STRUCTURAL CONCRETE BUILDING CODE/COMMENTARY

318-115

CHAPTER 9 STRENGTH AND SERVICEABILITY

REQUIREMENTS
CODE

COMMENTARY

9.1 General

R9.1 General

9.1.1 Structures and structural members shall be

designed to have design strengths at all sections at
least equal to the required strengths calculated for the
factored loads and forces in such combinations as are
stipulated in this Code.

In the 2002 Code, the load factor combinations and strength

reduction factors of the 1999 Code were revised and moved
to Appendix C. The 1999 combinations were replaced with
those of SEI/ASCE 7-02.9.1 The strength reduction factors
were replaced with those of the 1999 Appendix C, except
that the factor for flexure was increased.

9.1.2 Members also shall meet all other requirements of this Code to ensure adequate performance at
service load levels.
9.1.3 Design of structures and structural members
using the load factor combinations and strength reduction factors of Appendix C shall be permitted. Use of
load factor combinations from this chapter in conjunction
with strength reduction factors of Appendix C shall not
be permitted.

The changes were made to further unify the design profession

on one set of load factors and combinations, and to facilitate
the proportioning of concrete building structures that
include members of materials other than concrete. When
used with the strength reduction factors in 9.3, the designs
for gravity loads will be comparable to those obtained using
the strength reduction and load factors of the 1999 and
earlier Codes. For combinations with lateral loads, some
designs will be different, but the results of either set of load
factors are considered acceptable.

The basic requirement for strength design may be expressed

as follows:
Design Strength Required Strength
(Nominal Strength) U
In the strength design procedure, the margin of safety is
provided by multiplying the service load by a load factor
and the nominal strength by a strength reduction factor.

9.2 Required strength

R9.2 Required strength

9.2.1 Required strength U shall be at least equal to

the effects of factored loads in Eq. (9-1) through (9-7).
The effect of one or more loads not acting simultaneously shall be investigated.

The required strength U is expressed in terms of factored

loads, or related internal moments and forces. Factored
loads are the loads specified in the general building code
multiplied by appropriate load factors.

U = 1.4(D + F )

(9-1)

U = 1.2(D + F + T) + 1.6(L + H)

(9-2)

+ 0.5(Lr or S or R)
U = 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (1.0L or 0.8W) (9-3)
U = 1.2D + 1.6W + 1.0L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)

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(9-4)

The factor assigned to each load is influenced by the degree

of accuracy to which the load effect usually can be calculated
and the variation that might be expected in the load during
the lifetime of the structure. Dead loads, because they are
more accurately determined and less variable, are assigned a
lower load factor than live loads. Load factors also account
for variability in the structural analysis used to compute
moments and shears.
The Code gives load factors for specific combinations of
loads. In assigning factors to combinations of loading, some

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Chapter 9 defines the basic strength and serviceability

conditions for proportioning structural concrete members.

318-116

MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE

CODE

COMMENTARY

U = 1.2D + 1.0E + 1.0L + 0.2S

(9-5)

U = 0.9D + 1.6W + 1.6H

(9-6)

U = 0.9D + 1.0E + 1.6H

(9-7)

except as follows:
(a) The load factor on the live load L in Eq. (9-3) to
(9-5) shall be permitted to be reduced to 0.5 except for
garages, areas occupied as places of public assembly,
and all areas where L is greater than 100 lb/ft2.
(b) Where wind load W has not been reduced by a
directionality factor, it shall be permitted to use 1.3W
in place of 1.6W in Eq. (9-4) and (9-6).
(c) Where E, the load effects of earthquake, is based
on service-level seismic forces, 1.4E shall be used in
place of 1.0E in Eq. (9-5) and (9-7).
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(d) The load factor on H, loads due to weight and

pressure of soil, water in soil, or other materials,
shall be set equal to zero in Eq. (9-6) and (9-7) if the
structural action due to H counteracts that due to W
or E. Where lateral earth pressure provides resistance to structural actions from other forces, it shall
not be included in H but shall be included in the
design resistance.

