C.G.S. unit of charge is Stat coulomb or e.s.u.

Detailed Revision notes

Electromagnetic unit of charge is ab coulomb

1C

Electrostatics

3 10 9 stat coulomb

Dimensional formula

1
ab coulomb
10
[Q]

AT

(6) Charge is
Electric Charge
Transferable : It can be transferred from

(1) Charge is the property associated with matter

one body to another .

due to which it produces and experiences electrical

Associated with mass : Charge cannot

and magnetic effects.

exist without mass but reverse is not

(2) It is known that every atom is electrically

true.

neutral, containing as many electrons as the number

Conserved : It can neither be created nor

of protons in the nucleus.

be destroyed.

(3) Charged particles can be created by

Invariant : Independent of velocity of

disturbing neutrality of an atom. Loss of electrons

charged particle.

gives positive charge (as then np > ne) and gain of

electrons gives negative charge (as then ne > np) to
a particle. In charging mass of the body changes as

(7) Electric charge produces electric field (E ) ,

magnetic field (B ) and electromagnetic radiations.

shown below
+

E only

Neutral

v =0

constant

E , B and Radiates energy

E and B
Fig. 18.3

v = constant

M
M'' > M

M' < M

Fig. 18.1

(8) Point charge : A finite size body may

behave like a point charge if it produces an inverse

(4) Charges with the same electrical sign repel

square electric field. For example an isolated

each other, and charges with opposite electrical sign

charged sphere behave like a point charge at very

attract each other.

large distance as well as very small distance close

to its surface.
(9) Charge on a conductor : Charge given to a

Fig. 18.2

conductor always resides on it's outer surface. This

(5) Unit and dimensional formula

is why a solid and hollow conducting sphere of same

S.I. unit of charge is Ampere

outer radius will hold maximum equal charge. If

(C), smaller S.I. units are mC, C.

sec = coulomb

surface is uniform the charge distributes uniformly

on the surface and for irregular surface the
distribution of charge, i.e., charge density is not

uniform. It is maximum where the radius of curvature

is minimum and vice versa. i.e.,

. This is

1 /R

+ +

+
+

(A)

Charge
Volume

+
+

Volume charge density

+

S.I. unit is

+ +

through out the volume of the body e.g. charge on a

dielectric sphere etc.

why charge leaks from sharp points.

+

(c) Volume charge density : Charge distributes

(B)

C
m3

+
+

Dimension is [L3TA]

+
+

+
+
+

+
+

+
+

(11) Quantization of charge : If the charge of

(10) Charge distribution : It may be of two
types

an electron ( 1 .6 10

19

) is taken as elementary

unit i.e. quanta of charge, the charge on any body

(i) Discrete distribution of charge : A system

consisting of ultimate individual charges.
Q2

will be some integral multiple of e i.e.,

Q

ne

with n 1, 2, 3 ....

Q4

Q1

Charge on a body can never be

Q3

Q5

2
e
3

, 17.2e or

105e etc.

Fig. 18.5

(ii) Continuous distribution of charge : An

(12) Comparison of charge and mass : We are

amount of charge distribute uniformly or non-

familiar with role of mass in gravitation, and we have

uniformly on a body. It is of following three types

just studied some features of electric charge. We can

(a) Line charge distribution : Charge on a line

compare the two as shown below

e.g. charged straight wire, circular charged ring etc.

Charge
Length

Linear charge density

+

S.I. unit is

+
+
+
+

+
+

charge

Dimension is [L TA]

Surface

Methods of Charging
+

(b)

C
m

distribution

+
+

+ +

Fig. 18.6

Charge

distributed on a surface e.g. plane sheet of charge,

conducting sphere, conducting cylinder of
Charge
Area

Table

A body can be charged by following methods.

(1) By friction : By rubbing two bodies together,
both positive and negative charges in equal amounts
appear simultaneously due to transfer of electrons
from one body to the other.
(i) When a glass rod is rubbed with silk, the rod
becomes positively charged while the silk becomes
negatively charged. The decrease in the mass of

Surface charge density

glass rod is equal to the total mass of electrons lost

S.I. unit is

C
m2

+
+

Dimension is [L2TA]+

by it.

(ii) Ebonite on rubbing with wool becomes

negatively charged making the wool positively

charged.

Different dielectric constants

(iii) Clouds also get charged by friction.

(iv) A comb moving through dry hair gets

Medium

Medium

Vacuum

Mica

air

1.0003

Silicon

12

Paraffin vax

2.1

Germanium

16

Rubber

Glycerin

50

Transformer

4.5

Water

80

510

Metal

electrically charged. It starts attracting small bits of

paper.
(v) During landing or take-off, the tyres of an
aircraft get electrified therefore special material is
used to manufacture them.

oil
Glass
(2) By electrostatic induction : If a charged
body is brought near an uncharged body, one side
of neutral body (closer to charged body) becomes
oppositely charged while the other side becomes

(3) Charging by conduction : Take two

conductors, one charged and other uncharged.
Bring the conductors in contact with each other. The
charge (whether ve or ve ) under its own repulsion

similarly charged.

will spread over both the conductors. Thus the

Q

+Q

+ + + + +

+ +

+
+

+
+

+Q

+ + + + +

+
+

+Q+

+ + +

+
+

+
+

conductors will be charged with the same sign. This

is called as charging by conduction (through

contact).

Electroscope

It is a simple apparatus

with which the presence of

electric charge on a body is

detected (see figure). When
metal knob is touched with a
Induced charge can be lesser or equal to
inducing

charge

(but

never

maximum value is given by Q'

greater)
Q 1

1
K

and

its

where Q is

charged body, some charge is

transferred to the gold leaves,
which then diverges due to
repulsion. The separation gives

the inducing charge and K is the dielectric constant

a rough idea of the amount of charge on the body.

of the material of the uncharged body. It is also

When a charged body brought near a charged

known as specific inductive capacity (SIC) of the

electroscope, the leaves will further diverge, if the

medium, or relative permittivity

charge on body is similar to that on electroscope and

of the medium

(relative means with respect to free space)

will usually converge if opposite. If the induction effect

is strong enough leaves after converging may again

second charge along the line joining the two

diverge.

charges.

