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Title:TheGoldenBough
Astudyofmagicandreligion
Author:SirJamesGeorgeFrazer
ReleaseDate:January,2003[EBook#3623]
[ThisfilewaslastupdatedonMarch23,2003]
Edition:11
Language:English
Charactersetencoding:ISO88591characters
***STARTOFTHEPROJECTGUTENBERGEBOOKTHEGOLDENBOUGH***

ThisetextwasproducedbyDavidReed

TheGoldenBough:astudyofmagicand
religion
by

SirJamesGeorgeFrazer
CONTENTS
Preface
SubjectIndex
Chapter1.TheKingoftheWood
1.DianaandVirbius
2.ArtemisandHippolytus
3.Recapitulation

Chapter2.PriestlyKings
Chapter3.SympatheticMagic
1.ThePrinciplesofMagic
2.HomoeopathicorImitativeMagic
3.ContagiousMagic
4.TheMagician'sProgress

Chapter4.MagicandReligion
Chapter5.TheMagicalControloftheWeather
1.ThePublicMagician
2.TheMagicalControlofRain
3.TheMagicalControloftheSun
4.TheMagicalControloftheWind

Chapter6.MagiciansasKings
Chapter7.IncarnateHumanGods
Chapter8.DepartmentalKingsofNature

Chapter9.TheWorshipofTrees
1.Treespirits
2.BeneficentPowersofTreeSpirits

Chapter10.RelicsofTreeWorshipinModernEurope
Chapter11.TheInfluenceoftheSexesonVegetation
Chapter12.TheSacredMarriage
1.DianaasaGoddessofFertility
2.TheMarriageoftheGods

Chapter13.TheKingsofRomeandAlba
1.NumaandEgeria
2.TheKingasJupiter

Chapter14.SuccessiontotheKingdominAncientLatium
Chapter15.TheWorshipoftheOak
Chapter16.DianusandDiana
Chapter17.TheBurdenofRoyalty
1.RoyalandPriestlyTaboos
2.DivorceoftheSpiritualfromtheTemporalPower

Chapter18.ThePerilsoftheSoul
1.TheSoulasaMannikin
2.AbsenceandRecalloftheSoul
3.TheSoulasaShadowandaReflection

Chapter19.TabooedActs
1.TaboosonIntercoursewithStrangers
2.TaboosonEatingandDrinking

3.TaboosonShowingtheFace
4.TaboosonQuittingtheHouse
5.TaboosonLeavingFoodover

Chapter20.TabooedPersons
1.ChiefsandKingstabooed
2.Mournerstabooed
3.WomentabooedatMenstruationandChildbirth
4.Warriorstabooed
5.Manslayerstabooed
6.HuntersandFisherstabooed

Chapter21.TabooedThings
1.TheMeaningofTaboo
2.Irontabooed
3.SharpWeaponstabooed
4.Bloodtabooed
5.TheHeadtabooed
6.Hairtabooed
7.CeremoniesatHaircutting
8.DisposalofCutHairandNails
9.Spittletabooed
10.Foodstabooed
11.KnotsandRingstabooed

Chapter22.TabooedWords
1.PersonalNamestabooed

2.NamesofRelationstabooed
3.NamesoftheDeadtabooed
4.NamesofKingsandotherSacredPersonstabooed
5.NamesofGodstabooed

Chapter23.OurDebttotheSavage
Chapter24.TheKillingoftheDivineKing
1.TheMortalityoftheGods
2.KingskilledwhentheirStrengthfails
3.KingskilledattheEndofaFixedTerm

Chapter25.TemporaryKings
Chapter26.SacrificeoftheKing'sSon
Chapter27.SuccessiontotheSoul
Chapter28.TheKillingoftheTreeSpirit
1.TheWhitsuntideMummers
2.BuryingtheCarnival
3.CarryingoutDeath
4.BringinginSummer
5.BattleofSummerandWinter
6.DeathandResurrectionofKostrubonko
7.DeathandRevivalofVegetation
8.AnalogousRitesinIndia
9.TheMagicSpring

Chapter29.TheMythofAdonis
Chapter30.AdonisinSyria

Chapter31.AdonisinCyprus
Chapter32.TheRitualofAdonis
Chapter33.TheGardensofAdonis
Chapter34.TheMythandRitualofAttis
Chapter35.AttisasaGodofVegetation
Chapter36.HumanRepresentativesofAttis
Chapter37.OrientalReligionsintheWest
Chapter38.TheMythofOsiris
Chapter39.TheRitualofOsiris
1.ThePopularRites
2.TheOfficialRites

Chapter40.TheNatureofOsiris
1.OsirisaCorngod
2.OsirisaTreespirit
3.OsirisaGodofFertility
4.OsirisaGodoftheDead

Chapter41.Isis
Chapter42.OsirisandtheSun
Chapter43.Dionysus
Chapter44.DemeterandPersephone
Chapter45.CornMotherandCornMaideninN.Europe
Chapter46.CornMotherinManyLands
1.TheCornmotherinAmerica
2.TheRicemotherintheEastIndies

3.TheSpiritoftheCornembodiedinHumanBeings
4.TheDoublePersonificationoftheCornasMotherandDaughter

Chapter47.Lityerses
1.SongsoftheCornReapers
2.KillingtheCornspirit
3.HumanSacrificesfortheCrops
4.TheCornspiritslaininhisHumanRepresentatives

Chapter48.TheCornSpiritasanAnimal
1.AnimalEmbodimentsoftheCornspirit
2.TheCornspiritasaWolforaDog
3.TheCornspiritasaCock
4.TheCornspiritasaHare
5.TheCornspiritasaCat
6.TheCornspiritasaGoat
7.TheCornspiritasaBull,Cow,orOx
8.TheCornspiritasaHorseorMare
9.TheCornspiritasaPig(BoarorSow)
10.OntheAnimalEmbodimentsoftheCornspirit

Chapter49.AncientDeitiesofVegetationasAnimals
1.Dionysus,theGoatandtheBull
2.Demeter,thePigandtheHorse
3.Attis,Adonis,andthePig
4.Osiris,thePigandtheBull
5.VirbiusandtheHorse

Chapter50.EatingtheGod
1.TheSacramentofFirstFruits
2.EatingtheGodamongtheAztecs
3.ManyManiiatAricia

Chapter51.HomeopathicMagicofaFleshDiet
Chapter52.KillingtheDivineAnimal
1.KillingtheSacredBuzzard
2.KillingtheSacredRam
3.KillingtheSacredSerpent
4.KillingtheSacredTurtles
5.KillingtheSacredBear

Chapter53.ThePropitiationofWildAnimalsByHunters
Chapter54.TypesofAnimalSacrament
1.TheEgyptianandtheAinoTypesofSacrament
2.ProcessionswithSacredAnimals

Chapter55.TheTransferenceofEvil
1.TheTransferencetoInanimateObjects
2.TheTransferencetoAnimals
3.TheTransferencetoMen
4.TheTransferenceofEvilinEurope

Chapter56.ThePublicExpulsionofEvils
1.TheOmnipresenceofDemons
2.TheOccasionalExpulsionofEvils
3.ThePeriodicExpulsionofEvils

Chapter57.PublicScapegoats
1.TheExpulsionofEmbodiedEvils
2.TheOccasionalExpulsionofEvilsinaMaterialVehicle
3.ThePeriodicExpulsionofEvilsinaMaterialVehicle
4.OnScapegoatsinGeneral

Chapter58.HumanScapegoatsinClassicalAntiquity
1.TheHumanScapegoatinAncientRome
2.TheHumanScapegoatinAncientGreece
3.TheRomanSaturnalia

Chapter59.KillingtheGodinMexico
Chapter60.BetweenHeavenandEarth
1.NottotouchtheEarth
2.NottoseetheSun
3.TheSeclusionofGirlsatPuberty
4.ReasonsfortheSeclusionofGirlsatPuberty

Chapter61.TheMythofBalder
Chapter62.TheFireFestivalsofEurope
1.TheFirefestivalsingeneral
2.TheLentenFires
3.TheEasterFires
4.TheBeltaneFires
5.TheMidsummerFires
6.TheHallowe'enFires
7.TheMidwinterFires

8.TheNeedfire

Chapter63.TheInterpretationoftheFireFestivals
1.OntheFirefestivalsingeneral
2.TheSolarTheoryoftheFirefestivals
3.ThePurificatoryTheoryoftheFirefestivals

Chapter64.TheBurningofHumanBeingsintheFires
1.TheBurningofEffigiesintheFires
2.TheBurningofMenandAnimalsintheFires

Chapter65.BalderandtheMistletoe
Chapter66.TheExternalSoulinFolkTales
Chapter67.TheExternalSoulinFolkCustom
1.TheExternalSoulinInanimateThings
2.TheExternalSoulinPlants
3.TheExternalSoulinAnimals
4.TheRitualofDeathandResurrection

Chapter68.TheGoldenBough
Chapter69.FarewelltoNemi

Preface
THEPRIMARYaimofthisbookistoexplaintheremarkablerulewhichregulatedthesuccessiontothe
priesthoodofDianaatAricia.WhenIfirstsetmyselftosolvetheproblemmorethanthirtyyearsago,I
thoughtthatthesolutioncouldbepropoundedverybriefly,butIsoonfoundthattorenderitprobableor
evenintelligibleitwasnecessarytodiscusscertainmoregeneralquestions,someofwhichhadhardly
beenbroachedbefore.Insuccessiveeditionsthediscussionoftheseandkindredtopicshasoccupied
moreandmorespace,theenquiryhasbranchedoutinmoreandmoredirections,untilthetwovolumes
oftheoriginalworkhaveexpandedintotwelve.Meantimeawishhasoftenbeenexpressedthatthebook
shouldbeissuedinamorecompendiousform.Thisabridgmentisanattempttomeetthewishand
therebytobringtheworkwithintherangeofawidercircleofreaders.Whilethebulkofthebookhas
beengreatlyreduced,Ihaveendeavouredtoretainitsleadingprinciples,togetherwithanamountof
evidencesufficienttoillustratethemclearly.Thelanguageoftheoriginalhasalsoforthemostpartbeen
preserved,thoughhereandtheretheexpositionhasbeensomewhatcondensed.Inordertokeepasmuch

ofthetextaspossibleIhavesacrificedallthenotes,andwiththemallexactreferencestomyauthorities.
Readerswhodesiretoascertainthesourceofanyparticularstatementmustthereforeconsultthelarger
work,whichisfullydocumentedandprovidedwithacompletebibliography.
IntheabridgmentIhaveneitheraddednewmatternoralteredtheviewsexpressedinthelasteditionfor
theevidencewhichhascometomyknowledgeinthemeantimehasonthewholeservedeitherto
confirmmyformerconclusionsortofurnishfreshillustrationsofoldprinciples.Thus,forexample,on
thecrucialquestionofthepracticeofputtingkingstodeatheitherattheendofafixedperiodor
whenevertheirhealthandstrengthbegantofail,thebodyofevidencewhichpointstothewide
prevalenceofsuchacustomhasbeenconsiderablyaugmentedintheinterval.Astrikinginstanceofa
limitedmonarchyofthissortisfurnishedbythepowerfulmediaevalkingdomoftheKhazarsinSouthern
Russia,wherethekingswereliabletobeputtodeatheitherontheexpiryofasettermorwheneversome
publiccalamity,suchasdrought,dearth,ordefeatinwar,seemedtoindicateafailureoftheirnatural
powers.TheevidenceforthesystematickillingoftheKhazarkings,drawnfromtheaccountsofold
Arabtravellers,hasbeencollectedbymeelsewhere.[1]Africa,again,hassuppliedseveralfresh
examplesofasimilarpracticeofregicide.Amongthemthemostnotableperhapsisthecustomformerly
observedinBunyoroofchoosingeveryyearfromaparticularclanamockking,whowassupposedto
incarnatethelateking,cohabitedwithhiswidowsathistempletomb,andafterreigningforaweekwas
strangled.[2]ThecustompresentsacloseparalleltotheancientBabylonianfestivaloftheSacaea,at
whichamockkingwasdressedintheroyalrobes,allowedtoenjoytherealkingsconcubines,andafter
reigningforfivedayswasstripped,scourged,andputtodeath.Thatfestivalinitsturnhaslatelyreceived
freshlightfromcertainAssyrianinscriptions,[3]whichseemtoconfirmtheinterpretationwhichI
formerlygaveofthefestivalasaNewYearcelebrationandtheparentoftheJewishfestivalofPurim.[4]
OtherrecentlydiscoveredparallelstothepriestlykingsofAriciaareAfricanpriestsandkingswhoused
tobeputtodeathattheendofsevenoroftwoyears,afterbeingliableintheintervaltobeattackedand
killedbyastrongman,whothereuponsucceededtothepriesthoodorthekingdom.[5]
[1]J.G.Frazer,TheKillingoftheKhazarKings,Folklore,xxviii.(1917),pp.382407.
[2]Rev.J.Roscoe,TheSoulofCentralAfrica(London,1922),p.200.CompareJ.G.Frazer,&147The
MackieEthnologicalExpeditiontoCentralAfrica,Man,xx.(1920),p.181.
[3]H.Zimmern,ZumbabylonischenNeujahrsfest(Leipzig,1918).CompareA.H.Sayce,inJournalof
theRoyalAsiaticSociety,July1921,pp.440442.
[4]TheGoldenBough,PartVI.TheScapegoat,pp.354sqq.,412sqq.
[5]P.AmauryTalbotinJournaloftheAfricanSociety,July1916,pp.309sq.id.,inFolklore,xxvi.
(1916),pp.79sq.H.R.Palmer,inJournaloftheAfricanSociety,July1912,pp.403,407sq.
Withtheseandotherinstancesoflikecustomsbeforeusitisnolongerpossibletoregardtheruleof
successiontothepriesthoodofDianaatAriciaasexceptionalitclearlyexemplifiesawidespread
institution,ofwhichthemostnumerousandthemostsimilarcaseshavethusfarbeenfoundinAfrica.
HowfarthefactspointtoanearlyinfluenceofAfricaonItaly,oreventotheexistenceofanAfrican
populationinSouthernEurope,Idonotpresumetosay.Theprehistorichistoricrelationsbetweenthe
twocontinentsarestillobscureandstillunderinvestigation.
WhethertheexplanationwhichIhaveofferedoftheinstitutioniscorrectornotmustbelefttothefuture
todetermine.Ishallalwaysbereadytoabandonitifabettercanbesuggested.Meantimeincommitting
thebookinitsnewformtothejudgmentofthepublicIdesiretoguardagainstamisapprehensionofits
scopewhichappearstobestillrife,thoughIhavesoughttocorrectitbeforenow.IfinthepresentworkI

havedweltatsomelengthontheworshipoftrees,itisnot,Itrust,becauseIexaggerateitsimportancein
thehistoryofreligion,stilllessbecauseIwoulddeducefromitawholesystemofmythologyitis
simplybecauseIcouldnotignorethesubjectinattemptingtoexplainthesignificanceofapriestwho
borethetitleofKingoftheWood,andoneofwhosetitlestoofficewasthepluckingofaboughthe
GoldenBoughfromatreeinthesacredgrove.ButIamsofarfromregardingthereverencefortreesas
ofsupremeimportancefortheevolutionofreligionthatIconsiderittohavebeenaltogethersubordinate
tootherfactors,andinparticulartothefearofthehumandead,which,onthewhole,Ibelievetohave
beenprobablythemostpowerfulforceinthemakingofprimitivereligion.Ihopethatafterthisexplicit
disclaimerIshallnolongerbetaxedwithembracingasystemofmythologywhichIlookuponnot
merelyasfalsebutaspreposterousandabsurd.ButIamtoofamiliarwiththehydraoferrortoexpect
thatbyloppingoffoneofthemonstersheadsIcanpreventanother,oreventhesame,fromsprouting
again.Icanonlytrusttothecandourandintelligenceofmyreaderstorectifythisseriousmisconception
ofmyviewsbyacomparisonwithmyownexpressdeclaration.
J.G.FRAZER.
1BRICKCOURT,TEMPLE,LONDON,
June1922.

I.TheKingoftheWood
1.DianaandVirbius
WHOdoesnotknowTurnerspictureoftheGoldenBough?Thescene,suffusedwiththegoldenglowof
imaginationinwhichthedivinemindofTurnersteepedandtransfiguredeventhefairestnatural
landscape,isadreamlikevisionofthelittlewoodlandlakeofNemiDianasMirror,asitwascalled
bytheancients.Noonewhohasseenthatcalmwater,lappedinagreenhollowoftheAlbanhills,can
everforgetit.ThetwocharacteristicItalianvillageswhichslumberonitsbanks,andtheequallyItalian
palacewhoseterracedgardensdescendsteeplytothelake,hardlybreakthestillnessandeventhe
solitarinessofthescene.Dianaherselfmightstilllingerbythislonelyshore,stillhauntthesewoodlands
wild.
Inantiquitythissylvanlandscapewasthesceneofastrangeandrecurringtragedy.Onthenorthernshore
ofthelake,rightundertheprecipitouscliffsonwhichthemodernvillageofNemiisperched,stoodthe
sacredgroveandsanctuaryofDianaNemorensis,orDianaoftheWood.Thelakeandthegrovewere
sometimesknownasthelakeandgroveofAricia.ButthetownofAricia(themodernLaRiccia)was
situatedaboutthreemilesoff,atthefootoftheAlbanMount,andseparatedbyasteepdescentfromthe
lake,whichliesinasmallcraterlikehollowonthemountainside.Inthissacredgrovetheregrewa
certaintreeroundwhichatanytimeoftheday,andprobablyfarintothenight,agrimfiguremightbe
seentoprowl.Inhishandhecarriedadrawnsword,andhekeptpeeringwarilyabouthimasifatevery
instantheexpectedtobesetuponbyanenemy.Hewasapriestandamurdererandthemanforwhom
helookedwassoonerorlatertomurderhimandholdthepriesthoodinhisstead.Suchwastheruleofthe
sanctuary.Acandidateforthepriesthoodcouldonlysucceedtoofficebyslayingthepriest,andhaving
slainhim,heretainedofficetillhewashimselfslainbyastrongeroracraftier.
Thepostwhichheheldbythisprecarioustenurecarriedwithitthetitleofkingbutsurelynocrowned
headeverlayuneasier,orwasvisitedbymoreevildreams,thanhis.Foryearin,yearout,insummerand
winter,infairweatherandinfoul,hehadtokeephislonelywatch,andwheneverhesnatchedatroubled
slumberitwasattheperilofhislife.Theleastrelaxationofhisvigilance,thesmallestabatementofhis
strengthoflimborskilloffence,puthiminjeopardygreyhairsmightsealhisdeathwarrant.Togentle

andpiouspilgrimsattheshrinethesightofhimmightwellseemtodarkenthefairlandscape,aswhena
cloudsuddenlyblotsthesunonabrightday.ThedreamyblueofItalianskies,thedappledshadeof
summerwoods,andthesparkleofwavesinthesun,canhaveaccordedbutillwiththatsternandsinister
figure.Ratherwepicturetoourselvesthesceneasitmayhavebeenwitnessedbyabelatedwayfareron
oneofthosewildautumnnightswhenthedeadleavesarefallingthick,andthewindsseemtosingthe
dirgeofthedyingyear.Itisasombrepicture,settomelancholymusicthebackgroundofforest
showingblackandjaggedagainstaloweringandstormysky,thesighingofthewindinthebranches,the
rustleofthewitheredleavesunderfoot,thelappingofthecoldwaterontheshore,andintheforeground,
pacingtoandfro,nowintwilightandnowingloom,adarkfigurewithaglitterofsteelattheshoulder
wheneverthepalemoon,ridingclearofthecloudrack,peersdownathimthroughthemattedboughs.
Thestrangeruleofthispriesthoodhasnoparallelinclassicalantiquity,andcannotbeexplainedfromit.
Tofindanexplanationwemustgofartherafield.Noonewillprobablydenythatsuchacustomsavours
ofabarbarousage,and,survivingintoimperialtimes,standsoutinstrikingisolationfromthepolished
Italiansocietyoftheday,likeaprimaevalrockrisingfromasmoothshavenlawn.Itistheveryrudeness
andbarbarityofthecustomwhichallowusahopeofexplainingit.Forrecentresearchesintotheearly
historyofmanhaverevealedtheessentialsimilaritywithwhich,undermanysuperficialdifferences,the
humanmindhaselaborateditsfirstcrudephilosophyoflife.Accordingly,ifwecanshowthata
barbarouscustom,likethatofthepriesthoodofNemi,hasexistedelsewhereifwecandetectthemotives
whichledtoitsinstitutionifwecanprovethatthesemotiveshaveoperatedwidely,perhapsuniversally,
inhumansociety,producinginvariedcircumstancesavarietyofinstitutionsspecificallydifferentbut
genericallyalikeifwecanshow,lastly,thattheseverymotives,withsomeoftheirderivative
institutions,wereactuallyatworkinclassicalantiquitythenwemayfairlyinferthatataremoteragethe
samemotivesgavebirthtothepriesthoodofNemi.Suchaninference,indefaultofdirectevidenceasto
howthepriesthooddidactuallyarise,canneveramounttodemonstration.Butitwillbemoreorless
probableaccordingtothedegreeofcompletenesswithwhichitfulfilstheconditionsIhaveindicated.
Theobjectofthisbookis,bymeetingtheseconditions,toofferafairlyprobableexplanationofthe
priesthoodofNemi.
Ibeginbysettingforththefewfactsandlegendswhichhavecomedowntousonthesubject.According
toonestorytheworshipofDianaatNemiwasinstitutedbyOrestes,who,afterkillingThoas,Kingofthe
TauricChersonese(theCrimea),fledwithhissistertoItaly,bringingwithhimtheimageoftheTauric
Dianahiddeninafaggotofsticks.AfterhisdeathhisbonesweretransportedfromAriciatoRomeand
buriedinfrontofthetempleofSaturn,ontheCapitolineslope,besidethetempleofConcord.The
bloodyritualwhichlegendascribedtotheTauricDianaisfamiliartoclassicalreadersitissaidthat
everystrangerwholandedontheshorewassacrificedonheraltar.ButtransportedtoItaly,therite
assumedamilderform.WithinthesanctuaryatNemigrewacertaintreeofwhichnobranchmightbe
broken.Onlyarunawayslavewasallowedtobreakoff,ifhecould,oneofitsboughs.Successinthe
attemptentitledhimtofightthepriestinsinglecombat,andifheslewhimhereignedinhissteadwith
thetitleofKingoftheWood(RexNemorensis).Accordingtothepublicopinionoftheancientsthe
fatefulbranchwasthatGoldenBoughwhich,attheSibylsbidding,Aeneaspluckedbeforeheessayed
theperilousjourneytotheworldofthedead.Theflightoftheslaverepresented,itwassaid,theflightof
OresteshiscombatwiththepriestwasareminiscenceofthehumansacrificesonceofferedtotheTauric
Diana.Thisruleofsuccessionbytheswordwasobserveddowntoimperialtimesforamongsthisother
freaksCaligula,thinkingthatthepriestofNemihadheldofficetoolong,hiredamorestalwartruffianto
slayhimandaGreektraveller,whovisitedItalyintheageoftheAntonines,remarksthatdowntohis
timethepriesthoodwasstilltheprizeofvictoryinasinglecombat.
OftheworshipofDianaatNemisomeleadingfeaturescanstillbemadeout.Fromthevotiveofferings
whichhavebeenfoundonthesite,itappearsthatshewasconceivedofespeciallyasahuntress,and
furtherasblessingmenandwomenwithoffspring,andgrantingexpectantmothersaneasydelivery.

Again,fireseemstohaveplayedaforemostpartinherritual.Forduringherannualfestival,heldonthe
thirteenthofAugust,atthehottesttimeoftheyear,hergroveshonewithamultitudeoftorches,whose
ruddyglarewasreflectedbythelakeandthroughoutthelengthandbreadthofItalythedaywaskept
withholyritesateverydomestichearth.Bronzestatuettesfoundinherprecinctrepresentthegoddess
herselfholdingatorchinherraisedrighthandandwomenwhoseprayershadbeenheardbyhercame
crownedwithwreathsandbearinglightedtorchestothesanctuaryinfulfilmentoftheirvows.Someone
unknowndedicatedaperpetuallyburninglampinalittleshrineatNemiforthesafetyoftheEmperor
Claudiusandhisfamily.Theterracottalampswhichhavebeendiscoveredinthegrovemayperhaps
haveservedalikepurposeforhumblerpersons.Ifso,theanalogyofthecustomtotheCatholicpractice
ofdedicatingholycandlesinchurcheswouldbeobvious.Further,thetitleofVestabornebyDianaat
Nemipointsclearlytothemaintenanceofaperpetualholyfireinhersanctuary.Alargecircular
basementatthenortheastcornerofthetemple,raisedonthreestepsandbearingtracesofamosaic
pavement,probablysupportedaroundtempleofDianainhercharacterofVesta,liketheroundtempleof
VestaintheRomanForum.HerethesacredfirewouldseemtohavebeentendedbyVestalVirgins,for
theheadofaVestalinterracottawasfoundonthespot,andtheworshipofaperpetualfire,caredforby
holymaidens,appearstohavebeencommoninLatiumfromtheearliesttothelatesttimes.Further,at
theannualfestivalofthegoddess,huntingdogswerecrownedandwildbeastswerenotmolestedyoung
peoplewentthroughapurificatoryceremonyinherhonourwinewasbroughtforth,andthefeast
consistedofakidcakesservedpipinghotonplatesofleaves,andapplesstillhanginginclustersonthe
boughs.
ButDianadidnotreignaloneinhergroveatNemi.Twolesserdivinitiessharedherforestsanctuary.
OnewasEgeria,thenymphoftheclearwaterwhich,bubblingfromthebasalticrocks,usedtofallin
gracefulcascadesintothelakeattheplacecalledLeMole,becauseherewereestablishedthemillsofthe
modernvillageofNemi.ThepurlingofthestreamasitranoverthepebblesismentionedbyOvid,who
tellsusthathehadoftendrunkofitswater.WomenwithchildusedtosacrificetoEgeria,becauseshe
wasbelieved,likeDiana,tobeabletograntthemaneasydelivery.Traditionranthatthenymphhad
beenthewifeormistressofthewisekingNuma,thathehadconsortedwithherinthesecrecyofthe
sacredgrove,andthatthelawswhichhegavetheRomanshadbeeninspiredbycommunionwithher
divinity.Plutarchcomparesthelegendwithothertalesofthelovesofgoddessesformortalmen,suchas
theloveofCybeleandtheMoonforthefairyouthsAttisandEndymion.Accordingtosome,the
trystingplaceoftheloverswasnotinthewoodsofNemibutinagroveoutsidethedrippingPorta
CapenaatRome,whereanothersacredspringofEgeriagushedfromadarkcavern.Everydaythe
RomanVestalsfetchedwaterfromthisspringtowashthetempleofVesta,carryingitinearthenware
pitchersontheirheads.InJuvenalstimethenaturalrockhadbeenencasedinmarble,andthehallowed
spotwasprofanedbygangsofpoorJews,whoweresufferedtosquat,likegypsies,inthegrove.Wemay
supposethatthespringwhichfellintothelakeofNemiwasthetrueoriginalEgeria,andthatwhenthe
firstsettlersmoveddownfromtheAlbanhillstothebanksoftheTibertheybroughtthenymphwith
themandfoundanewhomeforherinagroveoutsidethegates.Theremainsofbathswhichhavebeen
discoveredwithinthesacredprecinct,togetherwithmanyterracottamodelsofvariouspartsofthe
humanbody,suggestthatthewatersofEgeriawereusedtohealthesick,whomayhavesignifiedtheir
hopesortestifiedtheirgratitudebydedicatinglikenessesofthediseasedmemberstothegoddess,in
accordancewithacustomwhichisstillobservedinmanypartsofEurope.Tothisdayitwouldseemthat
thespringretainsmedicinalvirtues.
TheotheroftheminordeitiesatNemiwasVirbius.LegendhaditthatVirbiuswastheyoungGreekhero
Hippolytus,chasteandfair,wholearnedtheartofveneryfromthecentaurChiron,andspentallhisdays
inthegreenwoodchasingwildbeastswiththevirginhuntressArtemis(theGreekcounterpartofDiana)
forhisonlycomrade.Proudofherdivinesociety,hespurnedtheloveofwomen,andthisprovedhis
bane.ForAphrodite,stungbyhisscorn,inspiredhisstepmotherPhaedrawithloveofhimandwhenhe
disdainedherwickedadvancesshefalselyaccusedhimtohisfatherTheseus.Theslanderwasbelieved,

