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Morphology seventh lecture
Verbs
When comparing verbs to nouns, it is immediately noticed that verbs are a far more
complex part of speech. However, the verb must enter a structure together with a noun so
as to form a larger context known as a clause, which in turn may be combined with other
clauses or stand alone and be referred to as sentences. The particular arrangement of the
noun and the verb determines the sentence form:
1. N + V.
= affirmative sentence
2. V + N ?
= Interrogative sentence
3. V !
= Command or exclamation
Furthermore, the verb is characterised by several different grammatical features, that is
there are certain grammatical categories related to it:
1. person
2. number
3. tense
4. voice
5. mood
6. aspect
Types of verbs
There are many different classifications of verbs and they mainly depend on the syntactic
or semantic criteria.
I classification (according to syntactic function):
1. Predicating verbs (V) say something about the subject and they are also referred
to as verbs of action. However, there are also verbs in this group that do not show
action but are still predicating.
We went outside.
The children wanted ice cream.
2. Linking verbs (LV) are verbs of incomplete predication which actually means that
the real predicate is supposed to follow and the LV is indicating that. The
complement structure as a rule has an adjective or verb completing the verb
phrase. AN LV can never be followed by an ly adverb! The most frequent LVs are:
appear, be, become, get (in the sense of turn, become), look, remain, seem. Some
verbs of perception may be LVs as well: feel, taste, smell, sound. A useful trick (and
this is unofficial) is to substitute the verb we are not sure about with an appropriate
form of the auxiliary to be. If it fits, the substituted verb is an LV!
The film became a huge success.
You look tired.
This seems to be very difficult.
Your hands smell awful.
The pastor waxed eloquent. (was getting more and more eloquent)
In the last example, we can apply our test:
The pastor was eloquent.
Thus although we have no idea what the verb wax might mean, we understand the
structure since we can substitute the verb with was.
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II classification (according to meaning):
1. Transitive verbs are easily recognised because they always need an object to
have a complete meaning.
She should put the book on the desk.
2. Intransitive verbs can stand alone, that is without an object.
The sun is shining.
Note 1: Intransitive verbs cannot be used in a passive construction
Note 2: All LVs are intransitive.
Note 3: Transitive verbs may have more than one object.
Note 4: Some intransitive verbs may have a transitive usage especially in causative structures.
He walked his dog.
Note 5: Some transitive verbs may have an intransitive usage.
He dreamed a strange dream.
Note 6: Some verbs are referred to as middle verbs because they are transitive according to formal aspects but
cannot be used in a passive construction.
This book cost me a lot of money.

III classification (according to form):

1. Auxiliary verbs (aux) are part of a larger verb phrase and they are always the first
verb in the structure. The main verb following the auxiliary is carrying the meaning
whereas the aux is supposed to be a helping verb since it gives the main verb two
different types of overlay (additional feature):
A)
a structural overlay providing the whole verb phrase with tense, voice,
mood, aspect, interrogative and negative characteristics. These aux are
also known as primary aux: be, have and do.
B)
a modal overlay denoting ability, possibility, necessity and other modal
meanings. These aux are also referred to as modals: can, could, may,
might, shall, should, will, would, must (some other verbs are considered
modal as far as their meaning is concerned and they will be covered in the
section about modals).
2. Lexical verbs are the content verbs, that is the verb with the meaning. In some
cases, where the characteristics of the tense impose it, the lexical verb can carry
person, number, tense, aspect, etc. However, in most cases the aux is in charge of
these particular characteristics.
The following table is a presentation of modal verb usage:

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MODAL VERBS

(can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, must (have to) + semi-modals: need, ought to, dare, used to)

PAST

REAL PRESENT

GENERAL PRESENT/ FUTURE

MEANING

might
may
could
+ have + p.p.
must (+ have + been + V-ing)
cant
will
could
was/ were able to
+V

might
may
could
must
cant
will

might
may
could
must
cant
will
could
can
am/ is/ are able to
will be able to
may
can
am/ is/ are allowed to
will be allowed to
mustnt
am/ is/ are not allowed to
will not be allowed to
should
ought to
have to*
must*
have to*
need to*
dont/ doesnt have to
dont need to

possibility/ probability
(the degree of probability is indicated
by the arrow in the first field)

+ be + V-ing

might
could
+V
was/ were allowed to
wasnt
werent allowed to
should
ought to
had to
must
had to

/
+V

+ have + p.p.

didnt have to*

neednt have*

should
ought to

+ be + V- ing
/

+V
+V
+V
+ p.p.

