Water Resour Manage (2014) 28:37453759

DOI 10.1007/s11269-014-0707-y

Distribution Network Assessment using EPANET

for Intermittent and Continuous Water Supply
Sanjeeb Mohapatra & Aabha Sargaonkar &
Pawan Kumar Labhasetwar

Received: 2 July 2013 / Accepted: 29 May 2014 /

Published online: 29 June 2014
# Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014

Abstract Drawbacks of intermittent water supply system and inability to shift to continuous
supply mode is the main challenge in developing countries. The suitability of the infrastructure
laid over past two to three decades to meet the 24/7 demand of todays population is the issue
for many water mangers. The present study addresses this issue using EPANET software for a
pilot study area in Nagpur city, India.
GIS maps, field survey data, remote sensing data and in-situ measurements of pressure and
water quality are used in model simulation study. Total 96 artificial reservoirs are inserted into
the network which replicate the end-user practices of excess water withdrawal. Reservoirs are
assumed connected to damand nodes with equivalent diameter pipes for intermittent supply
simulation. For continuous supply, demand multipliers are derived using Monte Carlo simulation. Bulk decay coefficient 0.17 day1 for residual chlorine is used in water quality
simulation. Simulation scenario of intermittency indicates existing network is not suitable to
maintain desired headloss, and pressure in most of the pipes is very low (<1 m). Water age and
water quality problems reveal that rehabilitation of distribution mains and critical pipes in the
central part is primarily important before implementing 24/7 water supply scheme in the study
area.
Keywords EPANET . Demand multiplier . Hurst coefficient . Intermittent water supply .
Water quality
First and second author have equal contribution to the paper

S. Mohapatra : A. Sargaonkar (*)

Environmental Systems Design and Modelling Division, CSIR-National Environmental Engineering
Research Institute, Nehru Marg( Nagpur 440020, India
e-mail: ap_sargaonkar@neeri.res.in
S. Mohapatra
e-mail: sanjeeb@iitb.ac.in
P. K. Labhasetwar
Water Technology Management Division, CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute,
Nehru Marg( Nagpur 440020, India
Present Address:
S. Mohapatra
Center for Environmental Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology-Bombay, Bombay, India

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S. Mohapatra et al.

1 Introduction
Performance of water distribution system (WDS) to consumers satisfaction is the major challenge
for water authorities all over the world. In developing countries, urban water supplies are mostly
intermittent, typically ranging from 24 h in a day (Ingeduld, et al., 2006). In India, water supply
rate varies from 16 to 300 l per capita per day (lpcd) depending on the locality and the economic
status (Singh and Turkiya 2012). Due to Pressure/head dependent hydraulics rather than
Demand driven, consumers in low pressure zone opt for illegal tapping and storage in underground pits to fulfill their demands (Ingeduld, et al., 2006). This often exerts excess demand and
increases recontamination probability at the consumer end (Thompson, et al., 2000; Karadirek,
et al., 2012). Intermittent water supplies also pose high water quality risk due to contaminant
ingress into the pipes of WDS during non-supply hours (Mermin, et al., 1999; Kelkar, et al., 2002).
The hydraulic integrity problems of intermittent supplies are not only of concern to the locals
but also to WHO - reporting about 1.6 million children, less than 5 years of age die every year due
to contaminated water supply (WHO 2003, UNICEF/WHO, 2006). Water Boards and public at
large, therefore, demand continuous water supply to ensure water safety. However, it is imperative
that the proposal of shifting from intermittent to continuous mode has many challenges - mainly
about the suitability of the infrastructure laid over past two to three decades to meet the 24/7
demand of todays population i.e. hydraulics concern (pressure and flow) and water quality concern
(residual chlorine and water age).
Water quality problems within WDS include interactions between the pipe wall and the
water, and reactions within the bulk water itself (Brown, et al., 2011). Depending on the flow
rate, finished water quality, pipe material and deposited material (i.e., sand, iron, manganese),
the transformations of various constituents proceed to a greater or lesser extent. In addition,
corrosion of pipes and chlorine disinfection may cause unpleasant tastes and odors due to
chlorine residual (Al-Jasser, 2007; Mutoti, et al., 2007). Formation of disinfection by-products
such as trihalomethanes (THMs) pose major quality concern from public health point of view
(Brown, et al., 2011). Therefore, management of chlorine residual and water age from finished
water in a water treatment plant (WTP) to consumers taps is critical to balance to provide
protection from pathogens and customer satisfaction.
To address the issues of water safety, many cities in India are implementing Water Safety Plan
(WSP) through Ministry of Urban Development prior to implementation of 24/7 water supply
(Sargaonkar, et al., 2010; Sargaonkar et al. 2013). Present study is undertaken as a part of proposed
project for quantification of exisiting intermittent and proposed continuous supply scenario for a
pilot area in Nagpur city, India. Mathematical model EPANET (Rossman, 2004) is set
up for hydraulics and water quality simulation. To aid in decision making, results are
evaluated for suitability of the network to implement 24/7. The paper presents the details of
model simulation study where results indentify the areas with low pressure, less residual
chlorine and high water age. Model calibration, field verification and predictions are discussed.
Lastly, a possibility of technological improvement such as use of sensors with renewable energy
resource for on-line monitoring of water quality in WDS is also explored.