Coulombs Law

(2) Effect of medium : When a dielectric medium

If two stationary and point charges Q 1 and Q 2

is completely filled

are kept at a distance r, then it is found that force of

in between charges

attraction or repulsion between them is

rearrangement

Q1

of

r
Fig. 18.13

the charges inside

F2 on 1

the dielectric medium takes place and the force

r

Torsion
fiber

between the same two charges decreases by a factor

Q1

of K (dielectric constant)

Q2
F1 on 2
Q1

Fair
K

i.e. Fmedium

r
Charged
pith balls

F1 on 2

(Here

Q2

If

0K

thickness
r2

k Q1 Q 2
r2

In S.I. (for air) k

F

1
4

Q1 Q 2

Q1 Q 2
r2

9 10 9
0

Dyne

is

Fig. 18.14

between

N -m 2
C2

the

charges

Q1 Q 2

1
4

(r

t K )2

(3) Principle of superposition : According to

the

Newton (1 Newton = 105

principle

of

super
Q

position, total force acting

number of charges is the

Absolute permittivity of air or free space

C2

12

m2

Farad
m

. Its Dimensional

r1

vector

sum

of

Q 1 r2

the

Q2

r3
Q3

Qn
Qn 1

individual forces acting on

that charge due to all the charges.

formula is [M 1 L 3 T 4 A 2 ]
(1) Vector form of coulombs law : Vector form
of Coulombs law is F 12

becomes

t t K)

on a given charge due to

= 8 .85 10

Q2

K,

Hence force F

Dyne)
0

separation
(r

1, F

t)

Q1

partially filled between the charges then effective air

(k = Proportionality

constant)
In C.G.S. (for air ) k

r2

a dielectric

constant

i.e., F

Q1 Q 2

= permittivity of medium)

medium (dielectric

Q1 Q 2

0K

F2 on 1

Scale

Q2

K.

Q1 Q 2
r

r 12

K.

Q1 Q 2
r

r12 ,

Consider number of charge Q1 , Q 2 , Q 3 are

applying force on a charge Q
Net force on Q will be

where r12 is the unit vector from first charge to

Fnet

F1 F 2 .... Fn

Fn

(2) Unit and Dimensional formula

The magnitude of the resultant of two electric

forces is given by
F12

Fnet

F22

Its S.I. unit

Fnet

2 F1 F2 cos

F1

F2 sin
F2 cos

Dimension : [ E ] =[ MLT
F1

Fnet

2F

Fnet
60
30

45
F

(intensity) E is a vector quantity. Electric field due to

results.

90

Joule
coulomb meter

(3) Direction of electric field : Electric field

For problem solving remember following standard

F

volt
meter

and C.G.S. unit Dyne/stat coulomb.

F2

and tan

Newton
coulomb

Fnet

3F

Fnet

1 / 2

(2

2)

and that due to a negative charge is always towards

45
22.5

a positive charge is always away from the charge

the charge.

(4) Relation between electric force and

electric field : In an electric field E a charge (Q)

120

60

Fnet

Fnet

2F

experiences a force F Q E . If charge is positive

then force is directed in Ethe direction of field while
if
E

Electrical Field

+Q

A positive charge or a negative charge is said to

direction of field

create its field around itself. Thus space around a

charge

in

charge is negative force acts on it in the opposite

which

another

charged

particle

experiences a force is said to have electrical field in

it.

(5) Super position of electric field (electric

field at a point due to various charges) : The
resultant electric field at any point is equal to the
vector sum of electric fields at that point due to

various charges i.e. E E1 E2

E
q0 +

+
+

q0

E3

...

(6)

Electric

field

due

to

continuous

distribution of charge : A system of closely spaced

electric

charges

forms

continuous

charge

distribution. To find the field of a continuous charge

(1) Electric field intensity (E) : The electric field

distribution, we divide the charge into infinitesimal

intensity at any point is defined as the force

charge elements. Each infinitesimal charge element

experienced by a unit positive charge placed at that

is then considered, as a point charge and electric

point. E

F
q0

Where q0

field dE is determined due to this charge at given

point. The Net field at the given point is the
0

so that presence of this charge

may not affect the source charge Q and its electric

field is not changed, therefore expression for electric
field intensity can be better written as

Lim

q0

F
q0

summation of fields of all the elements. i.e.,

E

dE

Electric Potential

(6) Graphical representation of potential : As

(1) Definition : Potential at a point in a field is

defined as the amount of work done in bringing a

we move on the line joining two charges then

variation of potential with distance is shown below
q

+q

along any arbitrary path (infinity is point of zero

Y
V

potential). Electric potential is a scalar quantity, it is

W
q0

denoted by V; V

Joule
Coulomb

volt

(A)

(2) Unit and dimensional formula

S. I. unit :

+q

+q

unit positive test charge, from infinity to that point

(B)

Fig. 18.21

(7) Potential difference : In an electric field

C.G.S. unit : Stat volt (e.s.u.); 1 volt

1
300

Stat

potential difference between two points A and B is

defined as equal to the amount of work done (by

volt

external agent) in moving a unit positive charge from

Dimension : [V ] [ML2 T 3 A 1 ]

point A to point B i.e., VB

W
q0

VA

(3) Types of electric potential : According to

Electric Field and Potential Due to Various

the nature of charge potential is of two types

Charge Distribution

(i) Positive potential : Due to positive charge.

(ii) Negative potential : Due to negative charge.
(4) Potential of a system of point charges :
Consider P is a point at which net electric potential
is to be determined due to several charges. So net

Q1
r1

point P due to a point charge Q is

Q

potential at P
V

(1) Point charge : Electric field and potential at

Q2
r2

Q3
r3

In general V
i 1

Q4
r4

r1
...

r2

+Q1
+Q2

k Qi
ri

P
r
Fig. 18.22

r3
+Q3

r4
Q4

Q
r

or E

Q
r2

1
4

, V k
0

Q
r

Graph
(5) Electric potential due to a continuous

charge distribution : The potential due to a

continuous charge distribution is the sum of

r
Fig. 18.23

potentials of all the infinitesimal charge elements in

which the distribution may be divided i.e.,
V

dV ,

dQ
4

0r

(2) Line charge: Electric field and potential due

to a charged straight conducting wire of length l and
charge density

of the ring.

