in the research institutions, extension services
and marketing institutions. These changes have been done to improve agricultural production
89

in the country. Improving the institutions such agricultural and research institutions the
government is aiming at improving agricultural growth because it is within these institutions
that people get information on farming from experts (Unganai, 2006).

Climate change effects in the agricultural sector have affected women small holder farmers.
The government has availed funding to women farmers Social Dimension fund. Social
Dimension fund is aimed at supporting women involved in agriculture and livestock
production, through provision of seeds, chemicals, fertilisers and implements. Operation
maguta in Mbire was also implemented to promote agriculture in rural areas. Farmers
received seeds and fertilisers from the government.

The government has availed funding to the rural district council to drill boreholes in
kanyemba,chidodo and chikafa. These boreholes have supplied clean and safe water to
humans and livestock. Clean and safe water has reduced the outbreak of diseases in the
district. Bush pump boreholes have supplied water for domestic purposes and backyard
gardens in the district. The government has made strides in improving water harvesting
techniques for irrigation schemes. Irrigation schemes help in watering crops during years of
low rainfall thus increasing agricultural growth.

NGOs and government agencies have played a pivotal role in supporting agriculture in Mbire
and coping with climate change. NGOs have trained farmers on conservation farming,
permaculture and the growing of small grains. NGOs such as World vision, Action Aid have
provided seeds and farming implements to small holder farmers. NGOs have also drilled
boreholes in the district for the community to cope up with the challenges of water shortages.
90

Government agencies such as EMA and NGOs are also educating the community members
on the effects of deforestation and also promoting the planting of indigenous and exotic trees.

Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources Management

The most important public institution working on climate change is the Ministry of
Environment and Natural Resource Management, which provides administrative coordination
for climate change policy and programmes (Rurinda, 2010). It is the leading ministry for the
development and implementation of environmental policy, and coordinates with all other
ministries and agencies on environmental matters. The Ministry derives its mandate from one
key piece of legislation, namely the Environmental Management Act (Chapter 20:27) of
2002, which is executed via the Environmental Management Agency, the National Parks and
Wildlife Management Authority, and the Forestry Commission (Ibid). The Climate Change
Office deals with climate change issues. The Ministry manages multilateral environmental
agreements in Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe was one of more than 150 countries that signed and
ratified the three Rio Conventions, including the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1992. In 1997 Zimbabwe signed the Kyoto Protocol, and both
houses of the Zimbabwe Parliament ratified this in 2008 (Parry, 2007).

Environmental Management Agency

The Environmental Management Agency, is a parastatal under the Ministry of Environment
and Natural Resource Management, which is responsible for promoting standards for
environmental quality, including air quality, and providing environmental information.

Forestry Commission

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The Forestry Commission is a parastatal under the Ministry of Environment and Natural
Resource Management, monitors the extent of forests and deforestation in the country, and
promotes rural afforestation.

Conclusion
An analysis and presentation of research findings of the research topic under study is
highlighted within this chapter. The research findings were presented using graphs, tables and
pictures. Research findings on the impact of climate change, climate change perceptions and
adaptations measures were presented in the chapter.

Chapter Five: Conclusion and Recommendations

This chapter summarizes the research as it gives the final conclusions on the researchers
findings. The researcher forwards suggestions and recommendations in light of climate
change towards agricultural productivity in Mbire in particular and other draught prone areas
in general. The chapter is a summary of the research.

The researcher noted that agricultural production in Mbire district has declined as a result of
the changes in the climate. Data collected from focus group discussions by the researcher
showed that changes in the climate have affected crop production and livestock rearing. Low
agricultural productivity in the district has exacerbated the poverty levels in the community.
Interviews conducted by the researcher showed that climate change had effects on the social
wellbeing of the inhabitants.

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Some subsistent families which survived from agricultural produce such as selling maize,
beans and small grains were greatly affected. Income generated from selling agricultural
produce was used to purchase fertilizers, farming implements, school fees and capital for
projects. Low agricultural production has affected their standards of living.

Climate change has also resulted in the migration of farmers with expertise in farming. The
researcher noted that most farmers had migrated to Mazowe, Mvurwi, Concession and
Centenary. Erratic and unpredictable rainfall in the district affecting agriculture is one of the
reasons forcing farmers to desert the area. Migration of farmers in the district led to shortages
of food such as mealie meal. From the interviews conducted the number of farmers deserting
the area is gradually increasing leaving the area with unskilled and inexperienced farmers.

Livestock production in the area is decreasing significantly as result of water shortages and
high temperatures. Livestock such as cattle symbolise wealth in the district and these
livestock have been affected by the changes in the climate. Water scarcity has further
worsened the situation by increasing the death of livestock. The researcher noted that with the
high temperatures in the district they were no pastures for the livestock to graze hence this
posed a threat to the livestock survivability. Pastures are important for livestock hence from
the research it was noted that the number of households exchanging cattle for maize is
increasing. Grazing fields have been affected by the high temperatures hence community
members have resorted to barter trade. Livestock such as cattle, goats, and sheep are
exchanged for grains, clothes, food commodities and blankets. These effects of climate
change are forcing the people to sell their assets thus exposing them to hunger and starvation.

