2009

NRL PLASMA FORMULARY

J.D. Huba
Beam Physics Branch
Plasma Physics Division
Naval Research Laboratory
Washington, DC 20375

Supported by
The Office of Naval Research
1

CONTENTS
Numerical and Algebraic

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Differential Operators in Curvilinear Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . .

Vector Identities

Dimensions and Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

International System (SI) Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Metric Prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Physical Constants (SI)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Physical Constants (cgs)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Formula Conversion

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Maxwells Equations

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Electricity and Magnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Electromagnetic Frequency/Wavelength Bands . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
AC Circuits

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Dimensionless Numbers of Fluid Mechanics

Shocks

. . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Fundamental Plasma Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Plasma Dispersion Function
Collisions and Transport

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Approximate Magnitudes in Some Typical Plasmas

Ionospheric Parameters

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Solar Physics Parameters

Thermonuclear Fusion

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Relativistic Electron Beams

Beam Instabilities
Lasers

. . . . . . . . . . 40

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Atomic Physics and Radiation

Atomic Spectroscopy

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Complex (Dusty) Plasmas

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Afterword

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

NUMERICAL AND ALGEBRAIC

Gain in decibels of P2 relative to P1
G = 10 log 10 (P2 /P1 ).
To within two percent
(2)

1/2

10

2.5; 10; e 20; 2

10 .

Euler-Mascheroni constant1 = 0.57722

Gamma Function (x + 1) = x(x):
(1/6)
(1/5)
(1/4)
(1/3)
(2/5)
(1/2)

=
=
=
=
=
=

5.5663
4.5908
3.6256
2.6789
2.2182

1.7725 =

(3/5)
(2/3)
(3/4)
(4/5)
(5/6)
(1)

=
=
=
=
=
=

1.4892
1.3541
1.2254
1.1642
1.1288
1.0

Binomial Theorem (good for | x |< 1 or = positive integer):

(1 + x) =

X
k=0

k
( 1) 2
( 1)( 2) 3
x 1 + x +
x +
x + ....
k
2!
3!

Rothe-Hagen identity2 (good for all complex x, y, z except when singular):

n
X
k=0

x + kz

y + (n k)z

y
x
x + kz
y + (n k)z
k
nk

x+y
x + y + nz

=
.
x + y + nz
n

Newbergers summation formula3 [good for nonintegral, Re ( + ) > 1]:

(1)n Jn (z)J+n (z)

=
J+ (z)J (z).
n+
sin

n=

VECTOR IDENTITIES4
Notation: f, g, are scalars; A, B, etc., are vectors; T is a tensor; I is the unit
dyad.
(1) A B C = A B C = B C A = B C A = C A B = C A B
(2) A (B C) = (C B) A = (A C)B (A B)C
(3) A (B C) + B (C A) + C (A B) = 0
(4) (A B) (C D) = (A C)(B D) (A D)(B C)
(5) (A B) (C D) = (A B D)C (A B C)D
(6) (f g) = (gf ) = f g + gf
(7) (f A) = f A + A f
(8) (f A) = f A + f A
(9) (A B) = B A A B
(10) (A B) = A( B) B( A) + (B )A (A )B
(11) A ( B) = (B) A (A )B
(12) (A B) = A ( B) + B ( A) + (A )B + (B )A
(13) 2 f = f
(14) 2 A = ( A) A
(15) f = 0
(16) A = 0
If e1 , e2 , e3 are orthonormal unit vectors, a second-order tensor T can be
written in the dyadic form
(17) T =

i,j

Tij ei ej

In cartesian coordinates the divergence of a tensor is a vector with components

(18) (T )i =

(Tji /xj )

[This definition is required for consistency with Eq. (29)]. In general

(19) (AB) = ( A)B + (A )B
(20) (f T ) = f T +f T

Let r = ix + jy + kz be the radius vector of magnitude r, from the origin to

the point x, y, z. Then
(21) r = 3
(22) r = 0
(23) r = r/r
(24) (1/r) = r/r3
(25) (r/r3 ) = 4(r)
(26) r = I
If V is a volume enclosed by a surface S and dS = ndS, where n is the unit
normal outward from V,
(27)

(28)

(29)

(30)

(31)

(32)

Z
Z

dV f =

dSf
S

dV A =

dV T =

dV A =

dS A

dS T

dS A

dV (f 2 g g2 f ) =

dS (f g gf )

dV (A B B A)
=

dS (B A A B)

If S is an open surface bounded by the contour C, of which the line element is

dl,
(33)

dS f =

dlf

(34)

(35)

(36)

dS A =

dl A

(dS ) A =

dl A

dS (f g) =

f dg =

gdf
C

DIFFERENTIAL OPERATORS IN
CURVILINEAR COORDINATES5
Cylindrical Coordinates
Divergence
A=

1 A
Az
1
(rAr ) +
+
r r
r
z

Gradient
(f )r =

f
;
r

(f ) =

1 f
;
r

(f )z =

Curl
( A)r =

A
1 Az

r
z

( A) =

Ar
Az

z
r

( A)z =

1
1 Ar
(rA )
r r
r

Laplacian
1
f =
r r
2

f
r
r

2f
1 2f
+
r2 2
z 2

f
z

Laplacian of a vector
( A)r = Ar

Ar
2 A

r2
r2

(2 A) = 2 A +

A
2 Ar

r2
r2

( A)z = Az
Components of (A )B
(A B)r = Ar

A Br
A B
Br
Br
+
+ Az

r
r
z
r

(A B) = Ar

B
B
A B
A Br
+
+ Az
+
r
r
z
r

(A B)z = Ar

A Bz
Bz
Bz
+
+ Az
r
r
z

Divergence of a tensor
( T )r =

T
1
1 Tr
Tzr
(rTrr ) +
+

r r
r
z
r

( T ) =

Tz
Tr
1
1 T
(rTr ) +
+
+
r r
r
z
r

( T )z =

1 Tz
Tzz
1
(rTrz ) +
+
r r
r
z

Spherical Coordinates
Divergence
A=

A
1

1
1
2
(r Ar ) +
(sin A ) +
2
r r
r sin
r sin

Gradient
(f )r =

f
;
r

(f ) =

1 f
;
r

(f ) =

f
1
r sin

Curl
( A)r =

A
1
1
(sin A )
r sin
r sin

( A) =

Ar
1
1

(rA )
r sin
r r

( A) =

1
1 Ar
(rA )
r r
r

Laplacian
1
f = 2
r r
2

f
r
r
2

1
+ 2
r sin

f
sin

2f
1
+ 2
r sin2 2

Laplacian of a vector
(2 A)r = 2 Ar

A
2Ar
2 A
2 cot A
2

r2
r2
r2
r2 sin

( A) = A +

A
2 cos A
2 Ar
2
2
2
2
r
r sin
r sin2

(2 A) = 2 A

r2

A
Ar
2
2 cos A
+ 2
+ 2
2
sin
r sin
r sin2

Components of (A )B
(A B)r = Ar

A Br
A B + A B
A Br
Br
+
+

r
r
r sin
r

(A B) = Ar

B
A B
A B
A Br
cot A B
+
+
+

r
r
r sin
r
r

(A B) = Ar

B
A B
A Br
cot A B
A B
+
+
+
+
r
r
r sin
r
r

Divergence of a tensor
( T )r =

1
1
2
(r
T
)
+
(sin Tr )
rr
r2 r
r sin
+

( T ) =

1
1
2
(r
T
)
+
(sin T )
r
r2 r
r sin
+

( T ) =

Tr
T + T
1

r sin
r

T
cot T
Tr
1
+

r sin
r
r

1
2
(r
T
)
+
(sin T )
r
r2 r
r sin
+

T
Tr
cot T
1
+
+
r sin
r
r

DIMENSIONS AND UNITS

To get the value of a quantity in Gaussian units, multiply the value expressed in SI units by the conversion factor. Multiples of 3 in the conversion
factors result from approximating the speed of light c = 2.9979 1010 cm/sec
3 1010 cm/sec.
Dimensions
Physical
Quantity
Capacitance
Charge
Charge
density

Symbol

Gaussian

SI
Units

Conversion
Factor

Gaussian
Units

t2 q 2
ml2

farad

9 1011

cm

m1/2 l3/2
t

coulomb

3 109

statcoulomb

q
l3

m1/2

3 103

tq 2
ml2
tq 2
ml3

coulomb
/m3

statcoulomb
/cm3

l
t
1
t

siemens

9 1011

cm/sec

siemens
/m

9 109

sec1

q
t

m1/2 l3/2
t2

ampere

3 109

statampere

ampere
/m2

3 105

statampere
/cm2

kg/m3

103

g/cm3

coulomb
/m2

12 105

statcoulomb
/cm2

volt/m

1
4
10
3

statvolt/cm

volt

1
2
10
3

statvolt

joule

107

erg

Conductance
Conductivity

Current

I, i

Current
density

J, j

Density

Displacement

Electric field

SI

Electromotance

E,
Emf

Energy

U, W

Energy
density

w,

l3/2 t

m1/2

l2 t

l1/2 t2

m
l3
q
l2

m
l3
m1/2

ml
t2 q

m1/2

ml2
t2 q

m1/2 l1/2
t

ml2
t2
m
lt2

ml2
t2
m
lt2

l1/2 t
l1/2 t

joule/m3 10

10

erg/cm3

Dimensions
Physical
Quantity

Symbol

SI

Gaussian

ml
t2
1
t
ml2
tq 2
ml2
q2

ml
t2
1
t
t
l
t2
l

SI
Units

Conversion
Factor

newton

105

dyne

hertz

hertz

Force

Frequency

f,

Impedance

Inductance

Length

Magnetic
intensity

q
lt

m1/2

Magnetic flux

Magnetic
induction

ml2
tq
m
tq

m1/2 l3/2
weber
t
m1/2
tesla
l1/2 t

l2 q
t

m1/2 l5/2
amperem2 103
t

q
lt

m1/2

q
t

Magnetic
moment

m,

Magnetization M
Magnetomotance

M,
Mmf

Mass

m, M m

Momentum

p, P

Momentum
density
Permeability

ohm
henry

l1/2 t

Gaussian
Units

1
1011
9
1
1011
9

sec/cm
sec2 /cm

meter (m)

102

centimeter
(cm)

ampere
turn/m

4 103

oersted

108

maxwell

104

gauss
oersted
cm3

4 103

oersted

m1/2 l1/2
ampere
t2
turn

4
10

gilbert

kilogram
(kg)

103

gram (g)

kgm/s

105

gcm/sec

kg/m2 s

101

g/cm2 sec

henry/m

1
7
10
4

ampere
turn/m

l1/2 t

ml
t
m
l2 t

ml
t
m
l2 t

ml
q2

11

Physical
Quantity

Dimensions
Symbol
SI
Gaussian

Permittivity

Polarization

Potential
Power

V,
P

Power
density
Pressure

p, P

Reluctance

Resistance

Resistivity

Thermal con- , k
ductivity
Time

Vector
potential

Velocity

Viscosity

Vorticity

Work

t2 q 2
1
ml3
q
m1/2
l2
l1/2 t

SI
Units
farad/m

Conversion
Factor

Gaussian
Units

36 109

coulomb/m2 3 105

statcoulomb
/cm2

ml2
t2 q

m1/2 l1/2
volt
t

ml2
t3
m
lt3

ml2
t3
m
lt3

m
lt2
q2
ml2

m
lt2
1
l

ml2
tq 2

t
l

ampereturn 4 109 cm1

/weber
1
11
ohm
10
sec/cm
9

ohmm

ml
t3

watt/m
deg (K)

ml3
tq 2
ml
t3

1
102
3

statvolt

watt

107

erg/sec

watt/m3

10

erg/cm3 sec

pascal

10

dyne/cm2

1
9
10
9

sec

105

erg/cmsec
deg (K)

second (sec)