Ey

+
+

At point P

+
+

Ey

kQx
,V
(x
R 2 )3 / 2

kQ

x2

R2

Fig. 18.24

kQ
R

At centre x = 0 so Ecentre = 0 and Vcentre

k
(sin
r

Ex

sin )

log e

r2

l2

k
(cos
r

and Ey

cos )

(i) If point P lies at perpendicular bisector of wire

i.e.

2k
sin
r

= ; Ex

2k
r

Ex

and

log e r

x2

kQ
x

If x

, E max

6 3

2
0a

and Vmax

2 6

and Ey = 0
E

(ii) If wire is infinitely long i.e. l

;

kQ

At a point on the axis such that x >> R E

Ey

so

Enet

Graph
2

and

0r

Fig. 18.27

(iii) If point P lies near one end of infinitely long

wire i.e.

= 0, and

2
+

| E x| | E y|

k
r

Enet

E x2 Ey2

(i) Non-conducting

(ii)

Conducting

uniformly charged

charged cylinder

cylinder

+
+

2k
r

(4) Charged cylinder

Ey
+ + + +

Ey

2
Ex

2
Ey

+ + + +
+ + + +

+ + + +

Fig. 18.25

+ + + +

P
r

(B)

(A)

(3) Charged circular ring

: Suppose we have a charged
circular ring of radius R and
charge Q. On its axis electric

+
+

+
+

field and potential is to be

determined, at a point x
distance away from the centre

If point of observation (P) lies outside the

cylinder then for both type of cylindrical charge

+
+
+

Fig. 18.26

distribution E out

0r

, and Vout

log e r c
0

If point of observation lies at surface i.e. r = R so

for

both

Vsurface

cylinder

E suface

and

0R

charge sphere electric field is zero and potential

remains constant every where and equals to the
potential at the surface.

log e R c

(iii) Inside the sphere : Inside the conducting

Ein

If point of observation lies inside the cylinder then

Graph

for conducting cylinder Ein 0 and for non-conducting

Ein

and Vin = constant

r
2
0R

E out
Ein=0

r =R

r
(B)

Ein=0
r O

r=R
(A) For non-conducting cylinder

1
Vout

Eout

VS

(A)

Eout

E
Ein

Graph

Vs

(7)

Uniformly

charged

non-conducting

sphere : Suppose charge Q is uniformly distributed

(B) For conducting cylinder

(5) Charged Conducting sphere (or shell of

in the volume of a non-conducting sphare of radius

charge) : If charge on a conducting sphere of radius

R as shown below

R is Q (and

= surface charge density) as shown in

figure then electric field and potential in different

situation are
+Q
+

+
+

r
R

+
+

+Q

P
+
+

(A) Outside

R
+

+
+

(B) At the surface

+
+
+R+
+
+
+ +

+
+

R2

0r

and Vout
(Q =

1
4

.
0

A=

Q
r

+
+

+ +
+ +

+ +
R
+ + +
+
+ +

(B) At the surface

(C) Inside

R2
0r

.
0

Q
r2

and Vout

.
0

Q
r

If the sphere has uniform volume charge density

Q
4
R3
3
R3

then E out

4 R2)

0r

and Vout

R3
3 0r

(ii) At the surface of sphere : At surface r

(ii) At the surface of sphere : At surface r R
So,

Es

1
4

.
0

Q
R2

P +

the sphere

(C) Inside

the sphere
Q

(i) Outside the sphere : If point P lies outside

(i) Out side the sphere : If point P lies outside

E out

+Q

+ + +
P
+ + r
+ +
+ +
+ + R + +
+
+
+
+ +

Fig. 18.30

E out

+Q

P
+

P +

R
+

++

(A) Outside

+Q
+

+Q
+

Es

and

1
4

.
0

Q
R2

R
3

and

Vs

1
4

.
0

Q
R

R
R2
3 0

(iii) Inside the sphere : At a distance r from the

Vs

1
4

Q
.
R

R
0

centre

E in

At centre

Q [3 R 2
2R

Ein

r2]

(3 R 2 r 2 )
6 0

V surface

At P, EP

3
2

1
4

.
0

Q
R

3
Vs
2

(i) If

Vout

VS

r=R
(A)

EQ = /

B)

B)

then EP = ER = /

and

and Eq = 0

then EP = ER = 0 and

(10) Hemispherical charged body

r=R

(ii) If

VC

E out

1
(
2 0

At R, ER (E A EB )

+ +
+
+
+ O R
+
+
+

1
(
2 0

B)

Special case

+
+ R+
+
O +
+
+

1
(
2 0

EB )

At Q, E Q (E A E B )

Vout

Ein r

(E A

so, Vcentre

i.e., Vcentre
Graph

R3

and Vin

Qr

(B)

At centre O,

Fig. 18.33

+
+

+ + +
+
+ +
+ +
+
+ + +
+
+
+ +
+ O
+
+

Fig. 18.36

(8) Infinite thin plane sheet of charge :

Consider a thin infinite non-conducting plane sheet
having uniform surface charge density is

. Electric

field and potential near the sheet are as follows

E

r
2

x2

x2

R2

R2

(9) Electric field due to two thin infinite plane

parallel sheet of charge : Consider two large,
uniformly charged parallel. Plates A and B, having
charge

densities

are

and

Fig. 18.37

0, E ~

If x

surface

and

from centre O on its axis

E

ro )

(E

(11) Uniformly charged disc : At a distance x

i.e. for points situated near the

0

disc, it behaves as an infinite sheet of charge.

Potential Due to Concentric Spheres
(1) If two concentric conducting shells of radii r1

respectively. Suppose net electric field at points P,

and r2(r2 > r1) carrying uniformly distributed charges

Q and R is to be calculated.

Q1 and Q2 respectively. Potential at the

Q1 surface of
each shell

EA
EA
EB

EB
P

EA
Q

Q2

V1

r2

1
4

EB

V2

.
0

1
4

.
0

Q1
r1
Q1
r2

1
4

Q2
r2

Q2
r2

1
4

r1

Fig. 18.38

(2) The figure shows three conducting concentric

shell of radii a, b and c (a < b < c) having charges
Qa, Qb and Qc respectively

(Charge on inner sphere is less than that of the

outer sphere.)
(ii) Potential at the surface of outer sphere

Potential at A;
VA

1
4

Qa
a

Qb
b

Qc
c

VB

Qb
b

Qc
c

1
4

Qa
c

1
4

0 r2

r1
r2

.
0

Q
r2
Q

0 r2

r1
r2

Relation Between Electric Field and Potential

with distance is known as potential gradient.