/
/

+V

ability
+V
permission
+V
prohibition
+V
advisability/ expectation
+V
obligation
+V
necessity
+V
+V

absence of obligation and necessity

*have to: means external obligation or necessity

e.g.: I have to go home. My parents told me to be home by 10. (I would like to stay but I am supposed to be home on time.)
*must/ need to: means authority of the speaker
e.g.: I must/ need to go home. The party is really nice but I have to be up early in the morning. (I realize that it is better for me to go home earlier.)
*didnt have to: used when we knew in advance that we were not supposed to do something so we didnt
e.g.: It was a holiday yesterday so we didnt have to go to school. (I knew that so I didnt go.)
*neednt have: used when we didnt know in advance that we werent supposed to do something but we did
e.g.: I didnt know it was a holiday yesterday. I went to school and when I saw that nobody was there, I realized I neednt have gone at all. (It was a waste of time.)

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The usage of the semi-modal verbs (need, ought to, dare and used to) is a separate
category to discuss. The forms need and ought to are presented in the table and the forms
dare and used to may be explained as follows:
dare
The meaning of dare is quite confusing.
The first meaning of dare is usually applied in negative and interrogative sentences and it
implies the sense of courage. In that case an infinitive without to is used:
I darent ring Johnny. He might actually hang up when he hears my voice.
Note: In American only the complete form of the negative is used dare not.
If a past tense form is to be used, the semi-modal dare forms the past simple form with the
aux did:
He didnt dare go out. It was too cold.
Did he actually dare ask you for more money?
A complete infinitive form is sometimes used after the did not dare:
He did not dare to go out.
In negative structures without the did not, dare may be followed either by an infinitive with
to or without it.
Nobody else dared to ask/ ask the teacher about the test.
The second meaning of dare is used in structures such as I dare say or I daresay when it
is implied that something is probably true.
I dare say/ I daresay youve spent all your money by now.
Note: I dare say/ I daresay is a fixed phrase and it cannot be varied.

The third meaning of dare may appear in structures where it is used as a transitive verb
and it means that you challenge somebody to do something:
I dare you to spend the night in the graveyard.
used to
Students often confuse the semi-modal used to + V with the lexical and always passive
be/ get used to + gerund.
We used to go for a walk on Sundays. (We were in the habit of doing this.)
We were used to going for a walk on Sundays. (We couldnt do without that walk.)

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The second used to + gerund, being a lexical verb, follows the rules applied to all lexical
verbs.
The first used to + V, that is the semi-modal form, is subjected to specific rules.
I affirmative:
S + used to + V
II negative:
S + usednt to + V
Or:
S + didnt use to + V
Better:S + never + used to +V
III interrogative
Did + S + use to + V?
Formal and only in BE in writing:
Used + S + to + V
Question tag:
e.g.: You used to go out a lot, didnt you?
You didnt use to go out a lot, did you?
But also:
You used to go out a lot, usednt you?
IV classification:
1. Finite verbs are lexical verbs with or without an aux and they are regarded as
complete verb forms. They are finite because they are limited by all grammatical
properties a verb may have the most important of which are person and number
(which have to agree with the subject).
He
+
is swimming in the pool.
3rd person sg
3rd person sg present continuous, active, indicative
person
No Tns
asp
voice mood
2. Non-finite verbs are not complete verb forms and they are not limited by all
grammatical properties a verb may have the most important of which are person
and number. Most infinite verbs may have most of the other grammatical properties,
such as tense, voice, aspect. Non-finites are: infinitives, participles (present and
past) and gerunds.
After swimming in the pool, he will play tennis.
no person, no number, present, active
person
No
Tns
voice