Increasing high temperatures have led to the multiplication of diseases and pests in the
district. Key informant interviews with the rural district council and Agritex officers showed
93

that the number of livestock dying as result of animal diseases have increased, pest affecting
agricultural production have also increased. The rural district council has no funds to repair
the dip tanks in the area hence animals have been greatly affected by diseases. Climate
change has created favourable conditions for pests to multiply, farmers growing tomatoes and
other vegetables have faced problems with pests affecting their plants. The effects of climate
change have left many families with food insecurity.

Women are the ones who spent most of their time in the fields. They have been affected
mostly by climate change especially water scarcity which has created a burden on women as
they travel long distances in search of water for drinking and washing. Some women even
walk for long distances of about 3km in search of water. Rivers are drying up as a result of
high temperatures. The researcher observed that women are the ones who are affected mostly
by climate change.

Deforestation is also increasing in the district as the demand for firewood is increasing. Rural
people use wood for their kraals, huts and cooking. Deforestation of the area is contributing
to the changes in the climate. The researcher noted that the community members were aware
of the effects of climate change but they do not have any other source for firewood and
kraals. The researcher observed that deforestation in the area is leading to soil erosion
damaging roads and plants.

The district is suffering from increased food insecurity as a result of a decline in agricultural
production. Both livestock and crop production have been affected. Research statistics
showed that a number of households have shifted from farming activities in order to raise
income for their income projects. The researcher noted that the number of households

94

engaging in farming was decreasing significantly as a result of the impact of climate change
on crop production.

Data analyzed from the questionnaires showed that farmers in Mbire are aware of the causes,
effects and the changes of climate in the past years. A majority of the farmers indicated that
they had observed changing rainfall patterns in the district and increasing high temperatures.
Only a few were not aware of the changes in the climate. Farmers are aware of climate
change but they do not have access to information on the best methods to use to cope with
climate change. Lack of access to information is one of the challenges facing the farmers
hence some farmers claimed that they need to be trained on the causes, effects and adaptation
to climate change.
The researcher noted that some of the adaptation methods used to cope up with climate
change in the district are ineffective. The researcher noted adaptation methods failed to
produce bumper harvests for the farmers. Methods such as crop staggering or mixed cropping
were affected with the erratic and unpredictable rainfalls resulting low agricultural
production.

Recommendations
Climate change capacity building
Among the key primary challenges noted in the research in Mbire militating against climateresilient agricultural production systems, food production and livelihoods was the lack of
vital information on climate variability, current and projected climate changes among farmers
and policy makers. The Zimbabwes Department of Meteorological Services is facing
capacity constraints in monitoring, generation and dissemination of weather and climate

95

information that is of vital use in designing agricultural systems and practices that are
resilient to climate change and variability (Nhemachena, 2009).

The government should provide necessary capacity building support for technical,
institutional and human resources development at national, provincial and local community
levels. Some of the areas which need capacity building are climate change monitoring,
appropriate weather information, weather focusing, early warning systems; climate change
education and dissemination to the farmers.

In the rural farming areas there is need to develop medium range weather forecast systems to
specifically deal with the local rainfall unreliability and uncertainty. The improvement in the
national, provincial and community knowledge base is anticipated to promote the use of
climate early warning systems and facilitate enhanced adaptation strategies to climate
variability and change (Moyo, 2010).

Moyo (2012) is of the opinion that there must be some comprehensive plans for agricultural
development and food security enshrined in the national development and poverty reduction
strategies. Whilst the focus is on rural and sustainable development, there is need to establish
a multi-sectoral approach to strengthen rural-urban linkages and mainstreaming climate
change into all development policies and sectors such as: education and training; agriculture
and relevant support systems in input supply and marketing; industry, commerce and
infrastructure development (Moyo et al., 2012).

96

There is also the need to strengthen capacity for policy analysis, research and extension in the
areas of crops, livestock, mechanization and water resources development and irrigation,
agricultural education, forestry, natural resources management and climate change education
(Ibid).

In order to have a climate resilient agricultural system and sustainable rural livelihoods, there
must be a comprehensive institutional framework for capacity building towards sustainable
rural development (Unganai, 2009). The capacity building framework must ensure a
coordinated vertical integration in terms of policy delivery, strategies, programs and projects
from the national, provincial, district up to the local village level (Ibid).
The capacity building initiatives must also involve a good governance framework as a
primary public service delivery instrument, specifically, as suggested by Chagutah (2010):

the concept and practice of climate governance must be introduced. This is

anticipated to promote decentralization down the national, provincial, district and
village level, thus strengthening partnership among government agents, the private
sector, international development partners, NGOs and the community in national and
local development initiatives that are climate smart and resilient (Chagutah, 2010).

