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Classical Greek art changed rapidly as Greece itself went through wars
and imperial transformations. In what is called the Hellenistic age it became
much more emotional, sensual and even sensationalist. The furious
sculptures on the Pergamon altar which can be seen in its own museum in
Berlin are full of passion and
psychological drama.
The Siren vase (480-470BC)
In Homer's Odyssey, one of the
founding
epics
of
Greek
literature,
Odysseus longs to hear the seductive yet
dangerous song of the sirens that lure
sailors to their deaths. So all his crew plug
their ears, and Odysseus has himself
lashed to the mast. This powerful painting captures the tension as Odysseus
strains at his bonds, his whole body agonized, his head raised in rapt
listening.
Philosophers from Greece
Heraclitus was
a
rich
man
from Ephesus and lived c.500, during
the Persian occupation of his home
town. His philosophical work consists of
a series of cryptical ,pronouncements
that
force
a
reader
to
think.
Unfortunately, a great part of his work
is lost, which makes it very difficult to
reconstruct Heraclitus' ideas. It seems
certain, however, that he thought that
the basic principle of the universe was
the logos, i.e. the fact that it was
rationally organized and therefore
We know almost nothing about Thales of Miletus. Later generations told many
anecdotes about this wise man, but it is difficult to verify the reliability of these
stories. What seems certain, however, is that he predicted the Solar eclipse of 28 May
585,
which
was
remembered
because
the Lydian king Alyattes and
the Median leader Cyaxares were fighting a battle on that day. Another reliable bit of
information is that he did geometrical research, which enabled him to measure the
pyramids. However, his most important contribution to European civilization is his
attempt to give rational explanations for physical phenomena. Behind the phenomena
was not a catalogue of deities, but one single, first principle. Although his
identification of this principle with water is rather unfortunate, his idea to look for
deeper causes was the true beginning of philosophy and science. Thales died after
547.
Difference of Geography of Greece and Egypt
Greece
1 It is surrounded by water on three
sides.
2 Heavily Mountainous
3 Plenty of natural harbors
4 Relatively green
5 Mostly desert
6 Flooded every year
against the threat from Macedonia to Greek autonomy. If the Greeks had
been able to ally more strongly as they had done earlier against Persia, they
might have preserved their autonomy.
Also, while the Greeks may have had an advantage in quality, Philip
had a greater advantage in numbers. The Macedonian Army was larger and
more modern. The phalanx infantry formation used by the Thebans to defeat
Sparta was improved by the Macedonians with longer spears and ranks of
sixteen instead of eight. After an enemy had been broken up by the
Macedonian phalanx, the Macedonian heavy cavalry charged in for the kill.
Factors that contributes Alexanders Greatness
1. Trained in Philosophy by Aristotle Out of all the intellectuals at the
prestigious Academy in Athens, Alexander's father, Philip, chose
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) to instruct his 13-year-old son. Aristotle, who
had been the student of Plato, was offered a handsome salary to move
to the town of Mieza, deep in the Macedonian countryside. In the
nearby Temple of the Nymphs, Aristotle taught the young prince
geography, zoology, politics and medicine.
2. Tamed the horse Bucephalus. Philip, Alexander's father, bought a horse
called Bucephalus for the exorbitant price of 13 talents (1 talent = 27
kg of gold), but the rambunctious animal bucked all comers. Watching
the futile attempts, Alexander noticed that the animal was frightened
by its own shadow. He bet his father that he could mount the horse. By
turning Bucephalus toward the sun so its shadow was behind it,
Alexander was able to climb into the saddle and gallop around
triumphantly. To which his father said: "My boy, you must find a
kingdom big enough for your ambitions. Macedonia is too small for
you." Bucephalus remained Alexander's faithful steed until it died in
what is now present-day Pakistan, fighting elephant-mounted brigades.
3. Assumed Father's Throne in Timely, but Ruthless, Manner. Alexander's
father, Philip, was stabbed by one of his bodyguards in 336 B.C. at a
wedding banquet. Although few scholars think that Alexander was
directly involved in the assassination, he wasted no time dispatching
any possible rivals - even instructing his mother, Olympians, to execute
the infant son of Philip's last wife.