2 Materials and Methods

Figure 1 presents the location map of pilot study area, Untkhana. Approximately 4,630
consumers in the pilot area receive water supply for about 1 to 2 h a day (from 6:00 a.m. to
7:30 a.m.). The water distribution network in 0.5 km2 area is quite old, some of the pipes are
laid since 1980. There are 172 pipes with 146 nodes. Water is supplied from Elevated Service

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Fig. 1 Pilot study area, Untkahana and house locations inside thiessen polygons

Reservoir (ESR). Pipe material is of Mild Steel (MS), Cast Iron (CI), Galvanized Iron (GI) and
Ductile Iron (DI) and pipe diameter range from 75 to 700 mm. Feeder main is 6.4 km in length
with 700 mm diameter, while distribution main is 11.44 km in length with 400 mm diameter.
Service connections are 5m in length and 15 mm diameter.
For model application, the water supply network map, node map and elevation map were
generated in ArcGIS10.1 and georeferenced using WGS84 UTM-Zone 43 projection. HydroGen extension to ArcView was used to create the .inp format files for pipe map, route map and
elevation polygon map shape files to set up hydraulic model EPANET and HydroGen
(Hydrogen 2000, Corte and Sorensen 2013).
2.1 Continuous Supply Simulation Model
EPANET, in general operates under Demand-driven assumption - wherein, the nodal
demands are assigned fixed values and the problem is to find pipe flows and nodal pressures
that are hydraulically consistent with the nodal demands (Rossman, 2004). For this, hydraulic
head loss within the pipes is calculated using the Hazen-Williams formula
hL 4:727C 1:852 d 4:871 q1:852 L

where, hL is the head loss (ft), C is the hazen-williams roughness coefficient, d is the pipe
diameter (ft), q is the flow rate (cfs), L is the pipe length (ft).
2.1.1 Thiessen Polygons
To estimate nodal demands, Thiessen polygons were generated considering node shape file as
input in ArcMap 10.1 (Fig. 1). Number of houses in each polygon were counted manually by
overlay analysis of Thiessen polygon map and IKONOS ortho-rectified image (1 m resolution)
of the study area. Nodal demands are then estimated considering average 5 persons in each

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S. Mohapatra et al.

house (Global Scintific, 2011) and the water supply rate of 155 lpcd (135 lpcd+15%
unaccounted flow) as per the water supply standards in India (CPHEEO, 1999).
2.1.2 Diurnal Pattern
The diurnal water demand, an important input for EPANET is estimated using Monte Carlo
Simulation (MCS) technique (Computational Science Education Project, 1995) as detailed below:
A time series distribution of water demand is generated based on socioeconomic data in India
(Jethoo and Poonia 2011). The distribution gives amount of water consumed for day-to-day activities
viz. drinking, bathing, sanitation and hygiene (cloth washing, toilet flushing, utensils and house
cleaning), gardening and cooking in different time series 1, 2, ,6 which indicate different time slots
in a day i.e. 06, 610,, 2024 h, where maximum of slot is included in the corresponding slot
(Table 1). In order to model the randomness in hourly water demand, 10,000 realizations of random
numbers are generated in right open set [0, 0.5) and a sample of size N=24 is drawn. The sample
represents a set of multipliers to estimate the hourly water demand pattern. For example, for drinking
purpose first six random numbers are multiplied with (1 lit) demand in first time series (1 to 6 h), next
four random numbers are multiplied with (1 lit) demand in second time series (7 to 10 h), and so on.
Sum of hourly demand for drinking purpose is ensured to be approximately 5 l. The same set of
random numbers is used to generate hourly water demand pattern for other activities. A set of
random numbers is considered acceptable for which per capita per day water demand is 135 l as per
Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS:1172, 1993). The number of samples to be drawn depends upon
the convergence achieved for total demand and thereby for BIS standards.
It is important to ensure that the random pattern is autocorrelated/or follows long-term memory
process. This is verified through rescaled range (R/S) analysis that relates to Hurst exponent (H),
also known as the index of dependence or the index of long-range dependence. The parameter
(0<H1) measures three types of trends: persistence (0.5<H1), randomness (H~0.5), or mean
reversion (H<0.5). The methodology of R/S range analysis is described in Annexure-I.
2.2 Intermittent Supply Simulation Model
Implementing EPANET for intermittent simulation requires that demand nodes are connected
by artificial reservoirs with the hydraulic grade line (HGL) set equal to the total desired head at
a particular node (Siew and Tanyimboh 2012; Chandapillai, et al., 2012). This assumes that the
gauge pressure at the outlet in the artificial reservoir is zero (Batish, 2003). The total head of a
Table 1 Activity wise per capita water consumption in different time series in a day
Duration Time Drinking Bathing Sanitation & Hygiene
Gardening Cooking Total
(in hour) Series (litre)
(litre)
(litre)
(litre)
demand
(litre)
Utensils and
Toilet
Cloth
Washing flushing House cleaning
(litre)
(litre)
(litre)
1 to 6
6 to 10