andTheseusprayedtohissirePoseidontoavengetheimaginedwrong.SowhileHippolytusdroveina
chariotbytheshoreoftheSaronicGulf,theseagodsentafiercebullforthfromthewaves.Theterrified
horsesbolted,threwHippolytusfromthechariot,anddraggedhimattheirhoofstodeath.ButDiana,for
thelovesheboreHippolytus,persuadedtheleechAesculapiustobringherfairyounghunterbacktolife
byhissimples.Jupiter,indignantthatamortalmanshouldreturnfromthegatesofdeath,thrustdownthe
meddlingleechhimselftoHades.ButDianahidherfavouritefromtheangrygodinathickcloud,
disguisedhisfeaturesbyaddingyearstohislife,andthenborehimfarawaytothedellsofNemi,where
sheentrustedhimtothenymphEgeria,tolivethere,unknownandsolitary,underthenameofVirbius,in
thedepthoftheItalianforest.Therehereignedaking,andtherehededicatedaprecincttoDiana.Hehad
acomelyson,Virbius,who,undauntedbyhisfathersfate,droveateamoffierysteedstojointheLatins
inthewaragainstAeneasandtheTrojans.VirbiuswasworshippedasagodnotonlyatNemibut
elsewhereforinCampaniawehearofaspecialpriestdevotedtohisservice.Horseswereexcludedfrom
theAriciangroveandsanctuarybecausehorseshadkilledHippolytus.Itwasunlawfultotouchhis
image.Somethoughtthathewasthesun.Butthetruthis,saysServius,thatheisadeityassociated
withDiana,asAttisisassociatedwiththeMotheroftheGods,andErichthoniuswithMinerva,and
AdoniswithVenus.Whatthenatureofthatassociationwasweshallenquirepresently.Hereitisworth
observingthatinhislongandchequeredcareerthismythicalpersonagehasdisplayedaremarkable
tenacityoflife.ForwecanhardlydoubtthattheSaintHippolytusoftheRomancalendar,whowas
draggedbyhorsestodeathonthethirteenthofAugust,Dianasownday,isnootherthantheGreekhero
ofthesamename,who,afterdyingtwiceoverasaheathensinner,hasbeenhappilyresuscitatedasa
Christiansaint.
ItneedsnoelaboratedemonstrationtoconvinceusthatthestoriestoldtoaccountforDianasworshipat
Nemiareunhistorical.Clearlytheybelongtothatlargeclassofmythswhicharemadeuptoexplainthe
originofareligiousritualandhavenootherfoundationthantheresemblance,realorimaginary,which
maybetracedbetweenitandsomeforeignritual.TheincongruityoftheseNemimythsisindeed
transparent,sincethefoundationoftheworshipistracednowtoOrestesandnowtoHippolytus,
accordingasthisorthatfeatureoftheritualhastobeaccountedfor.Therealvalueofsuchtalesisthat
theyservetoillustratethenatureoftheworshipbyprovidingastandardwithwhichtocompareitand
further,thattheybearwitnessindirectlytoitsvenerableagebyshowingthatthetrueoriginwaslostin
themistsofafabulousantiquity.InthelatterrespecttheseNemilegendsareprobablymoretobetrusted
thantheapparentlyhistoricaltradition,vouchedforbyCatotheElder,thatthesacredgrovewas
dedicatedtoDianabyacertainEgeriusBaebiusorLaeviusofTusculum,aLatindictator,onbehalfof
thepeoplesofTusculum,Aricia,Lanuvium,Laurentum,Cora,Tibur,Pometia,andArdea.Thistradition
indeedspeaksforthegreatageofthesanctuary,sinceitseemstodateitsfoundationsometimebefore
495B.C.,theyearinwhichPometiawassackedbytheRomansanddisappearsfromhistory.Butwe
cannotsupposethatsobarbarousaruleasthatoftheAricianpriesthoodwasdeliberatelyinstitutedbya
leagueofcivilisedcommunities,suchastheLatincitiesundoubtedlywere.Itmusthavebeenhanded
downfromatimebeyondthememoryofman,whenItalywasstillinafarruderstatethananyknownto
usinthehistoricalperiod.Thecreditofthetraditionisrathershakenthanconfirmedbyanotherstory
whichascribesthefoundationofthesanctuarytoacertainManiusEgerius,whogaverisetothesaying,
TherearemanyManiiatAricia.ThisproverbsomeexplainedbyallegingthatManiusEgeriuswasthe
ancestorofalonganddistinguishedline,whereasothersthoughtitmeantthatthereweremanyuglyand
deformedpeopleatAricia,andtheyderivedthenameManiusfromMania,abogeyorbugbearto
frightenchildren.ARomansatiristusesthenameManiusastypicalofthebeggarswholayinwaitfor
pilgrimsontheAricianslopes.Thesedifferencesofopinion,togetherwiththediscrepancybetween
ManiusEgeriusofAriciaandEgeriusLaeviusofTusculum,aswellastheresemblanceofbothnamesto
themythicalEgeria,exciteoursuspicion.YetthetraditionrecordedbyCatoseemstoocircumstantial,
anditssponsortoorespectable,toallowustodismissitasanidlefiction.Ratherwemaysupposethatit
referstosomeancientrestorationorreconstructionofthesanctuary,whichwasactuallycarriedoutby
theconfederatestates.Atanyrateittestifiestoabeliefthatthegrovehadbeenfromearlytimesa

commonplaceofworshipformanyoftheoldestcitiesofthecountry,ifnotforthewholeLatin
confederacy.
2.ArtemisandHippolytus
IHAVEsaidthattheAricianlegendsofOrestesandHippolytus,thoughworthlessashistory,havea
certainvalueinsofarastheymayhelpustounderstandtheworshipatNemibetterbycomparingitwith
theritualandmythsofothersanctuaries.Wemustaskourselves,Whydidtheauthoroftheselegends
pitchuponOrestesandHippolytusinordertoexplainVirbiusandtheKingoftheWood?Inregardto
Orestes,theanswerisobvious.HeandtheimageoftheTauricDiana,whichcouldonlybeappeasedwith
humanblood,weredraggedintorenderintelligiblethemurderousruleofsuccessiontotheArician
priesthood.InregardtoHippolytusthecaseisnotsoplain.Themannerofhisdeathsuggestsreadily
enoughareasonfortheexclusionofhorsesfromthegrovebutthisbyitselfseemshardlyenoughto
accountfortheidentification.Wemusttrytoprobedeeperbyexaminingtheworshipaswellasthe
legendormythofHippolytus.
HehadafamoussanctuaryathisancestralhomeofTroezen,situatedonthatbeautiful,almost
landlockedbay,wheregrovesoforangesandlemons,withtallcypressessoaringlikedarkspiresabove
thegardenofHesperides,nowclothethestripoffertileshoreatthefootoftheruggedmountains.Across
thebluewaterofthetranquilbay,whichitsheltersfromtheopensea,risesPoseidonssacredisland,its
peaksveiledinthesombregreenofthepines.OnthisfaircoastHippolytuswasworshipped.Withinhis
sanctuarystoodatemplewithanancientimage.Hisservicewasperformedbyapriestwhoheldoffice
forlifeeveryyearasacrificialfestivalwasheldinhishonourandhisuntimelyfatewasyearly
mourned,withweepinganddolefulchants,byunweddedmaids.Youthsandmaidensdedicatedlocksof
theirhairinhistemplebeforemarriage.HisgraveexistedatTroezen,thoughthepeoplewouldnotshow
it.Ithasbeensuggested,withgreatplausibility,thatinthehandsomeHippolytus,belovedofArtemis,cut
offinhisyouthfulprime,andyearlymournedbydamsels,wehaveoneofthosemortalloversofa
goddesswhoappearsoofteninancientreligion,andofwhomAdonisisthemostfamiliartype.The
rivalryofArtemisandPhaedrafortheaffectionofHippolytusreproduces,itissaid,underdifferent
names,therivalryofAphroditeandProserpinefortheloveofAdonis,forPhaedraismerelyadoubleof
Aphrodite.ThetheoryprobablydoesnoinjusticeeithertoHippolytusortoArtemis.ForArtemiswas
originallyagreatgoddessoffertility,and,ontheprinciplesofearlyreligion,shewhofertilisesnature
mustherselfbefertile,andtobethatshemustnecessarilyhaveamaleconsort.Onthisview,Hippolytus
wastheconsortofArtemisatTroezen,andtheshorntressesofferedtohimbytheTroezenianyouthsand
maidensbeforemarriageweredesignedtostrengthenhisunionwiththegoddess,andsotopromotethe
fruitfulnessoftheearth,ofcattle,andofmankind.Itissomeconfirmationofthisviewthatwithinthe
precinctofHippolytusatTroezentherewereworshippedtwofemalepowersnamedDamiaandAuxesia,
whoseconnexionwiththefertilityofthegroundisunquestionable.WhenEpidaurussufferedfroma
dearth,thepeople,inobediencetoanoracle,carvedimagesofDamiaandAuxesiaoutofsacredolive
wood,andnosoonerhadtheydonesoandsetthemupthantheearthborefruitagain.Moreover,at
Troezenitself,andapparentlywithintheprecinctofHippolytus,acuriousfestivalofstonethrowingwas
heldinhonourofthesemaidens,astheTroezenianscalledthemanditiseasytoshowthatsimilar
customshavebeenpractisedinmanylandsfortheexpresspurposeofensuringgoodcrops.Inthestory
ofthetragicdeathoftheyouthfulHippolytuswemaydiscernananalogywithsimilartalesofotherfair
butmortalyouthswhopaidwiththeirlivesforthebriefraptureoftheloveofanimmortalgoddess.
Thesehaplessloverswereprobablynotalwaysmeremyths,andthelegendswhichtracedtheirspilt
bloodinthepurplebloomoftheviolet,thescarletstainoftheanemone,orthecrimsonflushoftherose
werenoidlepoeticemblemsofyouthandbeautyfleetingasthesummerflowers.Suchfablescontaina
deeperphilosophyoftherelationofthelifeofmantothelifeofnatureasadphilosophywhichgave
birthtoatragicpractice.Whatthatphilosophyandthatpracticewere,weshalllearnlateron.

3.Recapitulation
WEcannowperhapsunderstandwhytheancientsidentifiedHippolytus,theconsortofArtemis,with
Virbius,who,accordingtoServius,stoodtoDianaasAdonistoVenus,orAttistotheMotherofthe
Gods.ForDiana,likeArtemis,wasagoddessoffertilityingeneral,andofchildbirthinparticular.As
suchshe,likeherGreekcounterpart,neededamalepartner.Thatpartner,ifServiusisright,wasVirbius.
InhischaracterofthefounderofthesacredgroveandfirstkingofNemi,Virbiusisclearlythemythical
predecessororarchetypeofthelineofpriestswhoservedDianaunderthetitleofKingsoftheWood,
andwhocame,likehim,oneaftertheother,toaviolentend.Itisnatural,therefore,toconjecturethat
theystoodtothegoddessofthegroveinthesamerelationinwhichVirbiusstoodtoherinshort,thatthe
mortalKingoftheWoodhadforhisqueenthewoodlandDianaherself.Ifthesacredtreewhichhe
guardedwithhislifewassupposed,asseemsprobable,tobeherspecialembodiment,herpriestmaynot
onlyhaveworshippeditashisgoddessbutembraceditashiswife.Thereisatleastnothingabsurdinthe
supposition,sinceeveninthetimeofPlinyanobleRomanusedthustotreatabeautifulbeechtreein
anothersacredgroveofDianaontheAlbanhills.Heembracedit,hekissedit,helayunderitsshadow,
hepouredwineonitstrunk.Apparentlyhetookthetreeforthegoddess.Thecustomofphysically
marryingmenandwomentotreesisstillpractisedinIndiaandotherpartsoftheEast.Whyshoulditnot
haveobtainedinancientLatium?
Reviewingtheevidenceasawhole,wemayconcludethattheworshipofDianainhersacredgroveat
Nemiwasofgreatimportanceandimmemorialantiquitythatshewasreveredasthegoddessof
woodlandsandofwildcreatures,probablyalsoofdomesticcattleandofthefruitsoftheearththatshe
wasbelievedtoblessmenandwomenwithoffspringandtoaidmothersinchildbedthatherholyfire,
tendedbychastevirgins,burnedperpetuallyinaroundtemplewithintheprecinctthatassociatedwith
herwasawaternymphEgeriawhodischargedoneofDianasownfunctionsbysuccouringwomenin
travail,andwhowaspopularlysupposedtohavematedwithanoldRomankinginthesacredgrove
further,thatDianaoftheWoodherselfhadamalecompanionVirbiusbyname,whowastoherwhat
AdoniswastoVenus,orAttistoCybeleand,lastly,thatthismythicalVirbiuswasrepresentedin
historicaltimesbyalineofpriestsknownasKingsoftheWood,whoregularlyperishedbytheswords
oftheirsuccessors,andwhoseliveswereinamannerboundupwithacertaintreeinthegrove,because
solongasthattreewasuninjuredtheyweresafefromattack.
Clearlytheseconclusionsdonotofthemselvessufficetoexplainthepeculiarruleofsuccessiontothe
priesthood.Butperhapsthesurveyofawiderfieldmayleadustothinkthattheycontainingermthe
solutionoftheproblem.Tothatwidersurveywemustnowaddressourselves.Itwillbelongand
laborious,butmaypossesssomethingoftheinterestandcharmofavoyageofdiscovery,inwhichwe
shallvisitmanystrangeforeignlands,withstrangeforeignpeoples,andstillstrangercustoms.Thewind
isintheshrouds:weshakeoutoursailstoit,andleavethecoastofItalybehindusforatime.

II.PriestlyKings
THEquestionswhichwehavesetourselvestoansweraremainlytwo:first,whyhadDianaspriestat
Nemi,theKingoftheWood,toslayhispredecessor?second,whybeforedoingsohadhetopluckthe
branchofacertaintreewhichthepublicopinionoftheancientsidentifiedwithVirgilsGoldenBough?
Thefirstpointonwhichwefastenistheprieststitle.WhywashecalledtheKingoftheWood?Why
washisofficespokenofasakingdom?
TheunionofaroyaltitlewithpriestlydutieswascommoninancientItalyandGreece.AtRomeandin
othercitiesofLatiumtherewasapriestcalledtheSacrificialKingorKingoftheSacredRites,andhis

wifeborethetitleofQueenoftheSacredRites.InrepublicanAthensthesecondannualmagistrateofthe
statewascalledtheKing,andhiswifetheQueenthefunctionsofbothwerereligious.Manyother
Greekdemocracieshadtitularkings,whoseduties,sofarastheyareknown,seemtohavebeenpriestly,
andtohavecenteredroundtheCommonHearthofthestate.SomeGreekstateshadseveralofthese
titularkings,whoheldofficesimultaneously.AtRomethetraditionwasthattheSacrificialKinghad
beenappointedaftertheabolitionofthemonarchyinordertoofferthesacrificeswhichbeforehadbeen
offeredbythekings.Asimilarviewastotheoriginofthepriestlykingsappearstohaveprevailedin
Greece.Initselftheopinionisnotimprobable,anditisborneoutbytheexampleofSparta,almostthe
onlypurelyGreekstatewhichretainedthekinglyformofgovernmentinhistoricaltimes.ForinSparta
allstatesacrificeswereofferedbythekingsasdescendantsofthegod.OneofthetwoSpartankingsheld
thepriesthoodofZeusLacedaemon,theotherthepriesthoodofHeavenlyZeus.
Thiscombinationofpriestlyfunctionswithroyalauthorityisfamiliartoeveryone.AsiaMinor,for
example,wastheseatofvariousgreatreligiouscapitalspeopledbythousandsofsacredslaves,andruled
bypontiffswhowieldedatoncetemporalandspiritualauthority,likethepopesofmediaevalRome.
SuchpriestriddencitieswereZelaandPessinus.Teutonickings,again,intheoldheathendaysseemto
havestoodintheposition,andtohaveexercisedthepowers,ofhighpriests.TheEmperorsofChina
offeredpublicsacrifices,thedetailsofwhichwereregulatedbytheritualbooks.TheKingof
Madagascarwashighpriestoftherealm.Atthegreatfestivalofthenewyear,whenabullockwas
sacrificedforthegoodofthekingdom,thekingstoodoverthesacrificetoofferprayerandthanksgiving,
whilehisattendantsslaughteredtheanimal.Inthemonarchicalstateswhichstillmaintaintheir
independenceamongtheGallasofEasternAfrica,thekingsacrificesonthemountaintopsandregulates
theimmolationofhumanvictimsandthedimlightoftraditionrevealsasimilarunionoftemporaland
spiritualpower,ofroyalandpriestlyduties,inthekingsofthatdelightfulregionofCentralAmerica
whoseancientcapital,nowburiedundertherankgrowthofthetropicalforest,ismarkedbythestately
andmysteriousruinsofPalenque.
Whenwehavesaidthattheancientkingswerecommonlypriestsalso,wearefarfromhavingexhausted
thereligiousaspectoftheiroffice.Inthosedaysthedivinitythathedgesakingwasnoemptyformof
speech,buttheexpressionofasoberbelief.Kingswererevered,inmanycasesnotmerelyaspriests,that
is,asintercessorsbetweenmanandgod,butasthemselvesgods,abletobestowupontheirsubjectsand
worshippersthoseblessingswhicharecommonlysupposedtobebeyondthereachofmortals,andare
sought,ifatall,onlybyprayerandsacrificeofferedtosuperhumanandinvisiblebeings.Thuskingsare
oftenexpectedtogiverainandsunshineindueseason,tomakethecropsgrow,andsoon.Strangeasthis
expectationappearstous,itisquiteofapiecewithearlymodesofthought.Asavagehardlyconceives
thedistinctioncommonlydrawnbymoreadvancedpeoplesbetweenthenaturalandthesupernatural.To
himtheworldistoagreatextentworkedbysupernaturalagents,thatis,bypersonalbeingsactingon
impulsesandmotiveslikehisown,liablelikehimtobemovedbyappealstotheirpity,theirhopes,and
theirfears.Inaworldsoconceivedheseesnolimittohispowerofinfluencingthecourseofnaturetohis
ownadvantage.Prayers,promises,orthreatsmaysecurehimfineweatherandanabundantcropfromthe
godsandifagodshouldhappen,ashesometimesbelieves,tobecomeincarnateinhisownperson,then
heneedappealtonohigherbeinghe,thesavage,possessesinhimselfallthepowersnecessarytofurther
hisownwellbeingandthatofhisfellowmen.
Thisisonewayinwhichtheideaofamangodisreached.Butthereisanother.Alongwiththeviewof
theworldaspervadedbyspiritualforces,savagemanhasadifferent,andprobablystillolder,conception
inwhichwemaydetectagermofthemodernnotionofnaturallawortheviewofnatureasaseriesof
eventsoccurringinaninvariableorderwithouttheinterventionofpersonalagency.ThegermofwhichI
speakisinvolvedinthatsympatheticmagic,asitmaybecalled,whichplaysalargepartinmostsystems
ofsuperstition.Inearlysocietythekingisfrequentlyamagicianaswellasapriestindeedheappearsto
haveoftenattainedtopowerbyvirtueofhissupposedproficiencyintheblackorwhiteart.Hencein

ordertounderstandtheevolutionofthekingshipandthesacredcharacterwithwhichtheofficehas
commonlybeeninvestedintheeyesofsavageorbarbarouspeoples,itisessentialtohavesome
acquaintancewiththeprinciplesofmagicandtoformsomeconceptionoftheextraordinaryholdwhich
thatancientsystemofsuperstitionhashadonthehumanmindinallagesandallcountries.AccordinglyI
proposetoconsiderthesubjectinsomedetail.

III.SympatheticMagic
1.ThePrinciplesofMagic
IFweanalysetheprinciplesofthoughtonwhichmagicisbased,theywillprobablybefoundtoresolve
themselvesintotwo:first,thatlikeproduceslike,orthataneffectresemblesitscauseand,second,that
thingswhichhaveoncebeenincontactwitheachothercontinuetoactoneachotheratadistanceafter
thephysicalcontacthasbeensevered.TheformerprinciplemaybecalledtheLawofSimilarity,the
lattertheLawofContactorContagion.Fromthefirstoftheseprinciples,namelytheLawofSimilarity,
themagicianinfersthathecanproduceanyeffecthedesiresmerelybyimitatingit:fromthesecondhe
infersthatwhateverhedoestoamaterialobjectwillaffectequallythepersonwithwhomtheobjectwas
onceincontact,whetheritformedpartofhisbodyornot.CharmsbasedontheLawofSimilaritymaybe
calledHomoeopathicorImitativeMagic.CharmsbasedontheLawofContactorContagionmaybe
calledContagiousMagic.TodenotethefirstofthesebranchesofmagicthetermHomoeopathicis
perhapspreferable,forthealternativetermImitativeorMimeticsuggests,ifitdoesnotimply,a
consciousagentwhoimitates,therebylimitingthescopeofmagictoonarrowly.Forthesameprinciples
whichthemagicianappliesinthepracticeofhisartareimplicitlybelievedbyhimtoregulatethe
operationsofinanimatenatureinotherwords,hetacitlyassumesthattheLawsofSimilarityandContact
areofuniversalapplicationandarenotlimitedtohumanactions.Inshort,magicisaspurioussystemof
naturallawaswellasafallaciousguideofconductitisafalsescienceaswellasanabortiveart.
Regardedasasystemofnaturallaw,thatis,asastatementoftheruleswhichdeterminethesequenceof
eventsthroughouttheworld,itmaybecalledTheoreticalMagic:regardedasasetofpreceptswhich
humanbeingsobserveinordertocompasstheirends,itmaybecalledPracticalMagic.Atthesametime
itistobeborneinmindthattheprimitivemagicianknowsmagiconlyonitspracticalsidehenever
analysesthementalprocessesonwhichhispracticeisbased,neverreflectsontheabstractprinciples
involvedinhisactions.Withhim,aswiththevastmajorityofmen,logicisimplicit,notexplicit:he
reasonsjustashedigestshisfoodincompleteignoranceoftheintellectualandphysiologicalprocesses
whichareessentialtotheoneoperationandtotheother.Inshort,tohimmagicisalwaysanart,nevera
sciencetheveryideaofscienceislackinginhisundevelopedmind.Itisforthephilosophicstudentto
tracethetrainofthoughtwhichunderliesthemagicianspracticetodrawoutthefewsimplethreadsof
whichthetangledskeiniscomposedtodisengagetheabstractprinciplesfromtheirconcrete
applicationsinshort,todiscernthespurioussciencebehindthebastardart.
Ifmyanalysisofthemagicianslogiciscorrect,itstwogreatprinciplesturnouttobemerelytwo
differentmisapplicationsoftheassociationofideas.Homoeopathicmagicisfoundedontheassociation
ofideasbysimilarity:contagiousmagicisfoundedontheassociationofideasbycontiguity.
Homoeopathicmagiccommitsthemistakeofassumingthatthingswhichresembleeachotherarethe
same:contagiousmagiccommitsthemistakeofassumingthatthingswhichhaveoncebeenincontact
witheachotherarealwaysincontact.Butinpracticethetwobranchesareoftencombinedor,tobe
moreexact,whilehomoeopathicorimitativemagicmaybepractisedbyitself,contagiousmagicwill
generallybefoundtoinvolveanapplicationofthehomoeopathicorimitativeprinciple.Thusgenerally
statedthetwothingsmaybealittledifficulttograsp,buttheywillreadilybecomeintelligiblewhenthey
areillustratedbyparticularexamples.Bothtrainsofthoughtareinfactextremelysimpleandelementary.
Itcouldhardlybeotherwise,sincetheyarefamiliarintheconcrete,thoughcertainlynotintheabstract,

tothecrudeintelligencenotonlyofthesavage,butofignorantanddullwittedpeopleeverywhere.Both
branchesofmagic,thehomoeopathicandthecontagious,mayconvenientlybecomprehendedunderthe
generalnameofSympatheticMagic,sincebothassumethatthingsactoneachotheratadistance
throughasecretsympathy,theimpulsebeingtransmittedfromonetotheotherbymeansofwhatwemay
conceiveasakindofinvisibleether,notunlikethatwhichispostulatedbymodernsciencefora
preciselysimilarpurpose,namely,toexplainhowthingscanphysicallyaffecteachotherthroughaspace
whichappearstobeempty.
Itmaybeconvenienttotabulateasfollowsthebranchesofmagicaccordingtothelawsofthoughtwhich
underliethem:
SympatheticMagic
(LawofSympathy)
|

||
HomoeopathicMagicContagiousMagic
(LawofSimilarity)(LawofContact)

Iwillnowillustratethesetwogreatbranchesofsympatheticmagicbyexamples,beginningwith
homoeopathicmagic.
2.HomoeopathicorImitativeMagic
PERHAPSthemostfamiliarapplicationoftheprinciplethatlikeproduceslikeistheattemptwhichhas
beenmadebymanypeoplesinmanyagestoinjureordestroyanenemybyinjuringordestroyingan
imageofhim,inthebeliefthat,justastheimagesuffers,sodoestheman,andthatwhenitperisheshe
mustdie.Afewinstancesoutofmanymaybegiventoproveatoncethewidediffusionofthepractice
overtheworldanditsremarkablepersistencethroughtheages.Forthousandsofyearsagoitwasknown
tothesorcerersofancientIndia,Babylon,andEgypt,aswellasofGreeceandRome,andatthisdayitis
stillresortedtobycunningandmalignantsavagesinAustralia,Africa,andScotland.ThustheNorth
AmericanIndians,wearetold,believethatbydrawingthefigureofapersoninsand,ashes,orclay,or
byconsideringanyobjectashisbody,andthenprickingitwithasharpstickordoingitanyotherinjury,
theyinflictacorrespondinginjuryonthepersonrepresented.Forexample,whenanOjebwayIndian
desirestoworkevilonanyone,hemakesalittlewoodenimageofhisenemyandrunsaneedleintoits
headorheart,orheshootsanarrowintoit,believingthatwherevertheneedlepiercesorthearrowstrikes
theimage,hisfoewillthesameinstantbeseizedwithasharppaininthecorrespondingpartofhisbody
butifheintendstokillthepersonoutright,heburnsorburiesthepuppet,utteringcertainmagicwordsas
hedoesso.ThePeruvianIndiansmouldedimagesoffatmixedwithgraintoimitatethepersonswhom
theydislikedorfeared,andthenburnedtheeffigyontheroadwheretheintendedvictimwastopass.
Thistheycalledburninghissoul.
AMalaycharmofthesamesortisasfollows.Takeparingsofnails,hair,eyebrows,spittle,andsoforth
ofyourintendedvictim,enoughtorepresenteverypartofhisperson,andthenmakethemupintohis
likenesswithwaxfromadesertedbeescomb.Scorchthefigureslowlybyholdingitoveralampevery
nightforsevennights,andsay:
ItisnotwaxthatIamscorching,
Itistheliver,heart,andspleenofSoandsothatIscorch.
Aftertheseventhtimeburnthefigure,andyourvictimwilldie.Thischarmobviouslycombinesthe
principlesofhomoeopathicandcontagiousmagicsincetheimagewhichismadeinthelikenessofan

enemycontainsthingswhichoncewereincontactwithhim,namely,hisnails,hair,andspittle.Another
formoftheMalaycharm,whichresemblestheOjebwaypracticestillmoreclosely,istomakeacorpse
ofwaxfromanemptybeescombandofthelengthofafootstepthenpiercetheeyeoftheimage,and
yourenemyisblindpiercethestomach,andheissickpiercethehead,andhisheadachespiercethe
breast,andhisbreastwillsuffer.Ifyouwouldkillhimoutright,transfixtheimagefromthehead
downwardsenshrouditasyouwouldacorpseprayoveritasifyouwereprayingoverthedeadthen
buryitinthemiddleofapathwhereyourvictimwillbesuretostepoverit.Inorderthathisbloodmay
notbeonyourhead,youshouldsay:
ItisnotIwhoamburyinghim,
ItisGabrielwhoisburyinghim.
ThustheguiltofthemurderwillbelaidontheshouldersofthearchangelGabriel,whoisagreatdeal
betterabletobearitthanyouare.
Ifhomoeopathicorimitativemagic,workingbymeansofimages,hascommonlybeenpractisedforthe
spitefulpurposeofputtingobnoxiouspeopleoutoftheworld,ithasalso,thoughfarmorerarely,been
employedwiththebenevolentintentionofhelpingothersintoit.Inotherwords,ithasbeenusedto
facilitatechildbirthandtoprocureoffspringforbarrenwomen.ThusamongtheBataksofSumatraa
barrenwoman,whowouldbecomeamother,willmakeawoodenimageofachildandholditinherlap,
believingthatthiswillleadtothefulfilmentofherwish.IntheBabarArchipelago,whenawoman
desirestohaveachild,sheinvitesamanwhoishimselfthefatherofalargefamilytoprayonherbehalf
toUpulero,thespiritofthesun.Adollismadeofredcotton,whichthewomanclaspsinherarms,asif
shewouldsuckleit.Thenthefatherofmanychildrentakesafowlandholdsitbythelegstothe
womanshead,saying,OUpulero,makeuseofthefowlletfall,letdescendachild,Ibeseechyou,I
entreatyou,letachildfallanddescendintomyhandsandonmylap.Thenheasksthewoman,Has
thechildcome?andsheanswers,Yes,itissuckingalready.Afterthatthemanholdsthefowlonthe
husbandshead,andmumblessomeformofwords.Lastly,thebirdiskilledandlaid,togetherwithsome
betel,onthedomesticplaceofsacrifice.Whentheceremonyisover,wordgoesaboutinthevillagethat
thewomanhasbeenbroughttobed,andherfriendscomeandcongratulateher.Herethepretencethata
childhasbeenbornisapurelymagicalritedesignedtosecure,bymeansofimitationormimicry,thata
childreallyshallbebornbutanattemptismadetoaddtotheefficacyoftheritebymeansofprayerand
sacrifice.Toputitotherwise,magicishereblentwithandreinforcedbyreligion.
AmongsomeoftheDyaksofBorneo,whenawomanisinhardlabour,awizardiscalledin,whoessays
tofacilitatethedeliveryinarationalmannerbymanipulatingthebodyofthesufferer.Meantimeanother
wizardoutsidetheroomexertshimselftoattainthesameendbymeanswhichweshouldregardas
whollyirrational.He,infact,pretendstobetheexpectantmotheralargestoneattachedtohisstomach
byaclothwraptroundhisbodyrepresentsthechildinthewomb,and,followingthedirectionsshouted
tohimbyhiscolleagueontherealsceneofoperations,hemovesthismakebelievebabyaboutonhis
bodyinexactimitationofthemovementsoftherealbabytilltheinfantisborn.
Thesameprincipleofmakebelieve,sodeartochildren,hasledotherpeoplestoemployasimulationof
birthasaformofadoption,andevenasamodeofrestoringasupposeddeadpersontolife.Ifyou
pretendtogivebirthtoaboy,oreventoagreatbeardedmanwhohasnotadropofyourbloodinhis
veins,then,intheeyesofprimitivelawandphilosophy,thatboyormanisreallyyoursontoallintents
andpurposes.ThusDiodorustellsusthatwhenZeuspersuadedhisjealouswifeHeratoadoptHercules,
thegoddessgotintobed,andclaspingtheburlyherotoherbosom,pushedhimthroughherrobesandlet
himfalltothegroundinimitationofarealbirthandthehistorianaddsthatinhisowndaythesame
modeofadoptingchildrenwaspractisedbythebarbarians.Atthepresenttimeitissaidtobestillinuse
inBulgariaandamongtheBosnianTurks.Awomanwilltakeaboywhomsheintendstoadoptandpush