106

gausscm

m/s

102

cm/sec

kg/ms

10

poise

s1

sec1

joule

107

erg

t
ml
tq

t
second (s)
1/2 1/2
m
l
weber/m
t

l
t
m
lt
1
t
ml2
t2

l
t
m
lt
1
t
ml2
t2

12

INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM (SI) NOMENCLATURE6

Physical
Quantity

Name
of Unit

Symbol
for Unit

*length

meter

*mass

kilogram

kg

*time

second

*current

ampere

*temperature

kelvin

*amount of
substance

mole

*luminous
intensity

candela

cd

plane angle

radian

rad

solid angle

steradian

frequency

Physical
Quantity

Name
of Unit

Symbol
for Unit

electric
potential

volt

electric
resistance

ohm

electric
conductance

siemens

electric
capacitance

farad

magnetic flux

weber

Wb

magnetic
inductance

henry

magnetic
intensity

tesla

sr

hertz

Hz

luminous flux

lumen

lm

energy

joule

illuminance

lux

lx

force

newton

becquerel

Bq

pressure

pascal

Pa

activity (of a
radioactive
source)

power

watt

absorbed dose
(of ionizing
radiation)

gray

Gy

mol

electric charge coulomb

C
*SI base unit
Supplementary unit

METRIC PREFIXES
Multiple

Prefix

Symbol

101
102
103
106
109
1012
1015
1018

deci
centi
milli
micro
nano
pico
femto
atto

d
c
m

n
p
f
a

Multiple
10
102
103
106
109
1012
1015
1018

13

Prefix

Symbol

deca
hecto
kilo
mega
giga
tera
peta
exa

da
h
k
M
G
T
P
E

PHYSICAL CONSTANTS (SI)7

Physical Quantity

Symbol

Value

Units

1.3807 1023 J K1

Boltzmann constant

Elementary charge

Electron mass

me

Proton mass

mp

Gravitational constant

Planck constant

h
h
= h/2

1.6022 1019 C

9.1094 1031 kg
1.6726 1027 kg

6.6726 1011 m3 s2 kg1

6.6261 1034 J s
1.0546 1034 J s
2.9979 108

Speed of light in vacuum c

m s1

8.8542 1012 F m1

Permittivity of
free space

Permeability of
free space

Proton/electron mass
ratio

mp /me

1.8362 103

Electron charge/mass
ratio

e/me

1.7588 1011

C kg1

1.0974 107

m1

Bohr radius

me4
R =
80 2 ch3
a0 = 0 h2 /me2

Atomic cross section

a0 2

Classical electron radius

8.7974 1021 m2

re = e2 /40 mc2 2.8179 1015 m

Rydberg constant

Thomson cross section

4 107

(8/3)re 2

Compton wavelength of
electron

h/me c
h
/me c

Fine-structure constant

= e2 /20 hc
1

First radiation constant

c1 = 2hc2

Second radiation
constant

c2 = hc/k

Stefan-Boltzmann
constant

14

H m1

5.2918 1011 m

6.6525 1029 m2
2.4263 1012 m
3.8616 1013 m
7.2974 103
137.04

3.7418 1016 W m2
1.4388 102

mK

5.6705 108

W m2 K4

Physical Quantity

Symbol

Value

Units

Wavelength associated
with 1 eV

0 = hc/e

1.2398 106

Frequency associated
with 1 eV

0 = e/h

2.4180 1014

Hz

Wave number associated

with 1 eV

k0 = e/hc

8.0655 105

m1

Energy associated with

1 eV

h0

1.6022 1019

Energy associated with

1 m1

hc

1.9864 1025

Energy associated with

1 Rydberg

me3 /80 2 h2

Energy associated with

1 Kelvin

13.606

eV

k/e

8.6174 105

eV

Temperature associated
with 1 eV

e/k

1.1604 104

Avogadro number

NA

mol1

Faraday constant

F = NA e

6.0221 1023

Gas constant

R = NA k

Loschmidts number
(no. density at STP)

9.6485 104

C mol1

n0

2.6868 1025

m3

Atomic mass unit

mu

kg

Standard temperature

T0

1.6605 1027

Atmospheric pressure

273.15

p0 = n0 kT0

Pressure of 1 mm Hg
(1 torr)
Molar volume at STP

V0 = RT0 /p0

Molar weight of air

Mair
g

15

J K1 mol1

1.0133 10

Pa

1.3332 102

Pa

2.2414 102

m3

2.8971 102

calorie (cal)
Gravitational
acceleration

8.3145

kg

4.1868

9.8067

m s2

PHYSICAL CONSTANTS (cgs)7

Physical Quantity

Symbol

Value

Units

1.3807 1016 erg/deg (K)

Boltzmann constant

Elementary charge

Electron mass

me

Proton mass

mp

Gravitational constant

Planck constant

h
h
= h/2

4.8032 1010 statcoulomb

(statcoul)
9.1094 1028 g
1.6726 1024 g

Speed of light in vacuum c

6.6726 108

dyne-cm2 /g2

2.9979 1010

cm/sec

6.6261 1027 erg-sec

1.0546 1027 erg-sec
3

Proton/electron mass
ratio

mp /me

Electron charge/mass
ratio

e/me

5.2728 1017

statcoul/g

2 2 me4
R =
ch3
a0 = h
2 /me2

1.0974 105

cm1

5.2918 109

cm

Rydberg constant
Bohr radius

1.8362 10

17

Atomic cross section

a0

Classical electron radius

re = e2 /mc2

Thomson cross section

(8/3)re 2

Compton wavelength of
electron

h/me c
h
/me c

Fine-structure constant

= e2 /
hc
1

First radiation constant

c1 = 2hc2

Second radiation
constant

c2 = hc/k

Stefan-Boltzmann
constant
Wavelength associated
with 1 eV

8.7974 10

cm2

2.8179 1013 cm

6.6525 1025 cm2

2.4263 1010 cm
3.8616 1011 cm
7.2974 103
137.04

3.7418 105

erg-cm2 /sec

5.6705 105

erg/cm2 sec-deg4

1.2398 104

cm

16

1.4388

cm-deg (K)

Physical Quantity

Symbol

Value

Units

Frequency associated
with 1 eV

2.4180 1014

Hz

Wave number associated

with 1 eV

k0

8.0655 103

cm1

Energy associated with

1 eV

1.6022 1012

erg

Energy associated with

1 cm1

1.9864 1016

erg

Energy associated with

1 Rydberg

13.606

eV

Energy associated with

1 deg Kelvin

8.6174 105

eV

Temperature associated
with 1 eV

1.1604 104

deg (K)

6.0221 1023

mol1

8.3145 107

erg/deg-mol

2.6868 10

cm3

1.6605 1024

1.0133 106

dyne/cm2

1.3332 103

dyne/cm2

2.2414 104

cm3

Avogadro number

NA

Faraday constant

F = NA e

Gas constant

R = NA k

19

Loschmidts number
(no. density at STP)

n0

Atomic mass unit

mu

Standard temperature

T0

Atmospheric pressure

p0 = n0 kT0

273.15

Pressure of 1 mm Hg
(1 torr)
Molar volume at STP

V0 = RT0 /p0

Molar weight of air

Mair

28.971

calorie (cal)
Gravitational
acceleration

2.8925 1014

4.1868 10

980.67

17

statcoul/mol

deg (K)

g
erg
cm/sec2

FORMULA CONVERSION8
Here = 102 cm m1 , = 107 erg J1 , 0 = 8.8542 1012 F m1 ,
0 = 4107 H m1 , c = (0 0 )1/2 = 2.9979108 m s1 , and h
= 1.0546
34
10
J s. To derive a dimensionally correct SI formula from one expressed in

is
= kQ,
Gaussian units, substitute for each quantity according to Q
where k
the coefficient in the second column of the table corresponding to Q (overbars
2 /m
denote variables expressed in Gaussian units). Thus, the formula a
0 = h

e
2
for the Bohr radius becomes a0 = (
h)2 /[(m/2 )(e2 /40 )], or a0 =
0 h2 /me2 . To go from SI to natural units in which h
= c = 1 (distinguished
1
Q,
is the coefficient corresponding to
where k
by a circumflex), use Q = k
Q in the third column. Thus a
0 = 40 h
2 /[(m
h/c)(
e2 0 h
c)] = 4/m
e2 . (In
transforming from SI units, do not substitute for 0 , 0 , or c.)
Physical Quantity
Capacitance
Charge
Charge density
Current
Current density
Electric field
Electric potential
Electric conductivity
Energy
Energy density
Force
Frequency
Inductance
Length
Magnetic induction
Magnetic intensity
Mass
Momentum
Power
Pressure
Resistance
Time
Velocity

Gaussian Units to SI

Natural Units to SI

/40
(/40 )1/2
(/45 0 )1/2
(/40 )1/2
(/43 0 )1/2
(40 /3 )1/2
(40 /)1/2
(40 )1

/3
/
1
40 /

(4/3 0 )1/2
(40 /3 )1/2
/2
/

/3
40 /
1

0 1
(0 h
c)1/2
(0 h
c)1/2
(0 /
hc)1/2
(0 /
hc)1/2
(0 /
hc)1/2
(0 /
hc)1/2
0 1
(
hc)1
(
hc)1
(
hc)1
c1
0 1
1
(0 h
c)1/2
(0 /
hc)1/2
c/
h
1
h

(
hc2 )1
(
hc)1
(0 /0 )1/2
c
c1

18

MAXWELLS EQUATIONS

Name or Description

SI

Gaussian

B
t
D
H=
+J
t

Faradays law
Amperes law
Poisson equation
[Absence of magnetic
monopoles]

1 B
c t
1 D
4
H=
+
J
c t
c

E=

E=

D=

D = 4

B=0

B=0

1
E+ vB
c

Lorentz force on
charge q

q (E + v B)

Constitutive
relations

D = E
B = H

D = E
B = H

In a plasma, 0 = 4 107 H m1 (Gaussian units: 1). The

permittivity satisfies 0 = 8.8542 1012 F m1 (Gaussian: 1)
provided that all charge is regarded as free. Using the drift approximation
v = E B/B 2 to calculate polarization charge density gives rise to a dielectric constant K /0 = 1 + 36 109 /B 2 (SI) = 1 + 4c2 /B 2 (Gaussian),
where is the mass density.
The electromagnetic energy in volume V is given by

1
W =
2
=

1
8

ZV

dV (H B + E D)

dV (H B + E D)

(SI)

(Gaussian).

Poyntings theorem is
W
+
t

N dS =

dV J E,

where S is the closed surface bounding V and the Poynting vector (energy flux
across S) is given by N = E H (SI) or N = cE H/4 (Gaussian).

19

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

In the following, = dielectric permittivity, = permeability of conductor, = permeability of surrounding medium, = conductivity, f = /2 =
radiation frequency, m = /0 and e = /0 . Where subscripts are used,
1 denotes a conducting medium and 2 a propagating (lossless dielectric)
medium. All units are SI unless otherwise specified.
0 = 8.8542 1012 F m1

Permittivity of free space

0 = 4 107 H m1
= 1.2566 106 H m1

Permeability of free space

R0 = (0 /0 )1/2 = 376.73

Resistance of free space

Capacity of parallel plates of area
A, separated by distance d

C = A/d

Capacity of concentric cylinders

of length l, radii a, b

C = 2l/ ln(b/a)

Capacity of concentric spheres of

radii a, b

C = 4ab/(b a)

Self-inductance of wire of length

l, carrying uniform current

L = l/8

Mutual inductance of parallel wires

of length l, radius a, separated
by distance d

L = ( l/4) [1 + 4 ln(d/a)]

Inductance of circular loop of radius

b, made of wire of radius a,
carrying uniform current

L =b

[ln(8b/a) 2] + /4

Relaxation time in a lossy medium

= /

Skin depth in a lossy medium

= (2/)1/2 = (f )1/2

Wave impedance in a lossy medium

Z = [/( + i/)]1/2

Transmission coefficient at
conducting surface9
(good only for T 1)

T = 4.22 104 (f m1 e2 /)1/2

Field at distance r from straight wire

carrying current I (amperes)

B = I/2r tesla
= 0.2I/r gauss (r in cm)

Field at distance z along axis from

circular loop of radius a
carrying current I

Bz = a2 I/[2(a2 + z 2 )3/2 ]

20

ELECTROMAGNETIC FREQUENCY/
WAVELENGTH BANDS10
Frequency Range
Designation

Lower

ULF*
VF*

30 Hz

ELF

300 Hz

Wavelength Range

Upper

Lower

30 Hz

10 Mm

300 Hz

1 Mm

Upper

10 Mm

3 kHz

100 km

3 kHz

30 kHz

10 km

100 km

LF

30 kHz

300 kHz

1 km

10 km

MF

300 kHz

VLF

1 Mm

3 MHz

100 m

3 MHz

30 MHz

10 m

100 m

VHF

30 MHz

300 MHz

1m

10 m

UHF

300 MHz

3 GHz

10 cm

1m

3 GHz

30 GHz

1 cm

10 cm

HF

SHF

1 km

2.6

3.95

7.6

11.5

3.95

5.85

5.1

7.6

5.3

8.2

3.7

5.7

7.05

10.0

3.0

4.25

8.2

12.4

2.4

3.7

10.0

15.0

2.0

3.0

12.4

18.0

1.67

2.4

18.0

26.5

1.1

1.67

26.5

40.0

0.75

1.1
1 cm

EHF

30 GHz

300 GHz

1 mm

Submillimeter

300 GHz

3 THz

100 m

1 mm

3 THz

430 THz

700 nm

100 m

Visible

430 THz

750 THz

400 nm

700 nm

Ultraviolet

750 THz

30 PHz

10 nm

400 nm

X Ray

30 PHz

3 EHz

100 pm

10 nm

Gamma Ray

3 EHz

Infrared

100 pm

In spectroscopy the angstrom is sometimes used (1

A = 108 cm = 0.1 nm).
*The boundary between ULF and VF (voice frequencies) is variously defined.
The SHF (microwave) band is further subdivided approximately as shown.11

21

AC CIRCUITS
For a resistance R, inductance L, and capacitance
C in series with

a voltage source V = V0 exp(it) (here i = 1), the current is given

by I = dq/dt, where q satisfies
dq
q
d2q
+
= V.
L 2 +R
dt
dt
C
Solutions are q(t) = qs + qt , I(t) = Is + It , where the steady state is
Is = iqs = V /Z in terms of the impedance Z = R + i(L 1/C) and
It = dqt /dt. For initial conditions q(0) q0 = q0 + qs , I(0) I0 , the
transients can be of three types, depending on = R2 4L/C:
(a) Overdamped, > 0
qt =
It =

I0 + + q0
I0 + q0
exp( t)
exp(+ t),
+
+

(I0 + + q0 )
+ (I0 + q0 )
exp(+ t)
exp( t),
+
+

where = (R 1/2 )/2L;

(b) Critically damped, = 0
qt = [
q0 + (I0 + R q0 )t] exp(R t),
It = [I0 (I0 + R q0 )R t] exp(R t),
where R = R/2L;
(c) Underdamped, < 0
qt =

R q0 + I0
sin 1 t + q0 cos 1 t exp(R t),
1

(1 2 + R 2 )
q0 + R I0
sin(1 t) exp(R t),
It = I0 cos 1 t
1
Here 1 = 0 (1 R2 C/4L)1/2 , where 0 = (LC)1/2 is the resonant
frequency. At = 0 , Z = R. The quality of the circuit is Q = 0 L/R.
Instability results when L, R, C are not all of the same sign.

