Professional Documents
Culture Documents
I. INTRODUCTION
Manuscript received May 30, 2008; revised December 13, 2008. Current version published September 23, 2009. This work was supported by PowerAnser
Labs, IIT Bombay. Paper no. TPWRD-00395-2008.
The authors are with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai 400076, India (e-mail: dambhare@ee.
iitb.ac.in; soman@ee.iitb.ac.in; mukul@ee.iitb.ac.in).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2009.2028801
transmit and receive paths are not identical. This may lead to
differential currents arising out of inaccurate delay equalization,
especially if, identical time for transmit and receive paths are
considered. However, if current samples are time stamped by
a global positioning system (GPS), then for calculation of differential current, samples corresponding to the same time instant can be compared, thereby providing immunity to channel
delays, asymmetry, etc. [5], [20]. Differential current may be
calculated either using instantaneous sample values, or by extracting phasors. Further, dynamic estimate of the channel delay
can be easily maintained by subtracting the GPS time stamp at
the transmit end from the receiving end time stamp. This permits back up operation even during GPS failure modes.
The primary objective of this paper is to propose a methodology to improve sensitivity and speed of the current differential protection scheme for transmission-line protection without
compromising its security. To meet this objective, we first develop a dynamic phasor model of transmission line. The model
help us to analyze errors associated with steady-state phasor
and
are demodel of transmission line. Two parameters
fine to quantify errors arising out of neglecting dynamic phasors.
Subsequently, we propose an adaptive procedure to set the restrain region in the current differential plane. We show that the
proposed methodology significantly improves sensitivity and
speed of the current differential protection scheme without sacrificing the security.
This paper is organized as follows: a current differential
protection framework is introduced in Section II. In Section III,
a dynamic phasor model of transmission line is developed. It is
used for understanding modelling errors in current differential
protection scheme. Consequently, in Section IV, the idea of
adaptive restrain region is developed. Section V explains the
implementation in phase co-ordinates. Section VII extends it
to series-compensated and multiterminal lines. In Section VIII,
we present simulation case studies in EMTP-ATP package
on a 4-generator, 10-bus system with the capacitance coupled
voltage transformer (CCVT) model. Section IX concludes the
paper.
1833
Fig. 1. GPS-synchronized current differential protection scheme with equivalent -model of line.
Hence,
can be used as discriminant function to detect a
fault on transmission line. This approach has been suggested by
Phadke and Thorp [21, p. 257].
With a conventional relay-setting approach, operating current
and restraining current
for the current differential scheme
can be expressed as follows:
(3)
and
(4)
The percentage differential relay pick up and operate when
(5)
(6)
where
(7)
(8)
II. FUNDAMENTALS
Let us consider the positive sequence representation of an uncompensated transmission line. As shown in Fig. 1, the line can
be represented by an equivalent -model. Equivalent circuit
models the effect of distributed line parameters at the line terminals at the fundamental frequency.
Let the positive sequence component of line current for refer. Then, current
ence phase measured at bus be given by
, in the series branch of the -equivalent line model at node
can be computed as follows:
(1)
is the current in shunt path at bus and
where
is the positive sequence voltage of reference phase . Simican also be computed.
larly, current in series branch at bus
If there is no internal fault on the line, then
(2)
1834
modelling of the shunt capacitance of the line reduces the modelling errors. Therefore, we can reduce the width of the restrain
for phase
region in the current differential plane. We use
error2 and
% for magnitude error in current differential
plane. Hence,
and
(refer Fig. 2). The corresponding value of
in conventional relay setting approach is nearly 0.43.
(15)
Prior to a fault or a disturbance,
. Subsequent
to a disturbance, voltage and current signals are not periodic.
Hence, a dynamic phasor should be preferred for modelling.
Using (15), an appropriate phasor representation of (9) and (10)
is given by
(16)
(17)
where
(9)
(10)
where and are the inductance and capacitance of the line
per unit length and is distance measured from relay location.