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Tns

Present

Past

Present

Past

Active

Gerund/ Present participle

to write
to be writing

to have written
to have been writing

writing

having written

Passive

Infinitive

to be written

to have been written

being written

having been written

Examples:
1. We assume that his being accepted at that University might change his life.
2. The poet is said to have been writing on this poem for years.
3. This idea seems to be acceptable.
4. I prefer swimming in the sea to swimming in a pool.
5. Having told my mother about the exam, she started yelling at me.
V classification (form):
1. Regular verbs are those verbs that add the suffix ed in the past simple and the
past participle form. The spelling and pronunciation of these verbs is dependent
upon the phoneme at the end of the verb. (look looked /t/, beg begged /d/, want
wanted /id/, study studied, play played. Of course, there are exceptions! Lie 1,
lie 2, die, lay, dye!
2. Irregular verbs are those verbs that have their own predetermined forms which we
must learn by heart. We can find them in the list of irregular verbs in every good
dictionary.
Grammatical categories related to verbs
As already mentioned at the beginning of this lecture, the grammatical categories that are
related to verbs are: person, number, aspect, voice and mood.
1. Person and number
Generally speaking, person and number in English apply to pronouns and verbs only. We
can differentiate between the 1st, the 2nd and the 3rd person singular and plural. Fortunately,
the English language is not very inflective. There are only a few cases where person and
number may be differentiated.

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1st
2nd

singular

Verb forms
Person
No

1st
2nd
3rd

plural

3rd

be

Auxiliaries
have

do

Present simple (examples)

write, love, wish, study

am

have

do

write, love, wish, study

are

have

do

write, love, wish, study

is

has

does

writes /s/, loves /z/, wishes /iz/, studies /z/

are

have

do

write, love, wish, study

2. Aspect
There are three different aspects in English and one more which is actually a combination
of two:

aspect
simple

continuous

representation

meaning
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.

definite moment
complete action/ state
accompanied by an adverb signifying definite time
definite moment
action in progress/ incomplete

perfect

1. beginning and end indicated but not clearly stated

2. action is complete up to a certain moment

perfect
continuous

1. beginning and end indicated but not clearly stated

2. action is in progress up to a certain moment

The grammar of English is quite precise. It is clear which verbs may assume a certain
aspect or not. For instance, verbs are generally divided into action and stative verbs.
1. Action verbs:
A)
activity verbs: ask, call, eat, throw, write, etc.
B)
process verbs: change, mature, slow down, etc.
C)
verbs of bodily sensation: ache, feel, hurt, etc. (either simple or
progressive without any substantial semantic change)

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D)
E)

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transitional event verbs: arrive, die, fall, land, lose, etc. (when used in the
progressive form, these verbs imply the action itself, but when used in the
simple form, they imply the approaching of an action)
momentary verbs: hit, jump, kick, tap, etc. (the progressive form seems to
imply a sort of repetition).

2. Stative verbs (usually not in the progressive form):

a) private verbs: verbs of cognition (think, forget, hope, imagine, know) and
verbs of perception (see, hear, feel, taste, smell)
b) relational verbs: apply, be, belong, concern, consist of, contain, cost, seem,
sound, tend, etc.
Note1: Verbs of perception may take can to signify present action.
- I can smell smoke. (meaning right now)
Note 2: If used in the progressive form, stative verbs have a somewhat different meaning:
- I am actually hearing his voice. (emphasis on duration)
- He is looking better since his operation. (temporary state)
- It is mattering less and less. (diminishing)
- I am continually forgetting names. (habitual action with a negative attitude)
- He is seeing his doctor in the afternoon. (he has an appointment)
- She is having a baby. (She is pregnant.)
- I imagine hell come. (think)
You are imagining things. (hallucination)
- I plan to go tomorrow. (intention)
I am planning my holidays. (making arrangements)
- I think hell come. (believe)
I am thinking about it. (considering, pondering)