Fig. 18.39

Qb
c

Q'
r2

(1) In an electric field rate of change of potential

Potential at C;
VC

V2

Qa

Potential at B;
Qa
b

Qc
Qb

V2

(2) Potential gradient is a vector quantity and its

Qc
c

direction is opposite to that of electric field.

(3) The figure shows two concentric spheres

having radii r1 and r2 respectively (r2 > r1). If charge

(3) Potential gradient relates with electric field

dV
;
dr

according to the following relation E

on inner sphere is +Q and outer sphere

is earthed
+Q
Q

then

r2
r1

(i) Potential at the

Q'

Q
r2

1
4

.
0

Fig. 18.40

Q'
r2

.
0

(4) In the above relation negative sign indicates

decreases.
(5) Negative of the slope of the V-r graph

1
4

( Q)
r2

Q
4

1
r1

also write E E x i E y j E z k

1
r2

where Ex

V
, Ey
x

V
y

and Ez

charge +Q and inner sphere is earthed then

(7) With the help of formula E
(i) In this case potential at the surface of inner
sphere is zero, so if

Q'

+Q
is the charge induced
on inner
r2

V
z
dV
,
dr

potential

difference between any two points in an electric field

can be determined by knowing the boundary

sphere

r1

conditions
1
4

Q'
r1

Q
r2

0
dV
Fig. 18.41

i.e., Q'

(6) In space around a charge distribution we can

(4) In the above case if outer sphere is given a

then V1

V
r

denotes intensity of electric field i.e. tan

Q
r1

(ii) Potential of the inner sphere

V1

volt
meter

that in the direction of electric field potential

surface of outer sphere

V2

relation gives another unit of electric field is

This

r1
Q
r2

r2
r1

E . dr

r2
r1

E. dr cos

Electric Lines of Force

(1) Definition : The electric field in a region is
represented by continuous lines (also called lines of

(v) Field lines do not exist inside a conductor.

force). Field line is an imaginary line along which a

(vi) The electric field lines never form closed

positive test charge will move if left free.

+

loops. (While magnetic lines of forces form closed

loop)
(B) (Radially inward)

(A) (Radially outward)

(vii)

The

number

of

lines

originating

or

terminating on a charge is proportional to the

+

magnitude of charge i.e. |Q|

number of lines. In

the following figure | Q A | | Q B |

(D)

(C)
Fig. 18.42

Fig. 18.45

(2) Properties of electric lines of force

(i) Electric field lines come out of positive charge
and go into the negative charge.

(ix) If the lines of forces are equidistant and

(ii) Tangent to the field line at any point gives the

parallel straight lines the field is uniform and if either

lines of force are not equidistant or straight line or

direction of the field at that point.

EA

both the field will be non uniform, also the density of

EB

field lines is proportional to the strength of the

electric field.
Fig. 18.43

(iii) Field lines never intersect each other.

(iv) Field lines are always normal to conducting
surface.

(A) EX = EY

(B) EX > EY
Fig. 18.46

+
+
+

+
+
+

+ +

(B)

(A)
Fig. 18.44

Equipotential Surface

Suppose a charge particle having charge Q and

For a given charge distribution, locus of all

mass m is initially at rest in an electric field of

points having same potential is called equipotential

strength E. The particle will experience an electric

surface regarding equipotential surface following

force which causes it's motion.

(i) Force

points should keep in mind :

(1) The density of the equipotential lines gives

Acceleration
a

(2) The direction of electric field is perpendicular

(3) The equipotential surfaces produced by a

point charge or a spherically charge distribution are

F
m

produced

by

The force
F

QE

this

force

is

QE
m

rest and in time t, it reaches the point B where it's

velocity becomes v. Also if V = Potential difference

between A and B, S = Separation

between
A and B
A
B

a family of concentric spheres.

V = V2
V3

V4

V5

2Q V
m

QEt
m

v
V2

(ii) Velocity : Suppose at point A particle is at

to the equipotential surfaces or lines.

V1

acceleration

experienced by the charged particle is

an idea about the magnitude of electric field. Higher

the density larger the field strength.

and

Fig. 18.48

V = V1

Spherical E.P.S.

V1 > V2 > V3 > V4 > V5

(iii)

Equipotential
surface

p
For a point charge

Fig. 18.47

Momentum
QEt
m

Momentum

mv,

QEt

or p m

2Q V
m

2mQ V

(iv) Kinetic energy : Kinetic energy gained by

(4) For a uniform electric field, the equipotential

the particle in time t is K

1
mv 2
2

1
QEt
m
2
m

Q 2 E2t2
2m

surfaces are a family of plane perpendicular to the

field lines.
(5) A metallic surface of any shape is an
equipotential surface.
(6) Equipotential surfaces can never cross each
other
(7) The work done in moving a charge along an

or K

1
m
2

2QV
m

Q V

(v) Work done : According to work energy

theorem we can say that gain in kinetic energy =
work done in displacement of charge i.e. W = Q V
where V = Potential difference between the two
position of charge Q. ( V

E. r

E r cos

where

is

equipotential surface is always zero.

Motion of Charge Particle in Electric Field
(1) When charged particle initially at rest is
placed in the uniform field

the angle between direction of electric field and

direction of motion of charge).

If

charge

(r1i

r2 j r3 k )

is

given

displacement
(E1i

in an electric field E

The work done is

Q( E . r )

Q(E1 r1

E 2 j

E 3 k ).

If

is the angle made by v with x-axis than

tan

E 3 r3 ) .