1
2

1
1

0
20

0
6

2
8

0
2

0
5

0
1.5

3
43.5

10 to 12

0.5

10

0.5

24

12 to 18

10

2.5

27.5

18 to 20

0.5

15

2.5

29

20 to 24

55

20

30

10

10

135

Total

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3749

reservoir is the sum of the elevation at a particular node and the pressure head. Terminal nodes
i.e. the nodes connected to the pipe outside the area are replaced by artificial reservoirs with
suitable heads. Accordingly, the pressure driven demand in intermittent simulation is defined
as (Ingeduld, et al., 2006)
r
H i H min
2
Qi Qmax
H max H min
where, Hi is the pressure at a node i, Hmin,i is the minimum required pressure at a node i, Hmax,i
is the maximum pressure at a node i (defined as pressure above the estate height), Qi is the
demand at a node i, Qmax,i is the maximum demand at a node i.
Accordingly, pressure dependent flow conditions are:

Intermittent flow conditions

Scenario in the present case

Pressure Condition

Demand (flow)

Pressure Condition

Demand (flow)

Hi <H min,i
Hi >H max,i
H min,i <Hi <H max,i

Qi =0

Ht,i <H defined,i

Qi =0

Qi =Qmax,i
Qi =f(H)

Ht,i >H defined,i

(Eq. (2) not valid)

Qi =f(H)

(Eq. (2) valid)

where, Ht,i is the total available head at a node and H

corresponding reservoir (elevation+desired pressure head).

defined,i

is the total head of a

2.2.1 Equivalent Pipe Diameter

Removing parallel pipes and substituting with equivalent pipes at the consumer end is a way of
achieving model skeletonization. For intermittent simulation, the artificial reservoir is connected to the network by a pipe with equivalent diameter. The length and C-factor for the
equivalent pipe is that of the dominant pipe and its diameter is determined appropriately. The
individual artificial reservoir fill rates depend mainly on the head loss over this pipe.
Neglecting the minor loss coefficients, the equivalent pipe diameter is defined as (Walski, 2003)

Dr

Lr0:54 C i  Di2:63

Cr
Li0:54

:38
3

where, D, L and C represent diameter (mm), length (m) and roughness of pipes, with index r and
i respectively indicating the equivalent pipe (pipe connecting demand node to the artificial
reservoir) and the individual pipe (pipe connecting demand node to the individual user i.e.
service pipe) .
In the present study, total 96 artificial reservoirs were inserted into the network. The
reservoirs represented artificial storage vessels/infinite sink at consumer end whose filling
replicate the end-user practices of excess water withdrawal for storage till the end of water
supply, or water loss after resuming the supply due to open taps during non supply hours. The
artificial reservoirs connected to the demand node by equivalent pipes are shown in Fig. 2. To
prevent back flows of water from the artificial reservoirs, check valve was defined in each
house connection equivalent pipe.

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S. Mohapatra et al.

