BBT 2033 BIOPHARMACEUTICAL TECHNOLOGY

Antimicrobial Susceptibility Test with a Literature

Review on Medicine/Antibiotics
Project Report

By: Nik-Othman II C. Abdullah

BSc. (Hons) Biotechnology

Dr. Seng Hoi Ling

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Introduction and Literature Review

Life is short, the Art long
-Hippocrates

The immense length of medical history is a very wide landscape filled with deep valleys
and sky-high peaks. The ingenuity, diligence and resourcefulness of man throughout the struggles of
diseases are impressive. What a modern physician may hope to master relative to the entire medical
knowledge of the entire human history is comparatively infinitesimal.
The modern man sadly tends to fall into his egoistic
condescension, putting into mind that he has the best of the
worlds, belittling the medical and pharmaceutical achievements
of the past. Actually, it is a wise thing to go back and seek them
out with an open mind.
Drawbacks of modern medicine are steadily becoming apparent,
increasing the need for innovative solutions. Past civilizations,
having a profound way of seeing Life may also hold the solution
in the neo-medical problems that modern medicine is facing.
With all the exceptional accomplishment of modern medicine, it
is not without failures and shortcomings. Many of the modern
medical methods are invasive and unnatural, suppressing and
Figure 1 Painting depicting
superseding the natural and resilient defense mechanism of an Medical practice in Ancient
The woman here feeds
organism. As a result, it only compromises the overall vitality of Egypt.
antimicrobial compounds to a
the bodily system in the long run. This is working against Nature, man with an existing endoa powerful force that governs everything, working with it is what Hippocrates has learnt to achieve.
Many synthetic pharmaceutical drugs have negative side-effects, no matter how properly it is
administered or prescribed. This is because they are not metabolized in a natural and equal way by
the organism. Many pathogenic microbes have learnt how to cope up and survive the offensive
mechanisms of the antibiotics, which was once hailed as the wonder-drug of modern medicine.
Antibiotics, from the Greek word anti meaning against and bios meaning life are compounds
that have the ability to destroy, slow down, or at times, inhibit the growth of bacteria. In the modern
society, antibiotics are widely-used to treat benign and terminal infections.

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Diseases such as Syphilis, Gonorrhea, Tubercolosis and Necrosis are just a few examples in
which antibiotics can greatly help. However, due to continuous use of these antimicrobial
compounds, some bacteria that are resistant have also emerged. This is made possible by the doctors
who dutifully prescribe antibiotics during under-necessary situations.
Mankind, due to the fear of the unknown,
diligently adheres and takes in the pill.
Unknowingly, taking these bactericidal has two
adverse effects. One is obliterating the bacteria,
and the second, is leaving behind strong strains.
The earlier sounds like a bone plucked from the
throat, but the latter occurs when man, thinking he
is cured after a couple of dosages, stops taking the
entire prescription. Doing this kills the weaker
strains of the pathogen, but leaves behind
stronger, more resistant strains. When the strong
Figure 2 An early century painting of
strains survive, they can easily re-propagate.;
Razi, an Arabic Alchemist and physician,
treating a patient with an eye infection.
non-resistant bacterial microflora may even
mutate when the resistant information is passed to them through conjugation or bacterial sex.
Therefore; a more vigorous and enduring infection occurs. As this cascade of event turns into a
cycle, man becomes solely dependent on antibiotics. Unfortunately, this is a widespread and sadly, a
global idiosyncrasy. Many natural remedies and treatments are much gentler and do not incorporate
many of these drawbacks, therefore making them generally safer.

The use of antibiotics stretches all the way back to the

dawn of ancient times. The Greeks, Chinese and Egyptians
even used to apply molds on wounds to let them heal and
prevent further cellular necrosis. However, these ancient
civilizations have not fully understood the mechanism or
the principle on how these molds worked. Ancient Greeks
have also found out, that many plants, particularly herbs,
help in treating wounds.
Medicines that we widely use today evolved from the
ancient studies of the Egyptians, Greeks, Roman, Arabs
and all other early civilizations that flourished.

Figure 3 A classical painting depicting

Greece with their knowledge of
Medicine. Here, a physician tends to
battle wounds of a Hoplite, an ancient
Greek warrior.

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Ancient Egyptians
The Greeks, known for their great contributions in the field of medicine did not actually discover the
medical system, as contrast to popular belief; rather, they had an enormous collection of pre-existing
medical lore and knowledge to work on. Their singular genius lay upon their abilities and skills in
refining and augmenting all of the medical knowledge into a new system and synthesis.
Many medical historians now agree that the main
source and reservoir of medical knowledge roots
back to Egypt, whose civilization was already old
and well-established during the dawn of the Golden
Age of classical Greece.
Many dispute that the Greeks were enlightened in Figure 4 Egyptian Hieroglyphs of
Medical knowledge through the Minoan civilization Medical Practice.
in Crete, which was a border country between Egypt and Greece. However, two individuals stand-out
in this regard; Pythagoras--in which Mathematicians attributes the use of the Pythagorean Theorem-and Thales. Pythagoras was known to travel widely. Aside from being a Mathematician, he had
extensive backgrounds in Medical Sciences. Thales on the same note studied Medicine right at the
heart of Egypt.
As with the Greeks, the origins of Ancient
Egyptian Medicine confided in pure religion and
spirituality. The Egyptian god of medicine, Imhotep, was
analogous to Asclepius of the Greeks. Asclepius was
depicted as the rod with a snake coiling around it.
However, it must not be confused with Caduceus (later on
the Greek Medicine). Prayers, supplications, offerings and
meditation were made to Imhotep and other gods in the
matter of health and diseases. However, despite the
religious provenance, Egyptian medicine was mostly
rational and scientific.