consideration is given to the probability of simultaneous

occurrence. While most of the usual combinations of loadings
are included, it should not be assumed that all cases are
covered.
Due regard is to be given to sign in determining U for
combinations of loadings, as one type of loading may
produce effects of opposite sense to that produced by another
type. The load combinations with 0.9D are specifically
included for the case where a higher dead load reduces the
effects of other loads. The loading case may also be critical
for tension-controlled column sections. In such a case, a
reduction in axial load and an increase in moment may
result in a critical load combination.
Consideration should be given to various combinations of
loading to determine the most critical design condition. This
is particularly true when strength is dependent on more than
one load effect, such as strength for combined flexure and
axial load or shear strength in members with axial load.
If unusual circumstances require greater reliance on the
strength of particular members than encountered in usual
practice, some reduction in the stipulated strength reduction
factors or increase in the stipulated load factors may be
appropriate for such members.
R9.2.1(a) The load modification factor of 9.2.1(a) is
different than the live load reductions based on the loaded
area that may be allowed in the legally adopted general
building code. The live load reduction, based on loaded
area, adjusts the nominal live load (L0 in ASCE/SEI 7) to L.
The live load reduction as specified in the legally adopted
general building code can be used in combination with the
0.5 load factor specified in 9.2.1(a).
R9.2.1(b) The wind load equation in SEI/ASCE 7-029.1
and IBC 20039.2 includes a factor for wind directionality
that is equal to 0.85 for buildings. The corresponding load
factor for wind in the load combination equations was
increased accordingly (1.3/0.85 = 1.53 rounded up to 1.6).
The Code allows use of the previous wind load factor of 1.3
when the design wind load is obtained from other sources
that do not include the wind directionality factor.
R9.2.1(c) Model building codes and design load references
have converted earthquake forces to strength level, and
reduced the earthquake load factor to 1.0 (ASCE 7-939.3;
BOCA/NBC 939.4; SBC 949.5; UBC 979.6; and IBC 2000).
The Code requires use of the previous load factor for
earthquake loads, approximately 1.4, when service-level
earthquake forces from earlier editions of these references
are used.

9.2.2 If resistance to impact effects is taken into

account in design, such effects shall be included with L.
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R9.2.2 If the live load is applied rapidly, as may be the

case for parking structures, loading docks, warehouse floors,
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STRUCTURAL CONCRETE BUILDING CODE/COMMENTARY

CODE

318-117

COMMENTARY
elevator shafts, etc., impact effects should be considered. In all
equations, substitute (L + impact) for L when impact should
be considered.

9.2.3 Estimations of differential settlement, creep,

shrinkage, expansion of shrinkage-compensating
concrete, or temperature change shall be based on a
realistic assessment of such effects occurring in
service.

R9.2.3 The effects of differential settlement, creep,

shrinkage, temperature, and shrinkage-compensating concrete
should be considered. The term realistic assessment is
used to indicate that the most probable values rather than the
upper bound values of the variables should be used.

9.2.4 If a structure is in a flood zone, or is subjected

to forces from atmospheric ice loads, the flood or ice
loads and the appropriate load combinations of ASCE/
SEI 7 shall be used.

R9.2.4 Areas subject to flooding are defined by flood

hazard maps, usually maintained by local governmental
jurisdictions.

9.2.5 For post-tensioned anchorage zone design, a

load factor of 1.2 shall be applied to the maximum
prestressing steel jacking force.

R9.2.5 The load factor of 1.2 applied to the maximum

tendon jacking force results in a design load of about
113 percent of the specified prestressing steel yield strength
but not more than 96 percent of the nominal ultimate strength
of the prestressing steel. This compares well with the
maximum attainable jacking force, which is limited by the
anchor efficiency factor.

9.3 Design strength

R9.3 Design strength

9.3.1 Design strength provided by a member, its

connections to other members, and its cross sections,
in terms of flexure, axial load, shear, and torsion, shall
be taken as the nominal strength calculated in accordance with requirements and assumptions of this
Code, multiplied by the strength reduction factors in
9.3.2, 9.3.4, and 9.3.5.

R9.3.1 The design strength of a member refers to the

nominal strength calculated in accordance with the
requirements stipulated in this Code multiplied by a
strength reduction factor , which is always less than 1.
The purposes of the strength reduction factor are: (1) to
allow for the probability of under-strength members due to
variations in material strengths and dimensions, (2) to allow
for inaccuracies in the design equations, (3) to reflect the
degree of ductility and required reliability of the member
under the load effects being considered, and (4) to reflect
the importance of the member in the structure.9.7,9.8
In the 2002 Code, the strength reduction factors were
adjusted to be compatible with the SEI/ASCE 79.1 load
combinations, which were the basis for the required
factored load combinations in model building codes at that
time. These factors are essentially the same as those published
in Appendix C of the 1995 edition, except the factor for
flexure/tension controlled limits is increased from 0.80 to
0.90. This change was based on reliability analyses,9.7,9.9
statistical study of material properties, as well as the opinion
of the committee that the historical performance of concrete
structures supports = 0.90. In 2008, for spirally reinforced
compression-controlled sections was revised based on the
reliability analyses reported in Reference 9.10 and the
superior performance of such members when subjected to
excessive demand as documented in Reference 9.11.

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Copyright American Concrete Institute

Provided by IHS under license with ACI
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS

Licensee=Bechtel Corp Loc 1-19/9999056100

Not for Resale, 02/14/2008 10:51:19 MST