E 2 r2

Work done in displacing a charge in an electric

vy
vx

QEt
mu

vx

Equilibrium of Charges
(1) Definition : A charge is said to be in

field is path independent.

equilibrium, if net force acting on it is zero. A system

of charges is said to be in equilibrium if each charge

I
A

WI = WII = WIII

II

is separately in equilibrium.
(2) Type of equilibrium : Equilibrium can be

III
Fig. 18.49

divided in following type:

(i) Stable equilibrium : After displacing a

(2) When a charged particle enters with an

initial velocity at right angle to the uniform field
When charged particle enters perpendicularly in
an electric field, it describe a parabolic path as
shown
(i) Equation of trajectory : Throughout the

charged particle from it's equilibrium position, if it

returns back then it is said to be in stable
equilibrium. If U is the potential energy then in case
of stable equilibrium

d 2U
dx 2

is positive i.e., U is

minimum.

motion particle has uniform velocity along x-axis and

(ii) Unstable equilibrium : After displacing a

horizontal displacement (x) is given by the equation

charged particle from it's equilibrium position, if it

x = ut

never returns back then it is said to be in unstable

Since the motion of the particle is accelerated

along yaxis

equilibrium and in unstable equilibrium

d 2U
dx 2

is

negative i.e., U is maximum.

(iii) Neutral equilibrium : After displacing a

P(x, y)
u

charged particle from it's equilibrium position if it

X

neither comes back, nor moves away but remains in

Fig. 18.50

the position in which it was kept it is said to be in

neutral equilibrium and in neutral equilibrium

So y

1 QE
2 m

x
u

; this is the equation of

and v y

QEt
m

is

so v | v |

Force on a Charged Conductor

To find force on a charged conductor (due to

x2

(ii) Velocity at any instant : At any instant t,

u

dx 2

zero i.e., U is constant

parabola which shows y

vx

d 2U

v x2

v y2

u2
vy

Q 2 E 2 t 2v
m2

Fig. 18.51

repulsion of like charges) imagine a small part XY to

be cut and just separated from the rest of the
conductor MLN. The field in the cavity due to the

rest of the conductor is E2, while field due to small

part is E1. Then
E2

E1

X
+ +

M
+

+ +

+
+

E2

E1
Inside
E=0
+

E2
+

+ + + ++

+
+
+

+
+

+
+

(2) The total pressure inside the soap bubble

(B)

(A)

Pin

Fig. 18.63

Inside the conductor E E1 E2

or E1

4T
R

Pout

(3) Excess pressure inside the charged soap

E2

bubble
Outside the conductor E E1 E 2
0

Thus E1

E2

Pin

dA

placed in the cavity MN having

2

field E2). Thus force dF ( dA)E 2 or dF

dA .

The

4T
R

.
0

Charge

8 0T
R
)2

(2) The force is always outwards as (

i.e.,

(i)

positive

4T
R

assumed equal then Pin Pout i.e., Pexcess 0 . So,

force per unit area or electrostatic pressure p =

dF
dA

Pexcess

(4) If air pressure inside and outside are

(1) To find force, imagine charged part XY

(having charge

Pout

whether

charged

positively

is

density

Since

4T
R

2T
kR

(ii) Radius of bubble R

0 T
2

or
2

negatively, this force will try to expand the charged

(iii) Surface tension T

body. [A soap bubble or rubber balloon expands on

R
0

charging to it (charge of any kind + or )].

(iv) Total charge on the bubble Q 8 R 2 0 TR

Equilibrium of Charged Soap Bubble

(v) Electric field intensity at the surface of the

(1) For a charged soap bubble of radius R and

surface tension T and charge density
pressure due to surface tension 4

T
R

bubble

The

and atmospheric
(vi)

Electric

pressure Pout act radially inwards and the electrical

V

pressure (Pel ) acts radially outward.

Pout
+

Pelec

PT
PT

air

Pin

Pin
+

(A) Uncharged bubble

(B) Charged bubble

Fig. 18.64

32 RTk

8 RT
0

Pout
air

32 kT
R

8T
0R

potential

at

the

surface

Electric Dipole
System of two equal and opposite charges

dipole.
A

Equatorial axis

separated by a small fixed distance is called a

(3) Electric field and potential due to an electric

dipole : If a, e and g are three points on axial,
equatorial and general position at a distance r from

Axial line

+q

the centre of dipole

2l
p

Fig. 18.65

+q

Ea

2l

Fig. 18.68

(1) Dipole moment : It is a vector quantity and

is directed from negative charge to positive charge

along the axis. It is denoted as p and is defined as

the product of the magnitude of either of the charge
and the dipole length i.e.

q (2 l )

(i) At axial point : Electric field and potential are

given as

Its S.I. unit is coulomb-metre or Debye (1

Debye = 3.3 10
0 1 1

30

Ea

m) and its dimensions are

Va

MLTA.

1
4

.
0

.
0

p
r2

2p
r3

(directed from q to +q)

. Angle between E a and p is 0o.

(2) When a dielectric is placed in an electric

(ii) At equatorial point : Ee

field, its atoms or molecules are considered as tiny

.
0

p
r3

(directed

dipoles.

from +q to q) and Ve 0 . Angle between E e and p

is 180o.

(iii) At general point : Eg

(A)

(B)

and Vg

Fig. 18.66

Water (H2O), Chloroform (CHCl3), Ammonia

p
(3 cos2
r3

1)

. Angle between E and p is (

1
tan
2

(4) Dipole in an external electric field : When

force experienced by the dipole is zero as shown in

fig.

+
Fig. 18.67

p cos
r2

.
0

a dipole is kept in an uniform electric field. The net

+

+ ) (where tan

(NH3), HCl, CO molecules are some example of

permanent electric dipole.

1
4

1
4

The net torque experienced by the dipole is

pE sin

p E

QE

=0

QE

+Q

max

= pE

Q
Fig. 18.69

Hence due to torque so produced, dipole align

W=0

W = pE

Wmax = 2pE

Umin = pE

U=0

Umax = pE
= 0o i.e.

(iii) Equilibrium of dipole : When

itself in the direction of electric field. This is the

dipole is placed along the electric field it is said to be

position of stable equilibrium of dipole.

in stable equilibrium, because after turning it through

(i) Work done in rotation : Suppose initially,

dipole is kept in a uniform electric field at an angle
1.

Now to turn it through an angle

+q

Work done W pE(cos

cos

2) .

(with the field)

E

+q

a small angle, dipole tries to align itself again in the

direction of electric field.
When

= 180o i.e. dipole is placed opposite to

electric field, it is said to be in unstable equilibrium.

