Descent with Modification:

Unity of life adaptations ancestors/evolutionary lines dead and extant (currently living) species
Natural Selection
Observations
All species have great potential fertility
Population size remains constant
Resources are limited
All individuals within a population differ
Variation is heritable and most variability can be passed to
subsequent generations
Excludes traits acquired during individuals lifetime

Conditions for Natural Selection

Variation and Overproduction
Fit genes passing on
Gradualism
Only traits carried by gametes can be passed on
Microevolution
Genetic drift
Gene flow
Mutation
Nonrandom
mating
Natural
selection

Inference
Over production of individuals leads to competition for
limited resources with only a limited number of individuals
surviving
Individuals with inherited traits best suited for their
environment are more likely to produce offspring
The differences in ability to survive and reproduce lead to a
gradual change in population with favorable characteristics
accumulating over generations

Without competition for resources, no selection

Without diversity, no selection (random events instead)
Environment favors certain variations that promote survival
Advantageous heritable traits are slight and accumulate over
generations
Gradual changes keep pace with environmental changes
Individuals cannot evolve

Random events that cause the genetic makeup of the new population to be different
Bottleneck effectrandom deaths
Founder effectcolonization by peripheral isolate
Transfer of gametes between populations that offsets genetic drift or natural selection
Original source of variation that happens in the gametes
Increases homozygous loci, doesnt alter allelic frequency Inbreedinggeographically close neighbors
Assortative matingsimilar phenotypic partners
Individuals with favorable alleles pass them on in disproportionate numbers and favorable genotypes
accumulate

Genetic Variation (sources)

Variation within populations

Quantitativetrait is controlled by multiple loci

Discretetrait is controlled by a single locus
Polymorphismtwo or more different character states *
Variation between populations Geographical variationdifferent environments, different changes and variation
Clinegenetic variation that parallels differences along a grade
Mutation
Random changes that produce new alleles (only heritable through gametes)
Pointsingle DNA base is changed, effects are negligible
Chromosomalaffect multiple loci
Sexual recombination
Largest source of genetic variation
Random segregation and independent assortment during meiosis
Crossing over during prophase I
Random fertilization
*character states known as morphs can be physical or cellular
Preserving Variation
Diploid
Balanced polymorphism
Neutral variation

Recessive alleles are preserved in the heterozygote state

Heterozygote advantage (sickle cell)
(negative) Frequency dependent selectionthe more rare the more fit
Neutral alleles confer no advantage or disadvantage to their frequency is unaffected by NS

Types of Selection
Stabilizing selection
Directional selection
Diversifying selection

Environmental stability, intermediates are favored, phenotypic variation is reduced

Environmental change, variants of one extreme are favored
Opposite phenotypic extremes are favored over intermediate phenotypes

Speciation
Anagenesistransformation of one species into another; the old species becomes extinct
Cladogenesisthe formation of a new species from a parent species that continues to exist; more biological diversity
Species: largest unit of population where members are reproductively isolated
Factors that Cause Reproductive Isolation
Prezygotic barriers
Habitat isolationsame geographical range, different lifestyle
Behavioralunique behavior that attracts mates
Temporaldifferent breeding times
Mechanicalanatomical incompatibility
Gamete isolationgametes do not survive to meet; no gamete recognition
Postzygotic barriers
Reduced hybrid vigorhybrid is aborted or dies after birth
Reduced hybrid fertilityhybrid is healthy but sterile (meiosis generates abnormal gametes)
Hybrid breakdownsubsequent generations have reduced vigor or fertility
Geographic
Separated by mountain ranges etc.
Modes of Speciation
Allopatric speciation
Sympatric speciation

Geographic barrier isolates the population (usually small peripheral isolates)