3. Tense
In comparison to other languages, the Serbian language especially, the category of tense
tends to be quite complicated for students of English as a foreign language. The difficulty
is actually a result of the inability of students to realise that in English tense and aspect
must go along. One without the other is meaningless. The aspect of a certain tense is its
meaning, somebody might say usage. This actually means that every tense in English has
its clearly outlined meaning or usage.
Generally speaking there are two pure tenses, the present and the past, and one future
time form. Some grammarians do not accept the notion of the future being a tense
because it is uncertain so they ascribe a sense of modality to it. However, for the sake of
comparison, we shall present the future as part of the tense system and then offer a
separate presentation of possible future forms.
The following table is a presentation of the tense system in English:
Note:
The table is indicating usage, structure and the main adverbials for each tense. The
arrows show recommendable sequences. Advice: Imagine each column (past, present and
future) to be a basketball team and each of the meanings (simple, continuous, perfect and
perfect continuous) to be a team player. The most logical playing strategy on the field is
based on a very simple concept in order to score, present simple tense will have to pass
the ball to present continuous tense, past simple tense to past continuous tense. If past
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simple tense passed the ball to present simple tense, his team would lose! Right? The
exceptions are indicated by double arrows.

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Past

*a definite
moment in the past
*completed action
*specific adverbs:
yesterday, last ...,
... ago, some date in
the past, when ...

*duration of an
action in the past
*usually combined
with the past simple
by means of:
when, while and as
*two parallel actions
in the past with
while
*an action happened
in the past before
some other in the
past
*usually combined
with the past simple
by means of:
after, before, when,
by the time, ...

*an action was in

progress before some
other one in the past
*usually combined
with the past simple
tense in the same
manner as past
perfect simple

Present

S + V-ed (+ ed reg./
II column irr.)
S + didnt + V
Did + S + V?
now
S + was/ were + V-ing
S + wasnt/ werent + V-ing
Was/ Were + S + V-ing?
now

S + had + pp
S + hadnt + pp
Had + S + pp?
now

S + had + been + V-ing

S + hadnt + been + V-ing
Had + S + been + V-ing?
now

*periodical repetition
of some definite
moments: habit, duty,
fact, time-table
adverbs of frequency
sometimes, usually,
often, every ...

S+V
S + Vs
S + dont + V
S + doesnt + V
Do + S + V?
Does + S + V?
now

Future

*definite moment in the

future in the case of a
decision made at the
moment of speaking
*prediction
adverbs: next ...,
tomorrow

S + will + V
(I/ We + shall)
S + will not (wont) + V
(I/ We shall not (shant) + V
Will + S + V?
Shall + I/ we + V?
now

*duration in the future

*polite questions about
somebodys plans in the
future
adverbs: next ...,
tomorrow

S + will + be + V-ing
S + will not + be + V-ing

S + will + have + pp
S + will not + have + pp
Will + S + have + pp?
Shall + I/ we + have + pp?
now

*connection of two
moments, a
beginning and an
end
*the action is
completed

S + will + have + been + V-ing

Perfect
continuous
*connection of two
moments, a
beginning and an
end
*the action is in
progress between
the two moments

*duration of an action
at the moment of
speaking
*future with verbs of
movement or when
there is a planned
arrangement
adverbs: now, this...,
at the moment, today

S + am/ is/ are + V-ing

S + am/ is/ are not + V-ing

*an action happened

in the past and is
present up to now or
its effects are evident
at the present moment
*often combined with
the past simple by
means of since
*used with for
adverbs:
already, just, ever,
never
yet, recently, lately

S + have/ has + pp
S + havent/ hasnt + pp
Have/ Has + S + pp?
now

*an action will be

completed up to some
moment in the future
adverbs:
by the time, up to, until,
before, by, ....