22

DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS OF FLUID MECHANICS12

Name(s)

Symbol

Definition

Significance

Alfv
en,
K
arm
an

Al, Ka

VA /V

*(Magnetic force/
inertial force)1/2

Bond

Bd

( )L2 g/

Boussinesq

V /(2gR)1/2

Gravitational force/
surface tension
(Inertial force/
gravitational force)1/2

Brinkman

Br

V 2 /kT

Viscous heat/conducted heat

Capillary

Cp

V /

Viscous force/surface tension

Carnot

Ca

(T2 T1 )/T2

Cauchy,
Hooke
Chandrasekhar
Clausius

Cy, Hk

V 2 / = M2

Ch

B 2 L2 /

Cl

LV 3 /kT

Cowling

(VA /V )2 = Al2

Theoretical Carnot cycle

efficiency
Inertial force/
compressibility force
Magnetic force/dissipative
forces
Kinetic energy flow rate/heat
conduction rate
Magnetic force/inertial force

Crispation

Cr

/L

Dean

D 3/2 V /(2r)1/2

[Drag
coefficient]

CD

( )Lg/
V 2

Drag force/inertial force

Eckert

V 2 /cp T

Ekman

Ek

(/2L2 )1/2 =
(Ro/Re)1/2

Kinetic energy/change in
thermal energy
(Viscous force/Coriolis force)1/2

Euler

Eu

p/V 2

Froude

Fr

V /(gL)1/2
V /N L

GayLussac

Ga

1/T

Grashof

Gr

gL3 T / 2

Effect of diffusion/effect of
surface tension
Transverse flow due to
curvature/longitudinal flow

Pressure drop due to friction/

dynamic pressure
(Inertial force/gravitational or
buoyancy force)1/2
Inverse of relative change in
volume during heating
Buoyancy force/viscous force

[Hall
CH
/rL
Gyrofrequency/
coefficient]
collision frequency
*() Also defined as the inverse (square) of the quantity shown.

23

Name(s)

Symbol

Definition

Significance

Hartmann

BL/()1/2 = (Magnetic force/

(Rm Re C)1/2
dissipative force)1/2

Knudsen

Kn

/L

Lewis

Le

/D

Lorentz

Lo

V /c

Lundquist

Lu

Mach

0 LVA / =
Al Rm
V /CS

Magnetic
Mach
Magnetic
Reynolds
Newton

Mm

V /VA = Al1

Rm

0 LV /

Nt

F/L2 V 2

Nusselt

L/k

P
eclet

Pe

LV /

Total heat transfer/thermal

conduction
Heat convection/heat conduction

Poisseuille

Po

D 2 p/LV

Pressure force/viscous force

Prandtl

Pr

Rayleigh

Ra

gH 3 T /

Momentum diffusion/
heat diffusion
Buoyancy force/diffusion force

Reynolds

Re

LV /

Inertial force/viscous force

Hydrodynamic time/
collision time
*Thermal conduction/molecular
diffusion
Magnitude of relativistic effects

Flow velocity/magnetic diffusion

velocity
Imposed force/inertial force

Richardson

Ri

(N H/V )

Rossby

Ro

V /2L sin

Schmidt

Sc

/D

Stanton

St

/cp V

Stefan

Sf

LT 3 /k

Stokes

/L2 f

Strouhal

Sr

f L/V

Taylor

Ta

Thring,
Boltzmann
Weber

Th, Bo

(2L2 /)2
R1/2 (R)3/2
(/)

J B force/resistive magnetic
diffusion force
Magnitude of compressibility
effects
(Inertial force/magnetic force)1/2

Buoyancy effects/
vertical shear effects
Inertial force/Coriolis force
Momentum diffusion/
molecular diffusion
Thermal conduction loss/
heat capacity
Radiated heat/conducted heat
Viscous damping rate/
vibration frequency
Vibration speed/flow velocity

cp V /T 3
LV 2 /

24

Centrifugal force/viscous force

(Centrifugal force/
viscous force)1/2
Convective heat transport/
radiative heat transport
Inertial force/surface tension

Nomenclature:
B
Cs , c

Magnetic induction
Speeds of sound, light

cp
D = 2R
F
f
g
H, L

Specific heat at constant pressure (units m2 s2 K1 )

Pipe diameter
Imposed force
Vibration frequency
Gravitational acceleration
Vertical, horizontal length scales

k = cp

Thermal conductivity (units kg m1 s2 )

N = (g/H)1/2
R
r
rL
T
V

BruntV
ais
al
a frequency
Radius of pipe or channel
Radius of curvature of pipe or channel
Larmor radius
Temperature
Characteristic flow velocity

VA = B/(0 )1/2

Alfv
en speed

Newtons-law heat coefficient, k

T
= T
x
Volumetric expansion coefficient, dV /V = dT

Bulk modulus (units kg m1 s2 )

Imposed differences in two radii, velocities,
pressures, or temperatures
Surface emissivity
Electrical resistivity

, D

=
0

Thermal, molecular diffusivities (units m2 s1 )

Latitude of point on earths surface
Collisional mean free path
Viscosity
Permeability of free space

Kinematic viscosity (units m2 s1 )

Mass density of fluid medium

Mass density of bubble, droplet, or moving object

Surface tension (units kg s2 )

StefanBoltzmann constant
Solid-body rotational angular velocity

R, V, p, T

25

SHOCKS
At a shock front propagating in a magnetized fluid at an angle with
respect to the magnetic induction B, the jump conditions are 13,14
q;
(1) U = U
2 + p + B
2 /2;
(2) U 2 + p + B2 /2 = U

V B
k B
/;
(3) U V Bk B / = U

k ;
(4) Bk = B

B
V B
k ;
(5) U B V Bk = U
(6)

2
1
2 (U

+ V 2 ) + w + (U B2 V Bk B )/U
1 2
2 (U

B
2 V B
k B
)/U
.
+ V 2 ) + w
+ (U

Here U and V are components of the fluid velocity normal and tangential to
the front in the shock frame; = 1/ is the mass density; p is the pressure;
B = B sin , Bk = B cos ; is the magnetic permeability ( = 4 in cgs
units); and the specific enthalpy is w = e + p, where the specific internal
energy e satisfies de = T ds pd in terms of the temperature T and the
specific entropy s. Quantities in the region behind (downstream from) the
front are distinguished by a bar. If B = 0, then15
= [(p p)(
(7) U U
)]1/2 ;
(8) (p p)(
)1 = q 2 ;
(9) w
w =
(10) e e =

2 (p

1
+
2 (p

p)( +
);

p)(
).

In what follows we assume that the fluid is a perfect gas with adiabatic index
= 1 + 2/n, where n is the number of degrees of freedom. Then p = RT /m,
where R is the universal gas constant and m is the molar weight; the sound
speed is given by Cs 2 = (p/)s = p; and w = e = p/( 1). For a
general oblique shock in a perfect gas the quantity X = r1 (U/VA )2 satisfies14
(11) (X/)(Xcos2 )2 = X sin2
r = /, =

1
2

[ + 1 ( 1)r], and = Cs 2 /VA 2 = 4p/B 2 .

The density ratio is bounded by

(12) 1 < r < ( + 1)/( 1).
If the shock is normal to B (i.e., if = /2), then
2

(13) U = (r/)

Cs + VA [1 + (1 /2)(r 1)] ;

= B/B

(14) U/U
= r;

26

[1 + (r 1)/2] X cos2 , where

(15) V = V ;
(16) p = p + (1 r1 )U 2 + (1 r2 )B 2 /2.

If = 0, there are two possibilities: switch-on shocks, which require < 1 and
for which
(17) U 2 = rVA 2 ;
= VA 2 /U ;
(18) U
2 = 2B 2 (r 1)( );
(19) B

k
B
/Bk ;
(20) V = U
(21) p = p + U 2 (1 + )(1 r1 ),
and acoustic (hydrodynamic) shocks, for which
(22) U 2 = (r/)Cs 2 ;
= U/r;
(23) U
= 0;
(24) V = B
(25) p = p + U 2 (1 r1 ).

For acoustic shocks the specific volume and pressure are related by
(26)
/ = [( + 1)p + ( 1)p] / [( 1)p + ( + 1)p].
In terms of the upstream Mach number M = U/Cs ,
= ( + 1)M 2 /[( 1)M 2 + 2];
(27) / = /
= U/U

(28) p/p = (2M 2 + 1)/( + 1);

(29) T /T = [( 1)M 2 + 2](2M 2 + 1)/( + 1)2 M 2 ;

2 = [( 1)M 2 + 2]/[2M 2 + 1].

(30) M

The entropy change across the shock is

(31) s s s = c ln[(p/p)(/) ],
where c = R/( 1)m is the specific heat at constant volume; here R is the
gas constant. In the weak-shock limit (M 1),
(32) s c

2( 1)
16R
(M 2 1)3
(M 1)3 .
3( + 1)
3( + 1)m

The radius at time t of a strong spherical blast wave resulting from the explosive release of energy E in a medium with uniform density is
(33) RS = C0 (Et2 /)1/5 ,
where C0 is a constant depending on . For = 7/5, C0 = 1.033.

27

FUNDAMENTAL PLASMA PARAMETERS

All quantities are in Gaussian cgs units except temperature (T , Te , Ti )
expressed in eV and ion mass (mi ) expressed in units of the proton mass,
= mi /mp ; Z is charge state; k is Boltzmanns constant; K is wavenumber;
is the adiabatic index; ln is the Coulomb logarithm.
Frequencies
electron gyrofrequency
ion gyrofrequency

fce = ce /2 = 2.80 106 B Hz

ce = eB/me c = 1.76 107 B rad/sec

fci = ci /2 = 1.52 103 Z1 B Hz

ci = ZeB/mi c = 9.58 103 Z1 B rad/sec

electron plasma frequency

fpe = pe /2 = 8.98 103 ne 1/2 Hz

pe = (4ne e2 /me )1/2

ion plasma frequency

= 5.64 104 ne 1/2 rad/sec

fpi = pi /2

= 2.10 102 Z1/2 ni 1/2 Hz

pi = (4ni Z 2 e2 /mi )1/2

= 1.32 103 Z1/2 ni 1/2 rad/sec

electron trapping rate

ion trapping rate
electron collision rate
ion collision rate
Lengths
electron deBroglie length
classical distance of
minimum approach

