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ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
Manuscript received by the Editor August 3, 1990; revised manuscript received March 3, 1992.
*ARCO Exploration and Production Technology, 2300 W. Plano Parkway, Plano, TX 75075.
tFormerly CORE Laboratories, Calgary, Alberta T2E 2R2, Canada; presently Chevron Oil Field Research Co., 1300 Beach Blvd., La Habra,
CA 90633.
1992 Society of Exploration Geophysicists. All rights reserved.
1396
1397
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GAS
The gas phase is the easiest to characterize. The compounds are relatively simple and the thermodynamic properties have been examined thoroughly. Hydrocarbon gases
usually consist of light alkanes (methane, ethane, propane,
etc.). Additional gases, such as water vapor and heavier
hydrocarbons, will occur in the gas depending on the pressure, temperature, and history of the deposit. Gas mixtures
are characterized by a specific gravity, G, the ratio of the gas
density to air density at 15.6C and atmospheric pressure.
Typical gases have G values from 0.56 for nearly pure
methane to greater than 1.8 for gases with heavier components of higher carbon number. Fortunately, when only a
rough idea of the gas gravity is known, a good estimate can
be made of the gas properties at a specified pressure and
temperature.
The important seismic characteristics of a fluid (the bulk
modulus or compressibility, density, and sonic velocity) are
related to primary thermodynamic properties. Hence, for
gases, we naturally start with the ideal gas law:
_ RT a
V=p'
r!f:'0
~q,{j
(2)
50
....I
a::::::>
~
UJ
a:
:::::>
CD
f-
u.
a:
UJ
0:(
e,
~
UJ
iE0.
f-
UJ
UJ
UJ
100
~
x
(1)
O'T"""--~=~--~-------r
llIi ca \ Matha
.....
fluids, etc.) Even though our analyses can be further complicated by rock-fluid interactions and by the characteristics
of the rock matrix, the gas, oil, and brine properties presented here should be adequate for many seismic exploration
applications.
~1 C~T'
(3)
X
0
a:
n,
o
a:
0.
/3T
n,
2
1
RTa
VT = - = - -
/3TP
M
(4)
0:(
0.
0:(
..L..------------
-L.150
RELATIVE QUANTITY OF
HYDROCARBONS GENERATED
1398
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-yf3s
(5)
= f3T'
1
-=
-y
1---.
Cp f3 T
_ ZRT a
V=--.
P
(7)
-yP
= f3s = (1 _ ~
az)
zap T
(8)
(lOa)
where
+ 170.75 G),
(6)
x,
28.8GP
P == ZRT a '
but only for pure compounds. The approach using pseudoreduced values is preferable for mixtures, and components such as CO 2 and N 2 can even be incorporated by using
molar averaged Tpc and P pc :
Gas densities derived from the Thomas et aI., (1970)
relations are shown in Figure 2. Alternatively, for the
pressures and temperatures typically encountered in oil
exploration, we can use the approximation
(9a)
(9b)
+E
(lOb)
and
E = 0.109(3.85 - T pr )2 exp {-[0.45
+ 8(0.56
- lITpr)2]P~//Tpr}'
(lOc)
0.6
-r-------------------.....,
.""""".. G. 0.6
--G.l.2
0.5
0.4
.g
C>
0.3
0.2
en
z
w
o
o
0.1
0.0
100
200
300
TEMPERATURE ("C)
FIG. 2. Hydrocarbon gas densities as a function of temperature, pressure, and composition. Densities are plotted for a
light gas (Pgas/Pair = G = 0.6 at 15SC and 0.1 MPa). and
heavy gas (G = 1.2). Values for light and heavy gases
overlay at 0.1 MPa.
, := (
(lla)
Pp r aZ)
1-
Z ap p r
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where
1]1 =
'Yo = 0.85
5.6
(P p r
+ 2)
0.0001[Tp r(28 + 48 G - 5G 2 )
6.47 G- 2
27.1
(P p r
1399
+ 3.5)
(12)
(II b)
0.001 P pr [
- 3.24T" -
pr
pr
pr
38].
(13)
--......."" G ~ 0.6
600
--G.l.2
500
400
::;)
'8.
co
300
0.06
"
..
..J
::;)
CD
G. 0.6
- - G,1.2
'"
:3
~
.,.""m
0.08
200
iii
0.04
8
(f)
100
2.5..
0.02
"''''..""''''''..".."..,,..,,,, ,,''',,
,,'''''.,.