*an action began in

the past and has been
in progress up to now
*usually combined
with the present
perfect simple and the
past simple tense

S + have/ has + been + V-ing

S + havent/ hasnt + been + Ving
Have/ Has + S + been + V-ing?
now

*an action will be in

progress up to a certain
moment in the future
*adverbs:
the same as with future
perfect simple

Am/ Is/ Are + S + V-ing?

now

Meaning and
usage
Simple

Will + S + be + V-ing?
Shall + I/ we + be + V-ing
now

S + will not + have + been + V-ing

Will + S + have + been + V-ing?
Shall + I/ we + have + been + V-ing?
now

*definite moment
and complete
action
*specific adverb
*signifies existence
or state
Continuous

*duration of an
action
*used for
descriptions

Perfect

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The future
Present
simple
*time table

Present
continuous
*planned
arrangement
(party, meeting,
wedding, etc.)

*verbs of
movement
(go, visit, travel,
move, etc.)

The bus to
Belgrade
leaves at 9:15
tomorrow.

We are having a
party next
weekend.

We are moving
to Greece next
summer.

Present
perfect

going to

*instead of the
present simple
in time clauses

*planned
intention in
the future

*perfective
aspect after
time
conjunction

*most certain
outcome

When I have
done my
homework, I
will take a
walk.

We will not let

him go until he
has finished all
the work.

I am going to
be a doctor
when I grow
up.

The ceiling is
so old it is
most
certainly
going to fall
down.

Future
simple

Future
continuous

Future
perfect

Future perfect
continuous

Tense

*decision about
future intention
made at the
moment of
speaking

*action supposed to
be in progress at a
particular moment in
the future

*action
supposed to be
completed by a
particular
moment in the
future

*action supposed to
be in progress by a
particular moment in
the future

usage

*prediction

*Polite questions
about future plans

A: I dont know
what to do with
this camera.
B: Dont worry.
Ill help you.

Next year at this

time, Ill be lying
happily on a beach!

By the time the

semester is
over, I will have
passed all my
exams.

By the end of this

year, I will have
been working on this
project for almost
two years.

sample
sentences

Oh! This will be

the postman.
Ive been
expecting him.

Oh, auntie Jane,

youve been stayin
with us for quite a
while. Will you be
leaving soon?

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4. Voice
The category of voice may be divided into two subcategories: active and passive. The
most obvious difference between the two is in the order of words which is supposed to put
emphasis either on the subject of the sentence or on the object. In the former, emphasis is
on the doer of the action whereas in the latter, it is on what is being done.
The word order in an active sentence is:
S + (aux) + (not) + V + O (+ M + P + T)
The word order in a passive sentence is:
O + be + PP + S (usually omitted)
*tense of the active sentence
*person and number of O

The burglars took two valuable paintings from the museum.

S
V
O
Two valuable paintings were taken from the museum.
O
be
PP
*past simple tense
*3rd person plural

Some authors argue that the passive may be used to express two different concepts,
action and state. The difference may not be that obvious although it must be admitted that
it is there.
The window was broken when I went by the house, but I dont know when it was
broken.
The first was broken indicates state, that is the fact that the window is like that; the second
was broken indicates the actual act of breaking the window.
A widely spread mistake made with the passive is to always mention the agent.
Why this is a mistake is obvious if we regard the purpose of the passive: to emphasise the
action because the subject/ doer/ agent is unknown, not necessary or simply logically
implied. Why then mention the subject if we use the passive construction in order to avoid
it?
The following list indicates the occasions when the subject/ agent is not supposed
to be mentioned:
a) Unknown agent: somebody, nobody, everybody, etc.
b) Generalised agent: people, they, children, etc.
c) Obvious agent: the police arrest, the fire brigade puts out fires, etc.
d) Unimportant agent: any agent if not important to the meaning of the sentence
e) Impersonality: It
The table on the next page is a representation of the passive voice in all the possible
tenses.

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O* + be* + p.p.*
Tense

Active

Passive

Present
Simple

They write a book.

S
V
O

A book is written.
O
be + p.p.

Present
Continuous

They are writing a book.

A book is being written.

Present
Perfect
Past Simple

They have written a book.

A book has been written.

They wrote a book.

A book was written.

Past
Continuous
Past Perfect
Modal
Modal in the
past
going to

They were writing a book.

A book was being written.

They had written a book.

A book had been written.

They could write a book.

A book could be written.

They could have written a

book.