Fig. 2 Model set up for intermittent simulation with artificial reservoir

2.3 Water Quality Simulation Model

Bulk and wall decay of chlorine in EPANET is wriiten as total chlorine demand (Warton, et al.,
2006)
C C 0 ekt

kwk f

k kb 
R kw k f

where, Co and C are the initial and final concentrations of chlorine, k is the overall chlorine
decay coefficient (d1), kb is the chlorine bulk decay coefficient (d1), kw is the chlorine wall
decay coefficient (m d1), kf is the mass transfer coefficient between the bulk flow and pipe
wall (m d1), and R is the hydraulic radius of the pipe (m).
2.4 Model Set up and Parameter Estimation
For model set up, .inp format files were imported in EPANET and edited for deletion of
duplicate nodes, addition of artificial reservoirs, defining ESR as source tank, ESR and
reservoir levels and model parameters. The baseline data with respect to pipe age, material
and diameter obtained from water authority was used to assign suitable pipe roughness for the
worst case scenario with reference to literature (Walski, 2003, Tamminen, et al., 2008).
Laboratory experiments were carried out to determine the chlorine bulk decay constant (kb).
As per the methods of APHA, et al. (2001) and Mutoti, et al. (2007) 4500-Cl G, 8L sample of
treated water supplied to the pilot study area was used to dose with sodium hypochlorite (t=2
min) followed by ammonium chloride addition at 3:1 mass ratio of chlorine to nitrogen. The

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experiment to determine all combined chlorine measurements (details not given) using
spectrophotometer reported as total chlorine was repeated several times and the experimental
data which showed good statistical correlation coefficient (0.995) was considered. The
estimated decay coefficient of 0.17 d1 was used in model simulation. The wall decay
coefficient in the range 5 to 23 d1 reported in the literature was used in the model setting
and calibrated during subsequent simulations (Brown, et al., 2011).
Pipe roughness and leakage coefficient were the calibration parameters for hydraulic model.
To exactly locate the leaking pipes and corresponding nodes in the study area, visible leaks were
identified during field survey with hand held GPS. For model set up, an estimate of approximately 4.6 lps leakage (as reported by water authority), was equally distributed at the leakage
points, defining emitter coefficient of 0.6. pH, temperature, pressure, flowrate and residual
chlorine concentration at the consumer-end were measured in-situ for model calibration.
For continuous water supply simulation, the treatment plant was represented by an artificial
reservoir supplying water to the ESR during 6 PM to 9 AM. This was defined by formulating
simple control based statements. For intermittent simulation initial pipe charging process was
neglected and model simulations for the specific hour were obtained. Similarly, graduation of
equivalent pipe size connecting distribution network and artificial storage reservoir is ignored
due to the complexity involved during model handling. For water quality simulations,
completely mixed tank with initial chlorine concentration of 1 ppm was considered. The time
steps used in simulation are 5 min for hydraulics and 1 s for water quality. The total duration
for intermittent and extended period simulations, (both hydraulics and water quality), were
decided during model calibration. The results of hydraulic and water quality simulation for
intermittent and continuous water supply, and water age analysis for continuous water supply
are discussed below.

3 Results and Discussion

Figure 3 presents the hourly water demand pattern estimated using MCS. Rescaled range
analysis indicated that the Hurst exponent for different activities ranges from 0.592 to 0.868
and for total demand 0.974 (Fig. 3). This confirms that the estimated daily demand pattern has
fractal characteristics (Zhi-Guang and FaC Ren-Qiang 2009).
During model calibration for intermittent hydraulics, worst case values of Hazen Williamss
roughness coefficient were considered initially due to old pipe network in the pilot area, which
improved significantly during subsequent simulations. The calibrated roughness values for
different pipe materials are presented in Table 2. Comparison of simulated pressure and flow
rate values with the observed pressure and flowrate values recorded at strategic locations in the
study area show correlation coefficient 0.976 and 0.978, respectively. Similarly, the correlation
coefficient between observed and simulated residual chlorine level at eight locations in the
study area was 0.85 (Fig. 4).
3.1 Hydraulics of Intermittent and Continuous Water Supply
During intermittent supply simulation, the flow velocities in the transmission main (pipe id 80)
and distribution mains (pipe id 100) are 1.57 and 3.61 m/sec, respectively, while during
continuous supply, the respective peak hour velocities are lesser by 8.9% and 8.5%. This
indicates pressure dependent higher flow rate in both the pipes. This is likely to be the cause
for high friction loss leading to more maintenance or wear-tear. Similarly, the unit headloss
values in these pipes for intermittent supply are 3.25 and 28.52 m/km, respectively, while

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S. Mohapatra et al.