(0.1MPa)
100
200
300
TEMPERATURE (0C)
0.0
+--r---'--""T--"'T'"--r---,---f
100
200
300
TEMPERATURE (0C)
1400
at 15.6C and atmospheric pressure. A widely used classification of crude oils is the American Petroleum Institute oil
gravity (API) number and is defined as
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141.5
API = - - - 131.5.
Po
(14)
(15)
3)(po
- 1.15)2
(18)
The effect of temperature is larger, and one of the most
common expressions used to calculate the in-situ density
was developed by Dodson and Standing (1945).
P = pp/[0.972
+ 3.81 x
lO-\T
+ 17.78) 1.175]
(19)
Po )112
2.6 - Po
_ 3.7T+ 4.64P
+ 0.0115[4.12(1.08po l _1)112 -
I]TP.
(20a)
+ 0.01l5(0.36API I / 2 -
(20b)
l)TP,
M.
1.05'T""------------------.......,
7.6
b = 0.306 - - .
(16)
0.95
(~ - ~J,
;)
(17)
'"
en
0.85
ffi
0.75
::::iiifiI:::::::::::::::::::::....
..J
so
~s I.!:
(5
IIP~
0.65
0.55
+---'T"'""--r---.....,--..,.--""T'"--...---!
100
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::
200
300
TEMPERATURE (oc)
FIG.
1401
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0.00377 T) ],205,
(21a)
Po
= -
Bo
(I
+ O.OOIR G ) -1 ,
(22)
RG
....
1.7
1.6
1.5
'i
......
". -,
1.4
~ 2000
'"
:3
8::; 1500
'.
::;)
~o
1.3
'"
..J
ill
...~
1.2
Po
1.1
+.I--+--""""T--'-.,.......-T-....L......,r-----'L.r---i'J
1.05
1.0
0.95
20
2500
>
-.-,
(24)
3000
....
Ql
0.9
0.85
0.8
40
0.75
0.7
1000
..J
5
500
60
API GRAVITY
100
200
300
TEMPERATURE (oe)
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1402
confines of a small pore space to increase the rock compressional and shear velocities. This particular topic was covered
in detail by Jones (1986).
Unlike gases, oil viscosity always decreases rapidly with
increasing temperature since the tightly packed oil molecules
gain increasing freedom of motion at elevated temperature.
Beggs and Robinson (1975) provide a simple relationship for
the viscosity, in centipoise, of gas-free oil as a function of
temperature, 1] T'
LOg lO (1] T
+ 1) = 0.505y(l7.8 + n-1.163
(25a)
with
LoglO(y) = 5.693 - 2.863/po
(25b)
1.6
22.80C~_--------------- :
+
1.4 -
>
.s->:
e~ II
72.0~_------
------+ .o---~--Q.+
+ ..o-II~- ...........
+ 0 grJCR
----
1.2
---
_- - -'\' - -
-----+
--- ------
------
+
_.0-
1] = 1]T
---
_0.--
-0----
.J)- - -
O~D~
_........ --
CAlCULATED - - - - - - -
1.0
MEASURED {
Gas IlBe
I
10
20
30
(Dead)
+
40
PRESSURE (MPa)
1000
o
2.2
9
~
(26b)
2.4
(26a)
where
_0..-
~22.8
72.0~
+ 0.145PI,
100
I
1.8 -
ho
1.6 -
:0
30 :E.
1.4
fool0
1.2
-40
-20
10
..J
1.0
~s
<5
0.1
20
40
60
TEMPERATURE ("C)
+--r----'--"'--"T""--r----,---1
o
100
200
TEMPERATURE
300
(oc)
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BRINE
.,,
,
.
".
,,
.,
,,
0 ......- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
~
:r
fa.
w
o 2
RODESSA
o
.to
HOSSTON
SMACKOVER
- 2TP
+ 0.016T 2p
(27a)
and
PB = Pw + S{0.668 + 0.44S + I x 1O-6[300P - 2400PS
+ T(80 + 3T - 3300S -
13P
+ 47PS)]},
(27b)
Vw =
2: 2:
(28)
wijTipj,
i=O)=O
~-------------------...,
x
1.S
~~
'f '2,.
" III
.,
Pw = 1 + I
2.0
~X~X
~, ~
.9-
COTTON VALLEY
"a
1403
XX
X
100
200
300
0.5
.......--~
+---~--T"""--r--.....,r__-__r-100
200
300
TEMPERATURE (0C)
FIG. 12. The sonic velocity of pure water. These values were
calculated from the data of Helgeson and Kirkham (1974).
"Saturation" is the pressure at which vapor and liquid are in
equilibrium.