Gene flow is impossible and microevolution (different than the parent population) occurs
Phenotypic divergence
Chance genetic change creates a reproductive barrier in a single generation
Autopolyploidsingle species tetraploids formed from diploid gametes; they can only mate
with other tetraploids and the progeny are sterile
Allopolyploidtwo species hybrids that are usually sterile but have mechanisms to transform
into fertile polyploids

Evolutionary Novelty
Exaptation
Modification of the function of
regulatory genes that control the
timing and rate of growth:

Gradual refinement of existing structures for new function; occasionally intermediate

forms have some function; natural selection does not anticipate the future
1. Allometric growthdifferences in relative growth rates of different body parts
2. Heterochronytemporal changes: developmental timing or rate of structures
3. Paedomorphosisretention of ancestral juvenile structures in mature adult
4. Homeosisalteration of spatial pattern and placement of body parts

Monophyleticsingle ancestor gave rise to all the species placed in the taxon
Polyphyleticmembers are derived from two or more ancestral forms not common to all
Paraphyleticincludes the common ancestor and some but not all the ancestors descendants
Homologysimilarities attributed to ancestry
Analogysimilarities due to convergent evolution
Convergent evolutionacquisition of similar characteristics in species from different evolutionary branches shaped
Phylogenetic Systematics: location represents time of origin of the taxa and degree of divergence (length) represents how
different two taxa have become since branching from a common ancestor
Cladistic analysis: classifies organisms according to the order in time the branches arise
Outgroup analysis: classifies organisms as being evolutionarily similar or different than the ingroup

Animal Evolution
Parazoa
Multicellularity
Eumetazoa Tissues (ectoderm and endoderm)
Radial symmetry
Bilateral symmetry
Three tissue layers (mesoderm)
Protostome development
Pseudocoelom
True coelom
Segmentation
Deuterostome development
Segmentation
Notochord, hollow dorsal nerve cord, pharyngeal slits,
post anal tail
Cranium, vertebral column

Porifera
Cnidaria, Ctenophora (radiata)

Platyhelminthes
Nematoda, Rotifera
Mollusca
Annelida, Arthropoda, Onychophora
Echinodermata, Hemichordata
Chordata
Urochordata, Cephalochordata
Vertebrata

Tissues
Tissue Type
Nervous
Primary
Function

Generate and process

information

Muscle

Epithelial

Connective

Contraction to generate
force

Cover exposed surfaces Structure and Support

including both external
body and internal cavities

Cell Types Neurons (primary

functional component)
Glia (support cells)

Smooth
Cardiac
Skeletal

Fibers

(Minimal)

(Minimal)

Basement Membrane

Collagen, Reticular,
Elastic

Fluids

Nutrient-Rich, Aqueous

(Minimal)

(Limited)

Depends

Summary/
Notes

Aqueous world with

many neurons and
support cells (the glia)
creating structure

Compacted together with At least one layer of cells Extracellular matrix

little extracellular fluid or must sit down on fibrous comprised of fibers and
fibers.
basement membrane
fluids.

Squamous
Cuboidal
Columnar
Transitional
Glandular

Fibroblasts
WBCs
Mast Cells
Plasma Cells
Macrophages
Adipocytes

Cell types include those

that make tissue, support
tissue, and might be
integrated with tissue
because of position in
body
Muscles Tissue
Skeletal
Cardiac
Smooth

Striated from myofibrils, multinucleated, voluntary

Striated, uninucleated, intercalated discs (gap junctions) allow a syncytium, involuntary
Non-striated, uninucleated, involuntary