Figure 5 Imhotep, the Egyptian

God of Medicine

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In the ancient Egyptian Medicine, blood was considered as a substantial nutritive and regulatory
substance. It was considered as the water that carried the life of an individual. It was important for
the Egyptians that blood should be clean and cleansed, as it is circulated in our body. They believed
that when blood is pure, it carries the life force of the individual to its greatest potential, which is
proven true. Clean blood and healthy circulation is equal to a healthy individual, enabling him to
achieve many things.
Hence, even circulation was widely
recognized. As in this case, the opposite for
blood being clean also plays its role on the
Egyptian Medical knowledge. As blood was
known to have been the carrier of the life
force, a dead person must be drained of it, to
avoid the blood being corrupted --in
modern medical terms, denatured--,
because the corruption of blood regarded that
the soul will be or has been corrupted as well.
Figure 6 A painting showing the ancient
Egyptian embalmers gutting out the cadaver,
removing the internal organs that easily

In Egyptian lore, a soul is weighed on the scale of Maat against the Feather of Truth. If the soul of
the person is lighter than the feather, he is allowed passage to the afterlife; if not, he will perish, being
eaten by Ammut. Hence, Egyptians had made sure that when a person has died, the blood must be
drained. Hence, this is where the modern
Embalming traces its roots.

Figure 7 Hieroglyph of the Judgement.

The scale of Maat with the Feather of
Truth on the one side and the heart of
the deceased on the other. Ammut, the
devourer, waits to consume a corrupted

The ancient Egyptians practiced the art of

embalming and preservation in order to clean the
body of the deceased and prepare it for the
afterlife. The outcome of embalming is the wellknown Mummification. The Egyptian God of
Embalming and Mummification was Anubis. The
embalming, or as the Egyptians once called it,
Purification starts off with bath. Bathing the body
not only adheres to religious belief of purifying
the vessel of the soul, scientifically, it is a means
of sanitizing and toning the body of the deceased.

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an
body.

Next, the body is shaved off all the hairs. In Egyptian belief, hair was considered as
impurity for men, so most of the men were shaved clean in all the parts of their
After a full shave, the body is once again purified with water.

Figure 8 Anubis,
the God of Death
and Embalming.

Once the body has been thoroughly purified, the blood is drained out. This is
done by puncturing the carotid artery or the jugular with a sharp wooden stake,
slitting-open the wrist with a sharpened wooden knife and letting the blood
flow freely. After the blood had stopped flowing, the embalmer pumps-in clean
water into the aorta. As the water fills the cardiovascular system, pressure
builds up and the heart is seemingly brought back to mechanism, however,
instead of blood, it pumps clean water through the left ventricle, distributing
the water all throughout the body. The embalmers then locate the superior and
inferior vena cava, wherein blood was supposed to drain into. From thereon,
they make another incision and drain out the water.

After the draining of the blood, the embalmers proceeded in the removal of
the organs. The brain is firstly removed by inserting a twisted and bent metallic rod through the nasal
vestibule, further into the nasal cavity and finally, breaking the thin cartilages separating the nose and
the cranium. The brain is then vigorously scrambled, to breakdown the structure into a softer and
mucosal form. As the rod is pulled back, the brain freely flows out from the nose. The nasal vestibule
is then pumped with water in order for the skull to be washed. Then, the eye balls are taken and
replaced with eye lids or eyeballs crafted-out from pure gold. Lastly, the liver, the spleen, the
digestive tract, the stomach and everything inside the gut is removed by small incisions, which is
covered by golden plates afterwards.

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The thoracic cavity is thoroughly washed with
clean water. In replacement for the organs, amulets are
placed accordingly to help the deceased in his journey
through the afterlife. The body is once again, and for
the final time, bathed. The embalmer then pours
Natron
Salts all
over the
body,
and into
the cavities, including the nose and the mouth. The salt
was used to dehydrate the body and avoid
decomposition, as a result, further preserving the body
Figure 9 Anubis helping the Embalmer
in the purification process. Here,
Natron Salts are poured to helpin
preservation.

afterwards.

The body is then generously enveloped in

thin linen and placed inside a Sarcophagus. The
sarcophagus acts as the coffin and the lid is
remarkably heavy, therefore preventing air to
flow in or out. This prevents oxidation of the
body and rapid decomposition. With this ritual,
the bodies of the Ancient Egyptians are
extraordinarily preserved for over thousands of
years. One of Ancient Egypts great medical
contributions was the use of herbs as natural
remedies for various illnesses. Antimicrobial
compounds were discovered during the Egyptian
Age, wherein wounds from battles where treated Figure 10 A first-hand picture of an Egyptian
by boiling herbs such as Oregano, Mint, Sage and Sarcophagus taken in a museum.
Ephedra to extract the alkaloids and use it either
as a topical treatment for infections or pain, or taken orally as an antidote.
The Egyptians wrote many medical papyri, wherein they incorporate their procedures and recipes
attributed to Imhotep, the God and founder of their medical system. Most of the papyri describes the
effects of various drugs, along with the classification and systematization of various diseases and

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illnesses, how to detect them through their
symptoms and their cure.
As cleanliness was akin to purity, Ancient
Egyptians performed immaculate hygiene
care. They bathed twice or thrice a day and
embrocated themselves with perfumes,
medicated and essential oils.