T e = (eKE/me )1/2

= 7.26 108 K 1/2 E 1/2 sec1

T i = (ZeKE/mi )1/2

= 1.69 107 Z 1/2 K 1/2 E 1/2 1/2 sec1

e = 2.91 106 ne ln Te 3/2 sec1

i = 4.80 108 Z 4 1/2 ni ln Ti 3/2 sec1

=h
/(me kTe )1/2 = 2.76 108 Te 1/2 cm
e2 /kT = 1.44 107 T 1 cm

electron gyroradius

re = vT e /ce = 2.38Te 1/2 B 1 cm

ion gyroradius

ri = vT i /ci

electron inertial length

ion inertial length
Debye length

= 1.02 102 1/2 Z 1 Ti 1/2 B 1 cm

c/pe = 5.31 105 ne 1/2 cm

c/pi = 2.28 107 Z 1 (/ni )1/2 cm

D = (kT /4ne2 )1/2 = 7.43 102 T 1/2 n1/2 cm

28

Velocities
electron thermal velocity

vT e = (kTe /me )1/2

= 4.19 107 Te 1/2 cm/sec

vT i = (kTi /mi )1/2

ion thermal velocity

= 9.79 105 1/2 Ti 1/2 cm/sec

Cs = (ZkTe /mi )1/2

ion sound velocity

= 9.79 105 (ZTe /)1/2 cm/sec

vA = B/(4ni mi )1/2

Alfv
en velocity
Dimensionless
(electron/proton mass ratio)1/2

= 2.18 1011 1/2 ni 1/2 B cm/sec

(me /mp )1/2 = 2.33 102 = 1/42.9

number of particles in
Debye sphere

(4/3)nD 3 = 1.72 109 T 3/2 n1/2

Alfv
en velocity/speed of light

vA /c = 7.281/2 ni 1/2 B

electron plasma/gyrofrequency
ratio
ion plasma/gyrofrequency ratio

pe /ce = 3.21 103 ne 1/2 B 1

thermal/magnetic energy ratio

= 8nkT /B 2 = 4.03 1011 nT B 2

magnetic/ion rest energy ratio

Miscellaneous
Bohm diffusion coefficient

pi /ci = 0.1371/2 ni 1/2 B 1

B 2 /8ni mi c2 = 26.51 ni 1 B 2

DB = (ckT /16eB)
= 6.25 106 T B 1 cm2 /sec

= 1.15 1014 Z ln T 3/2 sec

transverse Spitzer resistivity

= 1.03 102 Z ln T 3/2 cm

The anomalous collision rate due to low-frequency ion-sound turbulence is

e /kT = 5.64 10 ne
* pe W
4

1/2

e /kT sec
W

e is the total energy of waves with /K < vT i .

where W
Magnetic pressure is given by

Pmag = B 2 /8 = 3.98 106 (B/B0 )2 dynes/cm2 = 3.93(B/B0 )2 atm,

where B0 = 10 kG = 1 T.
Detonation energy of 1 kiloton of high explosive is
12

WkT = 10

19

cal = 4.2 10

29

erg.

PLASMA DISPERSION FUNCTION

Definition16 (first form valid only for Im > 0):
Z() =

1/2

dt exp t2
t

= 2i exp

2

i
2

dt exp t

Physically, = x + iy is the ratio of wave phase velocity to thermal velocity.

Differential equation:
d2 Z
dZ
+ 2
+ 2Z = 0.
2
d
d

dZ
= 2 (1 + Z) , Z(0) = i 1/2 ;
d
Real argument (y = 0):

2

Z(x) = exp x
Imaginary argument (x = 0):

i 1/2 2

2

dt exp t
0

Z(iy) = i 1/2 exp y 2 [1 erf(y)] .

Power series (small argument):

Z() = i 1/2 exp 2 2 1 2 2 /3 + 4 4 /15 8 6 /105 + .

Asymptotic series, || 1 (Ref. 17):

Z() = i 1/2 exp 2 1 1 + 1/2 2 + 3/4 4 + 15/8 6 + ,

where

0

y > |x|1
1 |y| < |x|1
2 y < |x|1

Symmetry properties (the asterisk denotes complex conjugation):

Z(*) = [Z()]*;
Z(*) = [Z()] * + 2i 1/2 exp[(*)2 ]

(y > 0).

Two-pole approximations18 (good for in upper half plane except when y <
1/2 x2 exp(x2 ), x 1):
0.50 0.81i
0.50 + 0.81i

, a = 0.51 0.81i;
a
a* +
0.50 + 0.96i
0.50 0.96i

Z ()
+
, b = 0.48 0.91i.
(b )2
(b* + )2
Z()

30

COLLISIONS AND TRANSPORT

Temperatures are in eV; the corresponding value of Boltzmanns constant
is k = 1.60 1012 erg/eV; masses , are in units of the proton mass;
e = Z e is the charge of species . All other units are cgs except where
noted.
Relaxation Rates
Rates are associated with four relaxation processes arising from the interaction of test particles (labeled ) streaming with velocity v through a
background of field particles (labeled ):
dv
= s\ v
dt
d
\
2
2
(v v
) = v
dt
d
\
2
2
(v v
)k = k v
dt
d
2
\
2
v = v ,
dt

slowing down
transverse diffusion
parallel diffusion
energy loss

where v = |v | and the averages are performed over an ensemble of test

particles and a Maxwellian field particle distribution. The exact formulas may
be written19
\

s\ = (1 + m /m )(x\ )0

= 2 (1 1/2x

= (x\ )/x\ 0

= 2 (m /m )(x

)(x

) 0

) + (x

) (x

) 0

where
\

= 4e 2 e 2 n /m 2 v 3 ;
2
(x) =

x\ = m v 2 /2kT ;

dt t1/2 et ;

(x) =

d
,
dx

and = ln is the Coulomb logarithm (see below). Limiting forms of

s , and k are given in the following table. All the expressions shown

31

have units cm3 sec1 . Test particle energy and field particle temperature T
are both in eV; = mi /mp where mp is the proton mass; Z is ion charge
state; in electronelectron and ionion encounters, field particle quantities are
distinguished by a prime. The two expressions given below for each rate hold
for very slow (x\ 1) and very fast (x\ 1) test particles, respectively.
Slow
Electronelectron
se|e /ne ee
5.8 106 T 3/2
e|e
5.8 106 T 1/2 1
/ne ee
e|e

Fast

7.7 106 3/2

7.7 106 3/2

2.9 106 T 1/2 1

k /ne ee

3.9 106 T 5/2

Electronion

se|i /ni Z 2 ei 0.233/2 T 3/2

3.9 106 3/2
e|i
/ni Z 2 ei 2.5 104 1/2 T 1/2 1 7.7 106 3/2
e|i

k /ni Z 2 ei 1.2 104 1/2 T 1/2 1 2.1 109 1 T 5/2

Ionelectron

si|e /ne Z 2 ie 1.6 109 1 T 3/2

1.7 104 1/2 3/2
i|e
2
9 1 1/2 1
7 1/2 3/2

1.8 10

/ne Z ie 3.2 10 T
i|e

k /ne Z 2 ie 1.6 109 1 T 1/2 1 1.7 104 1/2 T 5/2

Ionion

1/2
si|i
8
6.8 10
ni Z 2 Z 2 ii

1+

1/2

3/2
8

9.0 10
i|i

ni Z 2 Z 2 ii

ni Z 2 Z 2 ii

1
1
+

1/2
3/2

1.4 107 1/2 1 T 1/2 1

1.8 107 1/2 3/2

i|i

6.8 10

1/2

1/2 1

9.0 10

1/2

5/2

In the same limits, the energy transfer rate follows from the identity
= 2s k ,
except for the case of fast electrons or fast ions scattered by ions, where the
leading terms cancel. Then the appropriate forms are
e|i 4.2 109 ni Z 2 ei

3/2 1 8.9 104 (/T )1/2 1 exp(1836/T ) sec1

32

and

i|i 1.8 107 ni Z 2 Z 2 ii

3/2

1/2

1/2 1

/ 1.1[( + )/ ]( /T )

exp( /T ) sec

In general, the energy transfer rate \ is positive for > * and negative for < *, where x* = (m /m ) */T is the solution of (x*) =
(m |m )(x*). The ratio */T is given for a number of specific , in the
following table:
\

i|e

e|e, i|i

e|p

e|D

e|T, e|He3

e|He4

*
T

1.5

0.98

4.8 103

2.6 103

1.8 103

1.4 103

When both species are near Maxwellian, with Ti <

Te , there are just
two characteristic collision rates. For Z = 1,
e = 2.9 106 nTe 3/2 sec1 ;
8

i = 4.8 10

nTi

3/2

1/2

sec

Temperature Isotropization
Isotropization is described by
1 dTk
dT

=
= T
(T Tk ),
dt
2 dt
where, if A T /Tk 1 > 0,

T
=

2 e 2 e 2 n
m

1/2 (kT

)3/2

A2

3 + (A + 3)

tan

1/2

(A

A1/2

If A < 0, tan1 (A1/2 )/A1/2 is replaced by tanh1 (A)1/2 /(A)1/2 . For

T Tk T ,
e
T
= 8.2 107 nT 3/2 sec1 ;
i

T = 1.9 10

nZ

33

1/2

3/2

sec

Thermal Equilibration
If the components of a plasma have different temperatures, but no relative drift, equilibration is described by
dT
=
dt

\ (T T ),

where

\ = 1.8 1019

(m m )1/2 Z 2 Z 2 n
(m T + m T

)3/2

sec1 .

For electrons and ions with Te Ti T , this implies

e|i

i|e

/ni =
/ne = 3.2 10

Z /T

3/2

cm sec

Coulomb Logarithm
For test particles of mass m and charge e = Z e scattering off field
particles of mass m and charge e = Z e, the Coulomb logarithm is defined
as = ln ln(rmax /rmin ). Here rmin is the larger of e e /m u
2 and
h
/2m u
, averaged over both particle velocity distributions,
where m =
P
2
m m /(m + m ) and u = v v ; rmax = (4
n e /kT )1/2 , where
the summation extends over all species for which u
2 < vT 2 = kT /m . If
this inequality cannot be satisfied, or if either u
c 1 < rmax or u
c 1 <
rmax , the theory breaks down. Typically 1020. Corrections to the transport coefficients are O(1 ); hence the theory is good only to 10% and fails
when 1.
The following cases are of particular interest:
(a) Thermal electronelectron collisions
ee = 23.5 ln(ne 1/2 Te 5/4 ) [105 + (ln Te 2)2 /16]1/2
(b) Electronion collisions
ei = ie = 23 ln ne

1/2

3/2

ZTe

= 24 ln ne 1/2 Te1 ,
= 30 ln ni

1/2

Ti

3/2

(c) Mixed ionion collisions

ii = i i = 23 ln

Ti me /mi < Te < 10Z eV;

ZZ ( + )
Ti + Ti

34

Ti me /mi < 10Z 2 eV < Te

,

Te < Ti Zme /mi .

ni Z 2
n Z2
+ i
Ti
Ti

1/2 

(d) Counterstreaming ions (relative velocity vD = D c) in the presence of

warm electrons, kTi /mi , kTi /mi < vD 2 < kTe /me
ii = i i = 35 ln

ZZ ( + )
D 2

ne
Te

1/2 

Fokker-Planck Equation
Df
f

+ v f + F v f =
Dt
t

f
t

,
coll

where F is an external
field. The general form of the collision integral is
P force \

(f /t)coll =
v J
, with

= 2

e e
m

d v (u I uu)u

1
1
f (v )v f (v)
f (v)v f (v )
m
m

(Landau form) where u = v v and I is the unit dyad, or alternatively,

J

e 2 e 2
= 4
m 2



1
f (v)v H(v) v f (v)v v G(v)
2

where the Rosenbluth potentials are

G(v) =

H(v) =

m
1+
m

f (v )ud3v

Z

f (v )u

1 3

dv .

If species is a weak beam (number and energy density small compared with
background) streaming through a Maxwellian plasma, then
J\ =

1 \
m
s\ vf k vv v f
m + m
2

1 \
2

v I vv v f .

4
35

B-G-K Collision Operator

For distribution functions with no large gradients in velocity space, the
Fokker-Planck collision terms can be approximated according to
Dfe
= ee (Fe fe ) + ei (Fe fe );
Dt
Dfi
= ie (Fi fi ) + ii (Fi fi ).
Dt
The respective slowing-down rates s\ given in the Relaxation Rate section
above can be used for , assuming slow ions and fast electrons, with replaced by T . (For ee and ii , one can equally well use , and the result
is insensitive to whether the slow- or fast-test-particle limit is employed.) The
Maxwellians F and F are given by

F = n

m
2kT

3/2

F = n

m
2kT

3/2

exp

n h

m (v v )2
2kT

io

exp

n h

m (v v
)2
2kT

io

where n , v and T are the number density, mean drift velocity, and effective
temperature obtained by taking moments of f . Some latitude in the definition
of T and v
is possible;20 one choice is Te = Ti , Ti = Te , v
e = vi , v
i = ve .
Transport Coefficients
Transport equations for a multispecies plasma:
d n
+ n v = 0;
dt

d v
1
m n
= p P + Z en E + v B + R ;
dt
c
3
d kT
n
+ p v = q P : v + Q .
2
dt
Here dP
/dt /t + v ;P
p = n kT , where k is Boltzmanns constant;
R =
R and Q =
Q , where R and Q are respectively

the momentum and energy gained by the th species through collisions with
the th; P is the stress tensor; and q is the heat flow.