There is a need to improve research, development and adoption of improved seed varieties
that effectively respond to the challenges posed by climate change for instance drought
resistant crops such as sorghum, millet and rappoko should be widely promoted (Moyo,
2010). Furthermore there is need for farmers to be educated and well informed when it comes
to issues of climate change. Agriculture workers in the government such as the AGRITEX
officers must clearly and fluently explain the causes, effects and adaptation methods of

97

climate change. Small incentives should be given to community members who engage in
practices that actually reduce climate change such as afforestation and also to those who are
participating in practices that are adapting to climate change

There is need for lobbying for better enforcement of laws through the engagement of law
enforcers such as the police as well as EMA so as to reduce the cases of veldfires and
deforestation. Awareness on climate change and its impact should be raised in drought prone
areas such as Mbire. People are experiencing changing climate but they don't know the cause
and consequences of climate change. The capacity for coping with the impacts of climate
change must be strengthened. Local adaptation practices must be preserved and promoted
(Moyo, 2010).

There is need toincrease availability of water for livestock and irrigation reservoir, ponds and
wells should be established in Mbire as well as rain water collection and rainwater harvest
system should also be promoted. Improved irrigation facilities can improve the productivity
of crops. Water scarcity has affecected agriculture and livestock production hence promoting
water collection and rainwater harvesting will increase productivity.

In order to reduce damages from natural calamities like droughts and changing rainfall
weather forecast system must be developed. Indigenous knowledge on agriculture, livestock
keeping, handicrafts making and coping changing climate must be preserved and promoted.
Preserving biodiversity on local area, awareness level of biodiversity on rural communities
must be increased.

Recommendations for Research

98

More in depth study is needed to determine which species of main crops and other
plants are lost and why and what implication has on livelihood strategies for local
community implementing to preserve them. More studies need to be conducted on
climate change and change in livestock pattern (Moyo, 2010).

Further Research is also required on changing life style of the people in relation to
climate change, production and productivity of crops and income generating activities
and direct impact on health (Unganai, 2009). Research is also required on spectral
impact of climate change such as water resources, agriculture production and
livestock management in drought prone areas.

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APPENDIX 1

Midlands State University

Department of Development Studies

Questionnaire: Mbire District

My name is Michael Tigere a student at Midlands State University doing his research on the
impact of climate change on agricultural production in drought prone areas. The case of
Mbire 2000-2014.

Confidentiality and Consent: I am going to ask you some personal questions that some
people may find difficult to answer. Your answers are however completely confidential. Your
name will not be written on this form, and will never be used in connection with any of the
information you give me. However, your honest answers to the questions will be greatly
appreciated.
Questionnaire number:

Date:

1. Demographic data
1.1

District

1.2

Ward

1.3

Village

1.4

Name of Respondent

1.5

Age

1.6

Sex

114

2. Have you noticed any changes in the climate from the past years? If yes please explain the
changes you have observed.

3. Have you changed your planting dates for crops? If yes please can you explain the days
you would plant in the past years and current dates

3.1 Why have you changed the planting dates?

4.0 Are there any changes in the rainfall patterns? If yes can you explain the changes?

4.1 What are the effects of droughts in the district?

i.

Effects of drought livelihoods

ii.

Effects of drought on agricultural production

iii.

Effects of drought livestock

5.0 What are the effects of high temperatures?

i.

Livelihoods

ii.

Agricultural production

iii.

Livestock

iv.

Community

6.0 What are the causes of climate change?

7.0 Which methods have been used in the district to cope up with climate changes?
i.

How effective are the methods

ii.

Advantages and disadvantages of the methods

8.0 What should be done to mitigate the effects of climate change?

115

i.

Farmers

ii.

Community

iii.

Government

iv.

Others NGO, etc

APPENDIX 2
116

Midlands State University

Department of Development Studies

Interview Guide: Interviews, FGDs

My name is Michael Tigere a student at Midlands State University doing his research on the
impact of climate change on agricultural production in drought prone areas. The case of
Mbire 2000 2014.

Confidentiality and Consent: I am going to ask you some personal questions that some people
may find difficult to answer. Your answers are however completely confidential. However,
your honest answers to the questions will be greatly appreciated.

1. Have you noticed any changes in the climate from the past years? If yes please
explain the changes you have observed.
2.

Have you changed your planting dates for crops? If yes please can you explain the
days you would plant in the past years and current dates

3. Why have you changed the planting dates?

4. Are there any changes in the rainfall patterns? If yes can you explain the changes?
5. What are the effects of droughts in the district?
6. Effects of drought livelihoods
7. Effects of drought on agricultural production
8. Effects of drought livestock
117

9. What are the effects of high temperature

1.

Livelihoods

2. Agricultural production
3. Livestock
4. Community

10. What are the causes of climate change?

11. Where do you get firewood for cooking, tobacco, kraals
12. Do you plant trees how often, when
13. Do you know the effects of cutting down trees
14. The advantages of planting trees

7.0 Which methods have been used in the district to cope up with climate changes?
i.

How effective are the methods

ii.

Advantages and disadvantages of the methods

8.0 What should be done to mitigate the effects of climate change?

i.

Farmers

ii.

Community

iii.

Government

iv.

Others NGO, etc

118