If
and
are assumed periodic, then, (9) and (10) can
be transformed to the well-known phasor model of line
(11)
(12)
where
and
denote fundamental voltage and current phasors respectively. The -equivalent circuit is an exact two-port
equivalent of (11) and (12). In that sense, methods based upon
-equivalent model are equivalent to method proposed in [7]
which uses an explicit long line model.
The extension of phasors for the dynamic situation is discussed in [23]. In this approach, signal
can be represented
as follows:
(13)
2Reference
640
By comparing (16) and (17) with (11) and (12), we can conclude
that inaccuracies in differential protection based upon phasor
model arises due to neglecting the dynamic phasor contribution terms
and
in (16) and (17). Parameters and
define gain associated with dynamic phasor
model. Further,
and
do not directly depend upon the parameters of the line. Under the steady-state condition,
and
are unity. Hence,
and
measures the inaccuracies associated with the steady-state modelling of the system. Prior to a fault, the terms
and
are
unity. After the fault, and
will deviate from unity. As the
transients die down,
and
returns back to unity.
Figs. 3 and 4 shows the behavior of
and
for a severe
three phase bus fault.3 We observe that the transmission-line
steady-state phasor model is erroneous immediately after a fault.
For a severe fault, model accuracy improves within two cycles.
Fig. 5 shows variation of
and
for a less severe fault. In
this case behavior of
and
shows that steady-state model
provides a reasonably good approximation of system behavior.
The behavior of error terms
and
suggest that threshold
parameter used to detect fault in differential protection should
have adaptive parameters. When model inaccuracy is high, then
restraint should be high and vice versa.
3The
Fig. 3. Variation in k and k at end i (refer Fig. 1) for phase a. The external
LLL bus fault is at bus i on 230-kV system (fault resistance is 0.1
and fault
occurs at 0.115 sec). Observe that both k and k are affected by a close in bus
fault.
1835
Fig. 5. Variation in k and k at end i (refer Fig. 1) for phase a. The external
LLL bus fault is at bus i on the 230-kV system (fault resistance is 100
and
fault occurs at 0.115 s).
1) high impedance fault may not involve appreciable transients (refer Fig. 5);
2) high impedance faults should not lead to gross errors due
to CT saturation and
3) large disturbances (e.g., load throw off and external faults)
will cause large differential currents because 1) the phasor
model is not truly valid under such situations (as shown
in Fig. 3) and 2) CT errors may increase due to partial
saturation; hence, large transients or disturbances demand
a larger restrain region.
The aforementioned observations suggest that the height of
the restrain region should be a function of the current magniand
. In particular, we propose the following
tudes of
restraining function:
Fig. 4. Variation in k and k at remote end j (refer Fig. 1) for phase a. The
external LLL bus fault is at bus i on the 230-kV system (fault resistance is 0.1
and fault occurs at 0.115 s). Observe that k remains close to unity for the
remote bus and the behavior of k is similar to k at bus i.
(18)
where
and
1836
Indices
, and represent the respective phases. Similarly, the
line current equation at bus can be expressed as follows:
(24)
Thus, we conclude that there is no fault on the line if
(25)
(26)
(27)
In practice, each phase tripping logic can be set using the procedure described in Section IV.
and
can be comRemark 1: The currents phasors
puted from GPS-synchronized measurements using (23) and
(24). Total twelve GPS-synchronized measurements are required, three currents and three voltages at each end. Phasors
are computed from most recent samples by recursive discrete
Fourier transform (DFT) [21] or phasorlets [12]. An alternative
and
in the phase domain
to estimation of currents
would be computation in the time domain. However, phasor
approach has been preferred because it avoids numerical
differentiation.
Remark 2: There is no possibility of inadvertent tripping of
the transmission line due to line charging current. This is bewill be zero
cause the discriminant function value
even during line charging.
VI. RELAYING ALGORITHM
We now propose following algorithm for sensitive and secure
current differential protection scheme.
A. At Node i
1) Input line parameters, relay settings (
and
), sampling frequency
and trip value for
.
counter
0.
2) Set
3) Acquire latest GPS-synchronized time-tagged samples
and
where
(21)
(22)
It has to be noted that, usually,
will be negative as
.
