A.

There are a number of options when constructing

concrete floors. Compare the options available by
analysing their strengths and weaknesses.
Cast-in-Place Concrete Advantages
Monolithic construction so fewer sealant joints
Positive drainage is easier to achieve
Floor vibration generally imperceptible
Post-tensioning forces reduces cracking in slabs
Flexible column spacing of 20-27
Generally no shear walls except in high seismic zones or very tall structures
Lower maintenance costs due to less joint sealant upkeep
Wider beam spacing creates a more open feeling with higher perceived head
room, better signage visibility, and more uniform lighting distribution
More accommodating for unique structures with irregular shapes, circular helix
ramps, underground parking structures, or parking structures beneath other
buildings
Can be performed by local subcontractors in many cities.
Cast-in-Place Concrete Disadvantages
Potentially higher construction cost in some regions of the country, particularly in
areas where field labor costs are high
Quality control is more difficult to attain due to exposed weather conditions
May require architectural cladding to improve exterior aesthetics
Slightly longer on-site construction schedule
Less adaptable to winter construction in freezing climates
Closer expansion joint spacing
Congestion of tendons and rebar at beam column joints
Slightly larger on-site staging requirement.

Precast Concrete Advantages

Quality control because members are fabricated at a plant that should be certified
by the Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute
Potentially lower construction cost in some regions
Shorter on-site construction schedule
Greater expansion joint spacing (i.e. up to 300 feet)
More adaptable to winter construction
Architectural faade spandrels also serve as structural load bearing elements
Precast Concrete Disadvantages
More propensity for leaking at the joints between tee flanges (i.e. every 10 to 12
feet)
Higher maintenance cost for sealants
The tee stems (vertical elements) are spaced five to six feet on center and are
generally just over seven foot clear above the floor. The close spacing of the tee
stems creates the perception that the ceiling height is lower and the stems can
block visibility of signage and interfere with lighting distribution
Wind and seismic lateral loads are resisted by shear walls or shear frames. At the
exterior of the structure they affect the architecture. At the interior they can reduce
the number of parking spaces achieved, reduce visibility and openness, and
interfere with vehicular turning maneuvers.
Reduced drainage slopes
More bird roosting ledges
Might not be performed by local subcontractors in many cities

B. You have been asked to plan the installation of precast

concrete beams on the first floor of a new apartment
building complex. Explain what factors you would consider
how you would carry out the task including labour and
plant requirements.

Whilst it is possible to adopt precast construction at first storey, it is

considered
unlikely that this will be cost effective or provide significant buildability
advantages
over conventional beam and slab for first storey construction. This is based
on the
considerations that the formwork cost for construction on grade is negligible,
and the
extent of in-ground services will, in general, be substantial.
Adopting conventional construction for the first storey has the additional
advantage of
providing more lead time for the production of the precast components.
However, it is
also possible and sometimes advantageous to use a precast system for the
ground
beams and slab.
Precast, pre-stressed concrete beams are widely used in construction
projects where speed and ease of erection are important. A number of
different bridge beam sections are available, reflecting the range of
applications for which they are intended.

1. set reference line and offset line to determine the position of the precast
elements to be installed.
Level th precast beam elements during installation.
Put up temporary props to support the precast beam elements
2provede level pads or shim plates for setting the level of the elements . set the
level pads in position using non-ink mortar
3. for precast external wall/column ,fix the compressible form or backed rod on the
outer perimeters of wall
4. lift and rid the panel to its designed location with the use of wire ropes.

5. adjust the panel to position and secure it with diagonal props.

6. for components with cast in-situ joints , place and lap the rebars as required.,
7. Set up the formwork for the casting of the joints
8. Carry out conctrete casting.
9. Remove forms after sufficient concrete strength has been achived.
Construction within a precast yard generally yields improved quality and higher
rates of production since materials, equipment and staff are all close by, and the
work tends to be highly repetitive. The precast yard can be either:
A precast suppliers yard, in which case it is a permanent facility; or
A temporary precast yard established on site, where all materials and equipment
are close at hand.
By its very nature, precast yards can produce components at a very rapid rate. For
example, several precast parapets can be cast each day. Quality control is therefore
very important. The precast yard operator must have a quality system in place
whereby each stage of the operation is inspected by the operator and signed off
before moving to the next stage.

D. You are planning the construction of a high rise

apartment complex. It has 40 reinforced concrete columns
on each floor. You have to decide on the best method of
constructing these to meet budget and time constraints.
Clarify what options you considered and justify which one
you eventually chose.
E. Your client is considering a new office block and has
been approached by a company recommending the use of
structural steel rather than reinforced concrete
construction for the main structure. The client has asked
you to prepare a report on each and to make a
recommendation.