36

The transport coefficients in a simple two-component plasma (electrons

and singly charged ions) are tabulated below. Here k and refer to the direction of the magnetic field B = bB; u = ve vi is the relative streaming
velocity; ne = ni n; j = neu is the current; ce = 1.76 107 B sec1 and
ci = (me /mi )ce are the electron and ion gyrofrequencies, respectively; and
the basic collisional times are taken to be

3/2
3 me (kTe )3/2
5 Te
e =
= 3.44 10
sec,

n
4 2 ne4
where is the Coulomb logarithm, and

3/2
3 mi (kTi )3/2
7 Ti
1/2
= 2.09 10

sec.
i =

4
n
4 n e
In the limit of large fields (c 1, = i, e) the transport processes may
be summarized as follows:21
momentum transfer
frictional force

Rei = Rie R = Ru + RT ;
Ru = ne(jk /k + j / );
2

electrical
conductivities

k = 1.96 ; = ne e /me ;

thermal force

RT = 0.71nk (kTe )

ion heating

Qi =

electron heating

Qe

ion heat flux

qi = ik k (kTi ) i (kTi ) + i b (kTi );

ion thermal
conductivities
electron heat flux

k = 3.9

3n
b (kTe );
2ce e

3me nk
(Te Ti );
m i e
= Qi R u;

nkTi i
;
mi

2nkTi
;
mi ci2 i

5nkTi
;
2mi ci

qe = qeu + qeT ;
3nkTe
b u ;
2ce e

frictional heat flux

qeu = 0.71nkTe uk +

thermal gradient
heat flux

qeT = ek k (kTe ) e (kTe ) e b (kTe );

electron thermal
conductivities

k = 3.2

nkTe e
;
me

37

= 4.7

nkTe
;
me ce2 e

5nkTe
;
2me ce

0
1
(Wxx + Wyy )
(Wxx Wyy ) 3 Wxy ;
2
2
0
1
Pyy = (Wxx + Wyy ) +
(Wxx Wyy ) + 3 Wxy ;
2
2
3
(Wxx Wyy );
Pxy = Pyx = 1 Wxy +
2
Pxz = Pzx = 2 Wxz 4 Wyz ;

stress tensor (either

species)

Pxx =

Pyz = Pzy = 2 Wyz + 4 Wxz ;

Pzz = 0 Wzz

(here the z axis is defined parallel to B);

i

ion viscosity

0 = 0.96nkTi i ;
3i =

nkTi
;
2ci

4i =

0e = 0.73nkTe e ;

electron viscosity

3e =

nkTe
;
2ce

1 =

3nkTi
;
10ci2 i

2 =

nkTi
;
ci

1e = 0.51

4e =

nkTe
;
ce2 e

6nkTi
;
5ci2 i

2e = 2.0

nkTe
.
ce

nkTe
;
ce2 e

For both species the rate-of-strain tensor is defined as

Wjk =

2
vk
vj
jk v.
+
xk
xj
3

When B = 0 the following simplifications occur:

Ru = nej/k ;

RT = 0.71n(kTe );

qeu = 0.71nkTe u;

qeT = ek (kTe );

qi = ik (kTi );
Pjk = 0 Wjk .

For ce e 1 ci i , the electrons obey the high-field expressions and the

ions obey the zero-field expressions.
Collisional transport theory is applicable when (1) macroscopic time rates
of change satisfy d/dt 1/ , where is the longest collisional time scale, and
(in the absence of a magnetic field) (2) macroscopic length scales L satisfy L
l, where l = v
is the mean free path. In
a strong field, ce 1, condition
(2) is replaced by Lk l and L lre (L re in a uniform field),
where Lk is a macroscopic scale parallel to the field B and L is the smaller
of B/| B| and the transverse plasma dimension. In addition, the standard
transport coefficients are valid only when (3) the Coulomb logarithm satisfies
1; (4) the electron gyroradius satisfies re D , or 8ne me c2 B 2 ; (5)
relative drifts u = v v between two species are small compared with the

38

thermal velocities, i.e., u2 kT /m , kT /m ; and (6) anomalous transport

processes owing to microinstabilities are negligible.
Weakly Ionized Plasmas
Collision frequency for scattering of charged particles of species by
neutrals is
= n0 s|0 (kT /m )1/2 ,
where n0 is the neutral density, s\0 is the cross section, typically 5 1015
cm2 and weakly dependent on temperature, and (T0 /m0 )1/2 < (T /m )1/2
where T0 and m0 are the temperature and mass of the neutrals.
When the system is small compared with a Debye length, L D , the
charged particle diffusion coefficients are
D = kT /m ,
In the opposite limit, both species diffuse at the ambipolar rate

DA =

i De e Di
(Ti + Te )Di De
=
,
i e
Ti De + Te Di

where = e /m is the mobility. The conductivity satisfies =

n e .
In the presence of a magnetic field B the scalars and become tensors,
J

E = k Ek + E + E b,

where b = B/B and

k = n e /m ;

= k 2 /( 2 + c
);

= k c /( + c ).
Here and are the Pedersen and Hall conductivities, respectively.

39

APPROXIMATE MAGNITUDES
IN SOME TYPICAL PLASMAS
Plasma Type

n cm3 T eV pe sec1
6 104

D cm
7 102

nD 3

ei sec1

4 108 7 105

Interstellar gas

Gaseous nebula

103

Solar Corona

109

102

Diffuse hot plasma

1012

102

Solar atmosphere,
gas discharge

1014

6 1011

Warm plasma

1014

10
102

2 104 8 102

Hot plasma

1014

6 1011

Thermonuclear
plasma

1015

104

2 1012

2 103 8 106 5 104

Theta pinch

1016

102

Dense hot plasma

1018

102

Laser Plasma

1020

102

2 106
2 109

6 1010

6 1011

20

8 106 6 102

2 101 8 106
7 103 4 105
7 105

40

60
40
2 109
107

7 104 4 104 4 106

6 1012

7 105 4 103 3 108

6 1014

7 107

6 1013

7 106 4 102 2 1010

40

2 1012

The diagram (facing) gives comparable information in graphical form.22

40

41

IONOSPHERIC PARAMETERS23
The following tables give average nighttime values. Where two numbers
are entered, the first refers to the lower and the second to the upper portion
of the layer.
Quantity

E Region

F Region

90160

160500

1.5 1010 3.0 1010

5 1010 2 1011

Ion-neutral collision
frequency (sec1 )

2 103 102

0.50.05

Ion gyro-/collision
frequency ratio i

0.092.0

4.6 102 5.0 103

Ion Pederson factor

i /(1 + i 2 )

0.090.5

2.2 103 2 104

8 104 0.8

1.0

Electron-neutral collision
frequency

1.5 104 9.0 102

8010

Electron gyro-/collision
frequency ratio e

4.1 102 6.9 103

7.8 104 6.2 105

Electron Pedersen factor

e /(1 + e 2 )

2.7 103 1.5 104

105 1.5 106

1.0

1.0

2826

2216

Altitude (km)
Number density (m3 )
Height-integrated number
density (m2 )

Ion Hall factor

i 2 /(1 + i 2 )

Electron Hall factor

e 2 /(1 + e 2 )
Mean molecular weight
Ion gyrofrequency (sec

Neutral diffusion
coefficient (m2 sec1 )

9 1014

180190

4.5 1015

230300
3

305 10

105

The terrestrial magnetic field in the lower ionosphere at equatorial lattitudes is approximately B0 = 0.35104 tesla. The earths radius is RE = 6371
km.

42

SOLAR PHYSICS PARAMETERS24

Parameter

Symbol

Total mass
M
Radius
R
Surface gravity
g
Escape speed
v
Upward mass flux in spicules

Vertically integrated atmospheric density

Sunspot magnetic field strength

Bmax
Surface effective temperature
T0
Radiant power
L
Radiant flux density
F
Optical depth at 500 nm, measured
5
from photosphere
Astronomical unit (radius of earths orbit) AU
Solar constant (intensity at 1 AU)
f

Value

Units

1.99 1033
g
10
6.96 10
cm
4
2.74 10
cm s2
6.18 107
cm s1
1.6 109 g cm2 s1
4.28
g cm2
25003500
G
5770
K
33
3.83 10
erg s1
6.28 1010 erg cm2 s1
0.99

1.50 1013
cm
6
1.36 10 erg cm2 s1

Chromosphere and Corona25

Parameter (Units)

Quiet
Sun

Coronal
Hole

Active
Region

Chromospheric radiation losses

(erg cm2 s1 )
Low chromosphere
Middle chromosphere
Upper chromosphere
Total
Transition layer pressure (dyne cm2 )

2 106
2 106
3 105
4 106
0.2

2 106
2 106
3 105
4 106
0.07

> 107

107
2 106
> 2 107

1.11.6 106

106

2.5 106

Coronal temperature (K) at 1.1 R

Coronal energy losses (erg cm2 s1 )
Conduction
Radiation
Solar Wind
Total
Solar wind mass loss (g cm2 s1 )

43

2 105
6 104
105 107
105
104
5 106
< 5 104
7 105
< 105

3 105
8 105
107
< 2 1011 2 1010 < 4 1011

THERMONUCLEAR FUSION26
Natural abundance of isotopes:
hydrogen
helium
lithium
Mass ratios:

nD /nH = 1.5 104

nHe3 /nHe4 = 1.3 106
nLi6 /nLi7 = 0.08

me /mD
=
1/2
(me /mD )
=
me /mT
=
1/2
(me /mT )
=

2.72 104
1.65 102
1.82 104
1.35 102

=
=
=
=

1/3670
1/60.6
1/5496
1/74.1

Absorbed radiation dose is measured in rads: 1 rad = 102 erg g1 . The curie
(abbreviated Ci) is a measure of radioactivity: 1 curie = 3.71010 counts sec1 .
Fusion reactions (branching ratios are correct for energies near the cross section
peaks; a negative yield means the reaction is endothermic):27
(1a) D + D T(1.01 MeV) + p(3.02 MeV)
50%
(1b)
He3 (0.82 MeV) + n(2.45 MeV)
50%
(2)
D + T He4 (3.5 MeV) + n(14.1 MeV)
(3)

(4)
(5a)
(5b)
(5c)
(6)
(7a)
(7b)
(8)
(9)
(10)

D + He3 He4 (3.6 MeV) + p(14.7 MeV)

T+T

He4 + 2n + 11.3 MeV

He3 + THe4 + p + n + 12.1 MeV

51%
He4 (4.8 MeV) + D(9.5 MeV)
43%
He5 (2.4 MeV) + p(11.9 MeV)
6%
6
p + Li He4 (1.7 MeV) + He3 (2.3 MeV)
p + Li7 2 He4 + 17.3 MeV
20%
Be7 + n 1.6 MeV
80%
D + Li6 2He4 + 22.4 MeV
p + B11 3 He4 + 8.7 MeV

n + Li6 He4 (2.1 MeV) + T(2.7 MeV)

The total cross section in barns (1 barn = 1024 cm2 ) as a function of E, the
energy in keV of the incident particle [the first ion on the left side of Eqs.
(1)(5)], assuming the target ion at rest, can be fitted by28a
T (E) =




1
A2


A5 + (A4 A3 E)2 + 1

E exp(A1 E 1/2 ) 1

44

where the Duane coefficients Aj for the principal fusion reactions are as follows:
DD
(1a)

DD
(1b)

DHe3
(3)

DT
(2)

THe3
(5ac)

TT
(4)

A1
46.097
47.88
45.95
89.27
38.39
123.1
A2
372
482
50200
25900
448
11250
4
4
2
3
3
A3 4.36 10
3.08 10
1.368 10
3.98 10
1.02 10
0
A4
1.220
1.177
1.076
1.297
2.09
0
A5
0
0
409
647
0
0
Reaction rates v (in cm3 sec1 ), averaged over Maxwellian distributions:
Temperature
(keV)
1.0
2.0
5.0
10.0
20.0
50.0
100.0
200.0
500.0
1000.0

DD
(1a + 1b)

DT
(2)

DHe3
(3)

TT
(4)

THe3
(5ac)

1.5 1022
5.4 1021
1.8 1019
1.2 1018
5.2 1018
2.1 1017
4.5 1017
8.8 1017
1.8 1016
2.2 1016

5.5 1021
2.6 1019
1.3 1017
1.1 1016
4.2 1016
8.7 1016
8.5 1016
6.3 1016
3.7 1016
2.7 1016

1026
1.4 1023
6.7 1021
2.3 1019
3.8 1018
5.4 1017
1.6 1016
2.4 1016
2.3 1016
1.8 1016

3.3 1022
7.1 1021
1.4 1019
7.2 1019
2.5 1018
8.7 1018
1.9 1017
4.2 1017
8.4 1017
8.0 1017

1028
1025
2.1 1022
1.2 1020
2.6 1019
5.3 1018
2.7 1017
9.2 1017
2.9 1016
5.2 1016

For low energies (T <

25 keV) the data may be represented by

(v)DD = 2.33 1014 T 2/3 exp(18.76T 1/3 ) cm3 sec1 ;

12

(v)DT = 3.68 10

2/3

exp(19.94T

1/3

) cm sec

where T is measured in keV.