(iv) Oscillation of dipole : In a uniform electric

field if a dipole is slightly displaced from its stable

equilibrium position it executes angular SHM having

Fig. 18.70

period of oscillation.
T

I
pE

where I = moment of inertia of dipole

about the axis passing through its centre and

If

= 0 and

i.e. initially dipole is kept

along the field then it turn through

W

so work done

pE (1 cos )

perpendicular to its length.

(5) Electric dipole in non-uniform electric
field : In non-uniform electric field
Fnet
F

0,

net

(ii) Potential energy of dipole : It is defined as

work done in rotating a dipole from a direction
+q

perpendicular to the field to the given direction, i.e.

F'

from above formula of work.

If

= 90 and

W=

pE cos
F' > F

p
E

Fig. 18.71
E

= 0o
180

= 90O

Stable equilibrium
Unstable equilibrium

Motion of the dipole is combination of translatory

and rotatory motion

Not in equilibrium

Electric Flux

charge

Electric flux is a measure of 'flow' of electric field

enclosed

E dA
s

through a surface. It is equal to the product of an

closed

surface

i.e.,

1
(Qenc )
o

(2) Electric field in

area element and the perpendicular component of

E,

by the

is complete electric

E. dA

integrated over a surface.

field. It may be partly due to charge with in the

(1) Flux of electric field E

surface and partly due to charge outside the

A

through any area A is defined

surface. However if there is no charge enclosed in

the Gaussian surface, then

as.
or

E.A cos

dA

(3) The electric field E is resulting from all

Fig. 18.72

E. A

(2) In case of variable electric field or curved

area.

E. dA

charge, both those inside and those outside the

Gaussian surface.
(Keep in mind, the electric field due to a charge

E. dA

outside the Gaussian surface contributes zero net

(3) Its S.I. Unit is (Volt

m) or

N -m2
C

flux through the surface, Because as many lines due

to that charge enter the surface as leave it).

(4) For a closed body outward flux is taken to be

positive while inward flux is taken to be negative.

S1

S2

+Q

S4
S3

E
Fig. 18.74

Flux from surface S1 =

, Flux from surface S2

, and flux from S3= flux from surface S4 = 0

E
90

Negative flux

A
Zero flux

E
Positive flux

Application

of

Gauss's

law

See flux

emergence in the following cases

Fig. 18.73

Gauss's Law and it's Application

+Q

Fig. 18.75
y

(1) According to this law, the total flux linked with

a closed surface called Gaussian surface. (The

surface need not be a real physical surface, it can

Sphere
x

also be an hypothetical one) is (1/ o) times the

z
(A)

(B)

0
Fig. 18.77

in

out

= Ea

T=

(1) If a dipole is enclosed by a surface

Q
8 0

corner

Qenc

edge

Q
12 0

(7) If charge is kept at the centre of a face : First

0

we should enclosed the charge by assuming a

(2) The net charge Qenc is the algebraic sum of

Gaussian surface (an identical imaginary cube)

all the enclosed positive, and negative charges. If

Qenc is positive the net flux is outward; if Qenc is

negative, the net flux is inward.

+Q1

(B)

(A)

+Q2

(Q1

Q2

Q3 )

Fig. 18.81
Q3

Fig. 18.76

Total flux emerges from the system (Two cubes)

(3) If a closed body (not enclosing any charge) is

Q
total
0

placed in an electric field (either uniform or non-

Flux from given cube (i.e. from 5 face only)

uniform) total flux linked with it will be zero

Q
2 0

cube

(4) If a hemispherical body is placed in uniform

(8) If a charge is kept at the corner of a cube

electric field then flux linked with the curved surface

calculated as follows
Curved

Curved

Circular

Circular

R 2 cos 180 )

(E

R2 E

(B)

(A)

Fig. 18.78

Fig. 18.82

(5) If a hemispherical body is placed in nonuniform electric field as shown below. then flux
linked with the circular surface calculated as follows

For enclosing the charge seven more cubes are

required so total flux from the 8 cube system is
Q

. Flux from given cube

Circular

cube

Q
8 0

. Flux from one

Curved

(E 2 R 2 cos 0 )

Circular

face opposite to change, of the given cube

R

2 R E

Fig. 18.79

(6) If charge is kept at the centre of cube

1
total
0

.(Q)

face

Q
6 0

face

Q/8
3

Q
24 0

(Because only three faces are

seen).
(9) A long straight wire

of

charge

density

+ + +

penetrates a hollow body

Fig. 18.80

Fig. 18.83

+ +

as shown. The flux emerges from the body is

=

capacitance C 711 F . But for all practical purpose

(Length of the wire inside the body)

capacitance of earth is taken infinity and its potential

V

0.

(7)

Capacitance

Energy

of

charged

conductor

Electrostatic potential energy of a conductor carrying

(1) Capacitance of a conductor : Charge given
to a conductor increases its potential i.e.,
Q

charge Q, capacitance C and potential V is given by

U

CV

1
CV 2
2

Q2
2C

Combination of Charged Drops

Where C is a proportionality constant, called

capacity or capacitance

of

conductor.

Hence

capacitance is the ability of conductor to hold the

Suppose we have n identical drops each having

Radius r, Capacitance c, Charge q, Potential
v and Energy u.

charge.

If these drops are combined to form a big drop of

Coulomb
Volt

(2) It's S.I. unit is

1mF

10

1 pF

(3)

10

It's

1 F

12

10

Radius R, Capacitance C, Charge Q, Potential

Farad (F)

Smaller S.I. units are mF,

F, nF and pF (
,

1nF

10

V and Energy U then

(1) Charge on big drop :

nq

(2) Radius of big drop : Volume of big drop = n

F)

C.G.S.

unit

is

Stat

Farad

volume of a single drop i.e.,

9 10 11 Stat Farad .

1F

1
QV
2

4
R3
3

(3) Capacitance of big drop :

4 3
r , R
3

n 1 /3 c

(4) It's dimension : [C] [M 1 L 2 T 4 A 2 ] .

(4) Potential of big drop : V
(5) Capacity of a body is independent of charge
given to the body or its potential raised and

depends on shape and size only.