Now from Fig. 6, the line current equation at bus in phase
coordinates can be expressed as follows:
4)
5)
6)
7)
(23)
4Note
=I
3I
1837
Fig. 7. GPS-synchronized current differential protection scheme for seriescompensated line (series capacitor at end).
(32)
(33)
If there is no fault on the line, then we have
However, if there is a fault on the line, then discriminant funcwill not be zero.
tion
Remark 3: The extension of the aforementioned scheme in
phase coordinates is straightforward. For the simplicity of illustration, we have used sequence representation, but all calculations are carried out in phase coordinates. The method can be
easily adapted even if the series compensation is not at the center
of the line. Similarly, the scheme can be extended for the protection of a multiterminal line.
Fig. 8. GPS-synchronized current differential protection scheme for the seriescompensated line (series capacitor at mid point).
8) Check if:
OR
.
If TRUE, then
.
else, if
9) If
issue the trip decision.
Else, go back to step 3.
Similar algorithm is also applied at node the .
= 2
1838
0 0003
= 24
= 0:63
; L =
Fig. 11. Performance of proposed current differential protection scheme on external faults. Note that relay does not pick up as all the final operating points are
inside the restrain region.
TABLE I
1839
Fig. 12. Trajectory of phase-a operating point for proposed current differential
protection scheme on external fault (LLL bolted fault on bus 3, fault inception
angle 270 ). Note that the relay does not pick up.
TABLE II
SENSITIVITY FOR HIGH RESISTANCE INTERNAL FAULT
phase a-b, at the start of line for the fault inception angle of
270 and a large fault resistance of 600 . Table II shows the
highest resistance fault, that can be detected by the differential
protection schemes on line , irrespective of fault location and
fault inception angle. The relays were set to provide maximum
sensitivity without compromising security.
The table clearly shows that the proposed scheme enables far
more sensitive relay setting than the conventional scheme of [4].
With nonadaptive setting, the relay sensitivity is similar to that
of scheme suggested in [7]. This can be explained from the fact
that both the methods account for line charging contributions.
However, with the proposed adaptive setting strategy of the restrain region, we notice that sensitivity of the current differential
protection scheme improves by a factor of about 2.5. We emphasize that this improvement in the sensitivity using adaptive
setting strategy is not at the cost of the relay security.
Remark 4: The external system can change due to various
factors like, sudden large change in load or generation, outage of
adjacent line, single pole tripping, non simultaneous opening of
adjacent line circuit breaker etc. Simulations have been carried
out to ascertain that the proposed current differential scheme is
very robust and does not maloperate on any of the above system
disturbances.
1840
TABLE III
SENSITIVITY FOR HIGH-RESISTANCE INTERNAL FAULT FOR
SERIES-COMPENSATED LINE
Fig. 15. Effect of sampling frequency on the relay operating time of phase-a
for the LLL fault at midpoint for the proposed current differential protection
scheme when phasors are estimated by using full-cycle recursive DFT.
The results also show that relay operation is faster with the
adaptive control of the restrain region irrespective of the phasor
estimation algorithm. The fastest relay operation is achieved
with adaptive control of restrain region and when the phasorlet
algorithm is used for phasor computation.
Remark 5: It is interesting to observe that time to trip has an
inverse relationship to the magnitude of fault current.
This behavior can be explained as follows. For the sake of
simplicity, consider that the phasor is computed by using fullcycle recursive DFT and nonadaptive methodology is used. It
takes one cycle for the phasor computation algorithm to latch to
a fault current value. Assuming a linear change in the estimate,
we see that for a fixed pick-up value, larger fault currents imply
faster pick up (and vice versa).
2) Sampling Frequency: The sampling rate influences the operating time of the relay. Fig. 15 show the operating time of proposed scheme with adaptive and nonadaptive settings, for the
sampling frequency of 1, 2, and 2.5 kHz using full-cycle recursive DFT algorithm for phasors estimation. The studies show
that, 2.5 kHz sampling rate gives fastest relay operation followed by 2 and 1 kHz, respectively. However, marginal gains
in speed reduce at higher sampling frequencies i.e., a result in
concurrence with the law of diminishing marginal utility. Similar observations have been made in the context of digital distance relay in [10] and [30].