A book could have been

written.

They are going to write a

book./
They were going to write a
book.

A book is going to be written./

A book was going to be written.

Pattern
am
is + p.p.
are
am
is + being + p.p.
are
have + been + p.p.
has
was + p.p.
were
was + being + p.p.
were
had + been + p.p.
M + be + p.p.
M + have + been + p.p.
am
is
are + going to + be + p.p.
was
were

*The object of the active sentence is in fact the subject of the passive sentence.
*The auxiliary be in the passive voice pattern retains the tense of the active sentence and shows the number and person of the object, now
the subject of the passive sentence.
*p.p. stands for the past participle form of the main verb in the active sentence.
*In some cases, the agent (the subject) of the active sentence should be mentioned in the passive sentence. Then, the preposition by must
be used.
e.g.:
The children made a horrible mess.
A horrible mess was made by the children.
*But when materials are used the preposition is with:
e.g.:
Smoke filled the room.
The room was filled with smoke.
*Sentences, such as: People acknowledge/ assume/ believe/ claim/ consider/ estimate/ feel/ find/ know/ presume/ report/ say/
think/ understand/ etc. that he... have two possible passive forms:
It is acknowledged/ assumed/ believed... that he
or
He is acknowledged/ assumed/ believed ... to be
e.g.:
People say that he is an excellent cook.
He is said to be an excellent cook.
In this example, is from the active sentence, is transformed into the present tense form of the infinitive to be.
If, however, the verb in the active sentence is in a past tense form, the infinitive form in the passive sentence must also be transformed into
the past form of the infinitive.
e.g.:
People say/ said that he married her after only a week.
He is/ was said to have married her after only a week.

5. Mood

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This grammatical category is used to indicate the style or manner of predication. There are
three moods:
A)
Indicative
B)
Subjunctive
C)
Imperative
The major difference in meaning is seen in the sense of reality implied.
A) The indicative mood is unmarked which means that it describes reality as it is
(the other two colour reality in a specific way). The indicative mood is also said to be the
mood of simple ascertainment and interrogation. It denotes a fact or represents an entity
as in close relation to reality. Modal verbs, although being used to colour reality with a
sense of possibility, probability or other kind of meaning, are used in the indicative mood.
All tenses are characterised by an affirmative, a negative and an interrogative indicative
mood form and each of these is studied separately (see the table in the section on tenses).
B) The subjunctive mood implies that what is said in the sentence is hypothetical or
unreal. The subjunctive may be used in separate sentences, usually sentences starting
with I wish/ as if/ as though/ its high time etc. The most obvious and most frequent usage
of the subjunctive is in conditional clauses. There have been many attempts to simplify the
subjunctive, even deny its usage and existence. Many grammarians even claim that the
subjunctive is no longer used and many have tried different classifications. The bottom
line, however is that the subjunctive is very much alive and, if not understood properly,
causing great confusion about students of EFL, especially when they have to understand
conditional clauses, mixed conditionals being the most difficult ones to comprehend.
The most important thing about the subjunctive is that it has its tenses. At the same
time, it is not easy to understand its tenses especially since they do not have substantially
and significantly different structures as compared to the indicative mood. That is exactly
the reason why many modern grammarians do not attribute an essentially different
structure to it but call it by the names of tenses used in the indicative mood. However,
when the subjunctive mood is not seen as something different it may not be understood as
having a different meaning. In that sense, traditional grammar used to rely on the following
distinctions:
1. Present subjunctive
This form, as far as its structure is concerned, looks just like the present simple
indicative with the only difference that there is no s in the 3 rd person singular. It usually
occurs in archaic expressions used in formal occasions:
a) To express a wish or a prayer:
God save the Queen!
Everybody stand up!
Heaven forbid that
Be that as it may
A wish can also be expressed by may (might) + inf:
May you be happy all your life.
They prayed that he might soon be well again.
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b) After verbs expressing a will or wish for the future and after verbs like propose,
suggest, urge, insist, etc.:
It is our wish that he do what he pleases.
She urged that he write and accept the post.
I propose that the Secretarys resignation be accepted.
The President ordered that the prisoner be released.
c) In sentences beginning with It is + adjective expressing urgency (essential,
important, urgent, vital, etc.):
It is essential that the problem be solved immediately.
It is vital that the arrive on time.
d) Occasionally in adverbial clauses of concession or condition:
Though the whole world condemn him, I will still believe in him.
This, if the new be true, is a very serious matter.
In usage b), c) and d) the subjunctive may be replaced by a complete modal should + V
form.
It is our wish that he should do what he pleases.
It is essential that the problem should be solved immediately.
Though the whole world should condemn him, I will still believe in him.
2. Past subjunctive
This form is identical to the past simple tense indicative with the only difference
that the form were is used for all persons. The most important aspect about this form is
that it refers to the present! Thus when we want to express a hypothetical thought about
the immediate or general present, we have to use the past subjunctive. Most students of
EFL do not understand the relationship between a past simple form and the present time
usage. Let it suffice say that the past subjunctive indicates a hypothesis, something that
may but does not have to be. If understood like that, the present time reference is clear.
The most frequent usage of the past subjunctive is in the second conditional which
will be explained later. At this point we should regard the following usages:
a) Its time/ Its high time indicating urgency
Its high time we left. The train is leaving in half an hour and we dont want to be
late.
b) I wish/ If only when we want to change a present/ future state
I wish I had a motorbike. (I dont have one.)
If only I were far away on a beach. (Im not.)
I wish/ If only I was/ were going with you. (I cant.)
Note 1: We use would in I wish sentences when the speaker wants somebody else to change something:
I wish he would change his mind and not marry this terrible Jane!
Note 2: Wishes about simple future events are expressed with hope:
I hope it wont rain tomorrow. Ive been looking forward to our picnic for a very long time.