(6) Capacity of an isolated
spherical

conductor

When

charge Q is given to a spherical

conductor

of

radius

R,

then

+
+
+
+

potential at the surface of sphere

1

is V

4
C

Q
R

Q
V

+ + + +Q
+
R +
+
O
+
+
+
+ + +

2 /3

1
9 10 9

Q
C

nq
n

1/3

(5)

Energy

1
CV 2
2

1 1/3
(n c) (n 2 / 3 v) 2
2

of

big

drop

Fig. 18.84

n 5 /3 u

(6) Energy difference : Total energy of big drop

is greater than the total energy all smaller drop.
Hence energy difference

0R

U = U nu

4 0 R

n 1 /3 r

.R

U n

U
n5 / 3

U 1

1
n2 / 3

Redistribution of Charges and Loss of Energy

When two charged conductors joined together

If earth is assumed to be a conducting sphere

having

radius

6400 km.

Its

theoretical

through a conducting wire, charge begins to flow

from one conductor to another from higher potential

(V )

to lower potential.
C1 V1
C1

This flow of charge stops when they attain the

same potential.

Total charge
Total capacity

Q1
C1

Q2
C2

Q1'
C1

Q 2'
C2

C 2 V2
C2

(3) Energy loss : The loss of energy due to

Due to flow of charge, loss of energy also takes

redistribution of charge is given by

place in the form of heat through the connecting

U

wire.
Suppose there are two spherical conductors of

Ui U f

C1C 2
(V1
2(C1 C 2 )

V2 )2

Capacitor or Condenser

radii r1 and r2 , having charge Q1 and Q 2 , potential

(1) A capacitor is a device that stores electric

and V2 , energies U1 and U 2 and capacitance C1

energy. or A capacitor is a pair of two conductors of

V1

any shape, which are close to each other and have

and C 2 respectively.

equal and opposite charge.

Q1
C1
V1
U1

Q2
C2
V2
U2

r2

r1

Q1= C1V1

(2) The capacitance of a

capacitor is defined as the
magnitude of the charge Q

Q2= C2V2
Fig. 18.85

on the positive plate divided

by the magnitude of the

If these two spheres are connected through a

potential difference V between the plates i.e.,

conducting wire, then alteration of charge, potential

C

and energy takes place.

Q1
C1
V
U1
Q1 =C1V

Q
V

(3) A capacitor gets charged when a battery is

Q2
C2
V
U2

r2

r1

Fig. 18.87

connected across the plates. Once capacitor gets

fully charged, flow of charge carriers stops in the

Q2 =C2V

circuit and in this condition potential difference

Fig. 18.86

across the plates of capacitor is same as the

potential difference across the terminals of battery.
(4) Net charge on a capacitor is always zero, but

(1) New charge : According to the conservation

of charge

when we speak of the charge Q on a capacitor, we

are referring to the magnitude of the charge on each

Q1

Q2

Q1'

Q 2'

Q (say), also

Q1'
Q2'

C1
C2

r1
r2

plate.
(5) Energy stored : When a capacitor is

Q 2'

r2
r1

r2

and

similarly

charged by a voltage source (say battery) it stores

the electric energy. If C

Q1'

r1
r1

r2

(2) Common potential : Common potential

= Capacitance of

capacitor; Q = Charge on capacitor and V =

Potential difference across capacitor then energy

stored in capacitor U

1
CV 2
2

electric

field

is

applied,

molecules

becomes induced electric dipole e.g. N 2 , O 2 ,

Q2
2C

1
QV
2

When

Benzene, Methane etc. are made of non-polar

In charging capacitor by battery half the energy

supplied is stored in the capacitor and remaining
half energy (1/2 QV) is lost in the form of heat.
Dielectric

atoms/molecules
In general, any non-conducting, material can be
called as a dielectric but broadly non conducting
material having non polar molecules referred to as
dielectric.

Conductor
(Metal foil)

(3) Polarization of a dielectric slab : It is the

process of inducing equal and opposite charges on

Conductor

Dielectric

(Metal foil)

(Plastic sheet)

the two faces of the dielectric on the application of

electric field.
+

Dielectrics

are

insulating

(non-conducting)

materials which transmits electric effect without

conducting.

Dielectrics are of two types

Ei

E
Fig. 18.89

(1) Polar dielectrics : A polar molecule has

permanent electric dipole moment (p) in the

(i) Electric field between the plates in the

absence of electric field also. But a polar dielectric

presence of dielectric medium is E' E Ei where E

has net dipole moment zero in the absence of

= Main field, E' = Induced field.

electric field because polar molecules are randomly

oriented as shown in figure.

defined as :

(ii) Dielectric constant of dielectric medium is

E
E'

Fig. 18.88

Electric field between the plates with air

Electric field between the plates with medium

(iii) K is also known as relative permittivity ( r ) of

In the presence of electric field polar molecules

tends to line up in the direction of electric field, and

the material or SIC (Specific Inductive Capacitance)

(4)

Dielectric

breakdown

and

dielectric

the substance has finite dipole moment e.g. water,

strength : If a very high electric field is created in a

Alcohol, CO 2 , NH 3 , HCl etc. are made of polar

dielectric,. The dielectric then behaves like a

atoms/molecules.

conductor. This phenomenon is known as dielectric

(2)

Non

polar

dielectric

In

non-polar

molecules, Each molecule has zero dipole moment

in its normal state.

breakdown.
The maximum value of electric field (or
potential gradient) that a dielectric material can

tolerate without its electric breakdown is called its

dielectric strength.

(vii) If a number of dielectric slabs are inserted

S.I. unit of dielectric strength of a material is

but practical unit is

kV
mm

V
m

between the plate as shown

K1

K2

K3

t1

t2

t3

Capacity of Various Capacitor

(1) Parallel plate capacitor : It consists of two

d
Fig. 18.91

parallel metallic plates (may be circular, rectangular,

square) separated by a small distance. If A =
Effective overlapping area of each plate.

0A

C'

Q
A 0

(i) Electric field between the plates : E

0

(ii) Potential difference between the plates :

V

(t1

t2

t3

t1
K1

........)

t3
K3

........

(viii) When a metallic slab is inserted between

C'

(iii) Capacitance : C

0A

A
4 d

. In C.G.S. : C

0A

(d

t)

If metallic slab fills the

(iv) If a dielectric medium of dielectric constant K

complete space between

is filled completely between the plates then

the plates (i.e. t = d) or both

capacitance increases by K times i.e.