Fig. 3 Demand multiplier and diurnal pattern of water demand for various activities in a day with Hurst
exponent

during peak hour continuous supply, the respective values are lesser by 16 and 12.8%. In both
the supply conditions, the unit head loss in the distribution mains is much higher than the
recommended value of 4m/km (CPHEEO, 1999). In addition, the unit head loss in other 15%
pipes in the network (with diameter ranging from 100 to 150 mm), also exceeds the
recommended value during intermittent supply. This has resulted in frequent replacement of
network pipes since last 30 years, exerting recurring economic burden on water board.
Pressure condition in the network during intermittent supply is less than 1 m at 39 nodes out
of 146 (Figs.5a to c). The houses connected to these nodes hardly receive any water as
observed during field survey. This is the major cause for water theft through illegal pumping.
In areas where the pressure condition is satisfied (i.e. pressure>1m), simulation indicates
continuous flow of water to the artificial reservoirs and hence water demand is likely to be high
due to no fixed demand pattern.
If water supply is made continuous within the same network, then majority of the area
would receive water with pressure less than 7 m during peak demand hour. In the North-East
of pilot area (away from ESR), pressure would be relatively higher than the central part
(Fig.5c), mainly due to simple network, low demand and uniform pipe diameters. Frequency
analysis indicates pressure would be less than 7 m at 45% nodes during peak hours and at 30%
nodes during lean hours. Low pressure would prevail mostly in the central part of the network.
Table 2 Pipe materials and Hazen Williams roughness coefficient
Pipe Material

Year of Installation

Roughness Before Calibration

Roughness After Calibration

CI

1980

75

122

CI

2003 to 2011

130

141

DI

2003 to 2011

140

140

GI

2003

120

120

MS

1980

90

122

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Fig. 4 Comparison of observed and simulated pressure and residual chlorine at selected nodes

3.2 Water Quality Simulation

For intermittent as well as continuous supply, residual chlorine concentration in the network
remains below WHO recommended standard of 0.2 ppm at almost all the nodes (Fig.6a), except
for the pipes replaced during 2003 to 2011 where it ranges from 0.2 to 0.5 ppm (Fig.6b). Nodes
nearer to ESR i.e. 122, 123 and 152, show residual chlorine concentration greater than 0.2ppm, due
to immediate withdrawal of water from 400mm diameter pipe and less chlorine decay in larger
diameter pipes (Fig.6b and c). Low concentrations are attributed to high velocities at peak hours
which help efficient transport towards the pipe wall (Powell, et al., 2000) and CI pipes (around 152
pipes) in the network that react readily with chlorine. Approximately, 98.83 and 98.62% chlorine
decay occurs in the pipe wall during intermittent and continuous water supply, respectively. Similar
findings are reported in studies for CI pipes (Hallam, et al., 2002; Tamminen, et al., 2008, Ramos,
et al., 2010). Low residual chlorine adds to microbial contamination in the network.
3.3 Water Age Analysis
For continuous supply mode, water age in the network would be less than 48 h except at dead ends,
where it is less than 3 days. At dead ends residual chlorine decays due to aging effect, indicating
deterioration of water quality (Figs. 6 & 7), as reported in the literaute (AWWA, AWWARF 1992).
Although the intermittent flow velocity ranges from 0 to 3.56 m/sec, the dominant velocity
at consumer end is less than the self-cleansing velocity 0.6 m/sec (CPHEEO, 1999). Number
of pipes experiencing such low velocity are 114. This can contribute to deposition of soil
particles into the pipes due to inefficient self-cleansing velocity. In pressureized system, this
condition becomes more acute due to accumulation of contaminants at dead ends.
3.4 Scope for Further Studies/Temperature Measurement
In reality, the temperature in the underground pipes tends to be constant relative to air
temperature. The temperature difference between the two might range for several degrees in
hot climatic regions. Thus, thermoelectric generator which works on Seebeck effect is a
suitable option to harvest energy to power the sensors used in monitoring WDS. This
possibility was studied by measuring the water temperature in WDS of the pilot area and air

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S. Mohapatra et al.