Epithelial Tissue: cellularity, cellular connections (tight junctions and desmosomes), cellular organization (apical and
basal layer with basement and reticular lamina), connective tissue support, innervated, avascular, highly regenerative
Nonglandular
Simple Squamous
Diffusion and (some) filtration; lines lymphatic system and all organs in cardiovascular system
Simple Cuboidal
Secretion and absorption
Simple Columnar
Absorption and secretion; located in digestive tract; villi, microvilli, brush border and goblet cell
Pseudostratified
Absorption and secretion; ciliated with mucous cells that trap matter propelled out by cilia
columnar
Stratified Squamous
Protection; surface squamous and deep cuboidal; surface cells are flattened and atrophied
Stratified Cuboidal
Secretion
Stratified Columnar
Protection
Transitional
Stretches; lines urinary organs; basal surface with cuboidal or columnar
Connective Tissue: originate from mesenchyme, varying vascularity, nonliving extracellular matrix, made of ground
substance, fibers, and cells
Ground
Fibers
Cells
Description
Substance
LCT Areolar
Semi-fluid
Collagen
Fibroblasts
Widely distributed
Elastic
Macrophages
Binds body parts together
Reticular
Mast cells
Adipose
Semi-fluid
All three
All three and
Adipocytes are cells that consist of a single oil
adipocytes
droplet and are mostly in subcutaneous tissue but
can be anywhere
Reticular Semi-fluid
Reticular
Fibroblasts
Forms internal framework to support lymphocytes
Reticular cells
and other blood cells
DCT Regular
Mostly fibers
Collagen
Fibroblasts
Tendonmuscle to muscle or muscle to bone
(parallel)
(and others)
Ligamentbone to bone (more elastin)
Irregular Multidirectional Collagen
Fibroblasts
Attachment of epidermis to underlying layers
fibers
(and others)
Cartilage: avascular, mostly water, no nervous tissue, unique ground substance, perichondrium (DCT surrounding
cartilage), chondroblasts in lacunae
Description
Location
Hyaline
Collagen fibers integrated with fluid and chondronectin Articulates
(an adhesive protein)
Costal
Provides support with pliability
Laryngeal
At the ends of long bones (epiphyseal plates)
Tracheal and bronchial
Nasal
Elastic
More elastin fibers than hyaline
Ears and epiglottis
Very flexible
Fibrocartilage Connection between hyaline (cartilage) and ligament or Vertebral discs
tendon (DCT)
Knee
Alternating parallel rows of chondrocytes and collagen
Strong support, resistant to heavy pressure
Bone: functions in support, protection, movement, mineral storage and hematopoiesis; osteoblasts in lacunae; vascular
Compact
Lamellaunidirectional concentric rings made of collagen fibers
(external)
Haversian canalcore of osteon, vascular and NT
Lacunae with osteocytes and connected together and to the Haversian canal by canaliculi
Spongy
Trabeculaeneedle-like flat pieces
(internal)
No osteon with irregularly organized lamella and osteocytes
Bloodcells surrounded by fibers and ground substance (nonliving plasma)

Arterial and venous system

Elastic (conducting) arteries
Muscular arteries
Arterioles
Capillaries (capillary beds with
precapillary sphincters and true
capillaries)
Venules
Veins

Thick-walled, elastic, large lumen, near the heart

Deliver blood to specific organs
Thick tunica media layer of smooth muscle to control BP
Determine flow into capillary beds
Microcirculationarteriole to venule
Vascular shuntconnects arteriole with venule
Terminal arteriole metarteriole thoroughfare channel post capillary venule
Characteristics vary with size; venules veins large veins
Thinner walls and less muscle than arteries; venous valves made from folds of
interna prevent backflow away from heart

Physiology of Circulation
Blood flowvolume flowing through a given structure per unit time (ml/min)
Blood pressureforce per unit area (mm Hg)
Resistanceopposition to flow; generally encountered in the systemic circuitperipheral resistance (PR)
a. Sources of resistance: blood viscosity, total blood vessel length and blood vessel diameter
b. In healthy humans, diameter is the greatest source of resistance
Blood Flow (F) = P/PR (Difference in blood pressure between two points/peripheral resistance)
Arterial Blood Pressure
Systolic pressure: 120 mm Hg
Diastolic pressure: 70-80 mm Hg
Pulse pressure: systolic pressure diastolic pressure
Mean arterial pressure: diastolic pressure + 1/3 PP
Factors that enhance CO
Reduce parasympathetic control
Increase sympathetic activity