Figure 11 One of the final phases of the

Mummification process. The body is wrapped
with a linen cloth from head to toe.

Water was filtered using cloth and boiled

for sterilization before it was allowed to be drunk.
Pork was forbidden to be consumed as it was
deemed and proven unclean, no matter how much
it was cooked or boiled; the fat was too thick to be
properly cooked. In modern times, it is proven
that pork is unsafe and unhygienic to be a part of
the human diet. The swine consumes practically
anything; from food, to rotted flesh and produce,
to their young and to garbage. The pathogenic
microbes get deposited on the lipids on their Figure 12 Ebers Papyrus; A well known
tissues. For similar hygienic reasons, Egyptian medical papyrii that contains recipes of
women never engaged in sexual intercourse drugs, advises and other medical
during their period of menstruation.

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Figure 13 First-hand pictures of Egyptian artifacts; Left, A tablet depicting a

Pharaoh consulting a physician regarding his disease. Right, the mummified body
of an Egyptian, wrapped in linen cloth.

Last, but most importantly, specialists were delegated and thrived for just every field of medical
practice, a very well known practice for modern physicians. Each part of the human body and each
disease and illnesses had its own specialist who attended to it.

Ancient Greeks and Romans

Amongst all the pre-Hippocratic advocates, Pythagoras stands-out from the crowd. He was uttermost
fabled and legendary. He had a life which was provender of legends, myth and miracles.
As a Mathematical virtuoso, Pythagoras believed in the harmony and rhythm of numbers.
Discovering that whole numbers worked on a musical scale and intervals, he deduced their healing
effects on the organism. This resulted in his named being customarily invoked by musical therapist.
Pythagoras was a seminal thinker; however, his life has been shrouded in a veil of mysteries. This
makes it arduous to say with any degree of certainty exactly which concepts and principles of
medicines are attributed to him. Many assume that the concept of the critical days and the basic
notion of the humors may have rooted back to him. He adhered to a very strict diet and health
regimen, many ways being a vegetarian. He believed that consumption of meat impaired ones
judgment and advised judges to abstain from eating meat before undertaking important cases.
Scientifically proven, excessive consumption of meat may increase an individuals cholesterol level.
As the cholesterol level rises, the blood vessels constrict due to thrombosis or arterial embolism,
and causes ischemia (lack of blood flow). The oxygen being carried to the brain slowly depletes,
therefore, causing a series of delusional attacks or even a cerebrovascular attack (CVA).

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The Four-Elements theory is attributed Empedocles.
According to his theory, everything in the universe,
including the human body is composed and governed by
Earth, Water, Wind and Fire in varying proportions. This has
become the basic foundation of Alchemy, wherein all matter
is made out of the four elements of nature, whether by
material or the process employed to create it. A modern
example would be materials, i.e Metal pipes; Metal deposits
coming from Earth, molding it using Fire, letting it cool by
using Water and letting it oxidize by Air. Another is the
modern vehicle; the materials are made of metal, which is an
Earth material, the gasoline represents Water, the
combustion in the engine that allows the vehicle to run
represents Fire and lastly, the smoke emitted represents Air.
With an open mind, one can think of numerous examples and
perhaps, all things are governed by these forces. The theory of
synthesis (anabolism) against analysis (catabolism) is also
attributed to him. The physicians job was to assess to which
aspect within him predominated, and then bring it back to balance.
Figure 14 Pythagoras

Another Four-Element theorist was Thales, who postulated the

theory of biogenesis. His theory was that everything existing at
present had come from something. He tried to ponder and
figure-out what was the original source element of all life. After
some contemplation, he came into conclusion that it was Water.
This is actually not just a mere and wild speculation; biologists
now have evidence and agree that all biochemical reactions
must take place in water and that life evolved out from the
primordial ocean. The beginning of life according to scientist
started out with unicellular microorganisms, or prokaryotes.
These microorganisms began their life at the bottom of the
ocean, as the terra-atmosphere was too harsh to support life. As
eons have passed, these microorganisms slowly emerged and Figure 15 The Four-Humor in
converted the atmosphere above into a subtler and oxygen-rich line with the Four Elements.
environment. Slowly, these microorganisms evolved into multicellular cells, or Eukaryotes, which is
now the cellular system of the macroorganisms.

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Figure 16 An image showing how Earth once was a chaotic wasteland. The land was
not able to support any form of life. therefore, the microorganisms genesised on the
oceans, where the environment was less harsh.

As a physician, Thales received his medical training in Egypt. In order to bring Greek medical theory
into line with Egyptian Medicine, he proposed a Fourth Humor, the black bile. This brought humors
into line with the Four Elements.
Alchameon of Crotona was a young au courant and probably a disciple of Pythagoras as well. His
theory of isonomia meant the perfect harmony of an organism in metabolic balance. Modern
nutritionist and physiologist agree and accept that isonomia is the precursor to all metabolic theory.
Also, humoral physiology and pathology evolved from the isonomia concept as well.
Medicine, as codified and systemized by Hippocrates came together from many diverse scientific,
medical and philosophical logic.