orpullhimthroughherclotheseverafterwardsheisregardedasherveryson,andinheritsthewhole
propertyofhisadoptiveparents.AmongtheBerawansofSarawak,whenawomandesirestoadopta
grownupmanorwoman,agreatmanypeopleassembleandhaveafeast.Theadoptingmother,seatedin
publiconaraisedandcoveredseat,allowstheadoptedpersontocrawlfrombehindbetweenherlegs.As
soonasheappearsinfrontheisstrokedwiththesweetscentedblossomsofthearecapalmandtiedtoa
woman.Thentheadoptingmotherandtheadoptedsonordaughter,thusboundtogether,waddletothe
endofthehouseandbackagaininfrontofallthespectators.Thetieestablishedbetweenthetwobythis
graphicimitationofchildbirthisverystrictanoffencecommittedagainstanadoptedchildisreckoned
moreheinousthanonecommittedagainstarealchild.InancientGreeceanymanwhohadbeen
supposederroneouslytobedead,andforwhominhisabsencefuneralriteshadbeenperformed,was
treatedasdeadtosocietytillhehadgonethroughtheformofbeingbornagain.Hewaspassedthrougha
womanslap,thenwashed,dressedinswaddlingclothes,andputouttonurse.Notuntilthisceremony
hadbeenpunctuallyperformedmighthemixfreelywithlivingfolk.InancientIndia,undersimilar
circumstances,thesupposeddeadmanhadtopassthefirstnightafterhisreturninatubfilledwitha
mixtureoffatandwatertherehesatwithdoubledupfistsandwithoututteringasyllable,likeachildin
thewomb,whileoverhimwereperformedallthesacramentsthatwerewonttobecelebratedovera
pregnantwoman.Nextmorninghegotoutofthetubandwentthroughoncemorealltheother
sacramentshehadformerlypartakenoffromhisyouthupinparticular,hemarriedawifeorespoused
hisoldoneoveragainwithduesolemnity.
Anotherbeneficentuseofhomoeopathicmagicistohealorpreventsickness.TheancientHindoos
performedanelaborateceremony,basedonhomoeopathicmagic,forthecureofjaundice.Itsmaindrift
wastobanishtheyellowcolourtoyellowcreaturesandyellowthings,suchasthesun,towhichit
properlybelongs,andtoprocureforthepatientahealthyredcolourfromaliving,vigoroussource,
namely,aredbull.Withthisintention,apriestrecitedthefollowingspell:Uptothesunshallgothy
heartacheandthyjaundice:inthecolouroftheredbulldoweenvelopthee!Weenveloptheeinred
tints,untolonglife.Maythispersongounscathedandbefreeofyellowcolour!Thecowswhosedivinity
isRohini,theywho,moreover,arethemselvesred(rohinih)intheireveryformandeverystrengthwe
doenvelopthee.Intotheparrots,intothethrush,doweputthyjaundice,and,furthermore,intothe
yellowwagtaildoweputthyjaundice.Whileheutteredthesewords,thepriest,inordertoinfusethe
rosyhueofhealthintothesallowpatient,gavehimwatertosipwhichwasmixedwiththehairofared
bullhepouredwaterovertheanimalsbackandmadethesickmandrinkitheseatedhimontheskinof
aredbullandtiedapieceoftheskintohim.Theninordertoimprovehiscolourbythoroughly
eradicatingtheyellowtaint,heproceededthus.Hefirstdaubedhimfromheadtofootwithayellow
porridgemadeoftumericorcurcuma(ayellowplant),sethimonabed,tiedthreeyellowbirds,towit,a
parrot,athrush,andayellowwagtail,bymeansofayellowstringtothefootofthebedthenpouring
wateroverthepatient,hewashedofftheyellowporridge,andwithitnodoubtthejaundice,fromhimto
thebirds.Afterthat,bywayofgivingafinalbloomtohiscomplexion,hetooksomehairsofaredbull,
wraptthemingoldleaf,andgluedthemtothepatientsskin.Theancientsheldthatifapersonsuffering
fromjaundicelookedsharplyatastonecurlew,andthebirdlookedsteadilyathim,hewascuredofthe
disease.Suchisthenature,saysPlutarch,andsuchthetemperamentofthecreaturethatitdrawsout
andreceivesthemaladywhichissues,likeastream,throughtheeyesight.Sowellrecognisedamong
birdfancierswasthisvaluablepropertyofthestonecurlewthatwhentheyhadoneofthesebirdsforsale
theykeptitcarefullycovered,lestajaundicedpersonshouldlookatitandbecuredfornothing.The
virtueofthebirdlaynotinitscolourbutinitslargegoldeneye,whichnaturallydrewouttheyellow
jaundice.Plinytellsofanother,orperhapsthesame,bird,towhichtheGreeksgavetheirnamefor
jaundice,becauseifajaundicedmansawit,thediseaselefthimandslewthebird.Hementionsalsoa
stonewhichwassupposedtocurejaundicebecauseitshueresembledthatofajaundicedskin.
Oneofthegreatmeritsofhomoeopathicmagicisthatitenablesthecuretobeperformedontheperson
ofthedoctorinsteadofonthatofhisvictim,whoisthusrelievedofalltroubleandinconvenience,while

heseeshismedicalmanwritheinanguishbeforehim.Forexample,thepeasantsofPerche,inFrance,
labourundertheimpressionthataprolongedfitofvomitingisbroughtaboutbythepatientsstomach
becomingunhooked,astheycallit,andsofallingdown.Accordingly,apractitioneriscalledintorestore
theorgantoitsproperplace.Afterhearingthesymptomsheatoncethrowshimselfintothemosthorrible
contortions,forthepurposeofunhookinghisownstomach.Havingsucceededintheeffort,henext
hooksitupagaininanotherseriesofcontortionsandgrimaces,whilethepatientexperiencesa
correspondingrelief.Feefivefrancs.InlikemanneraDyakmedicineman,whohasbeenfetchedina
caseofillness,willliedownandpretendtobedead.Heisaccordinglytreatedlikeacorpse,isboundup
inmats,takenoutofthehouse,anddepositedontheground.Afteraboutanhourtheothermedicinemen
loosethepretendeddeadmanandbringhimtolifeandasherecovers,thesickpersonissupposedto
recovertoo.Acureforatumour,basedontheprincipleofhomoeopathicmagic,isprescribedby
MarcellusofBordeaux,courtphysiciantoTheodosiustheFirst,inhiscuriousworkonmedicine.Itisas
follows.Takearootofvervain,cutitacross,andhangoneendofitroundthepatientsneck,andthe
otherinthesmokeofthefire.Asthevervaindriesupinthesmoke,sothetumourwillalsodryupand
disappear.Ifthepatientshouldafterwardsproveungratefultothegoodphysician,themanofskillcan
avengehimselfveryeasilybythrowingthevervainintowaterforastherootabsorbsthemoistureonce
more,thetumourwillreturn.Thesamesapientwriterrecommendsyou,ifyouaretroubledwithpimples,
towatchforafallingstar,andtheninstantly,whilethestarisstillshootingfromthesky,towipethe
pimpleswithaclothoranythingthatcomestohand.Justasthestarfallsfromthesky,sothepimples
willfallfromyourbodyonlyyoumustbeverycarefulnottowipethemwithyourbarehand,orthe
pimpleswillbetransferredtoit.
Further,homoeopathicandingeneralsympatheticmagicplaysagreatpartinthemeasurestakenbythe
rudehunterorfishermantosecureanabundantsupplyoffood.Ontheprinciplethatlikeproduceslike,
manythingsaredonebyhimandhisfriendsindeliberateimitationoftheresultwhichheseekstoattain
and,ontheotherhand,manythingsarescrupulouslyavoidedbecausetheybearsomemoreorless
fancifulresemblancetootherswhichwouldreallybedisastrous.
Nowhereisthetheoryofsympatheticmagicmoresystematicallycarriedintopracticeforthe
maintenanceofthefoodsupplythaninthebarrenregionsofCentralAustralia.Herethetribesare
dividedintoanumberoftotemclans,eachofwhichischargedwiththedutyofmultiplyingtheirtotem
forthegoodofthecommunitybymeansofmagicalceremonies.Mostofthetotemsareedibleanimals
andplants,andthegeneralresultsupposedtobeaccomplishedbytheseceremoniesisthatofsupplying
thetribewithfoodandothernecessaries.Oftentheritesconsistofanimitationoftheeffectwhichthe
peopledesiretoproduceinotherwords,theirmagicishomoeopathicorimitative.Thusamongthe
Warramungatheheadmanofthewhitecockatoototemseekstomultiplywhitecockatoosbyholdingan
effigyofthebirdandmimickingitsharshcry.AmongtheAruntathemenofthewitchettygrubtotem
performceremoniesformultiplyingthegrubwhichtheothermembersofthetribeuseasfood.Oneof
theceremoniesisapantomimerepresentingthefullydevelopedinsectintheactofemergingfromthe
chrysalis.Alongnarrowstructureofbranchesissetuptoimitatethechrysaliscaseofthegrub.Inthis
structureanumberofmen,whohavethegrubfortheirtotem,sitandsingofthecreatureinitsvarious
stages.Thentheyshuffleoutofitinasquattingposture,andastheydosotheysingoftheinsect
emergingfromthechrysalis.Thisissupposedtomultiplythenumbersofthegrubs.Again,inorderto
multiplyemus,whichareanimportantarticleoffood,themenoftheemutotempaintonthegroundthe
sacreddesignoftheirtotem,especiallythepartsoftheemuwhichtheylikebesttoeat,namely,thefat
andtheeggs.Roundthispaintingthemensitandsing.Afterwardsperformers,wearingheaddressesto
representthelongneckandsmallheadoftheemu,mimictheappearanceofthebirdasitstands
aimlesslypeeringaboutinalldirections.
TheIndiansofBritishColumbialivelargelyuponthefishwhichaboundintheirseasandrivers.Ifthe
fishdonotcomeindueseason,andtheIndiansarehungry,aNootkawizardwillmakeanimageofa

swimmingfishandputitintothewaterinthedirectionfromwhichthefishgenerallyappear.This
ceremony,accompaniedbyaprayertothefishtocome,willcausethemtoarriveatonce.Theislanders
ofTorresStraitsusemodelsofdugongandturtlestocharmdugongandturtletotheirdestruction.The
ToradjasofCentralCelebesbelievethatthingsofthesamesortattracteachotherbymeansoftheir
indwellingspiritsorvitalether.Hencetheyhangupthejawbonesofdeerandwildpigsintheirhouses,
inorderthatthespiritswhichanimatethesebonesmaydrawthelivingcreaturesofthesamekindinto
thepathofthehunter.IntheislandofNias,whenawildpighasfallenintothepitpreparedforit,the
animalistakenoutanditsbackisrubbedwithninefallenleaves,inthebeliefthatthiswillmakenine
morewildpigsfallintothepit,justasthenineleavesfellfromthetree.IntheEastIndianislandsof
Saparoea,Haroekoe,andNoessaLaut,whenafishermanisabouttosetatrapforfishinthesea,helooks
outforatree,ofwhichthefruithasbeenmuchpeckedatbybirds.Fromsuchatreehecutsastout
branchandmakesofittheprincipalpostinhisfishtrapforhebelievesthat,justasthetreeluredmany
birdstoitsfruit,sothebranchcutfromthattreewillluremanyfishtothetrap.
ThewesterntribesofBritishNewGuineaemployacharmtoaidthehunterinspearingdugongorturtle.
Asmallbeetle,whichhauntscoconuttrees,isplacedintheholeofthespearhaftintowhichthespear
headfits.Thisissupposedtomakethespearheadstickfastinthedugongorturtle,justasthebeetle
sticksfasttoamansskinwhenitbiteshim.WhenaCambodianhunterhassethisnetsandtaken
nothing,hestripshimselfnaked,goessomewayoff,thenstrollsuptothenetasifhedidnotseeit,lets
himselfbecaughtinit,andcries,Hillo!whatsthis?ImafraidImcaught.Afterthatthenetissureto
catchgame.ApantomimeofthesamesorthasbeenactedwithinthelivingmemoryinourScottish
Highlands.TheRev.JamesMacdonald,nowofReayinCaithness,tellsusthatinhisboyhoodwhenhe
wasfishingwithcompanionsaboutLochAlineandtheyhadhadnobitesforalongtime,theyusedto
makeapretenceofthrowingoneoftheirfellowsoverboardandhaulinghimoutofthewater,asifhe
wereafishafterthatthetroutorsillochwouldbegintonibble,accordingastheboatwasonfreshorsalt
water.BeforeaCarrierIndiangoesouttosnaremartens,hesleepsbyhimselfforabouttennightsbeside
thefirewithalittlestickpresseddownonhisneck.Thisnaturallycausesthefallstickofhistraptodrop
downontheneckofthemarten.AmongtheGalelareese,whoinhabitadistrictinthenorthernpartof
Halmahera,alargeislandtothewestofNewGuinea,itisamaximthatwhenyouareloadingyourgun
togooutshooting,youshouldalwaysputthebulletinyourmouthbeforeyouinsertitinthegunforby
sodoingyoupracticallyeatthegamethatistobehitbythebullet,whichthereforecannotpossiblymiss
themark.AMalaywhohasbaitedatrapforcrocodiles,andisawaitingresults,iscarefulineatinghis
curryalwaystobeginbyswallowingthreelumpsofricesuccessivelyforthishelpsthebaittoslidemore
easilydownthecrocodilesthroat.Heisequallyscrupulousnottotakeanybonesoutofhiscurryfor,if
hedid,itseemsclearthatthesharppointedstickonwhichthebaitisskeweredwouldsimilarlywork
itselfloose,andthecrocodilewouldgetoffwiththebait.Henceinthesecircumstancesitisprudentfor
thehunter,beforehebeginshismeal,togetsomebodyelsetotakethebonesoutofhiscurry,otherwise
hemayatanymomenthavetochoosebetweenswallowingaboneandlosingthecrocodile.
Thislastruleisaninstanceofthethingswhichthehunterabstainsfromdoinglest,ontheprinciplethat
likeproduceslike,theyshouldspoilhisluck.Foritistobeobservedthatthesystemofsympathetic
magicisnotmerelycomposedofpositivepreceptsitcomprisesaverylargenumberofnegative
precepts,thatis,prohibitions.Ittellsyounotmerelywhattodo,butalsowhattoleaveundone.The
positivepreceptsarecharms:thenegativepreceptsaretaboos.Infactthewholedoctrineoftaboo,orat
alleventsalargepartofit,wouldseemtobeonlyaspecialapplicationofsympatheticmagic,withits
twogreatlawsofsimilarityandcontact.Thoughtheselawsarecertainlynotformulatedinsomany
wordsnorevenconceivedintheabstractbythesavage,theyareneverthelessimplicitlybelievedbyhim
toregulatethecourseofnaturequiteindependentlyofhumanwill.Hethinksthatifheactsinacertain
way,certainconsequenceswillinevitablyfollowinvirtueofoneorotheroftheselawsandifthe
consequencesofaparticularactappeartohimlikelytoprovedisagreeableordangerous,heisnaturally
carefulnottoactinthatwaylestheshouldincurthem.Inotherwords,heabstainsfromdoingthat

which,inaccordancewithhismistakennotionsofcauseandeffect,hefalselybelieveswouldinjurehim
inshort,hesubjectshimselftoataboo.Thustabooissofaranegativeapplicationofpracticalmagic.
Positivemagicorsorcerysays,Dothisinorderthatsoandsomayhappen.Negativemagicortaboo
says,Donotdothis,lestsoandsoshouldhappen.Theaimofpositivemagicorsorceryistoproducea
desiredeventtheaimofnegativemagicortabooistoavoidanundesirableone.Butbothconsequences,
thedesirableandtheundesirable,aresupposedtobebroughtaboutinaccordancewiththelawsof
similarityandcontact.Andjustasthedesiredconsequenceisnotreallyeffectedbytheobservanceofa
magicalceremony,sothedreadedconsequencedoesnotreallyresultfromtheviolationofataboo.Ifthe
supposedevilnecessarilyfollowedabreachoftaboo,thetaboowouldnotbeataboobutapreceptof
moralityorcommonsense.Itisnotatabootosay,Donotputyourhandinthefireitisaruleof
commonsense,becausetheforbiddenactionentailsareal,notanimaginaryevil.Inshort,thosenegative
preceptswhichwecalltabooarejustasvainandfutileasthosepositivepreceptswhichwecallsorcery.
Thetwothingsaremerelyoppositesidesorpolesofonegreatdisastrousfallacy,amistakenconception
oftheassociationofideas.Ofthatfallacy,sorceryisthepositive,andtaboothenegativepole.Ifwegive
thegeneralnameofmagictothewholeerroneoussystem,boththeoreticalandpractical,thentaboomay
bedefinedasthenegativesideofpracticalmagic.Toputthisintabularform:
Magic
|

||
TheoreticalPractical
(Magicasa(Magicasa
pseudoscience)pseudoart)
|

||
PositiveMagicNegativeMagic
orSorceryorTaboo

IhavemadetheseremarksontabooanditsrelationstomagicbecauseIamabouttogivesomeinstances
oftaboosobservedbyhunters,fishermen,andothers,andIwishedtoshowthattheyfallunderthehead
ofSympatheticMagic,beingonlyparticularapplicationsofthatgeneraltheory.Thus,amongthe
Esquimauxboysareforbiddentoplaycatscradle,becauseiftheydidsotheirfingersmightinlaterlife
becomeentangledintheharpoonline.Herethetabooisobviouslyanapplicationofthelawofsimilarity,
whichisthebasisofhomoeopathicmagic:asthechildsfingersareentangledbythestringinplaying
catscradle,sotheywillbeentangledbytheharpoonlinewhenheisamanandhuntswhales.Again,
amongtheHuzulsoftheCarpathianMountainsthewifeofahuntermaynotspinwhileherhusbandis
eating,orthegamewillturnandwindlikethespindle,andthehunterwillbeunabletohitit.Hereagain
thetabooisclearlyderivedfromthelawofsimilarity.So,too,inmostpartsofancientItalywomenwere
forbiddenbylawtospinonthehighroadsastheywalked,oreventocarrytheirspindlesopenly,because
anysuchactionwasbelievedtoinjurethecrops.Probablythenotionwasthatthetwirlingofthespindle
wouldtwirlthecornstalksandpreventthemfromgrowingstraight.So,too,amongtheAinosof
Saghalienapregnantwomanmaynotspinnortwistropesfortwomonthsbeforeherdelivery,because
theythinkthatifshedidsothechildsgutsmightbeentangledlikethethread.Foralikereasonin
Bilaspore,adistrictofIndia,whenthechiefmenofavillagemeetincouncil,noonepresentshouldtwirl
aspindlefortheythinkthatifsuchathingweretohappen,thediscussion,likethespindle,wouldmove
inacircleandneverbewoundup.InsomeoftheEastIndianislandsanyonewhocomestothehouseof
ahuntermustwalkstraightinhemaynotloiteratthedoor,forwerehetodoso,thegamewouldinlike
mannerstopinfrontofthehunterssnaresandthenturnback,insteadofbeingcaughtinthetrap.Fora
similarreasonitisarulewiththeToradjasofCentralCelebesthatnoonemaystandorloiteronthe
ladderofahousewherethereisapregnantwoman,forsuchdelaywouldretardthebirthofthechildand

invariouspartsofSumatrathewomanherselfinthesecircumstancesisforbiddentostandatthedooror
onthetoprungofthehouseladderunderpainofsufferinghardlabourforherimprudenceinneglecting
soelementaryaprecaution.Malaysengagedinthesearchforcamphoreattheirfooddryandtakecare
nottopoundtheirsaltfine.Thereasonisthatthecamphoroccursintheformofsmallgrainsdepositedin
thecracksofthetrunkofthecamphortree.AccordinglyitseemsplaintotheMalaythatif,whileseeking
forcamphor,heweretoeathissaltfinelyground,thecamphorwouldbefoundalsoinfinegrains
whereasbyeatinghissaltcoarseheensuresthatthegrainsofthecamphorwillalsobelarge.Camphor
huntersinBorneousetheleatherysheathoftheleafstalkofthePenangpalmasaplateforfood,and
duringthewholeoftheexpeditiontheywillneverwashtheplate,forfearthatthecamphormight
dissolveanddisappearfromthecrevicesofthetree.Apparentlytheythinkthattowashtheirplates
wouldbetowashoutthecamphorcrystalsfromthetreesinwhichtheyareimbedded.Thechiefproduct
ofsomepartsofLaos,aprovinceofSiam,islac.Thisisaresinousgumexudedbyaredinsectonthe
youngbranchesoftrees,towhichthelittlecreatureshavetobeattachedbyhand.Allwhoengageinthe
businessofgatheringthegumabstainfromwashingthemselvesandespeciallyfromcleansingtheir
heads,lestbyremovingtheparasitesfromtheirhairtheyshoulddetachtheotherinsectsfromthe
boughs.Again,aBlackfootIndianwhohassetatrapforeagles,andiswatchingit,wouldnoteat
rosebudsonanyaccountforhearguesthatifhedidso,andaneaglealightednearthetrap,therosebuds
inhisownstomachwouldmakethebirditch,withtheresultthatinsteadofswallowingthebaittheeagle
wouldmerelysitandscratchhimself.Followingthistrainofthoughttheeaglehunteralsorefrainsfrom
usinganawlwhenheislookingafterhissnaresforsurelyifheweretoscratchwithanawl,theeagles
wouldscratchhim.Thesamedisastrousconsequencewouldfollowifhiswivesandchildrenathome
usedanawlwhileheisoutaftereagles,andaccordinglytheyareforbiddentohandlethetoolinhis
absenceforfearofputtinghiminbodilydanger.
Amongthetaboosobservedbysavagesnoneperhapsaremorenumerousorimportantthanthe
prohibitionstoeatcertainfoods,andofsuchprohibitionsmanyaredemonstrablyderivedfromthelawof
similarityandareaccordinglyexamplesofnegativemagic.Justasthesavageeatsmanyanimalsor
plantsinordertoacquirecertaindesirablequalitieswithwhichhebelievesthemtobeendowed,sohe
avoidseatingmanyotheranimalsandplantslestheshouldacquirecertainundesirablequalitieswith
whichhebelievesthemtobeinfected.Ineatingtheformerhepractisespositivemagicinabstaining
fromthelatterhepractisesnegativemagic.Manyexamplesofsuchpositivemagicwillmeetuslateron
hereIwillgiveafewinstancesofsuchnegativemagicortaboo.Forexample,inMadagascarsoldiersare
forbiddentoeatanumberoffoodslestontheprincipleofhomoeopathicmagictheyshouldbetaintedby
certaindangerousorundesirablepropertieswhicharesupposedtoinhereintheseparticularviands.Thus
theymaynottastehedgehog,asitisfearedthatthisanimal,fromitspropensityofcoilingupintoaball
whenalarmed,willimpartatimidshrinkingdispositiontothosewhopartakeofit.Again,nosoldier
shouldeatanoxsknee,lestlikeanoxheshouldbecomeweakinthekneesandunabletomarch.
Further,thewarriorshouldbecarefultoavoidpartakingofacockthathasdiedfightingoranythingthat
hasbeenspearedtodeathandnomaleanimalmayonanyaccountbekilledinhishousewhileheis
awayatthewars.Foritseemsobviousthatifheweretoeatacockthathaddiedfighting,hewould
himselfbeslainonthefieldofbattleifheweretopartakeofananimalthathadbeenspeared,hewould
bespearedhimselfifamaleanimalwerekilledinhishouseduringhisabsence,hewouldhimselfbe
killedinlikemannerandperhapsatthesameinstant.Further,theMalagasysoldiermusteschewkidneys,
becauseintheMalagasylanguagethewordforkidneyisthesameasthatforshotsoshothewould
certainlybeifheateakidney.
Thereadermayhaveobservedthatinsomeoftheforegoingexamplesoftaboosthemagicalinfluenceis
supposedtooperateatconsiderabledistancesthusamongtheBlackfeetIndiansthewivesandchildren
ofaneaglehunterareforbiddentouseanawlduringhisabsence,lesttheeaglesshouldscratchthe
distanthusbandandfatherandagainnomaleanimalmaybekilledinthehouseofaMalagasysoldier
whileheisawayatthewars,lestthekillingoftheanimalshouldentailthekillingoftheman.Thisbelief

inthesympatheticinfluenceexertedoneachotherbypersonsorthingsatadistanceisoftheessenceof
magic.Whateverdoubtssciencemayentertainastothepossibilityofactionatadistance,magichas
nonefaithintelepathyisoneofitsfirstprinciples.Amodernadvocateoftheinfluenceofmindupon
mindatadistancewouldhavenodifficultyinconvincingasavagethesavagebelievedinitlongago,
andwhatismore,heactedonhisbeliefwithalogicalconsistencysuchashiscivilisedbrotherinthe
faithhasnotyet,sofarasIamaware,exhibitedinhisconduct.Forthesavageisconvincednotonlythat
magicalceremoniesaffectpersonsandthingsafaroff,butthatthesimplestactsofdailylifemaydoso
too.Henceonimportantoccasionsthebehaviouroffriendsandrelationsatadistanceisoftenregulated
byamoreorlesselaboratecodeofrules,theneglectofwhichbytheonesetofpersonswould,itis
supposed,entailmisfortuneorevendeathontheabsentones.Inparticularwhenapartyofmenareout
huntingorfighting,theirkinsfolkathomeareoftenexpectedtodocertainthingsortoabstainfromdoing
certainothers,forthesakeofensuringthesafetyandsuccessofthedistanthuntersorwarriors.Iwill
nowgivesomeinstancesofthismagicaltelepathybothinitspositiveandinitsnegativeaspect.
InLaoswhenanelephanthunterisstartingforthechase,hewarnshiswifenottocutherhairoroilher
bodyinhisabsenceforifshecutherhairtheelephantwouldburstthetoils,ifsheoiledherselfitwould
slipthroughthem.WhenaDyakvillagehasturnedouttohuntwildpigsinthejungle,thepeoplewho
stayathomemaynottouchoilorwaterwiththeirhandsduringtheabsenceoftheirfriendsforifthey
didso,thehunterswouldallbebutterfingeredandthepreywouldslipthroughtheirhands.
ElephanthuntersinEastAfricabelievethat,iftheirwivesproveunfaithfulintheirabsence,thisgives
theelephantpoweroverhispursuer,whowillaccordinglybekilledorseverelywounded.Henceifa
hunterhearsofhiswifesmisconduct,heabandonsthechaseandreturnshome.IfaWagogohunteris
unsuccessful,orisattackedbyalion,heattributesittohiswifesmisbehaviourathome,andreturnsto
heringreatwrath.Whileheisawayhunting,shemaynotletanyonepassbehindherorstandinfrontof
herasshesitsandshemustlieonherfaceinbed.TheMoxosIndiansofBoliviathoughtthatifa
hunterswifewasunfaithfultohiminhisabsencehewouldbebittenbyaserpentorajaguar.
Accordingly,ifsuchanaccidenthappenedtohim,itwassuretoentailthepunishment,andoftenthe
death,ofthewoman,whethershewasinnocentorguilty.AnAleutianhunterofseaottersthinksthathe
cannotkillasingleanimalifduringhisabsencefromhomehiswifeshouldbeunfaithfulorhissister
unchaste.
TheHuicholIndiansofMexicotreatasademigodaspeciesofcactuswhichthrowstheeaterintoastate
ofecstasy.Theplantdoesnotgrowintheircountry,andhastobefetchedeveryyearbymenwhomakea
journeyoffortythreedaysforthepurpose.Meanwhilethewivesathomecontributetothesafetyoftheir
absenthusbandsbyneverwalkingfast,muchlessrunning,whilethemenareontheroad.Theyalsodo
theirbesttoensurethebenefitswhich,intheshapeofrain,goodcrops,andsoforth,areexpectedtoflow
fromthesacredmission.Withthisintentiontheysubjectthemselvestosevererestrictionslikethose
imposedupontheirhusbands.Duringthewholeofthetimewhichelapsestillthefestivalofthecactusis
held,neitherpartywashesexceptoncertainoccasions,andthenonlywithwaterbroughtfromthedistant
countrywheretheholyplantgrows.Theyalsofastmuch,eatnosalt,andareboundtostrictcontinence.
Anyonewhobreaksthislawispunishedwithillness,and,moreover,jeopardisestheresultwhichallare
strivingfor.Health,luck,andlifearetobegainedbygatheringthecactus,thegourdoftheGodofFire
butinasmuchasthepurefirecannotbenefittheimpure,menandwomenmustnotonlyremainchastefor
thetimebeing,butmustalsopurgethemselvesfromthetaintofpastsin.Hencefourdaysafterthemen
havestartedthewomengatherandconfesstoGrandfatherFirewithwhatmentheyhavebeeninlove
fromchildhoodtillnow.Theymaynotomitasingleone,foriftheydidsothemenwouldnotfinda
singlecactus.Sotorefreshtheirmemorieseachonepreparesastringwithasmanyknotsasshehashad
lovers.Thisshebringstothetemple,and,standingbeforethefire,shementionsaloudallthemenshe
hasscoredonherstring,nameaftername.Havingendedherconfession,shethrowsthestringintothe
fire,andwhenthegodhasconsumeditinhispureflame,hersinsareforgivenherandshedepartsin