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c) Id rather + O + past subjunctive
Id rather you didnt ask him for any money.
But:

Id rather I + V (present):
Id rather I + perf. inf. (past)

Id rather be married to a monkey than to you!

Id rather have gone to Mexico last year than to
Greece.

Id prefer + it + past subjunctive

Id prefer it if you didnt ask him for any money.
But:

Id prefer sth to sth else

Id prefer tea to coffee.
Id prefer to do sth rather than do sth else
Id prefer to go shopping rather than sit at home and do nothing.

In comparison to that, the form had better (d better and had better not in the negative) is
used to express desirable or advisable actions and is always followed by the bare
infinitive:
Youd better go now. My parents will be home any minute.
We d better not ask my father about the party. Hes still angry because of the
school report.
d) Suppose/ imagine + past subjunctive is used for understood conditions
Imagine we won the grand lottery prize! (the condition is not stated)
But: If the event referred to is a real possibility (not imaginary), a present verb form is
possible:
Suppose it starts raining on our way to the picnic site?
e) As if/ as though + past subjunctive when referring to an unreal situation
He acts as if he were the president of the USA. (He is not!)
You look as though you had a thousand problems. (You dont have a thousand
problems.)
But: If the situation is real, or we believe it to be real, the indicative present simple is used:
You look as if you are having second thoughts about our marriage. (It is obvious
you are.)
Note: The more colloquial like does not require the past subjunctive:
You look like you are having a thousand problems.
3. Past perfect subjunctive
Just as with the past subjunctive, the past perfect subjunctive has the same
structure as an indicative tense. In this case it is the past perfect tense. Fortunately, the
past perfect indicative is the same for all persons so we do not have to remember any
particular difference about the past perfect subjunctive.
As with the other subjunctives, the usages of the past perfect subjunctive are
outlined clearly. The first and most frequent usage is in the third conditional where it refers
to something unreal or imaginary. Generally speaking, the past perfect subjunctive refers
to past actions that cannot be undone or to something that is a product of our imagination.
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Therefore, all the usages mentioned for the past subjunctive, except usages a) and c),
may be mentioned for the past perfect subjunctive as well with the note that they all refer
to the past:
a) I wish/ If only we had met earlier. Now it is too late for us! (past event)
b) Imagine we had won the lottery! (imagined/ unreal)
c) You look as if you had never seen a man in a dress. (unreal)
Conditional Sentences
Type I real condition
If
If
If