Increased activity of respiratory and muscular pumps

Venous Blood Pressure

20 mm Hg from venules to vena cava
Respiratory pump: abdominal pressure squeezes local veins
and creates negative pressure at the right atrium
Muscular pump: skeletal muscles compress veins

(Threshold time, HR)

(Contractility, ESV, SV, CO)
(EPI, HR, CO)
(Constrict muscular arteries, r, PR, BP)
(EDV, SV, CO)

Neural control of BP (short term)

Vasomotor center
Regulation of blood vessel diameter
Baroreceptors
If BP then VMC, r, PR, Venous return, SNS, PNS, HR, Contractile force
Chemoreceptors
Respond to changes in O2 and CO2 and PH
Chemical control of BP (short term)
Norepinephrine Adrenal medulla
Epinephrine
Adrenal medulla
Aldosterone
Adrenal cortex
ANP
Heart
ADH
Posterior pituitary
AII
Alcohol

Renin from JGA

Vasoconstrictor (PR) and increases CO

Increases heart contractility (ESV, SV) and increases CO
ADH, Water absorption BV, EDV (also a vasoconstrictor at high con.)
Aldosterone, BV, EDV
water absorption from DCT BV, EDV
Vasoconstrictor at high concentrations
If BV then AII r, PR and Aldosterone
BP, vasodilation (VMC) and ADH

Renal regulation of BP (long term)

Increase in volume (BP)
Increased filtrate is too much to process and leaves as urine (BV, BP)
Decrease in volume (BP)
Triggers the JGAreninAIIADH

Capillary Dynamics
Capillary hydrostatic pressure (HPc) arteriole = 35 mm Hg, venous = 17 mm Hg
Net effective hydrostatic pressure = HPc - HPif
Capillary colloid osmotic pressure (OPc) = 26
Net osmotic pressure = 25 mm Hg
Net filtration pressure (NFP) arterial end = 10 mm Hg, venous end = -8 mm Hg
Conducting and respiratory pathway
Nares (nostrils)vestibulenasopharynxlaryngopharynxlarynxtracheaprimary
bronchibronchiolesterminal bronchiolesrespiratory bronchiolesalveolar ductsalveolar sacsalveoli
Diaphragm or thoracic wall moves parietal membrane moves visceral (plural) membrane moves dimensions of
the lung changes. To breathe, the dimension of the lung is changed muscularly by the thoracic wall or diaphragm via the
plural membrane, if the connection between the pleural membrane is broken the lung collapses.

Expiration

Inspiration

Pulmonary ventilation
Inspiratory muscles like the
diaphragm and external
intercostals muscles change
lung volume (V, P, air
moves in)

Quiet inhalation

Deep inhalation
Inspiratory muscles relax
Intrapulmonary volume
decreases
Alveoli compress

External respiration
Internal respiration

Forced
expiration

Diaphragm constricts
External intercostals lift
Intrapulmonary volume pressure
Intrapleural pressure declines
End of inhalation: intrapulmonary and ATM pressures are equal
Accessory muscles further increase thoracic volume (scalene,
sternocleidomastoid, pectoralis, erector spinae)
Abdominal wall muscles contract
Other muscles may also depress rib cage and decrease thoracic
volume

Oxygen diffuses rapidly into blood

Carbon dioxide diffuses rapidly out of blood
Oxygen diffuses readily from blood into tissue
Carbon dioxide readily diffuses from tissue into blood

Blood Transport of Respiratory Gases

Terms: oxyhemoglobin, deoxyhemoglobin, partially saturated, fully saturated, carbaminohemoglobin
Association/disassociation curve of oxygen allows the oxygen to bind readily at partial pressures found within the lung
and allows it come off at partial pressures much higher than those found in the tissues of the body creating a ready supply
of oxygen for metabolic cells