peace.Fromnowonthewomenareaverseeventolettingmenpassnearthem.Thecactusseekers
themselvesmakeinlikemanneracleanbreastofalltheirfrailties.Foreverypeccadillotheytieaknoton
astring,andaftertheyhavetalkedtoallthefivewindstheydelivertherosaryoftheirsinstothe
leader,whoburnsitinthefire.
ManyoftheindigenoustribesofSarawakarefirmlypersuadedthatwerethewivestocommitadultery
whiletheirhusbandsaresearchingforcamphorinthejungle,thecamphorobtainedbythemenwould
evaporate.Husbandscandiscover,bycertainknotsinthetree,whenthewivesareunfaithfulanditis
saidthatinformerdaysmanywomenwerekilledbyjealoushusbandsonnobetterevidencethanthatof
theseknots.Further,thewivesdarenottouchacombwhiletheirhusbandsareawaycollectingthe
camphorforiftheydidso,theintersticesbetweenthefibresofthetree,insteadofbeingfilledwiththe
preciouscrystals,wouldbeemptylikethespacesbetweentheteethofacomb.IntheKeiIslands,tothe
southwestofNewGuinea,assoonasavesselthatisabouttosailforadistantporthasbeenlaunched,the
partofthebeachonwhichitlayiscoveredasspeedilyaspossiblewithpalmbranches,andbecomes
sacred.Noonemaythenceforthcrossthatspottilltheshipcomeshome.Tocrossitsoonerwouldcause
thevesseltoperish.Moreover,allthetimethatthevoyagelaststhreeorfouryounggirls,specially
chosenfortheduty,aresupposedtoremaininsympatheticconnexionwiththemarinersandtocontribute
bytheirbehaviourtothesafetyandsuccessofthevoyage.Onnoaccount,exceptforthemostnecessary
purpose,maytheyquittheroomthathasbeenassignedtothem.Morethanthat,solongasthevesselis
believedtobeatseatheymustremainabsolutelymotionless,crouchedontheirmatswiththeirhands
claspedbetweentheirknees.Theymaynotturntheirheadstotheleftortotherightormakeanyother
movementwhatsoever.Iftheydid,itwouldcausetheboattopitchandtossandtheymaynoteatany
stickystuff,suchasriceboiledincoconutmilk,forthestickinessofthefoodwouldclogthepassageof
theboatthroughthewater.Whenthesailorsaresupposedtohavereachedtheirdestination,thestrictness
oftheserulesissomewhatrelaxedbutduringthewholetimethatthevoyagelaststhegirlsareforbidden
toeatfishwhichhavesharpbonesorstings,suchasthestingray,lesttheirfriendsatseashouldbe
involvedinsharp,stingingtrouble.
Wherebeliefsliketheseprevailastothesympatheticconnexionbetweenfriendsatadistance,weneed
notwonderthataboveeverythingelsewar,withitssternyetstirringappealtosomeofthedeepestand
tenderestofhumanemotions,shouldquickenintheanxiousrelationsleftbehindadesiretoturnthe
sympatheticbondtotheutmostaccountforthebenefitofthedearoneswhomayatanymomentbe
fightinganddyingfaraway.Hence,tosecureanendsonaturalandlaudable,friendsathomeareaptto
resorttodeviceswhichwillstrikeusaspatheticorludicrous,accordingasweconsidertheirobjectorthe
meansadoptedtoeffectit.ThusinsomedistrictsofBorneo,whenaDyakisoutheadhunting,hiswife
or,ifheisunmarried,hissistermustwearasworddayandnightinorderthathemayalwaysbethinking
ofhisweaponsandshemaynotsleepduringthedaynorgotobedbeforetwointhemorning,lesther
husbandorbrothershouldtherebybesurprisedinhissleepbyanenemy.AmongtheSeaDyaksof
BantinginSarawakthewomenstrictlyobserveanelaboratecodeofruleswhilethemenareaway
fighting.Someoftherulesarenegativeandsomearepositive,butallalikearebasedontheprinciplesof
magicalhomoeopathyandtelepathy.Amongstthemarethefollowing.Thewomenmustwakeveryearly
inthemorningandopenthewindowsassoonasitislightotherwisetheirabsenthusbandswill
oversleepthemselves.Thewomenmaynotoiltheirhair,orthemenwillslip.Thewomenmayneither
sleepnordozebyday,orthemenwillbedrowsyonthemarch.Thewomenmustcookandscatter
popcornontheverandaheverymorningsowillthemenbeagileintheirmovements.Theroomsmustbe
keptverytidy,allboxesbeingplacednearthewallsforifanyoneweretostumbleoverthem,theabsent
husbandswouldfallandbeatthemercyofthefoe.Ateverymealalittlericemustbeleftinthepotand
putasidesowillthemenfarawayalwayshavesomethingtoeatandneednevergohungry.Onno
accountmaythewomensitattheloomtilltheirlegsgrowcramped,otherwisetheirhusbandswill
likewisebestiffintheirjointsandunabletoriseupquicklyortorunawayfromthefoe.Soinorderto
keeptheirhusbandsjointssupplethewomenoftenvarytheirlaboursattheloombywalkingupand

downtheverandah.Further,theymaynotcoveruptheirfaces,orthemenwouldnottobeabletofind
theirwaythroughthetallgrassorjungle.Again,thewomenmaynotsewwithaneedle,orthemenwill
treadonthesharpspikessetbytheenemyinthepath.Shouldawifeproveunfaithfulwhileherhusband
isaway,hewilllosehislifeintheenemyscountry.Someyearsagoalltheserulesandmorewere
observedbythewomenofBanting,whiletheirhusbandswerefightingfortheEnglishagainstrebels.But
alas!thesetenderprecautionsavailedthemlittleformanyaman,whosefaithfulwifewaskeepingwatch
andwardforhimathome,foundasoldiersgrave.
IntheislandofTimor,whilewarisbeingwaged,thehighpriestneverquitsthetemplehisfoodis
broughttohimorcookedinsidedayandnighthemustkeepthefireburning,forifheweretoletitdie
out,disasterwouldbefallthewarriorsandwouldcontinuesolongasthehearthwascold.Moreover,he
mustdrinkonlyhotwaterduringthetimethearmyisabsentforeverydraughtofcoldwaterwould
dampthespiritsofthepeople,sothattheycouldnotvanquishtheenemy.IntheKeiIslands,whenthe
warriorshavedeparted,thewomenreturnindoorsandbringoutcertainbasketscontainingfruitsand
stones.Thesefruitsandstonestheyanointandplaceonaboard,murmuringastheydoso,Olordsun,
moon,letthebulletsreboundfromourhusbands,brothers,betrothed,andotherrelations,justas
raindropsreboundfromtheseobjectswhicharesmearedwithoil.Assoonasthefirstshotisheard,the
basketsareputaside,andthewomen,seizingtheirfans,rushoutofthehouses.Then,wavingtheirfans
inthedirectionoftheenemy,theyrunthroughthevillage,whiletheysing,Ogoldenfans!letour
bulletshit,andthoseoftheenemymiss.Inthiscustomtheceremonyofanointingstones,inorderthat
thebulletsmayrecoilfromthemenlikeraindropsfromthestones,isapieceofpurehomoeopathicor
imitativemagicbuttheprayertothesun,thathewillbepleasedtogiveeffecttothecharm,isareligious
andperhapslateraddition.Thewavingofthefansseemstobeacharmtodirectthebulletstowardsor
awayfromtheirmark,accordingastheyaredischargedfromthegunsoffriendsorfoes.
AnoldhistorianofMadagascarinformsusthatwhilethemenareatthewars,anduntiltheirreturn,the
womenandgirlsceasenotdayandnighttodance,andneitherliedownnortakefoodintheirown
houses.Andalthoughtheyareveryvoluptuouslyinclined,theywouldnotforanythingintheworldhave
anintriguewithanothermanwhiletheirhusbandisatthewar,believingfirmlythatifthathappened,
theirhusbandwouldbeeitherkilledorwounded.Theybelievethatbydancingtheyimpartstrength,
courage,andgoodfortunetotheirhusbandsaccordinglyduringsuchtimestheygivethemselvesnorest,
andthiscustomtheyobserveveryreligiously.
AmongtheTshispeakingpeoplesoftheGoldCoastthewivesofmenwhoareawaywiththearmypaint
themselveswhite,andadorntheirpersonswithbeadsandcharms.Onthedaywhenabattleisexpected
totakeplace,theyrunaboutarmedwithguns,orstickscarvedtolooklikeguns,andtakinggreenpaw
paws(fruitsshapedsomewhatlikeamelon),theyhackthemwithknives,asiftheywerechoppingoff
theheadsofthefoe.Thepantomimeisnodoubtmerelyanimitativecharm,toenablethementodoto
theenemyasthewomendotothepawpaws.IntheWestAfricantownofFramin,whiletheAshantee
warwasragingsomeyearsago,Mr.FitzgeraldMarriottsawadanceperformedbywomenwhose
husbandshadgoneascarrierstothewar.Theywerepaintedwhiteandworenothingbutashortpetticoat.
Attheirheadwasashrivelledoldsorceressinaveryshortwhitepetticoat,herblackhairarrangedina
sortoflongprojectinghorn,andherblackface,breasts,arms,andlegsprofuselyadornedwithwhite
circlesandcrescents.Allcarriedlongwhitebrushesmadeofbuffaloorhorsetails,andastheydanced
theysang,OurhusbandshavegonetoAshanteelandmaytheysweeptheirenemiesoffthefaceofthe
earth!
AmongtheThompsonIndiansofBritishColumbia,whenthemenwereonthewarpath,thewomen
performeddancesatfrequentintervals.Thesedanceswerebelievedtoensurethesuccessofthe
expedition.Thedancersflourishedtheirknives,threwlongsharppointedsticksforward,ordrewsticks
withhookedendsrepeatedlybackwardandforward.Throwingthesticksforwardwassymbolicof

piercingorwardingofftheenemy,anddrawingthembackwassymbolicofdrawingtheirownmenfrom
danger.Thehookattheendofthestickwasparticularlywelladaptedtoservethepurposeofalife
savingapparatus.Thewomenalwayspointedtheirweaponstowardstheenemyscountry.Theypainted
theirfacesredandsangastheydanced,andtheyprayedtotheweaponstopreservetheirhusbandsand
helpthemtokillmanyfoes.Somehadeagledownstuckonthepointsoftheirsticks.Whenthedance
wasover,theseweaponswerehidden.Ifawomanwhosehusbandwasatthewarthoughtshesawhairor
apieceofascalpontheweaponwhenshetookitout,sheknewthatherhusbandhadkilledanenemy.
Butifshesawastainofbloodonit,sheknewhewaswoundedordead.WhenthemenoftheYukitribe
inCaliforniawereawayfighting,thewomenathomedidnotsleeptheydancedcontinuallyinacircle,
chantingandwavingleafywands.Fortheysaidthatiftheydancedallthetime,theirhusbandswouldnot
growtired.AmongtheHaidaIndiansoftheQueenCharlotteIslands,whenthemenhadgonetowar,the
womenathomewouldgetupveryearlyinthemorningandpretendtomakewarbyfallingupontheir
childrenandfeigningtotakethemforslaves.Thiswassupposedtohelptheirhusbandstogoanddo
likewise.Ifawifewereunfaithfultoherhusbandwhilehewasawayonthewarpath,hewouldprobably
bekilled.Fortennightsallthewomenathomelaywiththeirheadstowardsthepointofthecompassto
whichthewarcanoeshadpaddledaway.Thentheychangedabout,forthewarriorsweresupposedtobe
cominghomeacrossthesea.AtMassettheHaidawomendancedandsangwarsongsallthetimetheir
husbandswereawayatthewars,andtheyhadtokeepeverythingabouttheminacertainorder.Itwas
thoughtthatawifemightkillherhusbandbynotobservingthesecustoms.WhenabandofCaribIndians
oftheOrinocohadgoneonthewarpath,theirfriendsleftinthevillageusedtocalculateasnearlyas
theycouldtheexactmomentwhentheabsentwarriorswouldbeadvancingtoattacktheenemy.Then
theytooktwolads,laidthemdownonabench,andinflictedamostseverescourgingontheirbarebacks.
Thistheyouthssubmittedtowithoutamurmur,supportedintheirsufferingsbythefirmconviction,in
whichtheyhadbeenbredfromchildhood,thatontheconstancyandfortitudewithwhichtheyborethe
cruelordealdependedthevalourandsuccessoftheircomradesinthebattle.
Amongthemanybeneficentusestowhichamistakeningenuityhasappliedtheprincipleof
homoeopathicorimitativemagic,isthatofcausingtreesandplantstobearfruitindueseason.In
Thringenthemanwhosowsflaxcarriestheseedinalongbagwhichreachesfromhisshoulderstohis
knees,andhewalkswithlongstrides,sothatthebagswaystoandfroonhisback.Itisbelievedthatthis
willcausetheflaxtowaveinthewind.IntheinteriorofSumatrariceissownbywomenwho,insowing,
lettheirhairhangloosedowntheirback,inorderthatthericemaygrowluxuriantlyandhavelongstalks.
Similarly,inancientMexicoafestivalwasheldinhonourofthegoddessofmaize,orthelonghaired
mother,asshewascalled.Itbeganatthetimewhentheplanthadattaineditsfullgrowth,andfibres
shootingforthfromthetopofthegreenearindicatedthatthegrainwasfullyformed.Duringthisfestival
thewomenworetheirlonghairunbound,shakingandtossingitinthedanceswhichwerethechief
featureintheceremonial,inorderthatthetasselofthemaizemightgrowinlikeprofusion,thatthegrain
mightbecorrespondinglylargeandflat,andthatthepeoplemighthaveabundance.Inmanypartsof
Europedancingorleapinghighintheairareapprovedhomoeopathicmodesofmakingthecropsgrow
high.ThusinFrancheComttheysaythatyoushoulddanceattheCarnivalinordertomakethehemp
growtall.
Thenotionthatapersoncaninfluenceaplanthomoeopathicallybyhisactorconditioncomesoutclearly
inaremarkmadebyaMalaywoman.Beingaskedwhyshestrippedtheupperpartofherbodynakedin
reapingtherice,sheexplainedthatshedidittomakethericehusksthinner,asshewastiredofpounding
thickhuskedrice.Clearly,shethoughtthatthelessclothingsheworethelesshusktherewouldbeonthe
rice.ThemagicvirtueofapregnantwomantocommunicatefertilityisknowntoBavarianandAustrian
peasants,whothinkthatifyougivethefirstfruitofatreetoawomanwithchildtoeat,thetreewill
bringforthabundantlynextyear.Ontheotherhand,theBagandabelievethatabarrenwifeinfectsher
husbandsgardenwithherownsterilityandpreventsthetreesfrombearingfruithenceachildless

womanisgenerallydivorced.TheGreeksandRomanssacrificedpregnantvictimstothegoddessesof
thecornandoftheearth,doubtlessinorderthattheearthmightteemandthecornswellintheear.When
aCatholicpriestremonstratedwiththeIndiansoftheOrinocoonallowingtheirwomentosowthefields
intheblazingsun,withinfantsattheirbreasts,themenanswered,Father,youdontunderstandthese
things,andthatiswhytheyvexyou.Youknowthatwomenareaccustomedtobearchildren,andthatwe
menarenot.Whenthewomensow,thestalkofthemaizebearstwoorthreeears,therootoftheyucca
yieldstwoorthreebasketfuls,andeverythingmultipliesinproportion.Nowwhyisthat?Simplybecause
thewomenknowhowtobringforth,andknowhowtomaketheseedwhichtheysowbringforthalso.
Letthemsow,thenwemendontknowasmuchaboutitastheydo.
Thusonthetheoryofhomoeopathicmagicapersoncaninfluencevegetationeitherforgoodorforevil
accordingtothegoodorthebadcharacterofhisactsorstates:forexample,afruitfulwomanmakes
plantsfruitful,abarrenwomanmakesthembarren.Hencethisbeliefinthenoxiousandinfectiousnature
ofcertainpersonalqualitiesoraccidentshasgivenrisetoanumberofprohibitionsorrulesofavoidance:
peopleabstainfromdoingcertainthingslesttheyshouldhomoeopathicallyinfectthefruitsoftheearth
withtheirownundesirablestateorcondition.Allsuchcustomsofabstentionorrulesofavoidanceare
examplesofnegativemagicortaboo.Thus,forexample,arguingfromwhatmaybecalledthe
infectiousnessofpersonalactsorstates,theGalelareesesaythatyououghtnottoshootwithabowand
arrowsunderafruittree,orthetreewillcastitsfruitevenasthearrowsfalltothegroundandthatwhen
youareeatingwatermelonyououghtnottomixthepipswhichyouspitoutofyourmouthwiththepips
whichyouhaveputasidetoserveasseedforifyoudo,thoughthepipsyouspatoutmaycertainly
springupandblossom,yettheblossomswillkeepfallingoffjustasthepipsfellfromyourmouth,and
thusthesepipswillneverbearfruit.PreciselythesametrainofthoughtleadstheBavarianpeasantto
believethatifheallowsthegraftofafruittreetofallontheground,thetreethatspringsfromthatgraft
willletitsfruitfalluntimely.WhentheChamsofCochinchinaaresowingtheirdryricefieldsanddesire
thatnoshowershouldfall,theyeattheirricedryinordertopreventrainfromspoilingthecrop.
Intheforegoingcasesapersonissupposedtoinfluencevegetationhomoeopathically.Heinfectstreesor
plantswithqualitiesoraccidents,goodorbad,resemblingandderivedfromhisown.Butonthe
principleofhomoeopathicmagictheinfluenceismutual:theplantcaninfectthemanjustasmuchasthe
mancaninfecttheplant.Inmagic,asIbelieveinphysics,actionandreactionareequalandopposite.
TheCherokeeIndiansareadeptsinpracticalbotanyofthehomoeopathicsort.Thuswiryrootsofthe
catgutplantaresotoughthattheycanalmoststopaplowshareinthefurrow.HenceCherokeewomen
washtheirheadswithadecoctionoftherootstomakethehairstrong,andCherokeeballplayerswash
themselveswithittotoughentheirmuscles.ItisaGalelareesebeliefthatifyoueatafruitwhichhas
fallentotheground,youwillyourselfcontractadispositiontostumbleandfallandthatifyoupartake
ofsomethingwhichhasbeenforgotten(suchasasweetpotatoleftinthepotorabananainthefire),you
willbecomeforgetful.TheGalelareesearealsoofopinionthatifawomanweretoconsumetwobananas
growingfromasingleheadshewouldgivebirthtotwins.TheGuaraniIndiansofSouthAmericathought
thatawomanwouldbecomeamotheroftwinsifsheateadoublegrainofmillet.InVedictimesa
curiousapplicationofthisprinciplesuppliedacharmbywhichabanishedprincemightberestoredtohis
kingdom.Hehadtoeatfoodcookedonafirewhichwasfedwithwoodwhichhadgrownoutofthe
stumpofatreewhichhadbeencutdown.Therecuperativepowermanifestedbysuchatreewouldin
duecoursebecommunicatedthroughthefiretothefood,andsototheprince,whoatethefoodwhich
wascookedonthefirewhichwasfedwiththewoodwhichgrewoutofthetree.TheSudanesethinkthat
ifahouseisbuiltofthewoodofthornytrees,thelifeofthepeoplewhodwellinthathousewilllikewise
bethornyandfulloftrouble.
Thereisafruitfulbranchofhomoeopathicmagicwhichworksbymeansofthedeadforjustasthedead
canneitherseenorhearnorspeak,soyoumayonhomoeopathicprinciplesrenderpeopleblind,deafand
dumbbytheuseofdeadmensbonesoranythingelsethatistaintedbytheinfectionofdeath.Thus

amongtheGalelareese,whenayoungmangoesawooingatnight,hetakesalittleearthfromagrave
andstrewsitontheroofofhissweetheartshousejustabovetheplacewhereherparentssleep.This,he
fancies,willpreventthemfromwakingwhileheconverseswithhisbeloved,sincetheearthfromthe
gravewillmakethemsleepassoundasthedead.Burglarsinallagesandmanylandshavebeenpatrons
ofthisspeciesofmagic,whichisveryusefultothemintheexerciseoftheirprofession.ThusaSouth
Slavonianhousebreakersometimesbeginsoperationsbythrowingadeadmansboneoverthehouse,
saying,withpungentsarcasm,Asthisbonemaywaken,somaythesepeoplewakenafterthatnota
soulinthehousecankeephisorhereyesopen.Similarly,inJavatheburglartakesearthfromagrave
andsprinklesitroundthehousewhichheintendstorobthisthrowstheinmatesintoadeepsleep.With
thesameintentionaHindoowillstrewashesfromapyreatthedoorofthehouseIndiansofPeruscatter
thedustofdeadmensbonesandRuthenianburglarsremovethemarrowfromahumanshinbone,pour
tallowintoit,andhavingkindledthetallow,marchthriceroundthehousewiththiscandleburning,
whichcausestheinmatestosleepadeathlikesleep.OrtheRuthenianwillmakeafluteoutofahuman
legboneandplayuponitwhereuponallpersonswithinhearingareovercomewithdrowsiness.The
IndiansofMexicoemployedforthismaleficentpurposetheleftforearmofawomanwhohaddiedin
givingbirthtoherfirstchildbutthearmhadtobestolen.Withittheybeatthegroundbeforethey
enteredthehousewhichtheydesignedtoplunderthiscausedeveryoneinthehousetoloseallpowerof
speechandmotiontheywereasdead,hearingandseeingeverything,butperfectlypowerlesssomeof
them,however,reallysleptandevensnored.InEuropesimilarpropertieswereascribedtotheHandof
Glory,whichwasthedriedandpickledhandofamanwhohadbeenhanged.Ifacandlemadeofthefat
ofamalefactorwhohadalsodiedonthegallowswaslightedandplacedintheHandofGloryasina
candlestick,itrenderedmotionlessallpersonstowhomitwaspresentedtheycouldnotstirafingerany
morethaniftheyweredead.Sometimesthedeadmanshandisitselfthecandle,orratherbunchof
candles,allitswitheredfingersbeingsetonfirebutshouldanymemberofthehouseholdbeawake,one
ofthefingerswillnotkindle.Suchnefariouslightscanonlybeextinguishedwithmilk.Oftenitis
prescribedthatthethiefscandleshouldbemadeofthefingerofanewbornor,stillbetter,unbornchild
sometimesitisthoughtneedfulthatthethiefshouldhaveonesuchcandleforeverypersoninthehouse,
forifhehasonecandletoolittlesomebodyinthehousewillwakeandcatchhim.Oncethesetapers
begintoburn,thereisnothingbutmilkthatwillputthemout.Intheseventeenthcenturyrobbersusedto
murderpregnantwomeninorderthustoextractcandlesfromtheirwombs.AnancientGreekrobberor
burglarthoughthecouldsilenceandputtoflightthefiercestwatchdogsbycarryingwithhimabrand
pluckedfromafuneralpyre.Again,ServianandBulgarianwomenwhochafeattherestraintsof
domesticlifewilltakethecoppercoinsfromtheeyesofacorpse,washtheminwineorwater,andgive
theliquidtotheirhusbandstodrink.Afterswallowingit,thehusbandwillbeasblindtohiswifes
peccadilloesasthedeadmanwasonwhoseeyesthecoinswerelaid.
Further,animalsareoftenconceivedtopossessqualitiesofpropertieswhichmightbeusefultoman,and
homoeopathicorimitativemagicseekstocommunicatethesepropertiestohumanbeingsinvarious
ways.ThussomeBechuanaswearaferretasacharm,because,beingverytenaciousoflife,itwillmake
themdifficulttokill.Otherswearacertaininsect,mutilated,butliving,forasimilarpurpose.Yetother
Bechuanawarriorswearthehairofahornlessoxamongtheirownhair,andtheskinofafrogontheir
mantle,becauseafrogisslippery,andtheox,havingnohorns,ishardtocatchsothemanwhois
providedwiththesecharmsbelievesthathewillbeashardtoholdastheoxandthefrog.Again,itseems
plainthataSouthAfricanwarriorwhotwiststuftsofratshairamonghisowncurlyblacklockswill
havejustasmanychancesofavoidingtheenemysspearasthenimblerathasofavoidingthingsthrown
atithenceintheseregionsratshairisingreatdemandwhenwarisexpected.Oneoftheancientbooks
ofIndiaprescribesthatwhenasacrificeisofferedforvictory,theearthoutofwhichthealtaristobe
madeshouldbetakenfromaplacewhereaboarhasbeenwallowing,sincethestrengthoftheboarwill
beinthatearth.Whenyouareplayingtheonestringedlute,andyourfingersarestiff,thethingtodois
tocatchsomelongleggedfieldspidersandroastthem,andthenrubyourfingerswiththeashesthatwill
makeyourfingersaslitheandnimbleasthespiderslegsatleastsothinktheGalelareese.Tobring