Being religious, the Greeks had also believed in the spirituality

and help of the Gods when it comes to medical dilemma. The
Greek God Apollo was known as the physician and healer of
Gods, while the Greek God of Medicine, Asclepius, represented
the medical arts, while his daughters represented hygiene,
personal care, recuperation from illness, remedy and beauty.
Asclepius was a God who carried the Asklepian, which is very
familiar to all physicians and pharmacologist. The Asklepian
was a rod or staff that was entwined with a serpent, a common
symbol for medicine and health care. It is commonly confused
with the Caduceus though, which was the winged-staff with
twin snakes entwined of Hermes, which symbolized commerce.
Figure 17 Asclepius, the
The Hippocratic Oath also began with the invocation I swear
Greek God of Medicine,
by Apollo the physician and Asclepius and by Hygieia and by
holding the Asklepian,
which became the universal Panacea and by all the gods...
symbol for medicine.

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The medical system of the Greeks were codified and systemized by Hippocrates, the father of
medicine and best remembered for his theory of the Four Humors. Anatomy however was not the
strong point of Hippocratic Medicine. Anatomy literally means cutting-up, or dissecting of the
bodies to reveal their parts and structures. There was a religious ban on the dissection of cadavers.
Rather, the forte of Hippocratic Medicine was the understanding of the physiology of an organism,
how it lives, interacts with the environment and how if functions to its health and survival.
Hippocrates laid the foundation for medicine, which was further elaborated, expanded and enhanced
by other physicians and philosophers, including Aristotle, Plato and Galen.

Figure 18 The Caduceus (left) is often mistaken for the Asklepian (middle) which is
the symbol for Medical arts. (Right) The Asklepian is widely and universally used as a
medical or pharmaceutical symbol.

Figure 19 The world-famous Library of

Alexandria housed many of the
Hippocratic scrolls containing his lifelong
accomplishments.

The famous library in Alexandria, established by

the famous Alexander the Great, housed the
writings attributed to Hippocrates, or the
Hippocratic Corpus. The corpus was not
entirely written by Hippocrates though, some
were written by his students. The library also
contained many of the aphorisms of Hippocrates
and even the pioneering works such as Airs,
Water and Places, which is well known as the
first treatise on medical geography and
climatology. Other perennial favorites include
The Nature of Man.

The Hippocratic Oath is a historic oath that is taken by physicians and other health care
professionals to practice medicine with utter honesty.

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I swear by Apollo, the healer, Asclepius, Hygieia, and Panacea, and I take to
witness all the gods, all the goddesses, to keep according to my ability and my
judgment, the following Oath and agreement:

To consider dear to me, as my parents, him who taught me this art; to live in
common with him and, if necessary, to share my goods with him; To look upon
his children as my own brothers, to teach them this art; and that by my
teaching, I will impart a knowledge of this art to my own sons, and to my
teacher's sons, and to disciples bound by an indenture and oath according to
the medical laws, and no others.

I will prescribe regimens for the good of my patients according to my ability

and my judgment and never do harm to anyone.
I will give no deadly medicine to any one if asked, nor suggest any such
counsel; and similarly I will not give a woman a pessary to cause an abortion.

But I will preserve the purity of my life and my arts.

I will not cut for stone, even for patients in whom the disease is manifest; I will leave this operation to be performed by
practitioners, specialists in this art.

In every house where I come I will enter only for the good of my patients, keeping myself far from all intentional ill-doing and all
seduction and especially from the pleasures of love with women or men, be they free or slaves.
All that may come to my knowledge in the exercise of my profession or in daily Figure 20 The Hippocratic
Oath.
commerce with men, which ought not to be spread abroad, I will keep secret and will
never reveal.

If I keep this oath faithfully, may I enjoy my life and practise my art, respected by all humanity and in all times; but if
I swerve from it or violate it, may the reverse be my life.

Throughout the conquest of Alexander the Great, medical knowledge spread far and wide, through the
Mediterranean and beyond. The Alexandrian School was called the Empirical School, and
everything was open to testing and experimentation. For a brief period of time, religious ban on
dissecting was lifted, and Herophilus performed the first postmortem examination on a cadaver at
around 300 B.C.E.

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The early Romans were stoic lots who did not rely too
much on doctors. Instead, their prescription of a healthy
life was a simple diet of good food, wholesome meals,
personal cleanliness and hygiene and abundant hard
work and exercise. But as the Roman Empire grew and
life became more complex, the need for doctors became
dire. Ambitious physicians from all over the empire
who desired fame and fortune poured into Rome. The
most famous and highly reputed physicians were
Greek, many of whom studied and trained in
Alexandria. Few of them however, were born Roman.

Figure 21 Early medical tools of the

Greeks and Romans resemble the modern
medical tools.

The
Romans, who were imperial geniuses, were masters of public
health. They installed long aqueducts and sophisticated
plumbing systems throughout Rome and all over the empire.
They also drained swamps and marshlands near crowded
urban areas to prevent pestilential diseases such as dengue
and malaria. Public health care was often free of charge, since
the ancient Romans realized the benefit and great impact of
healthy citizens to the empire. This is where the modern
subsidized healthcare traces its origin.