A three-parameter model has also been developed for fusion cross-sections of
light nuclei.28b
The power density released in the form of charged particles is
PDD = 3.3 1013 nD 2 (v)DD watt cm3 (including the subsequent
DT reaction);
13
3
PDT = 5.6 10
nD nT (v)DT watt cm ;
PDHe3 = 2.9 1012 nD nHe3 (v)DHe3 watt cm3 .

45

RELATIVISTIC ELECTRON BEAMS

Here = (1 2 )1/2 is the relativistic scaling factor; quantities in
analytic formulas are expressed in SI or cgs units, as indicated; in numerical
formulas, I is in amperes (A), B is in gauss (G), electron linear density N is
in cm1 , and temperature, voltage and energy are in MeV; z = vz /c; k is
Boltzmanns constant.
Relativistic electron gyroradius:

re =

mc2 2
1/2
3
2
1/2 1
( 1)
(cgs) = 1.70 10 ( 1)
B
cm.
eB

Relativistic electron energy:

W = mc2 = 0.511 MeV.
Bennett pinch condition:
I 2 = 2N k(Te + Ti )c2 (cgs) = 3.20 104 N (Te + Ti ) A2 .
Alfv
en-Lawson limit:
3

IA = (mc /e)z (cgs) = (4mc/0 e)z (SI) = 1.70 10 z A.

The ratio of net current to IA is

I
= .
IA

Here = N re is the Budker number, where re = e2 /mc2 = 2.82 1013 cm

is the classical electron radius. Beam electron number density is
8

nb = 2.08 10 J

cm

where J is the current density in A cm2 . For a uniform beam of radius a (in
cm),
7
2 1
3
nb = 6.63 10 Ia
cm ,
and

2re
= .
a

46

Childs law: (non-relativistic) space-charge-limited current density between

parallel plates with voltage drop V (in MV) and separation d (in cm) is
J = 2.34 103 V 3/2 d2 A cm2 .
The saturated parapotential current (magnetically self-limited flow along equipotentials in pinched diodes and transmission lines) is29
3

Ip = 8.5 10 G ln + ( 1)

1/2

A,

where G is a geometrical factor depending on the diode structure:

G=

w
2d

for parallel plane cathode and anode

of width w, separation d;

R2 1
for cylinders of radii R1 (inner) and R2 (outer);
G = ln
R1
Rc
for conical cathode of radius Rc , maximum
G=
separation d0 (at r = Rc ) from plane anode.
d0
For 0 ( 1), both IA and Ip vanish.
The condition for a longitudinal magnetic field Bz to suppress filamentation
in a beam of current density J (in A cm2 ) is
Bz > 47z (J)1/2 G.
Voltage registered by Rogowski coil of minor cross-sectional area A, n turns,
major radius a, inductance L, external resistance R and capacitance C (all in
SI):
externally integrated

V = (1/RC)(nA0 I/2a);

self-integrating

V = (R/L)(nA0 I/2a) = RI/n.

X-ray production, target with average atomic number Z (V <

5 MeV):
x-ray power/beam power = 7 104 ZV.

X-ray dose at 1 meter generated by an e-beam depositing total charge Q

coulombs while V 0.84Vmax in material with charge state Z:
2.8

D = 150Vmax QZ

47

1/2

rads.

BEAM INSTABILITIES30
Name

Conditions

Saturation Mechanism

Electronelectron

ej , j = 1, 2
Vd > V

Electron trapping until

Vej Vd

Buneman

i ,
Vd > (M/m)1/3 V
e
Vd > V

Electron trapping until

Ve Vd

Beam-plasma

Vb > (np /nb )1/3 Vb

Trapping of beam electrons

Weak beamplasma

Vb < (np /nb )1/3 Vb

Quasilinear or nonlinear
(mode coupling)

Beam-plasma
(hot-electron)

b
Ve > Vb > V

Quasilinear or nonlinear

Ion acoustic

Te Ti , Vd Cs

Quasilinear, ion tail formation, nonlinear scattering,

or resonance broadening.

Anisotropic
temperature
(hydro)

Te > 2Tek

Isotropization

Ion cyclotron

Vd > 20Vi (for

Te Ti )

Ion heating

Beam-cyclotron
(hydro)

Vd > Cs

Resonance broadening

Modified twostream (hydro)

Vd < (1 + )1/2 VA ,
Vd > Cs

Trapping

Ion-ion (equal
beams)

U < 2(1 + )1/2 VA

Ion trapping

Ion-ion (equal
beams)

U < 2Cs

Ion trapping

For nomenclature, see p. 50.

48

Parameters of Most Unstable Mode

Name
Growth Rate

Frequency

1
e
2

Electronelectron

m
M

1/3

m
M

Wave
Number
0.9

1/3

1/3

e
Vd

Group
Velocity
0

e
Vd

2
Vd
3

e
Vb

2
Vb
3

e
Vb

3Ve2
Vb

Vb
e
Ve

1
D

Vb

1
D

Cs

e cos e

re1

Ve

Ion cyclotron

0.1i

1.2i

ri1

Beam-cyclotron
(hydro)

0.7e

ne

0.71
D

1
H
2

0.9H

1.7

1
Vi
3
> Vd ;

< Cs

1
Vd
2

Ion-ion (equal
beams)

0.4H

1.2

Ion-ion (equal
beams)

0.4i

Buneman
Beam-plasma

0.7
0.7

nb
np

1/3

0.4

e
0.4

Weak beamplasma
Beam-plasma
(hot-electron)
Ion acoustic
Anisotropic
temperature
(hydro)

Modified twostream
(hydro)

nb
2np

nb
np

Vb
b
V

1/2

m
M

2

e
V
e
Vb

1/2

For nomenclature, see p. 50.

49

nb
np

H
Vd

H
U
i
1.2
U

0
0

In the preceding tables, subscripts e, i, d, b, p stand for electron, ion,

drift, beam, and plasma, respectively. Thermal velocities are denoted
by a bar. In addition, the following are used:
m
M
V
T
ne , ni
n
Cs = (Te /M )1/2
e , i
D

electron mass
ion mass
velocity
temperature
number density
harmonic number
ion sound speed
plasma frequency
Debye length

re , ri

VA
e , i
H
U

50

gyroradius
plasma/magnetic energy
density ratio
Alfv
en speed
gyrofrequency
hybrid gyrofrequency,
H 2 = e i
relative drift velocity of
two ion species

LASERS
System Parameters
Efficiencies and power levels are approximate.31
Type
CO2
CO
Holmium
Iodine
Nd-glass
Nd:YAG
Nd:YLF
Nd:YVO4
Er:YAG
*Color center
*Ti:Sapphire
Ruby
He-Ne
*Argon ion
*OPO
N2
*Dye
Kr-F
Xenon
Ytterbium fiber
Erbium fiber
Semiconductor
*Tunable sources

Wavelength
(m)
10.6

Efficiency
0.010.02
(pulsed)
0.4
0.030.1
0.003

Power levels available (W)

Pulsed

CW

> 2 1013

> 105

> 109
> 107
3 1012
1.25 1015
109
4 108

> 100
80

> 104
80

5
2.06
1.315
1.06
1.064
1.045,
1.54,1.313
1.064
2.94
14
0.71.5
0.6943
0.6328
0.450.60
0.310
0.3371
0.31.1
0.26
0.175

103
0.4 p
< 103
104
103
> 0.1 p
0.0010.05
103
0.08
0.02

1.5 105
5 108
1014
1010

5 104
1010
106
5 107
1012
> 108

> 20

1
150
1
150103
150
5

> 100
500

1.051.1

0.55

104

1.534

5 107

0.3751.9

> 0.5

lamp-driven

diode-driven

7 106

3 109

100
> 103

Nd stands for Neodymium; Er stands for Erbium; Ti stands for Titanium;

YAG stands for YttriumAluminum Garnet; YLF stands for Yttrium Lithium
Fluoride; YVO5 stands for Yttrium Vanadate; OPO for Optical Parametric
Oscillator; p is pump laser efficiency.

51

Formulas
An e-m wave with k k B has an index of refraction given by
2

1/2

n = [1 pe /( ce )]

where refers to the helicity. The rate of change of polarization angle as a

function of displacement s (Faraday rotation) is given by
4

d/ds = (k/2)(n n+ ) = 2.36 10 N Bf

cm

where N is the electron number density, B is the field strength, and f is the
wave frequency, all in cgs.
The quiver velocity of an electron in an e-m field of angular frequency
is

v0 = eEmax /m = 25.6I 1/2 0 cm sec1

2
/8, with I in watt/cm2 , laser wavelength
in terms of the laser flux I = cEmax
0 in m. The ratio of quiver energy to thermal energy is

Wqu /Wth = me v0 2 /2kT = 1.81 1013 0 2 I/T,

where T is given in eV. For example, if I = 1015 W cm2 , 0 = 1 m, T =
2 keV, then Wqu /Wth 0.1.
Pondermotive force:

F = N hE i/8Nc ,
where

Nc = 1.1 1021 0 2 cm3 .

For uniform illumination of a lens with f -number F , the diameter d at

focus (85% of the energy) and the depth of focus l (distance to first zero in
intensity) are given by
d 2.44F /DL

and

l 2F /DL .

Here is the beam divergence containing 85% of energy and DL is the

diffraction-limited divergence:
DL = 2.44/b,
where b is the aperture. These formulas are modified for nonuniform (such as
Gaussian) illumination of the lens or for pathological laser profiles.

52

ATOMIC PHYSICS AND RADIATION

Energies and temperatures are in eV; all other units are cgs except where
noted. Z is the charge state (Z = 0 refers to a neutral atom); the subscript e
labels electrons. N refers to number density, n to principal quantum number.
Asterisk superscripts on level population densities denote local thermodynamic
equilibrium (LTE) values. Thus Nn * is the LTE number density of atoms (or
ions) in level n.
Characteristic atomic collision cross section:
a0 2 = 8.80 1017 cm2 .

(1)

Binding energy of outer electron in level labelled by quantum numbers n, l:

Z

(2)

E (n, l) =

H
Z 2 E
,
(n l )2

H
= 13.6 eV is the hydrogen ionization energy and l = 0.75l5 ,
where E
l >
5, is the quantum defect.

Excitation and Decay

Cross section (Bethe approximation) for electron excitation by dipole
allowed transition m n (Refs. 32, 33):
(3)

mn = 2.36 1013

fmn g(n, m)
cm2 ,
Enm

where fmn is the oscillator strength, g(n, m) is the Gaunt factor, is the
incident electron energy, and Enm = En Em .
Electron excitation rate averaged over Maxwellian velocity distribution, Xmn
= Ne hmn vi (Refs. 34, 35):
(4)

Xmn = 1.6 10

fmn hg(n, m)iNe

1/2
Enm Te

exp

Enm

Te

sec

where hg(n, m)i denotes the thermal averaged Gaunt factor (generally 1 for
atoms, 0.2 for ions).

53

Rate for electron collisional deexcitation:

(5)

Ynm = (Nm */Nn *)Xmn .

Here Nm */Nn * = (gm /gn ) exp(Enm /Te ) is the Boltzmann relation for level
population densities, where gn is the statistical weight of level n.
Rate for spontaneous decay n m (Einstein A coefficient)34
(6)

Anm = 4.3 10 (gm /gn )fmn (Enm ) sec

Intensity emitted per unit volume from the transition n m in an optically

thin plasma:
(7)

Inm = 1.6 1019 Anm Nn Enm watt/cm3 .

Condition for steady state in a corona model:

(8)

N0 Ne h0n vi = Nn An0 ,

where the ground state is labelled by a zero subscript.

Hence for a transition n m in ions, where hg(n, 0)i 0.2,
(9)

25

Inm = 5.1 10

fnm gm Ne N0
1/2

g0 T e

Enm
En0

3

exp

En0

Te

watt
.
cm3

Ionization and Recombination

In a general time-dependent situation the number density of the charge
state Z satisfies
(10)

dN (Z)
= Ne
dt

S(Z)N (Z) (Z)N (Z)

+S(Z 1)N (Z 1) + (Z + 1)N (Z + 1) .

Here S(oZ) is the ionization rate. The recombination rate (Z) has the form
(Z) = r (Z) + Ne 3 (Z), where r and 3 are the radiative and three-body
recombination rates, respectively.

54

Classical ionization cross-section36 for any atomic shell j

i = 6 1014 bj gj (x)/Uj 2 cm2 .

(11)

Here bj is the number of shell electrons; Uj is the binding energy of the ejected
electron; x = /Uj , where is the incident electron energy; and g is a universal
function with a minimum value gmin 0.2 at x 4.
Ionization from ion ground state, averaged over Maxwellian electron distribuZ <
tion, for 0.02 <
Te /E 100 (Ref. 35):
(12)

S(Z) = 10

Z 1/2
)
(Te /E

Z )3/2 (6.0
(E

Z )
Te /E

exp

EZ

Te

cm3 /sec,

Z
is the ionization energy.
where E

Electron-ion radiative recombination rate (e + N (Z) N (Z 1) + h)

for Te /Z 2 <
400 eV (Ref. 37):
(13)

14

r (Z) = 5.2 10

1/2 h

Z
E
Te

0.43 +

Z
+0.469(E
/Te )1/3

1
Z
ln(E
/Te )
2

cm3 /sec.