backarunawayslaveanArabwilltraceamagiccircleontheground,stickanailinthemiddleofit,and
attachabeetlebyathreadtothenail,takingcarethatthesexofthebeetleisthatofthefugitive.Asthe
beetlecrawlsroundandround,itwillcoilthethreadaboutthenail,thusshorteningitstetheranddrawing
nearertothecentreateverycircuit.Sobyvirtueofhomoeopathicmagictherunawayslavewillbedrawn
backtohismaster.
AmongthewesterntribesofBritishNewGuinea,amanwhohaskilledasnakewillburnitandsmearhis
legswiththeasheswhenhegoesintotheforestfornosnakewillbitehimforsomedaysafterwards.Ifa
SouthSlavonianhasamindtopilferandstealatmarket,hehasnothingtodobuttoburnablindcat,and
thenthrowapinchofitsashesoverthepersonwithwhomheishigglingafterthathecantakewhathe
likesfromthebooth,andtheownerwillnotbeabitthewiser,havingbecomeasblindasthedeceased
catwithwhoseasheshehasbeensprinkled.Thethiefmayevenaskboldly,DidIpayforit?andthe
deludedhucksterwillreply,Why,certainly.Equallysimpleandeffectualistheexpedientadoptedby
nativesofCentralAustraliawhodesiretocultivatetheirbeards.Theyprickthechinalloverwitha
pointedbone,andthenstrokeitcarefullywithamagicstickorstone,whichrepresentsakindofratthat
hasverylongwhiskers.Thevirtueofthesewhiskersnaturallypassesintotherepresentativestickor
stone,andthencebyaneasytransitiontothechin,which,consequently,issoonadornedwitharich
growthofbeard.TheancientGreeksthoughtthattoeatthefleshofthewakefulnightingalewould
preventamanfromsleepingthattosmeartheeyesofablearsightedpersonwiththegallofaneagle
wouldgivehimtheeaglesvisionandthataravenseggswouldrestoretheblacknessoftheravento
silveryhair.Onlythepersonwhoadoptedthislastmodeofconcealingtheravagesoftimehadtobemost
carefultokeephismouthfullofoilallthetimeheappliedtheeggstohisvenerablelocks,elsehisteeth
aswellashishairwouldbedyedravenblack,andnoamountofscrubbingandscouringwouldavailto
whitenthemagain.Thehairrestorerwasinfactashadetoopowerful,andinapplyingityoumightget
morethanyoubargainedfor.
TheHuicholIndiansadmirethebeautifulmarkingsonthebacksofserpents.HencewhenaHuichol
womanisabouttoweaveorembroider,herhusbandcatchesalargeserpentandholdsitinacleftstick,
whilethewomanstrokesthereptilewithonehanddownthewholelengthofitsbackthenshepassesthe
samehandoverherforeheadandeyes,thatshemaybeabletoworkasbeautifulpatternsinthewebas
themarkingsonthebackoftheserpent.
Ontheprincipleofhomoeopathicmagic,inanimatethings,aswellasplantsandanimals,maydiffuse
blessingorbanearoundthem,accordingtotheirownintrinsicnatureandtheskillofthewizardtotapor
dam,asthecasemaybe,thestreamofwealorwoe.InSamaracandwomengiveababysugarcandyto
suckandputglueinthepalmofitshand,inorderthat,whenthechildgrowsup,hiswordsmaybesweet
andpreciousthingsmaysticktohishandsasiftheywereglued.TheGreeksthoughtthatagarment
madefromthefleeceofasheepthathadbeentornbyawolfwouldhurtthewearer,settingupanitchor
irritationinhisskin.Theywerealsoofopinionthatifastonewhichhadbeenbittenbyadogwere
droppedinwine,itwouldmakeallwhodrankofthatwinetofalloutamongthemselves.Amongthe
ArabsofMoabachildlesswomanoftenborrowstherobeofawomanwhohashadmanychildren,
hopingwiththerobetoacquirethefruitfulnessofitsowner.TheCaffresofSofala,inEastAfrica,hada
greatdreadofbeingstruckwithanythinghollow,suchasareedorastraw,andgreatlypreferredbeing
thrashedwithagoodthickcudgeloranironbar,eventhoughithurtverymuch.Fortheythoughtthatifa
manwerebeatenwithanythinghollow,hisinsidewouldwasteawaytillhedied.Ineasternseasthereisa
largeshellwhichtheBugineseofCelebescalltheoldman(kadjwo).OnFridaystheyturntheseold
menupsidedownandplacethemonthethresholdsoftheirhouses,believingthatwhoeverthensteps
overthethresholdofthehousewilllivetobeold.AtinitiationaBrahmanboyismadetotreadwithhis
rightfootonastone,whilethewordsarerepeated,Treadonthisstonelikeastonebefirmandthe
sameceremonyisperformed,withthesamewords,byaBrahmanbrideathermarriage.InMadagascara
modeofcounteractingthelevityoffortuneistoburyastoneatthefootoftheheavyhousepost.The

commoncustomofswearinguponastonemaybebasedpartlyonabeliefthatthestrengthandstability
ofthestonelendconfirmationtoanoath.ThustheoldDanishhistorianSaxoGrammaticustellsusthat
theancients,whentheyweretochooseaking,werewonttostandonstonesplantedintheground,and
toproclaimtheirvotes,inordertoforeshadowfromthesteadfastnessofthestonesthatthedeedwould
belasting.
Butwhileageneralmagicalefficacymaybesupposedtoresideinallstonesbyreasonoftheircommon
propertiesofweightandsolidity,specialmagicalvirtuesareattributedtoparticularstones,orkindsof
stone,inaccordancewiththeirindividualorspecificqualitiesofshapeandcolour.Forexample,the
IndiansofPeruemployedcertainstonesfortheincreaseofmaize,othersfortheincreaseofpotatoes,and
othersagainfortheincreaseofcattle.Thestonesusedtomakemaizegrowwerefashionedinthe
likenessofcobsofmaize,andthestonesdestinedtomultiplycattlehadtheshapeofsheep.
InsomepartsofMelanesiaalikebeliefprevailsthatcertainsacredstonesareendowedwithmiraculous
powerswhichcorrespondintheirnaturetotheshapeofthestone.Thusapieceofwaterworncoralon
thebeachoftenbearsasurprisinglikenesstoabreadfruit.HenceintheBanksIslandsamanwhofinds
suchacoralwilllayitattherootofoneofhisbreadfruittreesintheexpectationthatitwillmakethe
treebearwell.Iftheresultanswershisexpectation,hewillthen,foraproperremuneration,takestones
oflessmarkedcharacterfromothermenandletthemlienearhis,inordertoimbuethemwiththemagic
virtuewhichresidesinit.Similarly,astonewithlittlediscsuponitisgoodtobringinmoneyandifa
manfoundalargestonewithanumberofsmallonesunderit,likeasowamongherlitter,hewassure
thattooffermoneyuponitwouldbringhimpigs.IntheseandsimilarcasestheMelanesiansascribethe
marvellouspower,nottothestoneitself,buttoitsindwellingspiritandsometimes,aswehavejustseen,
amanendeavourstopropitiatethespiritbylayingdownofferingsonthestone.Buttheconceptionof
spiritsthatmustbepropitiatedliesoutsidethesphereofmagic,andwithinthatofreligion.Wheresucha
conceptionisfound,ashere,inconjunctionwithpurelymagicalideasandpractices,thelattermay
generallybeassumedtobetheoriginalstockonwhichthereligiousconceptionhasbeenatsomelater
timeengrafted.Fortherearestronggroundsforthinkingthat,intheevolutionofthought,magichas
precededreligion.Buttothispointweshallreturnpresently.
Theancientssetgreatstoreonthemagicalqualitiesofpreciousstonesindeedithasbeenmaintained,
withgreatshowofreason,thatsuchstoneswereusedasamuletslongbeforetheywerewornasmere
ornaments.ThustheGreeksgavethenameoftreeagatetoastonewhichexhibitstreelikemarkings,and
theythoughtthatiftwoofthesegemsweretiedtothehornsornecksofoxenattheplough,thecrop
wouldbesuretobeplentiful.Again,theyrecognisedamilkstonewhichproducedanabundantsupplyof
milkinwomenifonlytheydrankitdissolvedinhoneymead.Milkstonesareusedforthesamepurpose
byGreekwomeninCreteandMelosatthepresentdayinAlbanianursingmotherswearthestonesin
ordertoensureanabundantflowofmilk.Again,theGreeksbelievedinastonewhichcuredsnakebites,
andhencewasnamedthesnakestonetotestitsefficacyyouhadonlytogrindthestonetopowderand
sprinklethepowderonthewound.Thewinecolouredamethystreceiveditsname,whichmeansnot
drunken,becauseitwassupposedtokeepthewearerofitsoberandtwobrotherswhodesiredtoliveat
unitywereadvisedtocarrymagnetsaboutwiththem,which,bydrawingthetwaintogether,would
clearlypreventthemfromfallingout.
TheancientbooksoftheHindooslaydownarulethataftersunsetonhismarriagenightamanshouldsit
silentwithhiswifetillthestarsbegintotwinkleinthesky.Whenthepolestarappears,heshouldpoint
itouttoher,and,addressingthestar,say,FirmartthouIseethee,thefirmone.Firmbethouwithme,
Othrivingone!Then,turningtohiswife,heshouldsay,TomeBrihaspatihasgiventheeobtaining
offspringthroughme,thyhusband,livewithmeahundredautumns.Theintentionoftheceremonyis
plainlytoguardagainsttheficklenessoffortuneandtheinstabilityofearthlyblissbythesteadfast
influenceoftheconstantstar.ItisthewishexpressedinKeatsslastsonnet:

Brightstar!wouldIweresteadfastasthouart
Notinlonesplendourhungaloftthenight.
Dwellersbytheseacannotfailtobeimpressedbythesightofitsceaselessebbandflow,andareapt,on
theprinciplesofthatrudephilosophyofsympathyandresemblancewhichhereengagesourattention,to
traceasubtlerelation,asecretharmony,betweenitstidesandthelifeofman,ofanimals,andofplants.
Intheflowingtidetheyseenotmerelyasymbol,butacauseofexuberance,ofprosperity,andoflife,
whileintheebbingtidetheydiscernarealagentaswellasamelancholyemblemoffailure,ofweakness,
andofdeath.TheBretonpeasantfanciesthatcloversownwhenthetideiscominginwillgrowwell,but
thatiftheplantbesownatlowwaterorwhenthetideisgoingout,itwillneverreachmaturity,andthat
thecowswhichfeedonitwillburst.Hiswifebelievesthatthebestbutterismadewhenthetidehasjust
turnedandisbeginningtoflow,thatmilkwhichfoamsinthechurnwillgoonfoamingtillthehourof
highwaterispast,andthatwaterdrawnfromthewellormilkextractedfromthecowwhilethetideis
risingwillboilupinthepotorsaucepanandoverflowintothefire.Accordingtosomeoftheancients,
theskinsofseals,evenaftertheyhadbeenpartedfromtheirbodies,remainedinsecretsympathywith
thesea,andwereobservedtorufflewhenthetidewasontheebb.Anotherancientbelief,attributedto
Aristotle,wasthatnocreaturecandieexceptatebbtide.Thebelief,ifwecantrustPliny,wasconfirmed
byexperience,sofarasregardshumanbeings,onthecoastofFrance.Philostratusalsoassuresusthatat
Cadizdyingpeopleneveryieldeduptheghostwhilethewaterwashigh.Alikefancystilllingersin
somepartsofEurope.OntheCantabriancoasttheythinkthatpersonswhodieofchronicoracute
diseaseexpireatthemomentwhenthetidebeginstorecede.InPortugal,allalongthecoastofWales,
andonsomepartsofthecoastofBrittany,abeliefissaidtoprevailthatpeoplearebornwhenthetide
comesin,anddiewhenitgoesout.DickensatteststheexistenceofthesamesuperstitioninEngland.
Peoplecantdie,alongthecoast,saidMr.Pegotty,exceptwhenthetidesprettynighout.Theycant
beborn,unlessitsprettynighinnotproperlyborntillflood.Thebeliefthatmostdeathshappenat
ebbtideissaidtobeheldalongtheeastcoastofEnglandfromNorthumberlandtoKent.Shakespeare
musthavebeenfamiliarwithit,forhemakesFalstaffdieevenjustbetweentwelveandone,eenatthe
turningothetide.WemeetthebeliefagainonthePacificcoastofNorthAmericaamongtheHaidas.
WheneveragoodHaidaisabouttodieheseesacanoemannedbysomeofhisdeadfriends,whocome
withthetidetobidhimwelcometothespiritland.Comewithusnow,theysay,forthetideisabout
toebbandwemustdepart.AtPortStephens,inNewSouthWales,thenativesalwaysburiedtheirdead
atfloodtide,neveratebb,lesttheretiringwatershouldbearthesoulofthedepartedtosomedistant
country.
ToensurealonglifetheChinesehaverecoursetocertaincomplicatedcharms,whichconcentratein
themselvesthemagicalessenceemanating,onhomoeopathicprinciples,fromtimesandseasons,from
personsandfromthings.Thevehiclesemployedtotransmitthesehappyinfluencesarenootherthan
graveclothes.TheseareprovidedbymanyChineseintheirlifetime,andmostpeoplehavethemcutout
andsewnbyanunmarriedgirloraveryyoungwoman,wiselycalculatingthat,sincesuchapersonis
likelytoliveagreatmanyyearstocome,apartofhercapacitytolivelongmustsurelypassintothe
clothes,andthusstaveoffformanyyearsthetimewhentheyshallbeputtotheirproperuse.Further,the
garmentsaremadebypreferenceinayearwhichhasanintercalarymonthfortotheChinesemindit
seemsplainthatgraveclothesmadeinayearwhichisunusuallylongwillpossessthecapacityof
prolonginglifeinanunusuallyhighdegree.Amongsttheclothesthereisonerobeinparticularonwhich
specialpainshavebeenlavishedtoimbueitwiththispricelessquality.Itisalongsilkengownofthe
deepestbluecolour,withthewordlongevityembroideredalloveritinthreadofgold.Topresentan
agedparentwithoneofthesecostlyandsplendidmantles,knownaslongevitygarments,isesteemed
bytheChineseanactoffilialpietyandadelicatemarkofattention.Asthegarmentpurportstoprolong
thelifeofitsowner,heoftenwearsit,especiallyonfestiveoccasions,inordertoallowtheinfluenceof
longevity,createdbythemanygoldenletterswithwhichitisbespangled,toworktheirfulleffectupon
hisperson.Onhisbirthday,aboveall,hehardlyeverfailstodonit,forinChinacommonsensebidsa

manlayinalargestockofvitalenergyonhisbirthday,tobeexpendedintheformofhealthandvigour
duringtherestoftheyear.Attiredinthegorgeouspall,andabsorbingitsblessedinfluenceateverypore,
thehappyownerreceivescomplacentlythecongratulationsoffriendsandrelations,whowarmlyexpress
theiradmirationofthesemagnificentcerements,andofthefilialpietywhichpromptedthechildrento
bestowsobeautifulandusefulapresentontheauthoroftheirbeing.
AnotherapplicationofthemaximthatlikeproduceslikeisseenintheChinesebeliefthatthefortunesof
atownaredeeplyaffectedbyitsshape,andthattheymustvaryaccordingtothecharacterofthething
whichthatshapemostnearlyresembles.ThusitisrelatedthatlongagothetownofTsuencheufu,the
outlinesofwhicharelikethoseofacarp,frequentlyfellapreytothedepredationsoftheneighbouring
cityofYungchun,whichisshapedlikeafishingnet,untiltheinhabitantsoftheformertownconceived
theplanoferectingtwotallpagodasintheirmidst.Thesepagodas,whichstilltowerabovethecityof
Tsuencheufu,haveeversinceexercisedthehappiestinfluenceoveritsdestinybyinterceptingthe
imaginarynetbeforeitcoulddescendandentangleinitsmeshestheimaginarycarp.Somefortyyears
agothewisemenofShanghaiweremuchexercisedtodiscoverthecauseofalocalrebellion.Oncareful
enquirytheyascertainedthattherebellionwasduetotheshapeofalargenewtemplewhichhadmost
unfortunatelybeenbuiltintheshapeofatortoise,ananimaloftheveryworstcharacter.Thedifficulty
wasserious,thedangerwaspressingfortopulldownthetemplewouldhavebeenimpious,andtoletit
standasitwaswouldbetocourtasuccessionofsimilarorworsedisasters.However,thegeniusofthe
localprofessorsofgeomancy,risingtotheoccasion,triumphantlysurmountedthedifficultyandobviated
thedanger.Byfillinguptwowells,whichrepresentedtheeyesofthetortoise,theyatonceblindedthat
disreputableanimalandrenderedhimincapableofdoingfurthermischief.
Sometimeshomoeopathicorimitativemagiciscalledintoannulanevilomenbyaccomplishingitin
mimicry.Theeffectistocircumventdestinybysubstitutingamockcalamityforarealone.In
Madagascarthismodeofcheatingthefatesisreducedtoaregularsystem.Hereeverymansfortuneis
determinedbythedayorhourofhisbirth,andifthathappenstobeanunluckyonehisfateissealed,
unlessthemischiefcanbeextracted,asthephrasegoes,bymeansofasubstitute.Thewaysofextracting
themischiefarevarious.Forexample,ifamanisbornonthefirstdayofthesecondmonth(February),
hishousewillbeburntdownwhenhecomesofage.Totaketimebytheforelockandavoidthis
catastrophe,thefriendsoftheinfantwillsetupashedinafieldorinthecattlefoldandburnit.Ifthe
ceremonyistobereallyeffective,thechildandhismothershouldbeplacedintheshedandonly
plucked,likebrands,fromtheburninghutbeforeitistoolate.Again,drippingNovemberisthemonthof
tears,andhewhoisborninitisborntosorrow.Butinordertodispersethecloudsthatthusgatherover
hisfuture,hehasnothingtodobuttotakethelidoffaboilingpotandwaveitabout.Thedropsthatfall
fromitwillaccomplishhisdestinyandsopreventthetearsfromtricklingfromhiseyes.Again,iffate
hasdecreedthatayounggirl,stillunwed,shouldseeherchildren,stillunborn,descendbeforeherwith
sorrowtothegrave,shecanavertthecalamityasfollows.Shekillsagrasshopper,wrapsitinaragto
representashroud,andmournsoveritlikeRachelweepingforherchildrenandrefusingtobecomforted.
Moreover,shetakesadozenormoreothergrasshoppers,andhavingremovedsomeoftheirsuperfluous
legsandwingsshelaysthemabouttheirdeadandshroudedfellow.Thebuzzofthetorturedinsectsand
theagitatedmotionsoftheirmutilatedlimbsrepresenttheshrieksandcontortionsofthemournersata
funeral.Afterburyingthedeceasedgrasshoppersheleavestheresttocontinuetheirmourningtilldeath
releasesthemfromtheirpainandhavingboundupherdishevelledhairsheretiresfromthegravewith
thestepandcarriageofapersonplungedingrief.Thenceforthshelookscheerfullyforwardtoseeingher
childrensurviveherforitcannotbethatsheshouldmournandburythemtwiceover.Oncemore,if
fortunehasfrownedonamanathisbirthandpenuryhasmarkedhimforherown,hecaneasilyerasethe
markinquestionbypurchasingacoupleofcheappearls,pricethreehalfpence,andburyingthem.For
whobuttherichofthisworldcanthusaffordtoflingpearlsaway?

3.ContagiousMagic
THUSfarwehavebeenconsideringchieflythatbranchofsympatheticmagicwhichmaybecalled
homoeopathicorimitative.Itsleadingprinciple,aswehaveseen,isthatlikeproduceslike,or,inother
words,thataneffectresemblesitscause.Theothergreatbranchofsympatheticmagic,whichIhave
calledContagiousMagic,proceedsuponthenotionthatthingswhichhaveoncebeenconjoinedmust
remaineverafterwards,evenwhenquitedisseveredfromeachother,insuchasympatheticrelationthat
whateverisdonetotheonemustsimilarlyaffecttheother.ThusthelogicalbasisofContagiousMagic,
likethatofHomoeopathicMagic,isamistakenassociationofideasitsphysicalbasis,ifwemayspeak
ofsuchathing,likethephysicalbasisofHomoeopathicMagic,isamaterialmediumofsomesortwhich,
liketheetherofmodernphysics,isassumedtounitedistantobjectsandtoconveyimpressionsfromone
totheother.ThemostfamiliarexampleofContagiousMagicisthemagicalsympathywhichissupposed
toexistbetweenamanandanyseveredportionofhisperson,ashishairornailssothatwhoevergets
possessionofhumanhairornailsmayworkhiswill,atanydistance,uponthepersonfromwhomthey
werecut.Thissuperstitionisworldwideinstancesofitinregardtohairandnailswillbenoticedlater
oninthiswork.
AmongtheAustraliantribesitwasacommonpracticetoknockoutoneormoreofaboysfrontteethat
thoseceremoniesofinitiationtowhicheverymalememberhadtosubmitbeforehecouldenjoythe
rightsandprivilegesofafullgrownman.Thereasonofthepracticeisobscureallthatconcernsushere
isthebeliefthatasympatheticrelationcontinuedtoexistbetweentheladandhisteethafterthelatterhad
beenextractedfromhisgums.ThusamongsomeofthetribesabouttheriverDarling,inNewSouth
Wales,theextractedtoothwasplacedunderthebarkofatreenearariverorwaterholeifthebarkgrew
overthetooth,orifthetoothfellintothewater,allwaswellbutifitwereexposedandtheantsranover
it,thenativesbelievedthattheboywouldsufferfromadiseaseofthemouth.AmongtheMurringand
othertribesofNewSouthWalestheextractedtoothwasatfirsttakencareofbyanoldman,andthen
passedfromoneheadmantoanother,untilithadgoneallroundthecommunity,whenitcamebacktothe
ladsfather,andfinallytotheladhimself.Buthoweveritwasthusconveyedfromhandtohand,itmight
onnoaccountbeplacedinabagcontainingmagicalsubstances,fortodosowould,theybelieved,put
theownerofthetoothingreatdanger.ThelateDr.Howittonceactedascustodianoftheteethwhichhad
beenextractedfromsomenovicesataceremonyofinitiation,andtheoldmenearnestlybesoughthim
nottocarrytheminabaginwhichtheyknewthathehadsomequartzcrystals.Theydeclaredthatifhe
didsothemagicofthecrystalswouldpassintotheteeth,andsoinjuretheboys.NearlyayearafterDr.
HowittsreturnfromtheceremonyhewasvisitedbyoneoftheprincipalmenoftheMurringtribe,who
hadtravelledsometwohundredandfiftymilesfromhishometofetchbacktheteeth.Thisman
explainedthathehadbeensentforthembecauseoneoftheboyshadfallenintoillhealth,anditwas
believedthattheteethhadreceivedsomeinjurywhichhadaffectedhim.Hewasassuredthattheteeth
hadbeenkeptinaboxapartfromanysubstances,likequartzcrystals,whichcouldinfluencethemand
hereturnedhomebearingtheteethwithhimcarefullywraptupandconcealed.
TheBasutosarecarefultoconcealtheirextractedteeth,lesttheseshouldfallintothehandsofcertain
mythicalbeingswhohauntgraves,andwhocouldharmtheownerofthetoothbyworkingmagiconit.
InSussexsomefiftyyearsagoamaidservantremonstratedstronglyagainstthethrowingawayof
childrenscastteeth,affirmingthatshouldtheybefoundandgnawedbyanyanimal,thechildsnew
toothwouldbe,foralltheworld,liketheteethoftheanimalthathadbittentheoldone.Inproofofthis
shenamedoldMasterSimmons,whohadaverylargepigstoothinhisupperjaw,apersonaldefectthat
healwaysaverredwascausedbyhismother,whothrewawayoneofhiscastteethbyaccidentintothe
hogstrough.Asimilarbeliefhasledtopracticesintended,ontheprinciplesofhomoeopathicmagic,to
replaceoldteethbynewandbetterones.Thusinmanypartsoftheworlditiscustomarytoputextracted
teethinsomeplacewheretheywillbefoundbyamouseorarat,inthehopethat,throughthesympathy

whichcontinuestosubsistbetweenthemandtheirformerowner,hisotherteethmayacquirethesame
firmnessandexcellenceastheteethoftheserodents.Forexample,inGermanyitissaidtobeanalmost
universalmaximamongthepeoplethatwhenyouhavehadatoothtakenoutyoushouldinsertitina
mouseshole.Todosowithachildsmilktoothwhichhasfallenoutwillpreventthechildfromhaving
toothache.Oryoushouldgobehindthestoveandthrowyourtoothbackwardsoveryourhead,saying
Mouse,givemeyourirontoothIwillgiveyoumybonetooth.Afterthatyourotherteethwillremain
good.FarawayfromEurope,atRaratonga,inthePacific,whenachildstoothwasextracted,the
followingprayerusedtoberecited:
Bigrat!littlerat!
Hereismyoldtooth.
Praygivemeanewone.
Thenthetoothwasthrownonthethatchofthehouse,becauseratsmaketheirnestsinthedecayed
thatch.Thereasonassignedforinvokingtheratsontheseoccasionswasthatratsteethwerethe
strongestknowntothenatives.
Otherpartswhicharecommonlybelievedtoremaininasympatheticunionwiththebody,afterthe
physicalconnexionhasbeensevered,arethenavelstringandtheafterbirth,includingtheplacenta.So
intimate,indeed,istheunionconceivedtobe,thatthefortunesoftheindividualforgoodorevil
throughoutlifeareoftensupposedtobeboundupwithoneorotheroftheseportionsofhisperson,so
thatifhisnavelstringorafterbirthispreservedandproperlytreated,hewillbeprosperouswhereasifit
beinjuredorlost,hewillsufferaccordingly.ThuscertaintribesofWesternAustraliabelievethataman
swimswellorill,accordingashismotherathisbirththrewthenavelstringintowaterornot.Amongthe
nativesonthePennefatherRiverinQueenslanditisbelievedthatapartofthechildsspirit(choi)stays
intheafterbirth.Hencethegrandmothertakestheafterbirthawayandburiesitinthesand.Shemarksthe
spotbyanumberoftwigswhichshesticksinthegroundinacircle,tyingtheirtopstogethersothatthe
structureresemblesacone.WhenAnjea,thebeingwhocausesconceptioninwomenbyputtingmud
babiesintotheirwombs,comesalongandseestheplace,hetakesoutthespiritandcarriesitawaytoone
ofhishaunts,suchasatree,aholeinarock,oralagoonwhereitmayremainforyears.Butsometimeor
otherhewillputthespiritagainintoababy,anditwillbebornoncemoreintotheworld.InPonape,one
oftheCarolineIslands,thenavelstringisplacedinashellandthendisposedofinsuchawayasshall
bestadaptthechildforthecareerwhichtheparentshavechosenforhimforexample,iftheywishto
makehimagoodclimber,theywillhangthenavelstringonatree.TheKeiislandersregardthenavel
stringasthebrotherorsisterofthechild,accordingtothesexoftheinfant.Theyputitinapotwith
ashes,andsetitinthebranchesofatree,thatitmaykeepawatchfuleyeonthefortunesofitscomrade.
AmongtheBataksofSumatra,asamongmanyotherpeoplesoftheIndianArchipelago,theplacenta
passesforthechildsyoungerbrotherorsister,thesexbeingdeterminedbythesexofthechild,anditis
buriedunderthehouse.AccordingtotheBataksitisboundupwiththechildswelfare,andseems,in
fact,tobetheseatofthetransferablesoul,ofwhichweshallhearsomethinglateron.TheKaroBataks
evenaffirmthatofamanstwosoulsitisthetruesoulthatliveswiththeplacentaunderthehousethat
isthesoul,theysay,whichbegetschildren.
TheBagandabelievethateverypersonisbornwithadouble,andthisdoubletheyidentifywiththe
afterbirth,whichtheyregardasasecondchild.Themotherburiestheafterbirthattherootofaplantain
tree,whichthenbecomessacreduntilthefruithasripened,whenitispluckedtofurnishasacredfeastfor
thefamily.AmongtheCherokeesthenavelstringofagirlisburiedunderacornmortar,inorderthatthe
girlmaygrowuptobeagoodbakerbutthenavelstringofaboyishunguponatreeinthewoods,in
orderthathemaybeahunter.TheIncasofPerupreservedthenavelstringwiththegreatestcare,and
gaveittothechildtosuckwheneveritfellill.InancientMexicotheyusedtogiveaboysnavelstringto
soldiers,tobeburiedbythemonafieldofbattle,inorderthattheboymightthusacquireapassionfor