C'

t2
K2

the plates

E d

C'

(v) The capacitance of parallel plate capacitor

depends on A (C

A) and d C

1
d

K=

plates are joined through a

metallic

KC

wire

capacitance

Fig. 18.92

then
becomes

infinite.

. It does not

depend on the charge on the plates or the potential

(ix) Force between the plates of a parallel plate

capacitor.

difference between the plates.

(vi) If a dielectric slab is partially filled between
the plates

| F|

A
0

Q2
2 0A

CV 2
2d

(x) Energy density between the plates of a parallel

+
+
0

C'
d

A
t
K

d
Fig. 18.90

plate capacitor.

Energy density

Energy
Volume

1
2

0E

(2) Spherical capacitor : It consists of two

concentric conducting spheres of radii a and b (a <

b). Inner sphere is given charge +Q, while outer

but potential difference distributes i.e. V = V1 + V2 +

sphere is earthed

V3

(i) Potential difference : Between the spheres is

Q

Q
0a

b
0.

ab
b a

1
C1

1
C2

+Q

1
C3

or

. In the presence of dielectric

+Q

V1

a
.Q
b

V3

(iii) In series combination potential difference

capacitance i.e.,

and capacitance of

the system C ' 4

1
C

0.

b2
b a

capacitance is equivalent to the sum of capacitance

C2

are

C eq

C1 C 2
C1 C 2

of spherical capacitor and spherical conductor i.e.

V1

ab
0

cylinder is given charge +Q while outer cylinder is

earthed. Common length of the cylinders is l then

log e

b
a

C1

connected

in

series

then

Multiplication
Addition

C2
.V
C2

(v) If

concentric cylinders of radii a and b (a < b), inner

0l

and

V2

C1

C1
.V
C2

0b

(3) Cylindrical capacitor : It consists of two

1
C

and U

(iv) If two capacitors having capacitances C1 and

This arrangement is not a capacitor. But its

Fig. 18.94

b
b a

and energy distributes in the reverse ratio of

a
Induced charge on the inner sphere

0.

+
+
+
+

inner sphere is earthed

V
Fig. 18.96

(iii) If outer sphere is given a charge +Q while

Q'

C31 )

C3
+Q

V2

ab

0K

+
+
+
+

medium (dielectric constant K) between the spheres

C' 4

C21

C2

+
+
+
+

Fig. 18.93

(C1 1

C eq

C1
+Q

ab
b

1
Ceq

0b

(ii) Capacitance : C 4
In C.G.S. C

(ii) Equivalent capacitance

identical capacitors each having

capacitances C are connected in series with supply

C
n

voltage V then Equivalent capacitance C eq

V
n

Potential difference across each capacitor V '

and
.

Q Q

(vi) If n identical plates are arranged as shown

l

below, they constitute (n 1) capacitors in series. If

Fig. 18.95

Grouping of Capacitor
(1) Series grouping
(i) Charge on each capacitor remains same and
equals to the main charge supplied by the battery

each capacitors having capacitance

Ceq

0A
(n 1)d

+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+

Fig. 18.97

+
+
+
+

then

In this situation except two extreme plates each

plate is common to adjacent capacitors.
(2) Parallel grouping
Equivalent capacitance C' (n 1) C
(i) Potential difference across each capacitor
+
+
+
+

difference but charge distributes i.e. Q = Q1 + Q2 +

Q1

+Q2 Q2

Q3
Q

+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+

0A

where C = capacitance of a capacitor

remains same and equal

the
applied potential
+Q1 to Q
1

Charging and Discharging of Capacitor in Series

RC Circuit

Q2
Q3 +Q3 Q3

As shown in the following figure (A) when switch

S is closed, capacitor start charging. In this transient

state potential difference appears across capacitor

Fig. 18.98

as well as resistor. When capacitor gets fully

(ii) Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3

charged the entire potential difference appeared

(iii) In parallel combination charge and energy

across the capacitor and nothing is left for the

distributes in the ratio of capacitance i.e. Q

U

C and

resistor. [Shown in figure (B)]

+

C2 respectively are connected in parallel then

C1
Q1

C2

V0

V0

C2

.Q

and

Q2

C1

V0

(B) Steady state

Fig. 18.100

C2
.Q
C2

(v) If n identical capacitors are connected in

(A) Transient state

C1
C1

(iv) If two capacitors having capacitance C1 and

C eq

(i) Charging : In transient state of charging

charge

parallel

on

the

capacitor

at

any

instant

Equivalent capacitance C eq
each capacitor Q'

nC

and Charge on

Q
n

numbered plates are connected together, then (n

1) capacitors will be formed and they will be in
parallel grouping.

4
3

and potential difference across the

t

numbered of plates are connected together and odd

Q 0 1 e RC

capacitor at any instant V

If n identical plates are arranged such that even

6
5

Fig. 18.99

V0 1 e RC

(Here Q and V are the instantaneous values of

charge and potential difference while maximum
charge on capacitor is

Q0

CV0

When an arrangement of capacitors cannot be

(ii) Discharging : After the completion of

simplified by the method of successive reduction,

charging, if battery is removed capacitor starts

then we need to apply the Kirchhoffs laws to solve

discharging. In transient state charge on the

the circuit.

t / RC

capacitor at any instant Q Q0 e

and potential

difference cross the capacitor at any instant

V

V0 e

t / CR

Q0

Q0
Q = Q0(1 e

t/RC

Q = Q0 e

t/RC

Charge on the capacitor increases

with time during charging

Charge on the capacitor decreases

with time during discharging

Fig. 18.101

(iii) Time constant ( ) : The quantity RC is

called the time constant as it has the dimension of
time
Q

during

charging

if

Q0 (1 e 1 ) 0.63 Q0 = 63% of Q0 (

1
e

RC

or

0.37

during discharging it is defined as the time during

which charge on a capacitor falls to 0.37 times
(37%) of the initial charge on the capacitor.
Kirchhoffs Law for Capacitor Circuits
According to Kirchhoffs junction law

and

Kirchhoffs second law (Loop law) states that in a

close loop of an electric circuit

Use following sign convention while solving the

problems.
E

E
+E

C
+

V = q/C
Fig. 18.102

V = + q/C