Fig. 5 Pressure distribution (a) intermittent simulation, (b) continuous simulation-peak hour (c) continuous
simulation - lean period

temperature data collected from the Weather Spark (Vector Magic) during the hot summer
months of the city i.e. March, April and May, 2013 (Vector & Weather Spark beta, 2013). The
thermoelectric power is evaluated considering the water-air temperature difference and the
parameters of the commercial Bi2Te3, thermoelectric device of 40404.2 mm with a matrix
of 127 thermoelectric couples (N) inside (Niu, et al., 2009).
Considering, the Seebeck coefficient of each thermoelectric couple =0.0002 V/K, the
total Seebeck coefficient of the device is S=2N i.e. 0.05 V/K and the internal resistance (R)
as 2 (ohm). The output power for difference in temperature (t) is determined according to
equation (Ye and Soga 2012)

2
U
U2
S2 T2

6
R
P
RR
4R
4R
where, U is the Seebeck voltage.

Distribution Network Assessment using EPANET

3755

Fig. 6 Spatial distribution of chlorine (a) intermittent simulation (b) continuous simulation -peak hour (c)
continuous simulation - lean period

The evaluated power which is directly proportional to temperature deifference varies from
2.8 to 118 mW (Fig. 8) and varies for various months in the order as March < April < May.
Since the sensors require 10 mW range of power, the extra output can be stored to power the
sensors for on-line monitoring of WDS during non harvesting hours.

4 Conclusion and Recommendation

Present study describes the application of EPANET to intermittent supply system using
artificial reservoir approach. Study reveals that presently distribution network in the study
area is not suitable to maintain the desired head loss especially, in the mains. It is necessary to
install another pipe in parallel or replace the existing mains with larger diameter pipe to reduce
frequent maintenance of the network. Low pressure, high water age, and intermittent supply
are the main concerns in the network. Thus, methodology is useful to evaluate the suitability of

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S. Mohapatra et al.

Fig. 7 Water age simulation (a) peak hour and (b) lean period in continuous supply

network to implement 24/7. However, it is difficult to implement artificial reservoir concept for
large network.
The study presents an approach to hourly demand pattern estimation based on MCS. The
hourly demand shows persistent behavior (0.5<H1) with peak factor of 5. This is the basic
data required for EPANET simulation and can be used in other similar case studies for
continuous supply simulation.
Proposed continuous water supply in the same network would maintain relatively higher
pressure possibly due to demand driven analysis, but less than 12 m. In order to maintain 22 m
pressure head, to meet the demands of urban population staying in multistoried buildings, it is
necessary to disallow the practice of direct tapping of water from the transmission main and
control the leakage. Rehabilitation plan is the priority to restrict illegal pumping leading to
non-revenue water loss prior to implementation of 24/7.

Fig. 8 Estimated water-air temperature difference and power harvesting potential

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3757

In the present scenario, improving residual chlorine concentration at consumer end through
chlorine boosting at critical locations is necessary to reduce water quality problems and health
impacts in the study area. This particular information is very essential for local water
authorities.
Acknowledgment The authors are thankful to The Director, CSIR-NEERI for consistent support and encouragement to undertake the work. Authors are also thankful to Dr. R.A. Sohony and Er S. R. Watpade for their
support and guidance during the work. The assistance received from Mr. Swapnil Kamble is acknowledged with
thanks.

Annexure I
R/S Range analysis
1. Time series
Let X=X1,X2,X3,.....,Xn, where n=24 be the full time series of hourly water demand for a
particular activity (say drinking).
Divide this into partial time series of length 12, 6, and 3 h and calculate mean and standard
deviation for each series as:
9
1
>
mt ni1 Xi
=
n

r
A 1
1 n
>
i1 Xi mt 2 ;
St
n
where, n=24 for full and n=12,6,3 for partial series and t=1 to 4
2. Mean-deviates
Deviation of hourly demand from mean value is computed for each of the full and partial
series as :
Yi;t Xi;n mt;

where Xi,n represents Xi belonging to full (n=24) or partial time series n=12,6,3 with
corresponding mean mt t=1 to 4
Cumulative deviate series is computed as:
Zi;t ni1 Yi;t for n 24; 12; 6; 3 and t 1; 2; 3; 4

In this case, total number of series (full and partial) are four (for one activity drinking), so
we get 4 cumulative deviate series.
3. Rescaled range estimate
Maximum and minimum values of each cumulative deviate series are estimated
Zt,max =max(Zi,t) and Zt,min =min(Zi,t) to compute range as
Rt Zt;max Zt;min ; where t 1; 2; 3; 4

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S. Mohapatra et al.

Finally, rescaled range is calculated as RStt for all the four series. A power law function is
h i
fitted to the logarithm of E RSnn and Log(n) as :

E


Rn
CnH where; n 24; 12; 6; 3
S n

Slope of the straight line gives the Hurst exponent (H). The complete procedure for
calculation of R/S range and fitting the power law model as a function of Log n is performed
for each activity and for total water demand data.

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