The two most acknowledged envoy of the Roman medical firmament were Galen and Dioscorides,
both of whom were Greeks. The two were both pioneering innovators
Figure 22 A first-hand picture
of an Aryballos depicting the
and made major contributions in the field of medicine. Galen was hailed
Medical practice in Greece,
the greatest physician while Dioscorides was a master herbalist and the
taken at Muse du Louvre in
Paris, France.
Father of Pharmacy. Dioscorides studied herbs extensively and
discovered that many of the plants contained compounds that were antimicrobial.

These compounds were later used widely and immensely helped during Imperial conquests and wars,
wherein soldiers get wounded frequently. Aside from antimicrobial compounds, Dioscorides studied
the other medical uses of herbs in treating illnesses and diseases. Later, these herbs were the basis of
the modern medicine. In his famous medical reference, the Materia Medica is a haven for herbs and
natural plants that wont be left behind when raced with the modern antibiotics. Fortunately, since
these herbs are natural, the side effects are minimal, to almost none.

Figure 23 First-hand photos from the

pages of Materia Medica.

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Amongst them was the Lithium candidum,

which was used for poultice, snake bites, burns,
sores, wounds and other anti-inflammatory
effects; nowadays, steroidal alkaloids and
saponins, acylated lilialine, substances with antiyeast and antioxidative properties have been
successfully isolated and reproduced. Peganum
harmala used those days for anti-poison and
Figure 24 The Materia Medica contains a
vast knowledge on how to use herbal plants antitumor
effects,
nowadays
exhibiting
as antimicrobial ointments or elixirs.
antimicrobial, antitumor and vasorelaxant
Antimicrobial herbs such as mint, basil, sage
effects. Sinapis alba is still used for antiand Thyme can be found in the pages.
inflammatory activity. According to Dioscorides, Viscum album dilutes absorbs and assimilates
abscesses and neoplasia;

The Greeks and Romans also believed in the power of mid-over-matter. According to the theory, the
human mind is capable of virtually anything. It has the ability to create, control, destroy and even
metamorph objects. To its extreme potential, the human mind can morph even space and time,
altering the reality of any event. This is actually more than just a Jedi belief. In neo-modern science

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or perhaps to be specific, Noetic science--which studies the capabilities of human potential--studies
have shown that the theory might be plausible. The brain unwaveringly emits brain waves and
according to the theory, these waves are actually powerful enough to influence the physical world.
With enough amplification, these waves can manipulate reality.
According to history and legends, many
humans were once capable of god-like feats,
as it was gifts from God himself. As time
passed, humans became abusive of the
knowledge and became corrupted, accusing
the world to succumb to chaos and nearly
destroying it. The secret on achieving the
human potential was then kept hidden to
prevent it being misused again. The secret,
known to some as the Ancient Mysteries, is
kept and the location is only known to certain
brotherhood whose purpose was solely to
keep the secrets falling to the wrong hands.
Many of modern science discovery has in
Figure 25 The Apotheosis of Washington, by
Constantino Brumidi, depicts George
fact, been already discovered long ago. As an
Washington, a Freemason and known
guardian of the Ancient Mysteries, ascending example, the String theory being a Theory of
into enlightenment or Apotheosis.
the universe itself; one computes probabilities
in a similar way, by summing quantities associated with the worldsheets joining an initial string
configuration to a final configuration. It was recently found out that ancient books depict an image
wherein worlds and dimensions were interlinked into one by strings.
Although it may sound unbelievable to skeptics, unknowingly, this profound theory is what gave birth
to the Placebo test and the ancestor of Psychology.
During the fall of the Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire endured a thousand more years and
medical knowledge was preserved. After being crushed by the Ottoman Turks in 1453, the medical
knowledge was kept alive long enough to be passed on to the Muslim Arabs, who kept the spirit of
science and learning alive, while Europe plummeted into the Dark Ages.

Alchemy and Arabic Medicine

Figure 26 Alchemy studied the

relationship of Man to Nature and how
objects, with proper measurements,
could be "Traded" into new objects.

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Alchemy, from the Arabic and Egyptian word Al
meaning the and kimiya meaning black Earth, is
an art which claimed to be a precursor to profound
powers and abilities. Alchemy is one of the most
ancient and sophisticated knowledge and the forefather
of modern science and medicine.
In the modern world, human tends to regard Alchemy
as a hokum and nothing more than a brotherhood of
dubious hucksters whose dreams were to transform
base metals into gold. But actually, that claim is far
from the truth and only bequeaths skeptics in a
universe of ignorance. Alchemists are actually the forerunners of modern chemists and many
chemical reactions and processing methods originated from alchemical studies. Alchemists developed
a systemic structure of laboratory protocols, theory, terminology and experimental methods that are
widely used by scientist and physicians.
Alchemy was responsible for the birth of many chemical
and biological transformative processes, such as
distillation, evaporation, condensation, acid-base
reaction, pharmaceutical synthesis, reverse synthesis,
reverse transformation, vaccine synthesis and many
more.
The Father of Chemistry, Jabir ibn Hayaan--who also a
famous alchemist--introduced a new approach in
alchemical methods. His advent was based on scientific
methodology and controlled experimentation in the
laboratory, using precise skills and avoiding as much
errors as possible.
Early Islamic Alchemist such as Jabir Ibn Hayaan, AlKindi and Muhammad ibn Zakariya Razi are credited for
many key chemical discoveries such as hydrochloric
acid, sulfuric and nitric acids, and many more. Aqua
regia, a formulation that is composed of nitric and
Figure 27 Jabir Ibn Hayaan, Father
hydrochloric acids could dissolve the noblest of metal,
of Chemistry. Jabir is famous for
many of his Alchemical works
gold, fueled alchemist for their next millennium.
which brought on the legacy as
the modern Chemistry, Biology
and Biotechnology.