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1404
8.5
to- 5 T 3
+ S 1.5(780 -
4.871
-0.04783
1.487 X 10- 4
-2.197 X 10- 7
= 1.524
= -0.0111
= 2.747 X 10-4
= -6.503 X 10- 7
= 7.987 X 10- 10
WIO =
W20 =
W30 =
W40 =
WOl
Wll
W21
W31
W41
3.437 X 10- 3
W12 =
1.739 X 10-4
W32 =
w42 =
W03 =
W13 =
W23 =
W33 =
-1.455 X 10-8
5.230 X 10- 11
-1.197 X 10- 5
-1.628 X 10- 6
1.237 x 10- 8
1.327 X 10- 10
-4.614 X 10- 13
wn = -2.135 x 10-6
w43 =
10{0.712P!T
- 4 -7.786S(T+ 17.78)-0.306,
(30)
lOP
(29)
Woo = 1402.85
KG
(31)
= 1 + 0.0494R G '
1.3
1.2
_.!E0 MPa
.-..............
5.0
_.~.-
..
.......
0.1
1.1
l?
a..
"'E
~
_._................
4.0
..
-----~'.
1.0
...........
C/)
.9
=>
=>
0
....J
Ci.i 0.9
Z
::<:
- - - - - PPM = 0
PPM .150000
.......
...........
<,
.,
' .........
......
......... ........
.............. .. ......
............... .
3.0
.......................,
-,, ".
....J
=>
0.8
III
.
"
2.0
.~
0.7
20
100
200
300
1.0
TEMPERATURE (0C)
0
100
200
300
TEMPERATURE (0G)
1405
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- 0.17)2
+ 0.045]rO. 8}.
(32)
(VA)
ap
dV A = (-V A I3 AaPls = -
KA
FLUID MIXTURES
(33)
Here, Pm is the mixture density, PA and PB' and <P A and <P B'
are the densities and volume fractions of components A and
B, respectively. The total volume of the mixture, VM' isjust
the sum of the two component volumes VA and VB'
2.0-r--------------------,
(34)
<PB
=-+-.
KA KB
(35b)
""
1.5
\ \ . / PPM
1.0
"
".
-,
240000
PPM. 100000
""
.'. ' ........
'''tit
......-...
0.5
PPM.Q
(water)
20
----
100
200
TEMPERATURE (C)
FIG. 15. Brine viscosity as a function of pressure, temperature, and salinity using the relationships of Kestin et al.
(1981) are extrapolated using the curves of Matthews and
Russel (1967). Above 100C, the values are at saturation
pressure (vapor and liquid are in equilibrium). The pressure
dependence is small and not shown for clarity.
0.6
0.8
1.0
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1406
3 "T"""------------------,
2
.........,~
.....
~.~.....
50 MPa Gas-free
(Dead)
O+-"T"""T"'""T"""'II"""'1~~"""T'_r_r_"'T"'""T""_r__r_T"'""r_I"""'1~__t
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
2a
PG=P B
+- ,
r
(36)
where P G and P B are the pressures within the gas and brine,
respectively, a is the surface tension, and r is the bubble
radius. We see from this equation that as the radius decreases, the pressure inside the bubble could become substantial. As the gas pressure increases, the gas modulus and
density increase. At small enough radii, high enough P G' the
gas will condense into a liquid. Kieffer (1977) examined this
effectfor air-water mixtures to evaluate its possible influence
on the mechanics of erupting volcanoes and geysers. Her
calculations indicated that the effect will become pronounced when the bubble radii go below about 100 angstroms. This is the pore size (and therefore bubble size)
found in shales and fine siltstones (Hinch, 1980). To the
extent that this equation remains valid at such small radii,
the depression of rock velocity expected from partial gas
saturation, as was indicated in Figure 16, will be precluded
from shales. This important topic requires further investigation.
Last, in natural systems, the behavior of the fluids can be
much more complex than we have described. Other compounds are often present, either as components of the gases,
oils, or brines, or as separate phases. For example, under
certain pressures and temperatures, hydrocarbon gases will
react with water to form hydrates. The hydrocarbons themselves are usually complex chemical systems with pseudocritical points, retrograde condensation, phase compositional interaction, and other behaviors that can only be
described with a far more detailed analysis than we have
provided. These subtleties can become important, particularly in reservoir geophysics where fluid identification and
phase boundary location are primary concerns.
CONCLUSIONS
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properties are usually oversimplified in geophysics. In particular, light oils can absorb large quantities of gas at
elevated pressures significantly reducing their modulus and
density. This reduction can be sufficient to cause reflection
bright spots of oil-brine contacts. With simple estimates of
composition and the in-situ pressure and temperature, more
realistic properties can be calculated.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
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1407
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1408
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