4. Perfected Macedonian Military Style, the Phalanx. The most distinctive
element of the Macedonian war machine was the phalanx. Developed
by Alexander's father, the phalanx was a tight formation of soldiers usually 16 by 16 - carrying shields and sarisses, which were 20-foot-
long spears made of cornel-wood. The back rows of the phalanx held
their sarisses upright, hiding the movement of forces behind the lines,
while the front rows kept the enemy at bay with an impenetrable wall
of sharp pikes. On flat terrain, the phalanx proved unbeatable.
Alexander also had at his disposal light auxiliaries, archers, a siege
train, and a cavalry. Thanks to his father, Alexander's army was largely
a professional one.
5. Crossed the Hellespont. After solidifying his rule of Macedonia and
Greece, Alexander looked east to Asia and the Persian Empire, which
was led by Darius III. Alexander assembled an allied Greek army of
5,000 cavalry and 32,000 infantry to avenge the Persian invasion of
Greece in 490 B.C. With 60 naval vessels, Alexander crossed the
Hellespont (a narrow strait separating Europe and Asia - now called the
Dardanelles) in 334 B.C. From his ship, Alexander threw his spear onto
the shore. As he took his first steps in Asia, he pulled his weapon from
the sand and declared that these lands would be won by the spear.
The Fall of Alexander the Great
On either 10 or 11 June 323 BC, Alexander died in the palace of
Nebuchadnezzar II, in Babylon, at age 32. There are two different
versions of Alexander's death and details of the death differ slightly in
each. Plutarch's account is that roughly 14days before his death,
Alexander entertained admiral Nearchus, and spent the night and next
day drinking with Medius of Larissa. He developed a fever, which
worsened until he was unable to speak. The common soldiers, anxious
about his health, were granted the right to file past him as he silently
waved at them. In the second account, Diodorus recounts that
Alexander was struck with pain after downing a large bowl of unmixed
wine in honour of Heracles, followed by 11 days of weakness; he did
not develop a fever and died after some agony. Arrian also mentioned
this as an alternative, but Plutarch specifically denied this claim.
Given the propensity of the Macedonian aristocracy to assassination,
foul play featured in multiple accounts of his death. Diodorus, Plutarch,
Arrian and Justin all mentioned the theory that Alexander was
poisoned. Justin stated that Alexander was the victim of a poisoning
conspiracy, Plutarch dismissed it as a fabrication, while both Diodorus
and Arrian noted that they mentioned it only for the sake of
completeness. The accounts were nevertheless fairly consistent in
designating Antipater, recently removed as Macedonian viceroy, and at
odds with Olympias, as the head of the alleged plot. Perhaps taking his
summons to Babylon as a death sentence, and having seen the fate of
Parmenion and Philotas, Antipater purportedly arranged for Alexander
to be poisoned by his son Iollas, who was Alexander's wine-pourer.
There was even a suggestion that Aristotle may have participated.
It is claimed that the strongest argument against the poison theory is
the fact that twelve days passed between the start of his illness and
his death; such long-acting poisons were probably not available.
However, in 2003 Dr Leo Schep From The New Zealand National
Poisons Centre proposed in a BBC documentary investigating his death
that the plant white hellebore (Veratrum album) may have been used
to poison Alexander. In 2014 Dr Leo Schep published this theory in the
peer-reviewed medical journal Clinical Toxicology; in this journal article
it was suggested Alexander's wine was spiked with Veratrum album, a
plant known to the Ancient Greeks, which produces poisoning
symptoms that match the course of events as described in the
Alexander Romance. Veratrum album poisoning can have a prolonged
course and it was suggested that if Alexander was poisoned, Veratrum
album offers the most plausible cause. Another poisoning explanation
was put forward in 2010, it was proposed that the circumstances of his
death were compatible with poisoning by water of the river Styx
(Mavroneri) that contained calicheamicin, a dangerous compound
produced by bacteria.
Several natural causes (diseases) have been suggested, including
malaria and typhoid fever. A 1998 article in the New England Journal of
Medicine attributed his death to typhoid fever complicated by bowel
perforation and ascending paralysis. Another recent analysis suggested
pyogenic spondylitis or meningitis. Other illnesses fit the symptoms,
including acute pancreatitis and West Nile virus. Natural-cause theories
also tend to emphasize that Alexander's health may have been in
general decline after years of heavy drinking and severe wounds. The
anguish that Alexander felt after Hephaestion's death may also have
contributed to his declining health.