However, the most influential of all alchemists was Jabir.

Jabirs paramount goal was Takwin, the artificial creation
of life, including human life. Analyzing many of the Aristotelian elements in terms of hotness,

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dryness, coldness and moistness, Jabir theorized that by rearranging their qualitative and quantitative
measures, forms of materials can be changed. It is believed that Jabir was able to carry out his
experiment and resulted in the creation of the homunculus, or artificial beings. Jabir however was not
able to incorporate or recreate the most important aspect of a human being, the soul. A total of seven
homunculi were primarily created by the Brotherhood (Brotherhood of 13 Alchemists.), each one of
the homunculi were immortals and had heinous hearts. They were named according to their traits;
Greed, Envy, Lust, Sloth, Gluttony, Wrath and Pride.

Figure 28 Alchemical symbols were more than just mere drawings or languages. It
symbolized Elements and processes, which are widely used in the fields of Sciences.
In fact, Alchemy was more scientific and mystic.

The seven homunculi were difficult to control and nearly destroyed the foundations of the
Brotherhood and Alchemy as well. However, they lived on for a number of years and some had even
become leaders of nations. Unknowingly, the Brotherhood had secretly created an 8 th homunculus.
As they grew more corrupted, the Brotherhood was forced to wake the 8 th, and the last, Homunculus;
Perfection. Perfection was solely created for one purpose, to eliminate all the seven deadly and
corrupted homunculi should they be uncontrollable. Perfection was successful in destroying the
seven sins of Alchemy, but he too, despite the name, had no soul and therefore was forced to be
taken down by the Brotherhood. Jabir then finally realized that Soul cannot be created. It can only be
given by the Creator and God Himself, and no one else. Takwin, unknown to many modern
scientists, is the ancestral knowledge and the basis of modern Biotechnology.

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The modern chimera studies, a field of
Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering which
deals in the hybrid of 2 organisms or their genes
originated from Alchemy. In Alchemy, chimera
studies where performed in order to exceed mans
limitation.
Example,
Alchemists
produced
chimaeras such as eagle fused with lion. The
limitation of lions was their inability to fly, while
the eagles were their limited hunting capability. In
the field of humans, several combinations where
experimented, such as infusion of the reptilian
regeneration into a human, where lost limbs may be
Figure 29 The process ofdistillation was
regenerated into new ones; an aspect that no
created by the arabic alchemists, which
medicine or medical procedure may imitate. The
is popularly used today in many fields
of science, especially medicine.
results and successions of the Alchemical Chimaera
were vague, however, it is fully understood that the knowledge and principle is carried out by modern
Biotechnology.
One of the crucial areas wherein alchemists were
involved in was medicine. The crux of medicine was
transformation, and one of the alchemical principles
was transforming poisons and inert substances into
medicines which were capable of bringing healing
transformation into an organism. This was made by
transforming the same materials found in the substance,
into a new form, or morph. The transformation is
governed by the Alchemical law of Equivalent Trade.
Experiments and transformations, or in alchemical
words, transmutation, were performed inside
Transmutation
Circles,
a
symbolized
and
mathematically premeditated work table. The circle
consists of symbols that represented the quantity,
quality, direction of reactions, ingredients, process and
other instructions for the transformation to take place. It
is equipollent to the modern laboratory manual.

Figure 30 The Transmutation circles

containe procedures and materials
needed in order for a transformation to
occur. It was the first laboratory manual
for scientists today.

Alchemical practices and currents of ideas could be

found in medical systems all over the world. The Taoist monks practiced alchemy, while in Ayurvedic
Medicine, alchemical bhasmas, or mineral ashes are wonder drugs that are widely used today.

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The
on

In
the

alchemic tradition in Greece and the western world is based

Hermetic philosophy, which was founded by the fabled
Egyptian philosopher king Hermestus Trimegistus. The
principle was As above, so below; as within, so without.
its summary, structure and composition, the microcosm of
human body is reflective of the macrocosm of Nature.
Diseases and dysfunction arises when the equilibrium of
either is disturbed. Healing consists of bringing back the
balance among the two.

During the European Dark Ages, Islamic Alchemy and

Medicine were flourishing. Muslim scholars and
Figure 31 Many skeptics and bias
scientists disregard Alchemy as an
physicians continued to seek out and let the
Occultism. Alchemy is widely
knowledge thrive. The medical knowledge which
misunderstood. Although it contained
many mystic philosophyies, most of its originated from the Greco-Romans were transformed
methods are scientific and logical.
and ameliorated, which shows how the medical
Alchemy resembles the modern
information were flexible, resilient and adaptable
enough to absorb innovations
and influences.
Within a few centuries of its birth, Islam had expanded from the
Atlantic Ocean at the West, to the Indian Ocean at the South and
Pacific Ocean at the East. As Islam grew in all directions, so did
the Unani-Tibb (Greco-Arabic) Medical knowledge. Where the
campaign went, so did the physicians, making contact with
numerous cultures and adapting themselves to the local
conditions and resources. Unani-Tibb has enriched itself by
imbibing new medicine, techniques and treatments from the
various cultures it made contact with, such as the Ayurveda and
Oriental Medicine.
During the Crusades, the Islamic world had produced prominent
names in the field of Medicine. However, their names were
Latinized and their medical treatises were imported to Europe and
translated into Latin to serve as the main backbone of the medical
Figure 32 Scanned original
schools only springing-up in Europe.
copy of "The Alchemy of
Happiness".