C. Performance With Series-Compensated Line
Application of proposed scheme to series-compensated transmission line is discussed in Section VII. All the three tie lines
between nodes 3 and 13 (refer Fig. 9) are compensated with
30% series capacitive compensation. The MOV data (connected
across the series capacitors) is given in [24]. The parallel combination of series capacitor and MOVs are placed at the midpoint
of lines. The initial value of generator voltage magnitudes and
angles are computed from the load flow analysis of compensated
system. The proposed scheme is then applied for the primary
protection of tie line . All the four types of faults (LG, LL,
LLG, and LLL) are simulated on both side of series capacitor on
line
to test the performance of proposed scheme on internal
faults. Similar faults are simulated on bus 3 and bus 13 as well
as on lines 3102 and lines 13112 to test the performance of
proposed scheme on external faults. For every fault, fault location is varied from 0% to 100% in steps of 10%, fault resistance
1841
[18] G. Michel et al., Digital communications for relay protection, [Online]. Available: http://www.pes-psrc.org/
[19] M. G. Adamaik, A. P. Apostolov, M. M. Begovic, C. F. Henville, K.
E. Martin, G. L. Michel, A. G. Phadke, and J. S. Thorp, Wide area
protecionTechnology and infrastructures, IEEE Trans. Power Del.,
vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 601609, Apr. 2006.
[20] I. H. G. Brunello, I. Voloh, and J. Fitch, Current differential relayingcoping with communications channel asymmetry, in Proc. 8th IEE Int.
Conf. Developments in Power System Protection, Apr. 2004, vol. 2, pp.
821824.
[21] A. G. Phadke and J. S. Thorp, Computer Relaying for Power Systems.
Taunton, U.K.: Research Studies Press, 1988.
[22] M. Zhang, X. Dong, Z. Q. Bo, B. R. J. Caunce, and A. Klimek, A new
current differential protection scheme for two terminal transmission
lines, in Proc. Power Engineering Society General Meeting, Jun. 2007,
pp. 16.
[23] P. Mattavelli, G. C. Verghese, and A. M. Stankovic, Phasor dynamics
of thyristor-controlled series capacitor systems, IEEE Trans. Power
Syst., vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 12591267, Aug. 1997.
[24] H. W. Dommel, Electromagnetic Transients Program (EMTP) Theory
Book. Portland, OR: Bonneville Power Administration, 1986.
[25] K. R. Padiyar, Power System Dynamics, 2nd ed. Hydrabad, India: BS
Publications, 2002.
[26] P. V. Chawande, A high fidelity and robust closed loop active flux
compensation scheme for mitigating CT saturation, Ph.D. dissertation,
Inst. Technol.-Bombay, Bombay, India, 2007.
[27] D. Fernandes, W. L. A. Neves, and J. C. A. Vasconcelos, Coupling
capacitor voltage transformer: A model for electromagnetic transient
studies, Elect. Power Syst. Res., vol. 77, pp. 125134, Mar. 2006.
[28] W. L. A. Neves and H. W. Dommel, On modelling iron core nonlinearities, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 417423, May
1993.
[29] D. A. Tziouvaras et al., Mathematical models for current, voltage, and
coupling capacitor voltage transformers, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol.
15, no. 1, pp. 6272, Jan. 2000.
[30] J. M. Kennedy, G. E. Alexander, and J. S. Thorp, Variable digital filter
response time in digital distance relay. no. GER3798 [Online]. Available: http://www.geindustrial.com/multilin/notes/ger3798.htm
[31] S. S. Dambhare, N. W. Kinhekar, S. A. Soman, and M. C. Chandorkar,
ATP-EMTP analysis of series compensated lines for distance protection scheme, in Proc. Int. Conf. Power System Protection, Banglore,
India, Feb. 2007, pp. 3647.