+
+
+

: The condition in the first sentence is real so the result is real

present simple,
+
should + V,
+
present continuous, +

will + V
imperative
imperative

Examples:
If I have enough money, I will buy a new house.
If you should go to town, buy me some pencils.
If you are going out tonight, call me and Ill go with you.
Type II hypothetical
If

: We suppose that something would happen if the condition

were realized

past simple (past subjunctive),

would + V

Examples:
If I werent so lazy, I would be the best student in class.
If you listened to what I say, you wouldnt have these problems.
Type III unreal conditions

If

: The condition is unreal because it was in the past or

because it is imagined or unrealistic to be fulfilled

past perfect (past perfect subjunctive),

would + have + p.p.

Example:
If I had known about your problem before, I would have helped you.

Mixed conditionals
If we want to show that the condition mentioned in the if-clause happened in the past but
the result (expressed in the main clause) is seen only in the present, we have to use a
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mixed conditional. Since the English language relies on logic, we have to obey the rule of
proper time reference. This is when we use a mixed conditional.
For example, a very conceited actor did not want to listen to the film director so the actor
got fired. Now you are explaining the situation to him indicating that the fight with the
director in the past caused his not being part of the film cast in the present.
If you hadnt quarrelled with the director, you would be acting in the film.
Obviously the if-clause
If you hadnt quarrelled with the director,
refers to the past as it follows the pattern of the first part of the third conditional (indicating
the past or that something is unreal)
and the main clause
you would be acting in the film.
refers to the present as it follows the pattern of the second part of the second conditional
(indicating that something is hypothetical)
If illustrated on a time line, the sentence would look like this:
now

If you hadnt quarrelled with the director,

you would be acting in the film.

Variations and other ways of making conditional sentences:

a) If only sense of regret
If only you had told me on time, I could have helped you.
b) Unless if not
Ill be there at ten unless you want me to get there earlier.
c) Provided/ as (so) long as/ only if one situation depends on another
Ill do what you say provided the police dont hear about it.
d) Even if something will happen no matter what
Even if it rains, Ill be at the picnic site as agreed.
e) Were to more hypothetical in meaning
If he were to ask you to steal for him, would you do it?
f)
(should) happen to + V emphasis on chance
If you (should) happen to see Ann, please tell her to contact me.
g) If it were not/ If it hadnt been for one event depends on another
If it had not been for my father, I would not have finished my
studies.
h) Will/ would + V politeness
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Fakultet za pravne i poslovne studije, Novi Sad

i)
j)
k)
l)
m)
n)
o)
p)

Jasmina orevi
If you will/ would wait, Ill see if the doctor can see you now.
Will + V insist on doing
If you will stay out late every night, no wonder you are tired in the
morning.
Supposing/ suppose if
Supposing/ Suppose you never finished school, what would you
do?
Otherwise or if not
Thank you for the directions to your house. We wouldnt have found
it otherwise.
But for if not in formal speech
But for your help, we would have been in trouble.
If so/ if not refer to a sentence understood but not stated
There is a possibility Jack will be late. If so, I will take his place.
Colloquial omission of if
Sit down, and Ill make you a cup of coffee.
If + adjective
If necessary, we will let you know.
If (+ adjective) as meaning although in formal speech ()
The room was well furnished, if a little badly decorated.

C) The imperative mood implies command, request, admonition (warning),

prohibition.
Generally speaking, the English language has a distinctive imperative form only for
the second person singular and plural:
Sit down!
Tell me when you want me to be there!
Please, call me tonight!
Dont you dare touch my term paper!
Please, dont tell my mother!
Obviously, as far as the form of the imperative is concerned, it is the bare infinitive
form of the verb used.
For all other persons, forms beginning with let + O + inf. may be used implying the
same imperative meaning:
person
1st
2nd
3rd

singular
Let me go
/
Let him go
Let her go
Let it go

plural
Let us go (lets go)
/
Let them go

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