Such names include Ibn Rushd or Averroes, who wrote five

volumes of the Al-Culliyat (The Fundamentals) or commonly known as Colliget. Al-Razi, or Rhazes,
a physician and Alchemist, wrote the vast medical encyclopedia, Continens.

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However, the greatest amongst them was Hakim Ibn Sina,
or commonly known as Avicenna. He wrote a five volume
treatise which became the standard textbook in European
medical schools which is still used today. The book is well
known as The Canon of Medicine.

Figure 33 Avicenna's Canon of

Medicine in its Latin version.

As wars and strife were devastating their homelands,

Unani-Tibb physicians moved to India to find a safe haven
for their art. Hakim Ajmal Khan was an Indian Patriot and
Unani physician who struggled for freedom and
independence against the British rule. He was a great
advocate and pioneered scientific research into the existing
medical knowledge. Today, as modern medicine enjoys its
phenomenal surge in popularity, the origin and roots of the
art lags behind in recognition, perhaps due to its minority
Islamic

associations.
Countless herbs, plants and even food, were
discovered to have antimicrobial compounds, which
immensely helped turned tides during wars. Soldiers
and warriors usually fell not from battle, but from
infections and lack of medical treatment. The Islamic
discovery for almost ninety percent of the
antimicrobial compounds, including the use of fungi
and yeast to treat infections, diseases and illnesses,
along with the surgical procedures and anatomical
studies created by Arabic physicians, are the tools
that lead to medical success today.

Figure 34 The Arabs created the first

Human anatomy chart, depicting the
parts and possible treatments for
battle wounds. it was later Latinized
and improved.

Antimicrobial Susceptibility Test (Disc Diffusion Method)

The compounds used in the experiment are natural and were based from the Canon of Medicine.
These compounds were used during the Ancient and Medieval times to treat infections, similar to

2013
antibiotics, but with almost no harmful side-effects. The use of these compounds are not invasive and
would not compromise the natural defense of the human body, much less will it influence the immune
system in a negative ramification.
Results:
Prior to the results of these tests, another set of tests were made using honey and carrots. However,
due to natural and human errors, the test yielded negative results. Overgrowth of bacteria occurred as
the researchers overlooked the maximum time required for the tests. But on the other hand, the
Penicillin disc used was also discovered to be expired.

Figure 35 Failed test showing no inhibition zones, including on the control disc.

The LB agar plates were prepared in accordance to the test. The natural compounds used were
Turmeric and Chili peppers. The compounds were prepared by water extraction method and with no
filtration, as it is believed that filtering the liquid will leave behind important
alkaloids and proteins.
As the solution was prepared, Ampicillin 10 disc has been placed in the center
of the plate, to provide a control. Afterwards, blank disc were dipped into the
natural compounds solution and placed into an alternate, four-quadrant division.
Triplicates of samples were aseptically made and were sealed. Finally the plates
were incubated at 37 degrees Celsius and allowed 18 hours for bacterial growth.
Later, the results showed that the natural compounds were able to inhibit the
growth of E. coli, as shown by the presence of inhibition zones on the plate.
Figure 36 Natural
compounds of Turmeric
and Green Chilli peppers
extracted.

Discussion

Turmeric, or Curcuma longa, is a spice widely used in many cuisines.

However, the use of this spice exceeds the palate of tastes. Throughout Asia and the Mediterranean,
traditional medicine has utilized turmeric as an anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial agent. It is used
for respiratory diseases, liver disorders, sprains and sinusitis.

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The term antimicrobial is used to describe compounds that have the ability to destroy or inhibit
microbial growth, such as bacteria, virus and fungi. Antibiotics are used to treat bacterial infection,
antiviral for viruses and so on. Turmeric contains diferuloylmethane or curcumin, which is the main
active ingredient responsible for the Turmerics amazing properties. Turmeric has long been used to
treat wounds, especially during the ancient times where war was an ongoing habit.

Figure 37 Turmeric is an ancient and effective medicine used to treat infections,

diabetes and even cancer.

In The Canon of Medicine, Turmeric has been describe as a miraculous plant that was carried
everywhere by Islamic Jihadist or Warriors. Should there be any wounds present, they quickly
applied turmeric powder or the crushed spice itself, and immediately, the wounds would stop
bleeding and infection would not occur.
Aside from that, according to The Canon, Turmeric has been used to treat tonsillitis and any form of
Pharyngitis, whether it was benign or severe cases. Turmeric was crushed and mixed with tea and
honey, which also has antimicrobial agents. The tea was then drank and instantly, the pain subsided.

Chili peppers are known to be used in spices because of the distinct sensation they incorporate,
hotness. When pepper spray is used on the face, the burning sensation is caused by one of the chilis
active ingredient, capsaicin.