war.Butthenavelstringofagirlwasburiedbesidethedomestichearth,becausethiswasbelievedto
inspireherwithaloveofhomeandtasteforcookingandbaking.
EveninEuropemanypeoplestillbelievethatapersonsdestinyismoreorlessboundupwiththatofhis
navelstringorafterbirth.ThusinRhenishBavariathenavelstringiskeptforawhilewraptupinapiece
ofoldlinen,andthencutorprickedtopiecesaccordingasthechildisaboyoragirl,inorderthatheor
shemaygrowuptobeaskilfulworkmanoragoodsempstress.InBerlinthemidwifecommonlydelivers
thedriednavelstringtothefatherwithastrictinjunctiontopreserveitcarefully,forsolongasitiskept
thechildwillliveandthriveandbefreefromsickness.InBeauceandPerchethepeoplearecarefulto
throwthenavelstringneitherintowaternorintofire,believingthatifthatweredonethechildwouldbe
drownedorburned.
Thusinmanypartsoftheworldthenavelstring,ormorecommonlytheafterbirth,isregardedasaliving
being,thebrotherorsisteroftheinfant,orasthematerialobjectinwhichtheguardianspiritofthechild
orpartofitssoulresides.Further,thesympatheticconnexionsupposedtoexistbetweenapersonandhis
afterbirthornavelstringcomesoutveryclearlyinthewidespreadcustomoftreatingtheafterbirthor
navelstringinwayswhicharesupposedtoinfluenceforlifethecharacterandcareeroftheperson,
makinghim,ifitisaman,animbleclimber,astrongswimmer,askilfulhunter,orabravesoldier,and
makingher,ifitisawoman,acunningsempstress,agoodbaker,andsoforth.Thusthebeliefsand
usagesconcernedwiththeafterbirthorplacenta,andtoalessextentwiththenavelstring,presenta
remarkableparalleltothewidespreaddoctrineofthetransferableorexternalsoulandthecustoms
foundedonit.Henceitishardlyrashtoconjecturethattheresemblanceisnomerechancecoincidence,
butthatintheafterbirthorplacentawehaveaphysicalbasis(notnecessarilytheonlyone)forthetheory
andpracticeoftheexternalsoul.Theconsiderationofthatsubjectisreservedforalaterpartofthiswork.
Acuriousapplicationofthedoctrineofcontagiousmagicistherelationcommonlybelievedtoexist
betweenawoundedmanandtheagentofthewound,sothatwhateverissubsequentlydonebyortothe
agentmustcorrespondinglyaffectthepatienteitherforgoodorevil.ThusPlinytellsusthatifyouhave
woundedamanandaresorryforit,youhaveonlytospitonthehandthatgavethewound,andthepain
ofthesuffererwillbeinstantlyalleviated.InMelanesia,ifamansfriendsgetpossessionofthearrow
whichwoundedhim,theykeepitinadampplaceorincoolleaves,forthentheinflammationwillbe
triflingandwillsoonsubside.Meantimetheenemywhoshotthearrowishardatworktoaggravatethe
woundbyallthemeansinhispower.Forthispurposeheandhisfriendsdrinkhotandburningjuicesand
chewirritatingleaves,forthiswillclearlyinflameandirritatethewound.Further,theykeepthebow
nearthefiretomakethewoundwhichithasinflictedhotandforthesamereasontheyputthearrow
head,ifithasbeenrecovered,intothefire.Moreover,theyarecarefultokeepthebowstringtautandto
twangitoccasionally,forthiswillcausethewoundedmantosufferfromtensionofthenervesand
spasmsoftetanus.Itisconstantlyreceivedandavouched,saysBacon,thattheanointingofthe
weaponthatmakeththewoundwillhealthewounditself.Inthisexperiment,upontherelationofmenof
credit(thoughmyself,asyet,amnotfullyinclinedtobelieveit),youshallnotethepointsfollowing:
first,theointmentwherewiththisisdoneismadeofdiversingredients,whereofthestrangestandhardest
tocomebyarethemossupontheskullofadeadmanunburied,andthefatsofaboarandabearkilledin
theactofgeneration.Thepreciousointmentcompoundedoutoftheseandotheringredientswas
applied,asthephilosopherexplains,nottothewoundbuttotheweapon,andthateventhoughthe
injuredmanwasatagreatdistanceandknewnothingaboutit.Theexperiment,hetellsus,hadbeentried
ofwipingtheointmentofftheweaponwithouttheknowledgeofthepersonhurt,withtheresultthathe
waspresentlyinagreatrageofpainuntiltheweaponwasanointedagain.Moreover,itisaffirmedthat
ifyoucannotgettheweapon,yetifyouputaninstrumentofironorwoodresemblingtheweaponinto
thewound,wherebyitbleedeth,theanointingofthatinstrumentwillserveandworktheeffect.
RemediesofthesortwhichBacondeemedworthyofhisattentionarestillinvogueintheeastern
countiesofEngland.ThusinSuffolkifamancutshimselfwithabillhookorascythehealwaystakes

caretokeeptheweaponbright,andoilsittopreventthewoundfromfestering.Ifherunsathornor,as
hecallsit,abushintohishand,heoilsorgreasestheextractedthorn.Amancametoadoctorwithan
inflamedhand,havingrunathornintoitwhilehewashedging.Onbeingtoldthatthehandwas
festering,heremarked,Thatdidntoughtto,forIgreasedthebushwellafterIpulleditout.Ifahorse
woundsitsfootbytreadingonanail,aSuffolkgroomwillinvariablypreservethenail,cleanit,and
greaseiteveryday,topreventthefootfromfestering.SimilarlyCambridgeshirelabourersthinkthatifa
horsehasrunanailintoitsfoot,itisnecessarytogreasethenailwithlardoroilandputitawayinsome
safeplace,orthehorsewillnotrecover.Afewyearsagoaveterinarysurgeonwassentfortoattenda
horsewhichhadrippeditssideopenonthehingeofafarmgatepost.Onarrivingatthefarmhefound
thatnothinghadbeendoneforthewoundedhorse,butthatamanwasbusytryingtoprythehingeoutof
thegatepostinorderthatitmightbegreasedandputaway,which,intheopinionoftheCambridge
wiseacres,wouldconducetotherecoveryoftheanimal.SimilarlyEssexrusticsopinethat,ifamanhas
beenstabbedwithaknife,itisessentialtohisrecoverythattheknifeshouldbegreasedandlaidacross
thebedonwhichthesuffererislying.SoinBavariayouaredirectedtoanointalinenragwithgrease
andtieitontheedgeoftheaxethatcutyou,takingcaretokeepthesharpedgeupwards.Asthegrease
ontheaxedries,yourwoundheals.SimilarlyintheHarzMountainstheysaythatifyoucutyourself,you
oughttosmeartheknifeorthescissorswithfatandputtheinstrumentawayinadryplaceinthenameof
theFather,oftheSon,andoftheHolyGhost.Astheknifedries,thewoundheals.Otherpeople,
however,inGermanysaythatyoushouldsticktheknifeinsomedampplaceintheground,andthatyour
hurtwillhealasthekniferusts.Othersagain,inBavaria,recommendyoutosmeartheaxeorwhateverit
iswithbloodandputitundertheeaves.
ThetrainofreasoningwhichthuscommendsitselftoEnglishandGermanrustics,incommonwiththe
savagesofMelanesiaandAmerica,iscarriedastepfurtherbytheaboriginesofCentralAustralia,who
conceivethatundercertaincircumstancesthenearrelationsofawoundedmanmustgreasethemselves,
restricttheirdiet,andregulatetheirbehaviourinotherwaysinordertoensurehisrecovery.Thuswhena
ladhasbeencircumcisedandthewoundisnotyethealed,hismothermaynoteatopossum,oracertain
kindoflizard,orcarpetsnake,oranykindoffat,forotherwiseshewouldretardthehealingoftheboys
wound.Everydayshegreasesherdiggingsticksandneverletsthemoutofhersightatnightshesleeps
withthemclosetoherhead.Nooneisallowedtotouchthem.Everydayalsosherubsherbodyallover
withgrease,asinsomewaythisisbelievedtohelphersonsrecovery.Anotherrefinementofthesame
principleisduetotheingenuityoftheGermanpeasant.Itissaidthatwhenoneofhispigsorsheep
breaksitsleg,afarmerofRhenishBavariaorHessewillbindupthelegofachairwithbandagesand
splintsindueform.Forsomedaysthereafternoonemaysitonthatchair,moveit,orknockupagainstit
fortodosowouldpaintheinjuredpigorsheepandhinderthecure.Inthislastcaseitisclearthatwe
havepassedwhollyoutoftheregionofcontagiousmagicandintotheregionofhomoeopathicor
imitativemagicthechairleg,whichistreatedinsteadofthebeastsleg,innosensebelongstothe
animal,andtheapplicationofbandagestoitisameresimulationofthetreatmentwhichamorerational
surgerywouldbestowontherealpatient.
Thesympatheticconnexionsupposedtoexistbetweenamanandtheweaponwhichhaswoundedhimis
probablyfoundedonthenotionthatthebloodontheweaponcontinuestofeelwiththebloodinhisbody.
ForalikereasonthePapuansofTumleo,anislandoffNewGuinea,arecarefultothrowintotheseathe
bloodybandageswithwhichtheirwoundshavebeendressed,fortheyfearthatiftheseragsfellintothe
handsofanenemyhemightinjurethemmagicallythereby.Oncewhenamanwithawoundinhis
mouth,whichbledconstantly,cametothemissionariestobetreated,hisfaithfulwifetookgreatpainsto
collectallthebloodandcastitintothesea.Strainedandunnaturalasthisideamayseemtous,itis
perhapslesssothanthebeliefthatmagicsympathyismaintainedbetweenapersonandhisclothes,so
thatwhateverisdonetotheclotheswillbefeltbythemanhimself,eventhoughhemaybefarawayat
thetime.IntheWotjobaluktribeofVictoriaawizardwouldsometimesgetholdofamansopossumrug
androastitslowlyinthefire,andashedidsotheowneroftherugwouldfallsick.Ifthewizard

consentedtoundothecharm,hewouldgivetherugbacktothesickmansfriends,biddingthemputitin
water,soastowashthefireout.Whenthathappened,thesuffererwouldfeelarefreshingcoolnessand
probablyrecover.InTanna,oneoftheNewHebrides,amanwhohadagrudgeatanotheranddesiredhis
deathwouldtrytogetpossessionofaclothwhichhadtouchedthesweatofhisenemysbody.Ifhe
succeeded,herubbedtheclothcarefullyoverwiththeleavesandtwigsofacertaintree,rolledandbound
cloth,twigs,andleavesintoalongsausageshapedbundle,andburneditslowlyinthefire.Asthebundle
wasconsumed,thevictimfellill,andwhenitwasreducedtoashes,hedied.Inthislastformof
enchantment,however,themagicalsympathymaybesupposedtoexistnotsomuchbetweentheman
andtheclothasbetweenthemanandthesweatwhichissuedfromhisbody.Butinothercasesofthe
samesortitseemsthatthegarmentbyitselfisenoughtogivethesorcereraholduponhisvictim.The
witchinTheocritus,whileshemeltedanimageorlumpofwaxinorderthatherfaithlesslovermight
meltwithloveofher,didnotforgettothrowintothefireashredofhiscloakwhichhehaddroppedin
herhouse.InPrussiatheysaythatifyoucannotcatchathief,thenextbestthingyoucandoistogethold
ofagarmentwhichhemayhaveshedinhisflightforifyoubeatitsoundly,thethiefwillfallsick.This
beliefisfirmlyrootedinthepopularmind.Someeightyorninetyyearsago,intheneighbourhoodof
Berend,amanwasdetectedtryingtostealhoney,andfled,leavinghiscoatbehindhim.Whenheheard
thattheenragedownerofthehoneywasmaulinghislostcoat,hewassoalarmedthathetooktohisbed
anddied.
Again,magicmaybewroughtonamansympathetically,notonlythroughhisclothesandseveredparts
ofhimself,butalsothroughtheimpressionsleftbyhisbodyinsandorearth.Inparticular,itisaworld
widesuperstitionthatbyinjuringfootprintsyouinjurethefeetthatmadethem.Thusthenativesof
SoutheasternAustraliathinkthattheycanlameamanbyplacingsharppiecesofquartz,glass,bone,or
charcoalinhisfootprints.Rheumaticpainsareoftenattributedbythemtothiscause.Seeinga
Tatungolungmanverylame,Mr.Howittaskedhimwhatwasthematter.Hesaid,somefellowhasput
bottleinmyfoot.Hewassufferingfromrheumatism,butbelievedthatanenemyhadfoundhisfoot
trackandhadburieditinapieceofbrokenbottle,themagicalinfluenceofwhichhadenteredhisfoot.
SimilarpracticesprevailinvariouspartsofEurope.ThusinMecklenburgitisthoughtthatifyoudrivea
nailintoamansfootprinthewillfalllamesometimesitisrequiredthatthenailshouldbetakenfroma
coffin.AlikemodeofinjuringanenemyisresortedtoinsomepartsofFrance.Itissaidthattherewas
anoldwomanwhousedtofrequentStowinSuffolk,andshewasawitch.If,whileshewalked,anyone
wentafterherandstuckanailoraknifeintoherfootprintinthedust,thedamecouldnotstirasteptillit
waswithdrawn.AmongtheSouthSlavsagirlwilldiguptheearthfromthefootprintsofthemanshe
lovesandputitinaflowerpot.Thensheplantsinthepotamarigold,aflowerthatisthoughttobe
fadeless.Andasitsgoldenblossomgrowsandbloomsandneverfades,soshallhersweetheartslove
growandbloom,andnever,neverfade.Thusthelovespellactsonthemanthroughtheearthhetrodon.
AnoldDanishmodeofconcludingatreatywasbasedonthesameideaofthesympatheticconnexion
betweenamanandhisfootprints:thecovenantingpartiessprinkledeachothersfootprintswiththeir
ownblood,thusgivingapledgeoffidelity.InancientGreecesuperstitionsofthesamesortseemtohave
beencurrent,foritwasthoughtthatifahorsesteppedonthetrackofawolfhewasseizedwith
numbnessandamaximascribedtoPythagorasforbadepeopletopierceamansfootprintswithanailor
aknife.
Thesamesuperstitionisturnedtoaccountbyhuntersinmanypartsoftheworldforthepurposeof
runningdownthegame.ThusaGermanhuntsmanwillstickanailtakenfromacoffinintothefresh
spoorofthequarry,believingthatthiswillhindertheanimalfromescaping.TheaboriginesofVictoria
puthotembersinthetracksoftheanimalstheywerepursuing.Hottentothuntersthrowintotheaira
handfulofsandtakenfromthefootprintsofthegame,believingthatthiswillbringtheanimaldown.
ThompsonIndiansusedtolaycharmsonthetracksofwoundeddeerafterthattheydeemedit
superfluoustopursuetheanimalanyfurtherthatday,forbeingthuscharmeditcouldnottravelfarand

wouldsoondie.Similarly,OjebwayIndiansplacedmedicineonthetrackofthefirstdeerorbearthey
metwith,supposingthatthiswouldsoonbringtheanimalintosight,evenifitweretwoorthreedays
journeyoffforthischarmhadpowertocompressajourneyofseveraldaysintoafewhours.Ewe
huntersofWestAfricastabthefootprintsofgamewithasharppointedstickinordertomaimthequarry
andallowthemtocomeupwithit.
Butthoughthefootprintisthemostobviousitisnottheonlyimpressionmadebythebodythrough
whichmagicmaybewroughtonaman.TheaboriginesofSoutheasternAustraliabelievethataman
maybeinjuredbyburyingsharpfragmentsofquartz,glass,andsoforthinthemarkmadebyhis
recliningbodythemagicalvirtueofthesesharpthingsentershisbodyandcausesthoseacutepains
whichtheignorantEuropeanputsdowntorheumatism.Wecannowunderstandwhyitwasamaxim
withthePythagoreansthatinrisingfrombedyoushouldsmoothawaytheimpressionleftbyyourbody
onthebedclothes.Therulewassimplyanoldprecautionagainstmagic,formingpartofawholecodeof
superstitiousmaximswhichantiquityfatheredonPythagoras,thoughdoubtlesstheywerefamiliartothe
barbarousforefathersoftheGreekslongbeforethetimeofthatphilosopher.
4.TheMagiciansProgress
WEhavenowconcludedourexaminationofthegeneralprinciplesofsympatheticmagic.Theexamples
bywhichIhaveillustratedthemhavebeendrawnforthemostpartfromwhatmaybecalledprivate
magic,thatisfrommagicalritesandincantationspractisedforthebenefitortheinjuryofindividuals.
Butinsavagesocietythereiscommonlytobefoundinadditionwhatwemaycallpublicmagic,thatis,
sorcerypractisedforthebenefitofthewholecommunity.Whereverceremoniesofthissortareobserved
forthecommongood,itisobviousthatthemagicianceasestobemerelyaprivatepractitionerand
becomestosomeextentapublicfunctionary.Thedevelopmentofsuchaclassoffunctionariesisofgreat
importanceforthepoliticalaswellasthereligiousevolutionofsociety.Forwhenthewelfareofthetribe
issupposedtodependontheperformanceofthesemagicalrites,themagicianrisesintoapositionof
muchinfluenceandrepute,andmayreadilyacquiretherankandauthorityofachieforking.The
professionaccordinglydrawsintoitsrankssomeoftheablestandmostambitiousmenofthetribe,
becauseitholdsouttothemaprospectofhonour,wealth,andpowersuchashardlyanyothercareer
couldoffer.Theacutermindsperceivehoweasyitistodupetheirweakerbrotherandtoplayonhis
superstitionfortheirownadvantage.Notthatthesorcererisalwaysaknaveandimpostorheisoften
sincerelyconvincedthathereallypossessesthosewonderfulpowerswhichthecredulityofhisfellows
ascribestohim.Butthemoresagaciousheis,themorelikelyheistoseethroughthefallacieswhich
imposeondullerwits.Thustheablestmembersoftheprofessionmusttendtobemoreorlessconscious
deceiversanditisjustthesemenwhoinvirtueoftheirsuperiorabilitywillgenerallycometothetop
andwinforthemselvespositionsofthehighestdignityandthemostcommandingauthority.Thepitfalls
whichbesetthepathoftheprofessionalsorcereraremany,andasaruleonlythemanofcoolestheadand
sharpestwitwillbeabletosteerhiswaythroughthemsafely.Foritmustalwaysberememberedthat
everysingleprofessionandclaimputforwardbythemagicianassuchisfalsenotoneofthemcanbe
maintainedwithoutdeception,consciousorunconscious.Accordinglythesorcererwhosincerely
believesinhisownextravagantpretensionsisinfargreaterperilandismuchmorelikelytobecutshort
inhiscareerthanthedeliberateimpostor.Thehonestwizardalwaysexpectsthathischarmsand
incantationswillproducetheirsupposedeffectandwhentheyfail,notonlyreally,astheyalwaysdo,
butconspicuouslyanddisastrously,astheyoftendo,heistakenaback:heisnot,likehisknavish
colleague,readywithaplausibleexcusetoaccountforthefailure,andbeforehecanfindonehemaybe
knockedontheheadbyhisdisappointedandangryemployers.
Thegeneralresultisthatatthisstageofsocialevolutionthesupremepowertendstofallintothehands
ofmenofthekeenestintelligenceandthemostunscrupulouscharacter.Ifwecouldbalancetheharm

theydobytheirknaveryagainstthebenefitstheyconferbytheirsuperiorsagacity,itmightwellbefound
thatthegoodgreatlyoutweighedtheevil.Formoremischiefhasprobablybeenwroughtintheworldby
honestfoolsinhighplacesthanbyintelligentrascals.Onceyourshrewdroguehasattainedtheheightof
hisambition,andhasnolongeranyselfishendtofurther,hemay,andoftendoes,turnhistalents,his
experience,hisresources,totheserviceofthepublic.Manymenwhohavebeenleastscrupulousinthe
acquisitionofpowerhavebeenmostbeneficentintheuseofit,whetherthepowertheyaimedatand
wonwasthatofwealth,politicalauthority,orwhatnot.Inthefieldofpoliticsthewilyintriguer,the
ruthlessvictor,mayendbybeingawiseandmagnanimousruler,blessedinhislifetime,lamentedathis
death,admiredandapplaudedbyposterity.Suchmen,totaketwoofthemostconspicuousinstances,
wereJuliusCaesarandAugustus.Butonceafoolalwaysafool,andthegreaterthepowerinhishands
themoredisastrousislikelytobetheusehemakesofit.TheheaviestcalamityinEnglishhistory,the
breachwithAmerica,mightneverhaveoccurredifGeorgetheThirdhadnotbeenanhonestdullard.
Thus,sofarasthepublicprofessionofmagicaffectedtheconstitutionofsavagesociety,ittendedto
placethecontrolofaffairsinthehandsoftheablestman:itshiftedthebalanceofpowerfromthemany
totheone:itsubstitutedamonarchyforademocracy,orratherforanoligarchyofoldmenforin
generalthesavagecommunityisruled,notbythewholebodyofadultmales,butbyacouncilofelders.
Thechange,bywhatevercausesproduced,andwhateverthecharacteroftheearlyrulers,wasonthe
wholeverybeneficial.Fortheriseofmonarchyappearstobeanessentialconditionoftheemergenceof
mankindfromsavagery.Nohumanbeingissohideboundbycustomandtraditionasyourdemocratic
savageinnostateofsocietyconsequentlyisprogresssoslowanddifficult.Theoldnotionthatthe
savageisthefreestofmankindisthereverseofthetruth.Heisaslave,notindeedtoavisiblemaster,but
tothepast,tothespiritsofhisdeadforefathers,whohaunthisstepsfrombirthtodeath,andrulehim
witharodofiron.Whattheydidisthepatternofright,theunwrittenlawtowhichheyieldsablind
unquestioningobedience.Theleastpossiblescopeisthusaffordedtosuperiortalenttochangeold
customsforthebetter.Theablestmanisdraggeddownbytheweakestanddullest,whonecessarilysets
thestandard,sincehecannotrise,whiletheothercanfall.Thesurfaceofsuchasocietypresentsa
uniformdeadlevel,sofarasitishumanlypossibletoreducethenaturalinequalities,theimmeasurable
realdifferencesofinborncapacityandtemper,toafalsesuperficialappearanceofequality.Fromthis
lowandstagnantconditionofaffairs,whichdemagoguesanddreamersinlatertimeshavelaudedasthe
idealstate,theGoldenAge,ofhumanity,everythingthathelpstoraisesocietybyopeningacareerto
talentandproportioningthedegreesofauthoritytomensnaturalabilities,deservestobewelcomedby
allwhohavetherealgoodoftheirfellowsatheart.Oncetheseelevatinginfluenceshavebegunto
operateandtheycannotbeforeversuppressedtheprogressofcivilisationbecomescomparatively
rapid.Theriseofonemantosupremepowerenableshimtocarrythroughchangesinasinglelifetime
whichpreviouslymanygenerationsmightnothavesufficedtoeffectandif,aswilloftenhappen,heisa
manofintellectandenergyabovethecommon,hewillreadilyavailhimselfoftheopportunity.Eventhe
whimsandcapricesofatyrantmaybeofserviceinbreakingthechainofcustomwhichliessoheavyon
thesavage.Andassoonasthetribeceasestobeswayedbythetimidanddividedcounselsoftheelders,
andyieldstothedirectionofasinglestrongandresolutemind,itbecomesformidabletoitsneighbours
andentersonacareerofaggrandisement,whichatanearlystageofhistoryisoftenhighlyfavourableto
social,industrial,andintellectualprogress.Forextendingitssway,partlybyforceofarms,partlybythe
voluntarysubmissionofweakertribes,thecommunitysoonacquireswealthandslaves,bothofwhich,
byrelievingsomeclassesfromtheperpetualstruggleforabaresubsistence,affordthemanopportunity
ofdevotingthemselvestothatdisinterestedpursuitofknowledgewhichisthenoblestandmostpowerful
instrumenttoamelioratethelotofman.
Intellectualprogress,whichrevealsitselfinthegrowthofartandscienceandthespreadofmoreliberal
views,cannotbedissociatedfromindustrialoreconomicprogress,andthatinitsturnreceivesan
immenseimpulsefromconquestandempire.Itisnomereaccidentthatthemostvehementoutburstsof
activityofthehumanmindhavefollowedcloseontheheelsofvictory,andthatthegreatconquering

racesoftheworldhavecommonlydonemosttoadvanceandspreadcivilisation,thushealinginpeace
thewoundstheyinflictedinwar.TheBabylonians,theGreeks,theRomans,theArabsareourwitnesses
inthepast:wemayyetlivetoseeasimilaroutburstinJapan.Nor,toremountthestreamofhistorytoits
sources,isitanaccidentthatallthefirstgreatstridestowardscivilisationhavebeenmadeunderdespotic
andtheocraticgovernments,likethoseofEgypt,Babylon,andPeru,wherethesupremerulerclaimed
andreceivedtheservileallegianceofhissubjectsinthedoublecharacterofakingandagod.Itishardly
toomuchtosaythatatthisearlyepochdespotismisthebestfriendofhumanityand,paradoxicalasit
maysound,ofliberty.Forafterallthereismorelibertyinthebestsenselibertytothinkourown
thoughtsandtofashionourowndestiniesunderthemostabsolutedespotism,themostgrinding
tyranny,thanundertheapparentfreedomofsavagelife,wheretheindividualslotiscastfromthecradle
tothegraveintheironmouldofhereditarycustom.
Sofar,therefore,asthepublicprofessionofmagichasbeenoneoftheroadsbywhichtheablestmen
havepassedtosupremepower,ithascontributedtoemancipatemankindfromthethraldomoftradition
andtoelevatethemintoalarger,freerlife,withabroaderoutlookontheworld.Thisisnosmallservice
renderedtohumanity.Andwhenwerememberfurtherthatinanotherdirectionmagichaspavedtheway
forscience,weareforcedtoadmitthatiftheblackarthasdonemuchevil,ithasalsobeenthesourceof
muchgoodthatifitisthechildoferror,ithasyetbeenthemotheroffreedomandtruth.

IV.MagicandReligion
THEexamplescollectedinthelastchaptermaysufficetoillustratethegeneralprinciplesofsympathetic
magicinitstwobranches,towhichwehavegiventhenamesofHomoeopathicandContagious
respectively.Insomecasesofmagicwhichhavecomebeforeuswehaveseenthattheoperationof
spiritsisassumed,andthatanattemptismadetowintheirfavourbyprayerandsacrifice.Butthesecases
areonthewholeexceptionaltheyexhibitmagictingedandalloyedwithreligion.Whereversympathetic
magicoccursinitspureunadulteratedform,itassumesthatinnatureoneeventfollowsanother
necessarilyandinvariablywithouttheinterventionofanyspiritualorpersonalagency.Thusits
fundamentalconceptionisidenticalwiththatofmodernscienceunderlyingthewholesystemisafaith,
implicitbutrealandfirm,intheorderanduniformityofnature.Themagiciandoesnotdoubtthatthe
samecauseswillalwaysproducethesameeffects,thattheperformanceoftheproperceremony,
accompaniedbytheappropriatespell,willinevitablybeattendedbythedesiredresult,unless,indeed,his
incantationsshouldchancetobethwartedandfoiledbythemorepotentcharmsofanothersorcerer.He
supplicatesnohigherpower:hesuesthefavourofnofickleandwaywardbeing:heabaseshimself
beforenoawfuldeity.Yethispower,greatashebelievesittobe,isbynomeansarbitraryandunlimited.
Hecanwielditonlysolongashestrictlyconformstotherulesofhisart,ortowhatmaybecalledthe
lawsofnatureasconceivedbyhim.Toneglecttheserules,tobreaktheselawsinthesmallestparticular,
istoincurfailure,andmayevenexposetheunskilfulpractitionerhimselftotheutmostperil.Ifheclaims
asovereigntyovernature,itisaconstitutionalsovereigntyrigorouslylimitedinitsscopeandexercised
inexactconformitywithancientusage.Thustheanalogybetweenthemagicalandthescientific
conceptionsoftheworldisclose.Inbothofthemthesuccessionofeventsisassumedtobeperfectly
regularandcertain,beingdeterminedbyimmutablelaws,theoperationofwhichcanbeforeseenand
calculatedpreciselytheelementsofcaprice,ofchance,andofaccidentarebanishedfromthecourseof
nature.Bothofthemopenupaseeminglyboundlessvistaofpossibilitiestohimwhoknowsthecauses
ofthingsandcantouchthesecretspringsthatsetinmotionthevastandintricatemechanismofthe
world.Hencethestrongattractionwhichmagicandsciencealikehaveexercisedonthehumanmind
hencethepowerfulstimulusthatbothhavegiventothepursuitofknowledge.Theyluretheweary
enquirer,thefootsoreseeker,onthroughthewildernessofdisappointmentinthepresentbytheirendless
promisesofthefuture:theytakehimuptothetopofanexceedinghighmountainandshowhim,beyond
thedarkcloudsandrollingmistsathisfeet,avisionofthecelestialcity,faroff,itmaybe,butradiant