For 1 eV < Te /Z 2 < 15 eV, this becomes approximately35

(14)

13

r (Z) = 2.7 10

Z Te

1/2

cm /sec.

Collisional (three-body) recombination rate for singly ionized plasma:38

(15)

27

3 = 8.75 10

Te

4.5

cm /sec.

Photoionization cross section for ions in level n, l (short-wavelength limit):

(16)

16

ph (n, l) = 1.64 10

Z /n K

7+2l

cm ,

where K is the wavenumber in Rydbergs (1 Rydberg = 1.0974 105 cm1 ).

55

Ionization Equilibrium Models

Saha equilibrium:39

(17)

Z
3/2
Ne N1 *(Z)
21 g1 Te
exp
= 6.0 10
Z1
Nn *(Z 1)
gn

E Z (n, l)

Te

cm

Z
Z
(n, l)
is the statistical weight for level n of charge state Z and E
where gn
is the ionization energy of the neutral atom initially in level (n, l), given by
Eq. (2).

In a steady state at high electron density,

Ne N *(Z)
S(Z 1)
,
=
N *(Z 1)
3

(18)

a function only of T .
Conditions for LTE:39
(a) Collisional and radiative excitation rates for a level n must satisfy
(19)

Ynm >
10Anm .

(b) Electron density must satisfy

(20)

18 7 17/2
Z 1/2
Ne >
(T /E
)
cm3 .
7 10 Z n

Steady state condition in corona model:

(21)

N (Z 1)
r
=
.
N (Z)
S(Z 1)

Corona model is applicable if40

(22)

1012 tI 1 < Ne < 1016 Te 7/2 cm3 ,

where tI is the ionization time.

56

Radiation
N. B. Energies and temperatures are in eV; all other quantities are in
cgs units except where noted. Z is the charge state (Z = 0 refers to a neutral
atom); the subscript e labels electrons. N is number density.
Average radiative decay rate of a state with principal quantum number n is
(23)

An =

Anm = 1.6 1010 Z 4 n9/2 sec.

m<n

Natural linewidth (E in eV):

15

(24)

E t = h = 4.14 10

eV sec,

where t is the lifetime of the line.

Doppler width:
/ = 7.7 105 (T /)1/2 ,

(25)

where is the mass of the emitting atom or ion scaled by the proton mass.
Optical depth for a Doppler-broadened line:39
13

(26) = 3.5210

fnm (M c /kT )

1/2

N L = 5.410

fmn (/T )

1/2

N L,

where fnm is the absorption oscillator strength, is the wavelength, and L is

the physical depth of the plasma; M , N , and T are the mass, number density,
and temperature of the absorber; is M divided by the proton mass. Optically
thin means < 1.
Resonance absorption cross section at center of line:
(27)

=c = 5.6 1013 2 / cm2 .

Wien displacement law (wavelength of maximum black-body emission):

(28)

max = 2.50 105 T 1 cm.

Radiation from the surface of a black body at temperature T :

(29)

W = 1.03 105 T 4 watt/cm2 .

57

Bremsstrahlung from hydrogen-like plasma:26

(30)

32

PBr = 1.69 10

Ne T e

1/2

X

Z N (Z) watt/cm ,

where the sum is over all ionization states Z.

Bremsstrahlung optical depth:41
(31)

38

= 5.0 10

Ne Ni Z gLT

7/2

where g 1.2 is an average Gaunt factor and L is the physical path length.

Inverse bremsstrahlung absorption coefficient42 for radiation of angular frequency :

(32)

= 3.1 107 Zne 2 ln T 3/2 2 (1 p2 / 2 )1/2 cm1 ;

here is the electron thermal velocity divided by V , where V is the larger of

and p multiplied by the larger of Ze2 /kT and h
/(mkT )1/2 .
Recombination (free-bound) radiation:
(33)

32

Pr = 1.69 10

Ne T e

1/2

Xh

Z N (Z)

Z1
E
Te

i

watt/cm .

Cyclotron radiation26 in magnetic field B:

(34)

28

Pc = 6.21 10

B Ne Te watt/cm .

For Ne kTe = Ni kTi = B 2 /16 ( = 1, isothermal plasma),26

(35)

38

Pc = 5.00 10

Ne Te watt/cm .

Cyclotron radiation energy loss e-folding time for a single electron:41

(36)

9.0 108 B 2
tc
sec,
2.5 +

where is the kinetic plus rest energy divided by the rest energy mc2 .
Number of cyclotron harmonics41 trapped in a medium of finite depth L:
(37)

mtr = (57BL)

1/6

where = 8N kT /B 2 .
Line radiation is given by summing Eq. (9) over all species in the plasma.

58

ATOMIC SPECTROSCOPY

Spectroscopic notation combines observational and theoretical elements.

Observationally, spectral lines are grouped in series with line spacings which
decrease toward the series limit. Every line can be related theoretically to a
transition between two atomic states, each identified by its quantum numbers.
Ionization levels are indicated by roman numerals. Thus C I is unionized
carbon, C II is singly ionized, etc. The state of a one-electron atom (hydrogen)
or ion (He II, Li III, etc.) is specified by identifying the principal quantum
number n = 1, 2, . . . , the orbital angular momentum l = 0, 1, . . . , n 1, and
the spin angular momentum s = 12 . The total angular momentum j is the
magnitude of the vector sum of l and s, j = l 21 (j 12 ). The letters s,
p, d, f, g, h, i, k, l, . . . , respectively, are associated with angular momenta
l = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, . . . . The atomic states of hydrogen and hydrogenic
ions are degenerate: neglecting fine structure, their energies depend only on n
according to
R hcZ 2 n2
RyZ 2
En =
=
,
1 + m/M
n2
where h is Plancks constant, c is the velocity of light, m is the electron mass,
M and Z are the mass and charge state of the nucleus, and
1

R = 109, 737 cm

is the Rydberg constant. If En is divided by hc, the result is in wavenumber

units. The energy associated with a transition m n is given by
Emn = Ry(1/m2 1/n2 ),
with m < n (m > n) for absorption (emission) lines.
For hydrogen and hydrogenic ions the series of lines belonging to the
transitions m n have conventional names:
Transition
Name

1n

2n

3n

4n

5n

6n

Lyman Balmer Paschen Brackett Pfund Humphreys

Successive lines in any series are denoted , , , etc. Thus the transition 1
3 gives rise to the Lyman- line. Relativistic effects, quantum electrodynamic
effects (e.g., the Lamb shift), and interactions between the nuclear magnetic

59

moment and the magnetic field due to the electron produce small shifts and
2
splittings, <
cm1 ; these last are called hyperfine structure.
10

In many-electron atoms the electrons are grouped in closed and open

shells, with spectroscopic properties determined mainly by the outer shell.
Shell energies depend primarily on n; the shells corresponding to n = 1, 2,
3, . . . are called K, L, M , etc. A shell is made up of subshells of different
angular momenta, each labeled according to the values of n, l, and the number
of electrons it contains out of the maximum possible number, 2(2l + 1). For
example, 2p5 indicates that there are 5 electrons in the subshell corresponding
to l = 1 (denoted by p) and n = 2.
In the lighter elements the electrons fill up subshells within each shell
in the order s, p, d, etc., and no shell acquires electrons until the lower shells
are full. In the heavier elements this rule does not always hold. But if a
particular subshell is filled in a noble gas, then the same subshell is filled in
the atoms of all elements that come later in the periodic table. The ground
state configurations of the noble gases are as follows:
He
Ne
Ar
Kr
Xe
Rn

1s2
1s2 2s2 2p6
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6 4d10 5s2 5p6
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6 4d10 4f 14 5s2 5p6 5d10 6s2 6p6

Alkali metals (Li, Na, K, etc.) resemble hydrogen; their transitions are described by giving n and l in the initial and final states for the single outer
(valence) electron.
For general transitions in most atoms the atomic states are specified in
terms of the parity (1)li and the magnitudes of the orbital angular momentum L = li , the spin S = si , and the total angular momentum J = L + S,
where all sums are carried out over the unfilled subshells (the filled ones sum
to zero). If a magnetic field is present the projections ML , MS , and M of
L, S, and J along the field are also needed. The quantum numbers satisfy
|ML | L l, |MS | S /2, and |M | J L + S, where is the
number of electrons in the unfilled subshell. Upper-case letters S, P, D, etc.,
stand for L = 0, 1, 2, etc., in analogy with the notation for a single electron.
For example, the ground state of Cl is described by 3p5 2 Po3/2 . The first part
indicates that there are 5 electrons in the subshell corresponding to n = 3 and
l = 1. (The closed inner subshells 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 , identical with the configuration of Mg, are usually omitted.) The symbol P indicates that the angular
momenta of the outer electrons combine to give L = 1. The prefix 2 represents the value of the multiplicity 2S + 1 (the number of states with nearly the
same energy), which is equivalent to specifying S = 21 . The subscript 3/2 is

60

the value of J. The superscript o indicates that the state has odd parity; it
would be omitted if the state were even.
The notation for excited states is similar. For example, helium has a state
1s2s S1 which lies 19.72 eV (159, 856 cm1 ) above the ground state 1s2 1 S0 .
But the two terms do not combine (transitions between them do not occur)
because this would violate, e.g., the quantum-mechanical selection rule that
the parity must change from odd to even or from even to odd. For electric
dipole transitions (the only ones possible in the long-wavelength limit), other
selection rules are that the value of l of only one electron can change, and only
by l = 1; S = 0; L = 1 or 0; and J = 1 or 0 (but L = 0 does not
combine with L = 0 and J = 0 does not combine with J = 0). Transitions
are possible between the helium ground state (which has S = 0, L = 0, J = 0,
and even parity) and, e.g., the state 1s2p 1 Po1 (with S = 0, L = 1, J = 1,
odd parity, excitation energy 21.22 eV). These rules hold accurately only for
light atoms in the absence of strong electric or magnetic fields. Transitions
that obey the selection rules are called allowed; those that do not are called
forbidden.
3

The amount of information needed to adequately characterize a state increases with the number of electrons; this is reflected in the notation. Thus43
O II
has
an
allowed
transition
between
the
states
2p2 3p
2 1
2
2 o
F7/2 and 2p ( D)3d F7/2 (and between the states obtained by changing
J from 7/2 to 5/2 in either or both terms). Here both states have two electrons with n = 2 and l = 1; the closed subshells 1s2 2s2 are not shown. The
outer (n = 3) electron has l = 1 in the first state and l = 2 in the second.
The prime indicates that if the outermost electron were removed by ionization,
the resulting ion would not be in its lowest energy state. The expression (1 D)
give the multiplicity and total angular momentum of the parent term, i.e.,
the subshell immediately below the valence subshell; this is understood to be
the same in both states. (Grandparents, etc., sometimes have to be specified
in heavier atoms and ions.) Another example43 is the allowed transition from
2p2 (3 P)3p 2 Po1/2 (or 2 Po3/2 ) to 2p2 (1 D)3d 2 S1/2 , in which there is a spin
flip (from antiparallel to parallel) in the n = 2, l = 1 subshell, as well as
changes from one state to the other in the value of l for the valence electron
and in L.
The description of fine structure, Stark and Zeeman effects, spectra of
highly ionized or heavy atoms, etc., is more complicated. The most important
difference between optical and X-ray spectra is that the latter involve energy
changes of the inner electrons rather than the outer ones; often several electrons
participate.