Cast-in-place systems

CIP systems have many inherent advantages. It is a n extremely

versatile material because its shape is directed by formwork
erected o n site. The formwork can be configured into almost any
shape or dimension desired. Another advantage of CIP concrete is
the continuity of the system, which allows for the implementation
of frames as the lateral load resisting system. This gives the
architect significant versatility in the floor plan of the space by
allowing for greater flexibility in placement of walls. Columns,
beams, and floors are cast monolithically and therefore; do not
require connections between members as most other structural
systems do. The natural properties of concrete make it a very
durable material, allowing it to withstand extreme weather and
last a long time. It also has significant advantages over steel
when it comes to fire protection, thermal performance, and
acoustic characteristics. A typical span-to- depth ratio of a CIP
beam is typically around 15 to ensure that the beam conform to
the requirements for live load deflections. For the slab, a
conservative estimate is around 30 but this can vary greatly
based on the floor being a one or two-way system and whether or
not it is constructed as a continuous floor over the beam
supports. For a 30 x 30, bay this translates to beams with a
depth of 24 and an approximate slab depth of 10- 12. These
values can be significantly improved by implementing posttensioning. However; this means added cost due to the need for
specialty contractors to perform the post-tensioning, as the
systems can be rather complex and have very strict construction
tolerances. The main drawback of CIP systems is t he cost and
time required for formwork construction, as this is very labor
intensive. The formwork may also require shoring to reach longer
span lengths, thereby adding additional cost to the project. The
subject of quality control is more of a concern with CIP concrete
systems too, with issues such as material testing for strength and
slump nee ding to be conducted on site. Weather also poses
challenges to CIP systems; common concretes require certain
temperatures for curing and typically cannot be poured during
rain.
Structural Steel Systems

Structural steel is a very common solution to many commercial

applications as well. Steel is an attractive option due to the
materials high strength and relatively lower weight compared to
concrete. Similar to CIP structures, steel allows for great
versatility to the floor plan due to its ability to utilize beamcolumn frames to resist the lateral loads. Steel joists can also
attain very large span length s. Typically , steel structures will
utilize a 2 steel deck with an additional 2 CIP floor. The floor can
be either composite or non-composite with the joists. Steel joist,
spaced at approximately 6 on center, support the floor and these
are usually supported by either wide flange beams or steel joists
spanning between columns. A 30 x 30 bay typically requires
steel joist girders around 30 deep. Accounting for the 5 depth of
the floor joists bearing height and an additional 4 for the floor,
the total depth is around 39. However, the joists allow
mechanical chases to run between the webs in the joists, which
enables finish ceiling to come up near the bottom of the joists. A
standard wide flange (WF) section for this type of system would
be a WF18x106. The drawbacks of steel include high material
costs, a lead-time on the ordering of materials, and decreased fire
and corrosion resistance compared to concrete, unless treated
and maintained with fireproofing materials.

Time gain Perhaps the most important aspect of using steel

frame construction as compared to reinforced concrete is the
element of time for the on-site erection of the steel frame.
Reduced time presence for the Contractor on site translates to a
shorter construction time for project delivery and this leads to
reduced overheads during project construction. On multi storey
buildings the time gain can be substantial.
Quality Control Off-site prefabrication of steel members in
isolated factory conditions means better quality control of
manufacturing compared to pouring concrete frames in situ whilst
exposed to the weather elements and with reinforcement and
formwork works subject to labour intensive construction
processes that may affect quality. Furthermore, offsite

prefabrication increases the overall speed of construction and

facilitates enhanced safety.
Design flexibility Longer spanning structural metal frames
create column free areas that offer greater flexibility and
functionality of floor layouts thereby facilitating sales or lettings of
the completed buildings. Pipes and ducts can run easily through
steel members and can also be inspected in the future whereas
no such flexibility exists with concrete members.
Sustainability Steel is 100% recyclable without any loss of
quality, whereas concrete is not recyclable. In the UK, when
buildings using metal frames come to an end of their useful lives,
approximately 86% of the steel sections are recycled to create more steel
products and 13% are reused in their existing form. Recycling rates for
reinforcement bars used in reinforced concrete frames are negligible.

Construction Costs Construction costs for steel frame high rise

buildings that are above 10 levels compare favorably with
reinforced concrete frame high rise buildings. Although a cost
premium in the order of 10-15% may be evident initially for high
rise steel frame buildings, this is usually offset by the substantial
reduction in the erection time of steel frame high rise buildings on
site and the associated substantial overheads charges by main
contractors for prolonged stay on site when slower concrete
methods are used.