withunearthlysplendour,bathedinthelightofdreams.
Thefatalflawofmagicliesnotinitsgeneralassumptionofasequenceofeventsdeterminedbylaw,but
initstotalmisconceptionofthenatureoftheparticularlawswhichgovernthatsequence.Ifweanalyse
thevariouscasesofsympatheticmagicwhichhavebeenpassedinreviewintheprecedingpages,and
whichmaybetakenasfairsamplesofthebulk,weshallfind,asIhavealreadyindicated,thattheyare
allmistakenapplicationsofoneorotheroftwogreatfundamentallawsofthought,namely,the
associationofideasbysimilarityandtheassociationofideasbycontiguityinspaceortime.Amistaken
associationofsimilarideasproduceshomoeopathicorimitativemagic:amistakenassociationof
contiguousideasproducescontagiousmagic.Theprinciplesofassociationareexcellentinthemselves,
andindeedabsolutelyessentialtotheworkingofthehumanmind.Legitimatelyappliedtheyyield
scienceillegitimatelyappliedtheyyieldmagic,thebastardsisterofscience.Itisthereforeatruism,
almostatautology,tosaythatallmagicisnecessarilyfalseandbarrenforwereitevertobecometrue
andfruitful,itwouldnolongerbemagicbutscience.Fromtheearliesttimesmanhasbeenengagedina
searchforgeneralruleswherebytoturntheorderofnaturalphenomenatohisownadvantage,andinthe
longsearchhehasscrapedtogetheragreathoardofsuchmaxims,someofthemgoldenandsomeof
themmeredross.Thetrueorgoldenrulesconstitutethebodyofappliedsciencewhichwecallthearts
thefalsearemagic.
Ifmagicisthusnextofkintoscience,wehavestilltoenquirehowitstandsrelatedtoreligion.Butthe
viewwetakeofthatrelationwillnecessarilybecolouredbytheideawhichwehaveformedofthenature
ofreligionitselfhenceawritermayreasonablybeexpectedtodefinehisconceptionofreligionbefore
heproceedstoinvestigateitsrelationtomagic.Thereisprobablynosubjectintheworldaboutwhich
opinionsdiffersomuchasthenatureofreligion,andtoframeadefinitionofitwhichwouldsatisfy
everyonemustobviouslybeimpossible.Allthatawritercandois,first,tosayclearlywhathemeansby
religion,andafterwardstoemploythewordconsistentlyinthatsensethroughouthiswork.Byreligion,
then,Iunderstandapropitiationorconciliationofpowerssuperiortomanwhicharebelievedtodirect
andcontrolthecourseofnatureandofhumanlife.Thusdefined,religionconsistsoftwoelements,a
theoreticalandapractical,namely,abeliefinpowershigherthanmanandanattempttopropitiateor
pleasethem.Ofthetwo,beliefclearlycomesfirst,sincewemustbelieveintheexistenceofadivine
beingbeforewecanattempttopleasehim.Butunlessthebeliefleadstoacorrespondingpractice,itis
notareligionbutmerelyatheologyinthelanguageofSt.James,faith,ifithathnotworks,isdead,
beingalone.Inotherwords,nomanisreligiouswhodoesnotgovernhisconductinsomemeasureby
thefearorloveofGod.Ontheotherhand,merepractice,divestedofallreligiousbelief,isalsonot
religion.Twomenmaybehaveinexactlythesameway,andyetoneofthemmaybereligiousandthe
othernot.IftheoneactsfromtheloveorfearofGod,heisreligiousiftheotheractsfromtheloveor
fearofman,heismoralorimmoralaccordingashisbehaviourcomportsorconflictswiththegeneral
good.Hencebeliefandpracticeor,intheologicallanguage,faithandworksareequallyessentialto
religion,whichcannotexistwithoutbothofthem.Butitisnotnecessarythatreligiouspracticeshould
alwaystaketheformofaritualthatis,itneednotconsistintheofferingofsacrifice,therecitationof
prayers,andotheroutwardceremonies.Itsaimistopleasethedeity,andifthedeityisonewhodelights
incharityandmercyandpuritymorethaninoblationsofblood,thechantingofhymns,andthefumesof
incense,hisworshipperswillbestpleasehim,notbyprostratingthemselvesbeforehim,byintoninghis
praises,andbyfillinghistempleswithcostlygifts,butbybeingpureandmercifulandcharitabletowards
men,forinsodoingtheywillimitate,sofarashumaninfirmityallows,theperfectionsofthedivine
nature.ItwasthisethicalsideofreligionwhichtheHebrewprophets,inspiredwithanobleidealof
Godsgoodnessandholiness,wereneverwearyofinculcating.ThusMicahsays:Hehathshewedthee,
Oman,whatisgoodandwhatdoththeLordrequireofthee,buttodojustly,andtolovemercy,andto
walkhumblywiththyGod?AndatalatertimemuchoftheforcebywhichChristianityconqueredthe
worldwasdrawnfromthesamehighconceptionofGodsmoralnatureandthedutylaidonmenof
conformingthemselvestoit.Purereligionandundefiled,saysSt.James,beforeGodandtheFatheris

this,Tovisitthefatherlessandwidowsintheiraffliction,andtokeephimselfunspottedfromtheworld.
Butifreligioninvolves,first,abeliefinsuperhumanbeingswhoruletheworld,and,second,anattempt
towintheirfavour,itclearlyassumesthatthecourseofnatureistosomeextentelasticorvariable,and
thatwecanpersuadeorinducethemightybeingswhocontrolittodeflect,forourbenefit,thecurrentof
eventsfromthechannelinwhichtheywouldotherwiseflow.Nowthisimpliedelasticityorvariabilityof
natureisdirectlyopposedtotheprinciplesofmagicaswellasofscience,bothofwhichassumethatthe
processesofnaturearerigidandinvariableintheiroperation,andthattheycanaslittlebeturnedfrom
theircoursebypersuasionandentreatyasbythreatsandintimidation.Thedistinctionbetweenthetwo
conflictingviewsoftheuniverseturnsontheiranswertothecrucialquestion,Aretheforceswhich
governtheworldconsciousandpersonal,orunconsciousandimpersonal?Religion,asaconciliationof
thesuperhumanpowers,assumestheformermemberofthealternative.Forallconciliationimpliesthat
thebeingconciliatedisaconsciousorpersonalagent,thathisconductisinsomemeasureuncertain,and
thathecanbeprevailedupontovaryitinthedesireddirectionbyajudiciousappealtohisinterests,his
appetites,orhisemotions.Conciliationisneveremployedtowardsthingswhichareregardedas
inanimate,nortowardspersonswhosebehaviourintheparticularcircumstancesisknowntobe
determinedwithabsolutecertainty.Thusinsofarasreligionassumestheworldtobedirectedby
consciousagentswhomaybeturnedfromtheirpurposebypersuasion,itstandsinfundamental
antagonismtomagicaswellastoscience,bothofwhichtakeforgrantedthatthecourseofnatureis
determined,notbythepassionsorcapriceofpersonalbeings,butbytheoperationofimmutablelaws
actingmechanically.Inmagic,indeed,theassumptionisonlyimplicit,butinscienceitisexplicit.Itis
truethatmagicoftendealswithspirits,whicharepersonalagentsofthekindassumedbyreligionbut
wheneveritdoessoinitsproperform,ittreatsthemexactlyinthesamefashionasittreatsinanimate
agents,thatis,itconstrainsorcoercesinsteadofconciliatingorpropitiatingthemasreligionwoulddo.
Thusitassumesthatallpersonalbeings,whetherhumanordivine,areinthelastresortsubjecttothose
impersonalforceswhichcontrolallthings,butwhichneverthelesscanbeturnedtoaccountbyanyone
whoknowshowtomanipulatethembytheappropriateceremoniesandspells.InancientEgypt,for
example,themagiciansclaimedthepowerofcompellingeventhehighestgodstodotheirbidding,and
actuallythreatenedthemwithdestructionincaseofdisobedience.Sometimes,withoutgoingquitesofar
asthat,thewizarddeclaredthathewouldscatterthebonesofOsirisorrevealhissacredlegend,ifthe
godprovedcontumacious.SimilarlyinIndiaatthepresentdaythegreatHindootrinityitselfofBrahma,
Vishnu,andSivaissubjecttothesorcerers,who,bymeansoftheirspells,exercisesuchanascendency
overthemightiestdeities,thattheseareboundsubmissivelytoexecuteonearthbelow,orinheaven
above,whatevercommandstheirmastersthemagiciansmaypleasetoissue.Thereisasaying
everywherecurrentinIndia:Thewholeuniverseissubjecttothegodsthegodsaresubjecttothespells
(mantras)thespellstotheBrahmansthereforetheBrahmansareourgods.
Thisradicalconflictofprinciplebetweenmagicandreligionsufficientlyexplainstherelentlesshostility
withwhichinhistorythepriesthasoftenpursuedthemagician.Thehaughtyselfsufficiencyofthe
magician,hisarrogantdemeanourtowardsthehigherpowers,andhisunabashedclaimtoexerciseasway
liketheirscouldnotbutrevoltthepriest,towhom,withhisawfulsenseofthedivinemajesty,andhis
humbleprostrationinpresenceofit,suchclaimsandsuchademeanourmusthaveappearedanimpious
andblasphemoususurpationofprerogativesthatbelongtoGodalone.Andsometimes,wemaysuspect,
lowermotivesconcurredtowhettheedgeofthepriestshostility.Heprofessedtobethepropermedium,
thetrueintercessorbetweenGodandman,andnodoubthisinterestsaswellashisfeelingswereoften
injuredbyarivalpractitioner,whopreachedasurerandsmootherroadtofortunethantheruggedand
slipperypathofdivinefavour.
Yetthisantagonism,familiarasitistous,seemstohavemadeitsappearancecomparativelylateinthe
historyofreligion.Atanearlierstagethefunctionsofpriestandsorcererwereoftencombinedor,to
speakperhapsmorecorrectly,werenotyetdifferentiatedfromeachother.Toservehispurposeman

wooedthegoodwillofgodsorspiritsbyprayerandsacrifice,whileatthesametimehehadrecourseto
ceremoniesandformsofwordswhichhehopedwouldofthemselvesbringaboutthedesiredresult
withoutthehelpofgodordevil.Inshort,heperformedreligiousandmagicalritessimultaneouslyhe
utteredprayersandincantationsalmostinthesamebreath,knowingorreckinglittleofthetheoretical
inconsistencyofhisbehaviour,solongasbyhookorcrookhecontrivedtogetwhathewanted.Instances
ofthisfusionorconfusionofmagicwithreligionhavealreadymetusinthepracticesofMelanesiansand
ofotherpeoples.
Thesameconfusionofmagicandreligionhassurvivedamongpeoplesthathaverisentohigherlevelsof
culture.ItwasrifeinancientIndiaandancientEgyptitisbynomeansextinctamongEuropean
peasantryatthepresentday.WithregardtoancientIndiawearetoldbyaneminentSanscritscholarthat
thesacrificialritualattheearliestperiodofwhichwehavedetailedinformationispervadedwith
practicesthatbreathethespiritofthemostprimitivemagic.Speakingoftheimportanceofmagicinthe
East,andespeciallyinEgypt,ProfessorMasperoremarksthatweoughtnottoattachtothewordmagic
thedegradingideawhichitalmostinevitablycallsupinthemindofamodern.Ancientmagicwasthe
veryfoundationofreligion.Thefaithfulwhodesiredtoobtainsomefavourfromagodhadnochanceof
succeedingexceptbylayinghandsonthedeity,andthisarrestcouldonlybeeffectedbymeansofa
certainnumberofrites,sacrifices,prayers,andchants,whichthegodhimselfhadrevealed,andwhich
obligedhimtodowhatwasdemandedofhim.
AmongtheignorantclassesofmodernEuropethesameconfusionofideas,thesamemixtureofreligion
andmagic,cropsupinvariousforms.ThuswearetoldthatinFrancethemajorityofthepeasantsstill
believethatthepriestpossessesasecretandirresistiblepowerovertheelements.Byrecitingcertain
prayerswhichhealoneknowsandhastherighttoutter,yetfortheutteranceofwhichhemustafterwards
demandabsolution,hecan,onanoccasionofpressingdanger,arrestorreverseforamomenttheaction
oftheeternallawsofthephysicalworld.Thewinds,thestorms,thehail,andtherainareathiscommand
andobeyhiswill.Thefirealsoissubjecttohim,andtheflamesofaconflagrationareextinguishedathis
word.Forexample,Frenchpeasantsusedtobe,perhapsarestill,persuadedthatthepriestscould
celebrate,withcertainspecialrites,aMassoftheHolySpirit,ofwhichtheefficacywassomiraculous
thatitnevermetwithanyoppositionfromthedivinewillGodwasforcedtograntwhateverwasasked
ofHiminthisform,howeverrashandimportunatemightbethepetition.Noideaofimpietyor
irreverenceattachedtotheriteinthemindsofthosewho,insomeofthegreatextremitiesoflife,sought
bythissingularmeanstotakethekingdomofheavenbystorm.Thesecularpriestsgenerallyrefusedto
saytheMassoftheHolySpiritbutthemonks,especiallytheCapuchinfriars,hadthereputationof
yieldingwithlessscrupletotheentreatiesoftheanxiousanddistressed.Intheconstraintthussupposed
byCatholicpeasantrytobelaidbythepriestuponthedeityweseemtohaveanexactcounterpartofthe
powerwhichtheancientEgyptiansascribedtotheirmagicians.Again,totakeanotherexample,inmany
villagesofProvencethepriestisstillreputedtopossessthefacultyofavertingstorms.Itisnotevery
priestwhoenjoysthisreputationandinsomevillages,whenachangeofpastorstakesplace,the
parishionersareeagertolearnwhetherthenewincumbenthasthepower(pouder),astheycallit.Atthe
firstsignofaheavystormtheyputhimtotheproofbyinvitinghimtoexorcisethethreateningclouds
andiftheresultanswerstotheirhopes,thenewshepherdisassuredofthesympathyandrespectofhis
flock.Insomeparishes,wherethereputationofthecurateinthisrespectstoodhigherthanthatofhis
rector,therelationsbetweenthetwohavebeensostrainedinconsequencethatthebishophashadto
translatetherectortoanotherbenefice.Again,Gasconpeasantsbelievethattorevengethemselveson
theirenemiesbadmenwillsometimesinduceapriesttosayamasscalledtheMassofSaintScaire.
Veryfewpriestsknowthismass,andthreefourthsofthosewhodoknowitwouldnotsayitforloveor
money.Nonebutwickedpriestsdaretoperformthegruesomeceremony,andyoumaybequitesurethat
theywillhaveaveryheavyaccounttorenderforitatthelastday.Nocurateorbishop,noteventhe
archbishopofAuch,canpardonthemthatrightbelongstothepopeofRomealone.TheMassofSaint

Scairemaybesaidonlyinaruinedordesertedchurch,whereowlsmopeandhoot,wherebatsflitin
thegloaming,wheregypsieslodgeofnights,andwheretoadssquatunderthedesecratedaltar.Thither
thebadpriestcomesbynightwithhislightolove,andatthefirststrokeofelevenhebeginstomumble
themassbackwards,andendsjustastheclocksareknellingthemidnighthour.Hislemanactsasclerk.
Thehostheblessesisblackandhasthreepointsheconsecratesnowine,butinsteadhedrinksthewater
ofawellintowhichthebodyofanunbaptizedinfanthasbeenflung.Hemakesthesignofthecross,but
itisonthegroundandwithhisleftfoot.AndmanyotherthingshedoeswhichnogoodChristiancould
lookuponwithoutbeingstruckblindanddeafanddumbfortherestofhislife.Butthemanforwhom
themassissaidwithersawaylittlebylittle,andnobodycansaywhatisthematterwithhimeventhe
doctorscanmakenothingofit.TheydonotknowthatheisslowlydyingoftheMassofSaintScaire.
Yetthoughmagicisthusfoundtofuseandamalgamatewithreligioninmanyagesandinmanylands,
therearesomegroundsforthinkingthatthisfusionisnotprimitive,andthattherewasatimewhenman
trustedtomagicaloneforthesatisfactionofsuchwantsastranscendedhisimmediateanimalcravings.In
thefirstplaceaconsiderationofthefundamentalnotionsofmagicandreligionmayinclineustosurmise
thatmagicisolderthanreligioninthehistoryofhumanity.Wehaveseenthatontheonehandmagicis
nothingbutamistakenapplicationoftheverysimplestandmostelementaryprocessesofthemind,
namelytheassociationofideasbyvirtueofresemblanceorcontiguityandthatontheotherhand
religionassumestheoperationofconsciousorpersonalagents,superiortoman,behindthevisiblescreen
ofnature.Obviouslytheconceptionofpersonalagentsismorecomplexthanasimplerecognitionofthe
similarityorcontiguityofideasandatheorywhichassumesthatthecourseofnatureisdeterminedby
consciousagentsismoreabstruseandrecondite,andrequiresforitsapprehensionafarhigherdegreeof
intelligenceandreflection,thantheviewthatthingssucceedeachothersimplybyreasonoftheir
contiguityorresemblance.Theverybeastsassociatetheideasofthingsthatarelikeeachotherorthat
havebeenfoundtogetherintheirexperienceandtheycouldhardlysurviveforadayiftheyceasedtodo
so.Butwhoattributestotheanimalsabeliefthatthephenomenaofnatureareworkedbyamultitudeof
invisibleanimalsorbyoneenormousandprodigiouslystronganimalbehindthescenes?Itisprobably
noinjusticetothebrutestoassumethatthehonourofdevisingatheoryofthislattersortmustbe
reservedforhumanreason.Thus,ifmagicbededucedimmediatelyfromelementaryprocessesof
reasoning,andbe,infact,anerrorintowhichthemindfallsalmostspontaneously,whilereligionrestson
conceptionswhichthemerelyanimalintelligencecanhardlybesupposedtohaveyetattainedto,it
becomesprobablethatmagicarosebeforereligionintheevolutionofourrace,andthatmanessayedto
bendnaturetohiswishesbythesheerforceofspellsandenchantmentsbeforehestrovetocoaxand
mollifyacoy,capricious,orirascibledeitybythesoftinsinuationofprayerandsacrifice.
Theconclusionwhichwehavethusreacheddeductivelyfromaconsiderationofthefundamentalideasof
magicandreligionisconfirmedinductivelybytheobservationthatamongtheaboriginesofAustralia,
therudestsavagesastowhomwepossessaccurateinformation,magicisuniversallypractised,whereas
religioninthesenseofapropitiationorconciliationofthehigherpowersseemstobenearlyunknown.
Roughlyspeaking,allmeninAustraliaaremagicians,butnotoneisapriesteverybodyfancieshecan
influencehisfellowsorthecourseofnaturebysympatheticmagic,butnobodydreamsofpropitiating
godsbyprayerandsacrifice.
Butifinthemostbackwardstateofhumansocietynowknowntouswefindmagicthusconspicuously
presentandreligionconspicuouslyabsent,maywenotreasonablyconjecturethatthecivilisedracesof
theworldhavealsoatsomeperiodoftheirhistorypassedthroughasimilarintellectualphase,thatthey
attemptedtoforcethegreatpowersofnaturetodotheirpleasurebeforetheythoughtofcourtingtheir
favourbyofferingsandprayerinshortthat,justasonthematerialsideofhumanculturetherehas
everywherebeenanAgeofStone,soontheintellectualsidetherehaseverywherebeenanAgeof
Magic?Therearereasonsforansweringthisquestionintheaffirmative.Whenwesurveytheexisting
racesofmankindfromGreenlandtoTierradelFuego,orfromScotlandtoSingapore,weobservethat

theyaredistinguishedonefromtheotherbyagreatvarietyofreligions,andthatthesedistinctionsare
not,sotospeak,merelycoterminouswiththebroaddistinctionsofrace,butdescendintotheminuter
subdivisionsofstatesandcommonwealths,nay,thattheyhoneycombthetown,thevillage,andeventhe
family,sothatthesurfaceofsocietyallovertheworldiscrackedandseamed,sappedandminedwith
rentsandfissuresandyawningcrevassesopenedupbythedisintegratinginfluenceofreligious
dissension.Yetwhenwehavepenetratedthroughthesedifferences,whichaffectmainlytheintelligent
andthoughtfulpartofthecommunity,weshallfindunderlyingthemallasolidstratumofintellectual
agreementamongthedull,theweak,theignorant,andthesuperstitious,whoconstitute,unfortunately,
thevastmajorityofmankind.Oneofthegreatachievementsofthenineteenthcenturywastorunshafts
downintothislowmentalstratuminmanypartsoftheworld,andthustodiscoveritssubstantialidentity
everywhere.ItisbeneathourfeetandnotveryfarbeneaththemhereinEuropeatthepresentday,
anditcropsuponthesurfaceintheheartoftheAustralianwildernessandwherevertheadventofa
highercivilisationhasnotcrusheditunderground.Thisuniversalfaith,thistrulyCatholiccreed,isa
beliefintheefficacyofmagic.Whilereligioussystemsdiffernotonlyindifferentcountries,butinthe
samecountryindifferentages,thesystemofsympatheticmagicremainseverywhereandatalltimes
substantiallyalikeinitsprinciplesandpractice.Amongtheignorantandsuperstitiousclassesofmodern
EuropeitisverymuchwhatitwasthousandsofyearsagoinEgyptandIndia,andwhatitnowisamong
thelowestsavagessurvivingintheremotestcornersoftheworld.Ifthetestoftruthlayinashowof
handsoracountingofheads,thesystemofmagicmightappeal,withfarmorereasonthantheCatholic
Church,totheproudmotto,Quodsemper,quodubique,quodabomnibus,asthesureandcertain
credentialofitsowninfallibility.
Itisnotourbusinessheretoconsiderwhatbearingthepermanentexistenceofsuchasolidlayerof
savagerybeneaththesurfaceofsociety,andunaffectedbythesuperficialchangesofreligionandculture,
hasuponthefutureofhumanity.Thedispassionateobserver,whosestudieshaveledhimtoplumbits
depths,canhardlyregarditotherwisethanasastandingmenacetocivilisation.Weseemtomoveona
thincrustwhichmayatanymomentberentbythesubterraneanforcesslumberingbelow.Fromtimeto
timeahollowmurmurundergroundorasuddenspirtofflameintotheairtellsofwhatisgoingon
beneathourfeet.Nowandthenthepoliteworldisstartledbyaparagraphinanewspaperwhichtellshow
inScotlandanimagehasbeenfoundstuckfullofpinsforthepurposeofkillinganobnoxiouslairdor
minister,howawomanhasbeenslowlyroastedtodeathasawitchinIreland,orhowagirlhasbeen
murderedandchoppedupinRussiatomakethosecandlesofhumantallowbywhoselightthieveshope
topursuetheirmidnighttradeunseen.Butwhethertheinfluencesthatmakeforfurtherprogress,orthose
thatthreatentoundowhathasalreadybeenaccomplished,willultimatelyprevailwhethertheimpulsive
energyoftheminorityorthedeadweightofthemajorityofmankindwillprovethestrongerforceto
carryusuptohigherheightsortosinkusintolowerdepths,arequestionsratherforthesage,the
moralist,andthestatesman,whoseeaglevisionscansthefuture,thanforthehumblestudentofthe
presentandthepast.Hereweareonlyconcernedtoaskhowfartheuniformity,theuniversality,andthe
permanenceofabeliefinmagic,comparedwiththeendlessvarietyandtheshiftingcharacterofreligious
creeds,raisesapresumptionthattheformerrepresentsaruderandearlierphaseofthehumanmind,
throughwhichalltheracesofmankindhavepassedorarepassingontheirwaytoreligionandscience.
IfanAgeofReligionhasthuseverywhere,asIventuretosurmise,beenprecededbyanAgeofMagic,it
isnaturalthatweshouldenquirewhatcauseshaveledmankind,orratheraportionofthem,toabandon
magicasaprincipleoffaithandpracticeandtobetakethemselvestoreligioninstead.Whenwereflect
uponthemultitude,thevariety,andthecomplexityofthefactstobeexplained,andthescantinessofour
informationregardingthem,weshallbereadytoacknowledgethatafullandsatisfactorysolutionofso
profoundaproblemishardlytobehopedfor,andthatthemostwecandointhepresentstateofour
knowledgeistohazardamoreorlessplausibleconjecture.Withallduediffidence,then,Iwouldsuggest
thatatardyrecognitionoftheinherentfalsehoodandbarrennessofmagicsetthemorethoughtfulpartof
mankindtocastaboutforatruertheoryofnatureandamorefruitfulmethodofturningherresourcesto

account.Theshrewderintelligencesmustintimehavecometoperceivethatmagicalceremoniesand
incantationsdidnotreallyeffecttheresultswhichtheyweredesignedtoproduce,andwhichthemajority
oftheirsimplerfellowsstillbelievedthattheydidactuallyproduce.Thisgreatdiscoveryofthe
inefficacyofmagicmusthavewroughtaradicalthoughprobablyslowrevolutioninthemindsofthose
whohadthesagacitytomakeit.Thediscoveryamountedtothis,thatmenforthefirsttimerecognised
theirinabilitytomanipulateatpleasurecertainnaturalforceswhichhithertotheyhadbelievedtobe
completelywithintheircontrol.Itwasaconfessionofhumanignoranceandweakness.Mansawthathe
hadtakenforcauseswhatwerenocauses,andthatallhiseffortstoworkbymeansoftheseimaginary
causeshadbeenvain.Hispainfultoilhadbeenwasted,hiscuriousingenuityhadbeensquanderedtono
purpose.Hehadbeenpullingatstringstowhichnothingwasattachedhehadbeenmarching,ashe
thought,straighttothegoal,whileinrealityhehadonlybeentreadinginanarrowcircle.Notthatthe
effectswhichhehadstrivensohardtoproducedidnotcontinuetomanifestthemselves.Theywerestill
produced,butnotbyhim.Therainstillfellonthethirstyground:thesunstillpursuedhisdaily,andthe
moonhernightlyjourneyacrossthesky:thesilentprocessionoftheseasonsstillmovedinlightand
shadow,incloudandsunshineacrosstheearth:menwerestillborntolabourandsorrow,andstill,aftera
briefsojournhere,weregatheredtotheirfathersinthelonghomehereafter.Allthingsindeedwentonas
before,yetallseemeddifferenttohimfromwhoseeyestheoldscaleshadfallen.Forhecouldnolonger
cherishthepleasingillusionthatitwashewhoguidedtheearthandtheheavenintheircourses,andthat
theywouldceasetoperformtheirgreatrevolutionswerehetotakehisfeeblehandfromthewheel.Inthe
deathofhisenemiesandhisfriendshenolongersawaproofoftheresistlesspotencyofhisownorof
hostileenchantmentshenowknewthatfriendsandfoesalikehadsuccumbedtoaforcestrongerthan
anythathecouldwield,andinobediencetoadestinywhichhewaspowerlesstocontrol.
Thuscutadriftfromhisancientmooringsandlefttotossonatroubledseaofdoubtanduncertainty,his
oldhappyconfidenceinhimselfandhispowersrudelyshaken,ourprimitivephilosophermusthavebeen
sadlyperplexedandagitatedtillhecametorest,asinaquiethavenafteratempestuousvoyage,inanew
systemoffaithandpractice,whichseemedtoofferasolutionofhisharassingdoubtsandasubstitute,
howeverprecarious,forthatsovereigntyovernaturewhichhehadreluctantlyabdicated.Ifthegreat
worldwentonitswaywithoutthehelpofhimorhisfellows,itmustsurelybebecausetherewereother
beings,likehimself,butfarstronger,who,unseenthemselves,directeditscourseandbroughtaboutall
thevariedseriesofeventswhichhehadhithertobelievedtobedependentonhisownmagic.Itwasthey,
ashenowbelieved,andnothehimself,whomadethestormywindtoblow,thelightningtoflash,and
thethundertorollwhohadlaidthefoundationsofthesolidearthandsetboundstotherestlessseathatit
mightnotpasswhocausedallthegloriouslightsofheaventoshinewhogavethefowlsoftheairtheir
meatandthewildbeastsofthedeserttheirpreywhobadethefruitfullandtobringforthinabundance,
thehighhillstobeclothedwithforests,thebubblingspringstoriseundertherocksinthevalleys,and
greenpasturestogrowbystillwaterswhobreathedintomansnostrilsandmadehimlive,orturnedhim
todestructionbyfamineandpestilenceandwar.Tothesemightybeings,whosehandiworkhetracedin
allthegorgeousandvariedpageantryofnature,mannowaddressedhimself,humblyconfessinghis
dependenceontheirinvisiblepower,andbeseechingthemoftheirmercytofurnishhimwithallgood
things,todefendhimfromtheperilsanddangersbywhichourmortallifeiscompassedaboutonevery
hand,andfinallytobringhisimmortalspirit,freedfromtheburdenofthebody,tosomehappierworld,
beyondthereachofpainandsorrow,wherehemightrestwiththemandwiththespiritsofgoodmenin
joyandfelicityforever.
Inthis,orsomesuchwayasthis,thedeepermindsmaybeconceivedtohavemadethegreattransition
frommagictoreligion.Buteveninthemthechangecanhardlyeverhavebeensuddenprobablyit
proceededveryslowly,andrequiredlongagesforitsmoreorlessperfectaccomplishment.Forthe
recognitionofmanspowerlessnesstoinfluencethecourseofnatureonagrandscalemusthavebeen
gradualhecannothavebeenshornofthewholeofhisfancieddominionatablow.Stepbystephemust
havebeendrivenbackfromhisproudpositionfootbyfoothemusthaveyielded,withasigh,theground

whichhehadonceviewedashisown.Nowitwouldbethewind,nowtherain,nowthesunshine,now
thethunder,thatheconfessedhimselfunabletowieldatwillandasprovinceafterprovinceofnature
thusfellfromhisgrasp,tillwhathadonceseemedakingdomthreatenedtoshrinkintoaprison,man
musthavebeenmoreandmoreprofoundlyimpressedwithasenseofhisownhelplessnessandthemight
oftheinvisiblebeingsbywhomhebelievedhimselftobesurrounded.Thusreligion,beginningasa
slightandpartialacknowledgmentofpowerssuperiortoman,tendswiththegrowthofknowledgeto
deepenintoaconfessionofmansentireandabsolutedependenceonthedivinehisoldfreebearingis
exchangedforanattitudeoflowliestprostrationbeforethemysteriouspowersoftheunseen,andhis
highestvirtueistosubmithiswilltotheirs:Inlasuavolontadenostrapace.Butthisdeepeningsense
ofreligion,thismoreperfectsubmissiontothedivinewillinallthings,affectsonlythosehigher
intelligenceswhohavebreadthofviewenoughtocomprehendthevastnessoftheuniverseandthe
littlenessofman.Smallmindscannotgraspgreatideastotheirnarrowcomprehension,theirpurblind
vision,nothingseemsreallygreatandimportantbutthemselves.Suchmindshardlyriseintoreligionat
all.Theyare,indeed,drilledbytheirbettersintoanoutwardconformitywithitspreceptsandaverbal
professionofitstenetsbutathearttheyclingtotheiroldmagicalsuperstitions,whichmaybe
discountenancedandforbidden,butcannotbeeradicatedbyreligion,solongastheyhavetheirroots
deepdowninthementalframeworkandconstitutionofthegreatmajorityofmankind.
Thereadermaywellbetemptedtoask,Howwasitthatintelligentmendidnotsoonerdetectthefallacy
ofmagic?Howcouldtheycontinuetocherishexpectationsthatwereinvariablydoomedto
disappointment?Withwhatheartpersistinplayingvenerableanticsthatledtonothing,andmumbling
solemnbalderdashthatremainedwithouteffect?Whyclingtobeliefswhichweresoflatlycontradicted
byexperience?Howdaretorepeatexperimentsthathadfailedsooften?Theanswerseemstobethatthe
fallacywasfarfromeasytodetect,thefailurebynomeansobvious,sinceinmany,perhapsinmost
cases,thedesiredeventdidactuallyfollow,atalongerorshorterinterval,theperformanceoftherite
whichwasdesignedtobringitaboutandamindofmorethancommonacutenesswasneededto
perceivethat,eveninthesecases,theritewasnotnecessarilythecauseoftheevent.Aceremony
intendedtomakethewindblowortherainfall,ortoworkthedeathofanenemy,willalwaysbe
followed,soonerorlater,bytheoccurrenceitismeanttobringtopassandprimitivemanmaybe
excusedforregardingtheoccurrenceasadirectresultoftheceremony,andthebestpossibleproofofits
efficacy.Similarly,ritesobservedinthemorningtohelpthesuntorise,andinspringtowakethe
dreamingearthfromherwintersleep,willinvariablyappeartobecrownedwithsuccess,atleastwithin
thetemperatezonesforintheseregionsthesunlightshisgoldenlampintheeasteverymorning,and
yearbyyearthevernalearthdecksherselfafreshwitharichmantleofgreen.Hencethepracticalsavage,
withhisconservativeinstincts,mightwellturnadeafeartothesubtletiesofthetheoreticaldoubter,the
philosophicradical,whopresumedtohintthatsunriseandspringmightnot,afterall,bedirect
consequencesofthepunctualperformanceofcertaindailyoryearlyceremonies,andthatthesunmight
perhapscontinuetoriseandtreestoblossomthoughtheceremonieswereoccasionallyintermitted,or
evendiscontinuedaltogether.Thesescepticaldoubtswouldnaturallyberepelledbytheotherwithscorn
andindignationasairyreveriessubversiveofthefaithandmanifestlycontradictedbyexperience.Can
anythingbeplainer,hemightsay,thanthatIlightmytwopennycandleonearthandthatthesunthen
kindleshisgreatfireinheaven?Ishouldbegladtoknowwhether,whenIhaveputonmygreenrobein
spring,thetreesdonotafterwardsdothesame?Thesearefactspatenttoeverybody,andonthemItake
mystand.Iamaplainpracticalman,notoneofyourtheoristsandsplittersofhairsandchoppersof
logic.Theoriesandspeculationandallthatmaybeverywellintheirway,andIhavenottheleast
objectiontoyourindulginginthem,provided,ofcourse,youdonotputtheminpractice.Butgiveme
leavetosticktofactsthenIknowwhereIam.Thefallacyofthisreasoningisobvioustous,becauseit
happenstodealwithfactsaboutwhichwehavelongmadeupourminds.Butletanargumentof
preciselythesamecalibrebeappliedtomatterswhicharestillunderdebate,anditmaybequestioned
whetheraBritishaudiencewouldnotapplauditassound,andesteemthespeakerwhouseditasafeman

notbrilliantorshowy,perhaps,butthoroughlysensibleandhardheaded.Ifsuchreasoningscouldpass
musteramongourselves,needwewonderthattheylongescapeddetectionbythesavage?