61

COMPLEX (DUSTY) PLASMAS

Complex (dusty) plasmas (CDPs) may be regarded as a new and unusual
state of matter. CDPs contain charged microparticles (dust grains) in addition
to electrons, ions, and neutral gas. Electrostatic coupling between the grains
can vary over a wide range, so that the states of CDPs can change from weakly
coupled (gaseous) to crystalline. CDPs can be investigated at the kinetic level
(individual particles are easily visualized and relevant time scales are accessible). CDPs are of interest as a non-Hamiltonian system of interacting particles
and as a means to study generic fundamental physics of self-organization, pattern formation, phase transitions, and scaling. Their discovery has therefore
opened new ways of precision investigations in many-particle physics.
Typical experimental dust properties
grain size (radius) a 0.3 30 m, mass md 3 107 3 1013 g, number
density (in terms of the interparticle distance) nd 3 103 107 cm3 ,
temperature Td 3 102 102 eV.
Typical discharge (bulk) plasmas
gas pressure p 102 1 Torr, Ti Tn 3 102 eV, vTi 7 104 cm/s
(Ar), Te 0.3 3 eV, ni ne 108 1010 cm3 , screening length D
Di 20 200 m, pi 2 106 2 107 s1 (Ar). B fields up to B 3 T.
Dimensionless
Havnes parameter

P = |Z|nd /ne

normalized charge
dust-dust scattering parameter

z = |Z|e2 /kTe a
d = Z 2 e2 /kTd D

dust-plasma scattering parameter

e,i = |Z|e2 /kTe,i D

coupling parameter
lattice parameter

= (Z 2 e2 /kTd ) exp(/D )
= /D

particle parameter

= a/

lattice magnetization parameter

= /rd

Typical experimental values: P 104 102 ,z 2 4 (Z 103 105 electron

charges), < 103 , 0.3 10, 104 3 102 , < 1
Frequencies
pd = (4Z 2 e2 nd /md )1/2

dust plasma frequency

P
(|Z| 1+P
mi /md )1/2 pi

1+z
ch
(a/D )pi

charge fluctuation frequency

62

nd 10a2 p/md vTn

dust-gas friction rate

dust gyrofrequency

cd = ZeB/md c

Velocities
T

mi 1/2
]
vTi
i md

dust thermal velocity

vTd = (kTd /md )1/2 [ Td

dust acoustic wave velocity

CDA = pd D
P
mi /md )1/2 vTi
(|Z| 1+P

dust Alfv
en wave velocity

vAd = B/(4nd md )1/2

dust-acoustic Mach number

dust magnetic Mach number

V /CDA
V /vAd

dust lattice (acoustic) wave velocity

l,t
= pd D Fl,t ()
CDL

The range of the dust-lattice wavenumbers is K < The functions Fl,t ()

for longitudinal and transverse waves can be approximated44,45 with accuracy
< 1% in the range 5:
Fl 2.701/2 (1 0.096 0.0042 ),

Ft 0.51(1 0.0392 ),

Lengths
frictional dissipation length

L = vTd /nd

dust Coulomb radius

dust gyroradius

RCe,i = |Z|e2 /kTe,i

rd = vTd /cd

Grain Charging
The charge evolution equation is d|Z|/dt = Ii Ie . From orbital motion
limited (OML) theory46 in the collisionless limit len(in) D a:
Ie =

8a ne vTe exp(z),

Ii = 8a2 ni vTi

Te
1+
z
Ti

Grains are charged negatively. The grain charge can vary in response to spatial
and temporal variations of the plasma. Charge fluctuations are always present,
with frequency ch . Other charging mechanisms are photoemission, secondary
emission, thermionic emission, field emission, etc. Charged dust grains change
the plasma composition, keeping quasineutrality. A measure of this is the
Havnes parameter P = |Z|nd /ne . The balance of Ie and Ii yields
exp(z) =

mi Ti
me Te

1/2 
63

Te
1+
z
Ti

[1 + P (z)]

When the relative charge density of dust is large, P 1, the grain charge Z
monotonically decreases.
Forces and momentum transfer
In addition to the usual electromagnetic forces, grains in complex plasmas are
also subject to: gravity force Fg = md g; thermophoretic force

4 2 2
Fth =
(a /vTn )n Tn
15
(where n is the coefficient of gas thermal conductivity); forces associated
with the momentum transfer from other species, F = md d Vd , i.e.,
neutral, ion, and electron drag. For collisions between charged particles, two
limiting cases are distinguished by the magnitude of the scattering parameter
. When 1 the result is independent of the sign of the potential. When
1, the results for repulsive and attractive interaction potentials are
different. For typical complex plasmas the hierarchy of scattering parameters
is e ( 0.01 0.3) i ( 1 30) d ( 103 3 104 ). The generic
expressions for different types of collisions are47

2
d = (4 2/3)(m /md )a n vT d
Electron-dust collisions
ed
Ion-dust collisions
id =

n1

Dust-dust collisons
dd =

1 2
z ed
2

e 1

(Te /Ti )2 id
2(D /a)2 (ln2 i + 2 ln i + 2),
2z

zd2 dd
(D /a)2 [ln 4d ln ln 4d ],

i < 5
i > 13

d 1
d 1

where zd Z 2 e2 /akTd .
For dd nd the complex plasma is in a two-phase state, and for nd dd
we have merely tracer particles (dust-neutral gas interaction dominates). The
momentum transfer cross section is proportional to the Coulomb logarithm
d when the Coulomb scattering theory is applicable. It is determined by
integration over the impact parameters, from min to max . min is due to finite
grain size and is given by OML theory. max = D for repulsive interaction
(applicable for 1), and max = D (1 + 2 )1/2 for attractive interaction
(applicable up to < 5).

64

For repulsive interaction (electron-dust and dust-dust)

d = z

z x

ln[1 + 4(D /a ) x ]dx 2z

ez x ln(2x 1)dx,

where ze = z, ae = a, and ad = 2a.

For ion-dust (attraction)

id z

zx

ln

1 + 2(Ti /Te )(D /a)x

1 + 2(Ti /Te )x

dx.

For dd nd the complex plasma behaves like a one phase system (dust-dust
interaction dominates).
Phase Diagram of Complex Plasmas
The figure below represents different phase states of CDPs as functions of
the electrostatic coupling parameter and or , respectively. The vertical dashed line at = 1 conditionally divides the system into Coulomb and
Yukawa parts. With respect to the usual plasma phase, in the diagram below the complex plasmas are located mostly in the strong coupling regime
(equivalent to the top left corner).
Regions I (V) represent Coulomb (Yukawa) crystals, the crystallization condition is48 > 106(1 + + 2 /2)1 . Regions II (VI) are for Coulomb (Yukawa)
non-ideal plasmas the characteristic range of dust-dust interaction (in terms
of the momentum transfer) is larger than the intergrain distance (in terms of
the Wigner-Seitz radius), (/)1/2 > (4/3)1/3 , which implies that the
interaction is essentially multiparticle.
-1

=/a
1

10

10

10

10

I
2

10

II

10

VI
III

-2

10

VII

IV

VIII

-4

10

0.1

Regions III (VII and VIII) correspond to

Coulomb (Yukawa) ideal gases. The range
of dust-dust interaction is smaller than the
intergrain distance and only pair collisions
are important. In addition, in the region
VIII the pair Yukawa interaction asymptotically reduces to the hard sphere limit,
forming a Yukawa granular medium. In
region IV the electrostatic interaction is
unimportant and the system is like a uaual
granular medium.

10

=/

65

REFERENCES
When any of the formulas and data in this collection are referenced
in research publications, it is suggested that the original source be cited rather
than the Formulary. Most of this material is well known and, for all practical
purposes, is in the public domain. Numerous colleagues and readers, too
numerous to list by name, have helped in collecting and shaping the Formulary
into its present form; they are sincerely thanked for their efforts.
Several book-length compilations of data relevant to plasma physics
are available. The following are particularly useful:
C. W. Allen, Astrophysical Quantities, 3rd edition (Athlone Press, London, 1976).
A. Anders, A Formulary for Plasma Physics (Akademie-Verlag, Berlin,
1990).
H. L. Anderson (Ed.), A Physicists Desk Reference, 2nd edition (American Institute of Physics, New York, 1989).
K. R. Lang, Astrophysical Formulae, 2nd edition (Springer, New York,
1980).
The books and articles cited below are intended primarily not for the purpose
of giving credit to the original workers, but (1) to guide the reader to sources
containing related material and (2) to indicate where to find derivations, explanations, examples, etc., which have been omitted from this compilation.
Additional material can also be found in D. L. Book, NRL Memorandum Report No. 3332 (1977).
1. See M. Abramowitz and I. A. Stegun, Eds., Handbook of Mathematical
Functions (Dover, New York, 1968), pp. 13, for a tabulation of some
mathematical constants not available on pocket calculators.
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66

5. W. D. Hayes, A Collection of Vector Formulas, Princeton University,

Princeton, NJ, 1956 (unpublished), and personal communication (1977).
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discussion of nomenclature in SI units.
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NJ, 1958).
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15. L. D. Landau and E. M. Lifshitz, Fluid Mechanics, 2nd edition (AddisonWesley Publishing Co., Reading, MA, 1987), pp. 320336.
16. The Z function is tabulated in B. D. Fried and S. D. Conte, The Plasma
Dispersion Function (Academic Press, New York, 1961).
17. R. W. Landau and S. Cuperman, Stability of Anisotropic Plasmas to
Almost-Perpendicular Magnetosonic Waves, J. Plasma Phys. 6, 495
(1971).

67

18. B. D. Fried, C. L. Hedrick, J. McCune, Two-Pole Approximation for the

Plasma Dispersion Function, Phys. Fluids 11, 249 (1968).
19. B. A. Trubnikov, Particle Interactions in a Fully Ionized Plasma, Reviews of Plasma Physics, Vol. 1 (Consultants Bureau, New York, 1965),
p. 105.
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Collisions, Phys. Fluids 16, 2022 (1973).
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Physics, Vol. 1 (Consultants Bureau, New York, 1965), p. 205.
22. J. Sheffield, Plasma Scattering of Electromagnetic Radiation (Academic
Press, New York, 1975), p. 6 (after J. W. Paul).
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Other Layers of the Ionosphere, J. Geophys. Res. 78, 7389 (1973).
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25. G. L. Withbroe and R. W. Noyes, Mass and Energy Flow in the Solar
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(Van Nostrand, New York, 1960), Chapt. 2.
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sections are listed in F. K. McGowan, et al., Nucl. Data Tables A6,
353 (1969); A8, 199 (1970). The yields listed in the table are calculated
directly from the mass defect.
28. (a) G. H. Miley, H. Towner and N. Ivich, Fusion Cross Section and
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Vol. I (Consultants Bureau, New York, 1974). The table on pp. 4849
was compiled by K. Papadopoulos.

68

31. Table prepared from data compiled by J. M. McMahon (personal communication, D. Book, 1990) and A. Ting (personal communication, J.D.
Huba, 2004).
32. M. J. Seaton, The Theory of Excitation and Ionization by Electron Impact, in Atomic and Molecular Processes, D. R. Bates, Ed. (New York,
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33. H. Van Regemorter, Rate of Collisional Excitation in Stellar Atmospheres, Astrophys. J. 136, 906 (1962).
34. A. C. Kolb and R. W. P. McWhirter, Ionization Rates and Power Loss
from -Pinches by Impurity Radiation, Phys. Fluids 7, 519 (1964).
35. R. W. P. McWhirter, Spectral Intensities, in Plasma Diagnostic Techniques, R. H. Huddlestone and S. L. Leonard, Eds. (Academic Press, New
York, 1965).
36. M. Gryzinski, Classical Theory of Atomic Collisions I. Theory of Inelastic
Collision, Phys. Rev. 138A, 336 (1965).
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Roy. Astron. Soc. 119, 81 (1959).
38. Ya. B. Zeldovich and Yu. P. Raizer, Physics of Shock Waves and HighTemperature Hydrodynamic Phenomena (Academic Press, New York,
1966), Vol. I, p. 407.
39. H. R. Griem, Plasma Spectroscopy (Academic Press, New York, 1966).
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R. H. Huddlestone and S. L. Leonard, Eds. (Academic Press, New York,
1965).
41. G. Bekefi, Radiation Processes in Plasmas (Wiley, New York, 1966).
42. T. W. Johnston and J. M. Dawson, Correct Values for High-Frequency
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16, 722 (1973).
43. W. L. Wiese, M. W. Smith, and B. M. Glennon, Atomic Transition Probabilities, NSRDS-NBS 4, Vol. 1 (U.S. Govt. Printing Office, Washington,
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44. F. M. Peeters and X. Wu, Wigner crystal of a screened-Coulombinteraction colloidal system in two dimensions, Phys. Rev. A 35, 3109
(1987)

69

45. S. Zhdanov, R. A. Quinn, D. Samsonov, and G. E. Morfill, Large-scale

steady-state structure of a 2D plasma crystal, New J. Phys. 5, 74 (2003).
46. J. E. Allen, Probe theory the orbital motion approach, Phys. Scripta
45, 497 (1992).
47. S. A. Khrapak, A. V. Ivlev, and G. E. Morfill, Momentum transfer in
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48. V. E. Fortov et al., Dusty plasmas, Phys. Usp. 47, 447 (2004).

70

AFTERWORD

The NRL Plasma Formulary originated over twenty five years ago
and has been revised several times during this period. The guiding spirit and
person primarily responsible for its existence is Dr. David Book. I am indebted
to Dave for providing me with the TEX files for the Formulary and his continued suggestions for improvement. The Formulary has been set in TEX by
Dave Book, Todd Brun, and Robert Scott. I thank readers for communicating
typographical errors to me as well as suggestions for improvements.
Finally, I thank Dr. Sidney Ossakow for his support of the NRL Plasma
Formulary during his tenure as Superintendent of the Plasma Physics Division.
He was a steadfast advocate of this important project at the Naval Research
Laboratory.

71