2013

Figure 38 The active ingredient of Chili,

capsaicin is responsible for its numerous
antimicrobial and antioxidative properties. it is
also the agent that causes the burning
sensation.

Chili peppers are bursting with free-radical

scouring antioxidants and research shown that
the active ingredient capsaicin, exhibits
immense antiviral and antibacterial properties.
Chili peppers have been used as topical
ointments during the ancient times. Due to
their natural heat, it was effective to
incorporate chili paste on inflamed joints
(Rheumatoid arthritis, Gout, Ankylosing
spondylitis and Bursitis) to relieve the
inflammation and pain. Nerve pains
associated with osteoarthritis had also been
treated traditionally with chili pepper pastes
and creams.

In the Canon of Medicine, Avicenna wrote

that chili pepper, where the human tongue finds it hot, infectious microbes also finds it hot. He also
mentioned several other medical uses such as:

Lowering the force of circulation and lifting weight from the heart (Decreasing blood
pressure)
Burning down the fat consumed from meat (Cholesterol levels)
Relieves the body of coupled blood (Blood coagulation)
Destroying plague diseases (Herpes, Leptospirosis etc)
Increasing body temperature during winter and increasing the efficiency of digestion
(Metabolism)

Ongoing studies promises prevention of conditions such as post-surgical pain, cancer,

cerebrovascular attacks, pneumonitis, migraine and other medical conditions especially in the field
of infections.

Conclusion and Further studies

2013
Turmeric and Chili has been proven to inhibit bacterial growth. Aside from that, they have been
proven both to have strong antimicrobial and antiviral properties and may be used to treat numerous
medical diseases, without the negative side-effects as antibiotics present.
Natural compounds contain active ingredients that are on par with modern antibiotics, but with no
harmful side effects. In fact, natural compounds have been widely used ages before antibiotics.

Figure 39 Natural compounds found in food, herbs and spices have no harmful sideeffects.

Antibiotics have the mechanism similar to natural compounds; however they disturb the metabolism
and natural harmony of an individuals internal structures.
There are numerous compounds that are available which has the ability to exhibit antimicrobial and
antiviral properties. The uses of antibiotics are becoming widespread and the misuse even wider.
This results into the emergence of antibiotic resistant bacteria which is one of the main causes of
death in the hospitals.
Herbs such as sage, thyme, basil, oregano and parsley all exhibit antimicrobial properties and may be
used as replacements for antibiotics. However, there are few or none modern tests using disc
diffusion carried out on these said herbs. Spices like cinnamon, cardamom, anise and cloves are
proven to fight off diseases and infections, according to the Materia Medica.

2013
Using natural compounds not only destroys the bacteria, but
they do not allow evolution of more resistant strains. Aside
from that, natural compounds offer a much gentler and subtler,
but nonetheless, more effective way in dealing with microbial
and viral infections.

Figure 40 Spices are proven to

have many medical uses.

References
Aminov,
Rustam. "A Brief History of the Antibiotic Era:
Lessons Learned and Challenges for the
Future."Frontiers in Microbiology, 1. (2010):
Web. 15 Dec 2013.
Beauchamp, Rachel. "Antibacterial Properties of Dry
and Fresh Chile Pepper and Garlic." Yahoo
Contributor Network, 2013. Web. 15 Dec 2013.
<http://voices.yahoo.com/antibacterialproperties-dry-fresh-chile-pepper-3459806.html?
cat=22>.
Bellis, Mary. "History of Antibiotics." About.com
Inventors, 2013. Web. 15 Dec 2013.
<http://inventors.about.com/od/pstartinventions/
a/Penicillin_2.htm>.
Lambert, Tim. "A Brief History of
Medicine." Localhistories.org, 2013. Web. 15
Dec 2013.
<http://www.localhistories.org/medicine.html>.
Nordqvist, Christian. "What Are Antibiotics? How Do
Antibiotics Work?." Medical News Today, 2013.
Web. 15 Dec 2013.
<http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/102
78.php>.

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Chapter LVII: Antimicrobial Medicine

Materia medica
by Linne, Carl Von. : Typis ac Sumtibus L.
Salvii, 1749. Print.
Chapter XXXII: Medica Naturalis
A treatise on the Canon of medicine of Avicenna.
by Avicenna and O. Cameron Gruner.
London: Luzac, 1930. Print.

Traditional Greco-Arabic and Modern Western

Medicine: Conflict or Symbiosis?
by Hakim Mohammed Said Copyright 1975 by
Hamdard Academy - Karachi, Pakistan
pp. 2 4
Traditional Greco-Arabic and modern Western
Medicine: Conflict or Symbiosis?
by Hakim Mohammed Said Copyright 1975 by
Hamdard Academy - Karachi, Pakistan
pp. 14 - 15, 20
Traditional Greco-Arabic and Modern Western
Medicine: Conflict or Symbiosis?
by Hakim Mohammed Said Copyright 1975 by
Hamdard Academy - Karachi, Pakistan
pp. 17 - 21
Encyclopedia of Islamic Medicine With a Greco-Roman
Background
by Dr. Hassan Kamal Copyright 1975 by
General Egyptian Book Organization
pp. 12 - 15
Ancient Healing: Unlocking the Mysteries of Health
and Healing Through the Ages
by Kevin V. Ergil et al Copyright 1997 by
Publications International Ltd.
Chapter on Greek and Roman Medicine - pp.
68 - 98