V.TheMagicalControloftheWeather
1.ThePublicMagician
THEREADERmayrememberthatwewereledtoplungeintothelabyrinthofmagicbyaconsideration
oftwodifferenttypesofmangod.Thisisthecluewhichhasguidedourdeviousstepsthroughthemaze,
andbroughtusoutatlastonhigherground,whence,restingalittlebytheway,wecanlookbackover
thepathwehavealreadytraversedandforwardtothelongerandsteeperroadwehavestilltoclimb.
Asaresultoftheforegoingdiscussion,thetwotypesofhumangodsmayconvenientlybedistinguished
asthereligiousandthemagicalmangodrespectively.Intheformer,abeingofanorderdifferentfrom
andsuperiortomanissupposedtobecomeincarnate,foralongerorashortertime,inahumanbody,
manifestinghissuperhumanpowerandknowledgebymiracleswroughtandpropheciesutteredthrough
themediumofthefleshlytabernacleinwhichhehasdeignedtotakeuphisabode.Thismayalso
appropriatelybecalledtheinspiredorincarnatetypeofmangod.Initthehumanbodyismerelyafrail
earthlyvesselfilledwithadivineandimmortalspirit.Ontheotherhand,amangodofthemagicalsortis
nothingbutamanwhopossessesinanunusuallyhighdegreepowerswhichmostofhisfellowsarrogate
tothemselvesonasmallerscaleforinrudesocietythereishardlyapersonwhodoesnotdabblein
magic.Thus,whereasamangodoftheformerorinspiredtypederiveshisdivinityfromadeitywhohas
stoopedtohidehisheavenlyradiancebehindadullmaskofearthlymould,amangodofthelattertype
drawshisextraordinarypowerfromacertainphysicalsympathywithnature.Heisnotmerelythe
receptacleofadivinespirit.Hiswholebeing,bodyandsoul,issodelicatelyattunedtotheharmonyof
theworldthatatouchofhishandoraturnofhisheadmaysendathrillvibratingthroughtheuniversal
frameworkofthingsandconverselyhisdivineorganismisacutelysensitivetosuchslightchangesof
environmentaswouldleaveordinarymortalswhollyunaffected.Butthelinebetweenthesetwotypesof
mangod,howeversharplywemaydrawitintheory,isseldomtobetracedwithprecisioninpractice,
andinwhatfollowsIshallnotinsistonit.
Wehaveseenthatinpracticethemagicartmaybeemployedforthebenefiteitherofindividualsorof
thewholecommunity,andthataccordingasitisdirectedtooneorotherofthesetwoobjectsitmaybe
calledprivateorpublicmagic.Further,Ipointedoutthatthepublicmagicianoccupiesapositionofgreat
influence,fromwhich,ifheisaprudentandableman,hemayadvancestepbysteptotherankofachief
orking.Thusanexaminationofpublicmagicconducestoanunderstandingoftheearlykingship,since
insavageandbarbaroussocietymanychiefsandkingsappeartoowetheirauthorityingreatmeasureto
theirreputationasmagicians.
Amongtheobjectsofpublicutilitywhichmagicmaybeemployedtosecure,themostessentialisan
adequatesupplyoffood.Theexamplescitedinprecedingpagesprovethatthepurveyorsoffoodthe
hunter,thefisher,thefarmerallresorttomagicalpracticesinthepursuitoftheirvariouscallingsbut
theydosoasprivateindividualsforthebenefitofthemselvesandtheirfamilies,ratherthanaspublic
functionariesactingintheinterestofthewholepeople.Itisotherwisewhentheritesareperformed,not
bythehunters,thefishers,thefarmersthemselves,butbyprofessionalmagiciansontheirbehalf.In
primitivesociety,whereuniformityofoccupationistherule,andthedistributionofthecommunityinto
variousclassesofworkershashardlybegun,everymanismoreorlesshisownmagicianhepractises
charmsandincantationsforhisowngoodandtheinjuryofhisenemies.Butagreatstepinadvancehas
beentakenwhenaspecialclassofmagicianshasbeeninstitutedwhen,inotherwords,anumberofmen
havebeensetapartfortheexpresspurposeofbenefitingthewholecommunitybytheirskill,whether

thatskillbedirectedtothehealingofdiseases,theforecastingofthefuture,theregulationoftheweather,
oranyotherobjectofgeneralutility.Theimpotenceofthemeansadoptedbymostofthesepractitioners
toaccomplishtheirendsoughtnottoblindustotheimmenseimportanceoftheinstitutionitself.Hereis
abodyofmenrelieved,atleastinthehigherstagesofsavagery,fromtheneedofearningtheirlivelihood
byhardmanualtoil,andallowed,nay,expectedandencouraged,toprosecuteresearchesintothesecret
waysofnature.Itwasatoncetheirdutyandtheirinteresttoknowmorethantheirfellows,toacquaint
themselveswitheverythingthatcouldaidmaninhisarduousstrugglewithnature,everythingthatcould
mitigatehissufferingsandprolonghislife.Thepropertiesofdrugsandminerals,thecausesofrainand
drought,ofthunderandlightning,thechangesoftheseasons,thephasesofthemoon,thedailyand
yearlyjourneysofthesun,themotionsofthestars,themysteryoflife,andthemysteryofdeath,allthese
thingsmusthaveexcitedthewonderoftheseearlyphilosophers,andstimulatedthemtofindsolutionsof
problemsthatweredoubtlessoftenthrustontheirattentioninthemostpracticalformbytheimportunate
demandsoftheirclients,whoexpectedthemnotmerelytounderstandbuttoregulatethegreatprocesses
ofnatureforthegoodofman.Thattheirfirstshotsfellveryfarwideofthemarkcouldhardlybehelped.
Theslow,theneverendingapproachtotruthconsistsinperpetuallyformingandtestinghypotheses,
acceptingthosewhichatthetimeseemtofitthefactsandrejectingtheothers.Theviewsofnatural
causationembracedbythesavagemagiciannodoubtappeartousmanifestlyfalseandabsurdyetin
theirdaytheywerelegitimatehypotheses,thoughtheyhavenotstoodthetestofexperience.Ridicule
andblamearethejustmeed,notofthosewhodevisedthesecrudetheories,butofthosewhoobstinately
adheredtothemafterbetterhadbeenpropounded.Certainlynomeneverhadstrongerincentivesinthe
pursuitoftruththanthesesavagesorcerers.Tomaintainatleastashowofknowledgewasabsolutely
necessaryasinglemistakedetectedmightcostthemtheirlife.Thisnodoubtledthemtopractise
impostureforthepurposeofconcealingtheirignorancebutitalsosuppliedthemwiththemostpowerful
motiveforsubstitutingarealforashamknowledge,since,ifyouwouldappeartoknowanything,byfar
thebestwayisactuallytoknowit.Thus,howeverjustlywemayrejecttheextravagantpretensionsof
magiciansandcondemnthedeceptionswhichtheyhavepractisedonmankind,theoriginalinstitutionof
thisclassofmenhas,takeitallinall,beenproductiveofincalculablegoodtohumanity.Theywerethe
directpredecessors,notmerelyofourphysiciansandsurgeons,butofourinvestigatorsanddiscoverers
ineverybranchofnaturalscience.Theybegantheworkwhichhassincebeencarriedtosuchglorious
andbeneficentissuesbytheirsuccessorsinafteragesandifthebeginningwaspoorandfeeble,thisisto
beimputedtotheinevitabledifficultieswhichbesetthepathofknowledgeratherthantothenatural
incapacityorwilfulfraudofthementhemselves.
2.TheMagicalControlofRain
OFTHETHINGSwhichthepublicmagiciansetshimselftodoforthegoodofthetribe,oneofthechief
istocontroltheweatherandespeciallytoensureanadequatefallofrain.Waterisanessentialoflife,
andinmostcountriesthesupplyofitdependsuponshowers.Withoutrainvegetationwithers,animals
andmenlanguishanddie.Henceinsavagecommunitiestherainmakerisaveryimportantpersonage
andoftenaspecialclassofmagiciansexistsforthepurposeofregulatingtheheavenlywatersupply.The
methodsbywhichtheyattempttodischargethedutiesoftheirofficearecommonly,thoughnotalways,
basedontheprincipleofhomoeopathicorimitativemagic.Iftheywishtomakeraintheysimulateitby
sprinklingwaterormimickingclouds:iftheirobjectistostoprainandcausedrought,theyavoidwater
andresorttowarmthandfireforthesakeofdryingupthetooabundantmoisture.Suchattemptsareby
nomeansconfined,asthecultivatedreadermightimagine,tothenakedinhabitantsofthosesultrylands
likeCentralAustraliaandsomepartsofEasternandSouthernAfrica,whereoftenformonthstogether
thepitilesssunbeatsdownoutofablueandcloudlessskyontheparchedandgapingearth.Theyare,or
usedtobe,commonenoughamongoutwardlycivilisedfolkinthemoisterclimateofEurope.Iwillnow
illustratethembyinstancesdrawnfromthepracticebothofpublicandprivatemagic.

Thus,forexample,inavillagenearDorpat,inRussia,whenrainwasmuchwanted,threemenusedto
climbupthefirtreesofanoldsacredgrove.Oneofthemdrummedwithahammeronakettleorsmall
casktoimitatethunderthesecondknockedtwofirebrandstogetherandmadethesparksfly,toimitate
lightningandthethird,whowascalledtherainmaker,hadabunchoftwigswithwhichhesprinkled
waterfromavesselonallsides.Toputanendtodroughtandbringdownrain,womenandgirlsofthe
villageofPloskaarewonttogonakedbynighttotheboundariesofthevillageandtherepourwateron
theground.InHalmahera,orGilolo,alargeislandtothewestofNewGuinea,awizardmakesrainby
dippingabranchofaparticularkindoftreeinwaterandthenscatteringthemoisturefromthedripping
boughovertheground.InNewBritaintherainmakerwrapssomeleavesofaredandgreenstriped
creeperinabananaleaf,moistensthebundlewithwater,andburiesitinthegroundthenheimitates
withhismouththeplashingofrain.AmongsttheOmahaIndiansofNorthAmerica,whenthecornis
witheringforwantofrain,themembersofthesacredBuffaloSocietyfillalargevesselwithwaterand
dancefourtimesroundit.Oneofthemdrinkssomeofthewaterandspirtsitintotheair,makingafine
sprayinimitationofamistordrizzlingrain.Thenheupsetsthevessel,spillingthewaterontheground
whereuponthedancersfalldownanddrinkupthewater,gettingmudallovertheirfaces.Lastly,they
squirtthewaterintotheair,makingafinemist.Thissavesthecorn.InspringtimetheNatchezofNorth
Americausedtoclubtogethertopurchasefavourableweatherfortheircropsfromthewizards.Ifrain
wasneeded,thewizardsfastedanddancedwithpipesfullofwaterintheirmouths.Thepipeswere
perforatedlikethenozzleofawateringcan,andthroughtheholestherainmakerblewthewatertowards
thatpartoftheskywherethecloudshungheaviest.Butiffineweatherwaswanted,hemountedtheroof
ofhishut,andwithextendedarms,blowingwithallhismight,hebeckonedtothecloudstopassby.
WhentherainsdonotcomeindueseasonthepeopleofCentralAngonilandrepairtowhatiscalledthe
raintemple.Heretheyclearawaythegrass,andtheleaderpoursbeerintoapotwhichisburiedinthe
ground,whilehesays,MasterChauta,youhavehardenedyourhearttowardsus,whatwouldyouhave
usdo?Wemustperishindeed.Giveyourchildrentherains,thereisthebeerwehavegivenyou.Then
theyallpartakeofthebeerthatisleftover,eventhechildrenbeingmadetosipit.Nexttheytake
branchesoftreesanddanceandsingforrain.Whentheyreturntothevillagetheyfindavesselofwater
setatthedoorwaybyanoldwomansotheydiptheirbranchesinitandwavethemaloft,soastoscatter
thedrops.Afterthattherainissuretocomedrivingupinheavyclouds.Inthesepracticesweseea
combinationofreligionwithmagicforwhilethescatteringofthewaterdropsbymeansofbranchesisa
purelymagicalceremony,theprayerforrainandtheofferingofbeerarepurelyreligiousrites.Inthe
MaratribeofNorthernAustraliatherainmakergoestoapoolandsingsoverithismagicsong.Thenhe
takessomeofthewaterinhishands,drinksit,andspitsitoutinvariousdirections.Afterthathethrows
wateralloverhimself,scattersitabout,andreturnsquietlytothecamp.Rainissupposedtofollow.The
ArabhistorianMakrizidescribesamethodofstoppingrainwhichissaidtohavebeenresortedtobya
tribeofnomadscalledAlqamarinHadramaut.Theycutabranchfromacertaintreeinthedesert,setit
onfire,andthensprinkledtheburningbrandwithwater.Afterthatthevehemenceoftherainabated,just
asthewatervanishedwhenitfellontheglowingbrand.SomeoftheEasternAngamisofManipurare
saidtoperformasomewhatsimilarceremonyfortheoppositepurpose,inorder,namely,toproduce
rain.Theheadofthevillageputsaburningbrandonthegraveofamanwhohasdiedofburns,and
quenchesthebrandwithwater,whilehepraysthatrainmayfall.Heretheputtingoutthefirewithwater,
whichisanimitationofrain,isreinforcedbytheinfluenceofthedeadman,who,havingbeenburntto
death,willnaturallybeanxiousforthedescentofraintocoolhisscorchedbodyandassuagehispangs.
OtherpeoplebesidestheArabshaveusedfireasameansofstoppingrain.ThustheSulkaofNewBritain
heatstonesredhotinthefireandthenputthemoutintherain,ortheythrowhotashesintheair.They
thinkthattherainwillsoonceasetofall,foritdoesnotliketobeburnedbythehotstonesorashes.The
Telugussendalittlegirloutnakedintotherainwithaburningpieceofwoodinherhand,whichshehas
toshowtotherain.Thatissupposedtostopthedownpour.AtPortStevensinNewSouthWalesthe
medicinemenusedtodriveawayrainbythrowingfiresticksintotheair,whileatthesametimethey
puffedandshouted.AnymanoftheAnulatribeinNorthernAustraliacanstoprainbysimplywarminga

greenstickinthefire,andthenstrikingitagainstthewind.
IntimeofseveredroughttheDieriofCentralAustralia,loudlylamentingtheimpoverishedstateofthe
countryandtheirownhalfstarvedcondition,calluponthespiritsoftheirremotepredecessors,whom
theycallMuramuras,tograntthempowertomakeaheavyrainfall.Fortheybelievethatthecloudsare
bodiesinwhichrainisgeneratedbytheirownceremoniesorthoseofneighbouringtribes,throughthe
influenceoftheMuramuras.Thewayinwhichtheysetaboutdrawingrainfromthecloudsisthis.A
holeisdugabouttwelvefeetlongandeightortenbroad,andoverthisholeaconicalhutoflogsand
branchesismade.Twowizards,supposedtohavereceivedaspecialinspirationfromtheMuramuras,
arebledbyanoldandinfluentialmanwithasharpflintandtheblood,drawnfromtheirarmsbelowthe
elbow,ismadetoflowontheothermenofthetribe,whosithuddledtogetherinthehut.Atthesame
timethetwobleedingmenthrowhandfulsofdownabout,someofwhichadherestothebloodstained
bodiesoftheircomrades,whiletherestfloatsintheair.Thebloodisthoughttorepresenttherain,and
thedowntheclouds.Duringtheceremonytwolargestonesareplacedinthemiddleofthehutthey
standforgatheringcloudsandpresagerain.Thenthewizardswhowerebledcarryawaythetwostones
forabouttenorfifteenmiles,andplacethemashighastheycaninthetallesttree.Meanwhiletheother
mengathergypsum,pounditfine,andthrowitintoawaterhole.ThistheMuramurassee,andatonce
theycausecloudstoappearinthesky.Lastly,themen,youngandold,surroundthehut,and,stooping
down,buttatitwiththeirheads,likesomanyrams.Thustheyforcetheirwaythroughitandreappearon
theotherside,repeatingtheprocesstillthehutiswrecked.Indoingthistheyareforbiddentousetheir
handsorarmsbutwhentheheavylogsaloneremain,theyareallowedtopullthemoutwiththeirhands.
Thepiercingofthehutwiththeirheadssymbolisesthepiercingofthecloudsthefallofthehut,thefall
oftherain.Obviously,too,theactofplacinghighupintreesthetwostones,whichstandforclouds,isa
wayofmakingtherealcloudstomountupinthesky.TheDierialsoimaginethattheforeskinstaken
fromladsatcircumcisionhaveagreatpowerofproducingrain.HencetheGreatCouncilofthetribe
alwayskeepsasmallstockofforeskinsreadyforuse.Theyarecarefullyconcealed,beingwraptupin
featherswiththefatofthewilddogandofthecarpetsnake.Awomanmaynotseesuchaparcelopened
onanyaccount.Whentheceremonyisover,theforeskinisburied,itsvirtuebeingexhausted.Afterthe
rainshavefallen,someofthetribealwaysundergoasurgicaloperation,whichconsistsincuttingthe
skinoftheirchestandarmswithasharpflint.Thewoundisthentappedwithaflatsticktoincreasethe
flowofblood,andredochreisrubbedintoit.Raisedscarsarethusproduced.Thereasonallegedbythe
nativesforthispracticeisthattheyarepleasedwiththerain,andthatthereisaconnexionbetweenthe
rainandthescars.Apparentlytheoperationisnotverypainful,forthepatientlaughsandjokeswhileitis
goingon.Indeed,littlechildrenhavebeenseentocrowdroundtheoperatorandpatientlytaketheirturn
thenafterbeingoperatedon,theyranaway,expandingtheirlittlechestsandsingingfortheraintobeat
uponthem.However,theywerenotsowellpleasednextday,whentheyfelttheirwoundsstiffandsore.
InJava,whenrainiswanted,twomenwillsometimesthrasheachotherwithsupplerodstilltheblood
flowsdowntheirbacksthestreamingbloodrepresentstherain,andnodoubtissupposedtomakeitfall
ontheground.ThepeopleofEgghiou,adistrictofAbyssinia,usedtoengageinsanguinaryconflicts
witheachother,villageagainstvillage,foraweektogethereveryJanuaryforthepurposeofprocuring
rain.SomeyearsagotheemperorMenelikforbadethecustom.However,thefollowingyeartherainwas
deficient,andthepopularoutcrysogreatthattheemperoryieldedtoit,andallowedthemurderousfights
toberesumed,butfortwodaysayearonly.Thewriterwhomentionsthecustomregardsthebloodshed
ontheseoccasionsasapropitiatorysacrificeofferedtospiritswhocontroltheshowersbutperhaps,asin
theAustralianandJavaneseceremonies,itisanimitationofrain.TheprophetsofBaal,whosoughtto
procurerainbycuttingthemselveswithknivestillthebloodgushedout,mayhaveactedonthesame
principle.
Thereisawidespreadbeliefthattwinchildrenpossessmagicalpowersovernature,especiallyoverrain
andtheweather.ThiscurioussuperstitionprevailsamongsomeoftheIndiantribesofBritishColumbia,
andhasledthemoftentoimposecertainsingularrestrictionsortaboosontheparentsoftwins,though

theexactmeaningoftheserestrictionsisgenerallyobscure.ThustheTsimshianIndiansofBritish
Columbiabelievethattwinscontroltheweatherthereforetheypraytowindandrain,Calmdown,
breathofthetwins.Further,theythinkthatthewishesoftwinsarealwaysfulfilledhencetwinsare
feared,becausetheycanharmthemantheyhate.Theycanalsocallthesalmonandtheolachenor
candlefish,andsotheyareknownbyanamewhichmeansmakingplentiful.Intheopinionofthe
KwakiutlIndiansofBritishColumbiatwinsaretransformedsalmonhencetheymaynotgonearwater,
lesttheyshouldbechangedbackagainintothefish.Intheirchildhoodtheycansummonanywindby
motionsoftheirhands,andtheycanmakefairorfoulweather,andalsocurediseasesbyswinginga
largewoodenrattle.TheNootkaIndiansofBritishColumbiaalsobelievethattwinsaresomehowrelated
tosalmon.Henceamongthemtwinsmaynotcatchsalmon,andtheymaynoteatorevenhandlethefresh
fish.Theycanmakefairorfoulweather,andcancauseraintofallbypaintingtheirfacesblackandthen
washingthem,whichmayrepresenttheraindrippingfromthedarkclouds.TheShuswapIndians,like
theThompsonIndians,associatetwinswiththegrizzlybear,fortheycallthemyounggrizzlybears.
Accordingtothem,twinsremainthroughoutlifeendowedwithsupernaturalpowers.Inparticularthey
canmakegoodorbadweather.Theyproducerainbyspillingwaterfromabasketintheairtheymake
fineweatherbyshakingasmallflatpieceofwoodattachedtoastickbyastringtheyraisestormsby
strewingdownontheendsofsprucebranches.
ThesamepowerofinfluencingtheweatherisattributedtotwinsbytheBaronga,atribeofBantunegroes
who,inhabittheshoresofDelagoaBayinSoutheasternAfrica.TheybestowthenameofTilothatis,
theskyonawomanwhohasgivenbirthtotwins,andtheinfantsthemselvesarecalledthechildrenof
thesky.NowwhenthestormswhichgenerallyburstinthemonthsofSeptemberandOctoberhavebeen
lookedforinvain,whenadroughtwithitsprospectoffamineisthreatening,andallnature,scorchedand
burntupbyasunthathasshoneforsixmonthsfromacloudlesssky,ispantingforthebeneficent
showersoftheSouthAfricanspring,thewomenperformceremoniestobringdownthelongedforrain
ontheparchedearth.Strippingthemselvesofalltheirgarments,theyassumeintheirsteadgirdlesand
headdressesofgrass,orshortpetticoatsmadeoftheleavesofaparticularsortofcreeper.Thusattired,
utteringpeculiarcriesandsingingribaldsongs,theygoaboutfromwelltowell,cleansingthemofthe
mudandimpuritieswhichhaveaccumulatedinthem.Thewells,itmaybesaid,aremerelyholesinthe
sandwherealittleturbidunwholesomewaterstagnates.Further,thewomenmustrepairtothehouseof
oneoftheirgossipswhohasgivenbirthtotwins,andmustdrenchherwithwater,whichtheycarryin
littlepitchers.Havingdonesotheygoontheirway,shriekingouttheirloosesongsanddancing
immodestdances.Nomanmayseetheseleafcladwomengoingtheirrounds.Iftheymeetaman,they
maulhimandthrusthimaside.Whentheyhavecleansedthewells,theymustgoandpourwateronthe
gravesoftheirancestorsinthesacredgrove.Itoftenhappens,too,thatatthebiddingofthewizardthey
goandpourwateronthegravesoftwins.Fortheythinkthatthegraveofatwinoughtalwaystobe
moist,forwhichreasontwinsareregularlyburiednearalake.Ifalltheireffortstoprocurerainprove
abortive,theywillrememberthatsuchandsuchatwinwasburiedinadryplaceonthesideofahill.
Nowonder,saysthewizardinsuchacase,thattheskyisfiery.Takeuphisbodyanddighimagrave
ontheshoreofthelake.Hisordersareatonceobeyed,forthisissupposedtobetheonlymeansof
bringingdowntherain.
SomeoftheforegoingfactsstronglysupportaninterpretationwhichProfessorOldenberghasgivenof
therulestobeobservedbyaBrahmanwhowouldlearnaparticularhymnoftheancientIndian
collectionknownastheSamaveda.Thehymn,whichbearsthenameoftheSakvarisong,wasbelieved
toembodythemightofIndrasweapon,thethunderboltandhence,onaccountofthedreadfuland
dangerouspotencywithwhichitwasthuscharged,theboldstudentwhoessayedtomasterithadtobe
isolatedfromhisfellowmen,andtoretirefromthevillageintotheforest.Hereforaspaceoftime,
whichmightvary,accordingtodifferentdoctorsofthelaw,fromonetotwelveyears,hehadtoobserve
certainrulesoflife,amongwhichwerethefollowing.Thriceadayhehadtotouchwaterhemustwear
blackgarmentsandeatblackfoodwhenitrained,hemightnotseektheshelterofaroof,buthadtosit

intherainandsay,WateristheSakvarisongwhenthelightningflashed,hesaid,Thatislikethe
Sakvarisongwhenthethunderpealed,hesaid,TheGreatOneismakingagreatnoise.Hemight
nevercrossarunningstreamwithouttouchingwaterhemightneversetfootonashipunlesshislife
wereindanger,andeventhenhemustbesuretotouchwaterwhenhewentonboardforinwater,so
ranthesaying,liesthevirtueoftheSakvarisong.Whenatlasthewasallowedtolearnthesong
itself,hehadtodiphishandsinavesselofwaterinwhichplantsofallsortshadbeenplaced.Ifaman
walkedinthewayofalltheseprecepts,theraingodParjanya,itwassaid,wouldsendrainatthewishof
thatman.Itisclear,asProfessorOldenbergwellpointsout,thatalltheserulesareintendedtobringthe
Brahmanintounionwithwater,tomakehim,asitwere,anallyofthewaterpowers,andtoguardhim
againsttheirhostility.Theblackgarmentsandtheblackfoodhavethesamesignificancenoonewill
doubtthattheyrefertotheraincloudswhenheremembersthatablackvictimissacrificedtoprocure
rainitisblack,forsuchisthenatureofrain.Inrespectofanotherraincharmitissaidplainly,He
putsonablackgarmentedgedwithblack,forsuchisthenatureofrain.Wemaythereforeassumethat
hereinthecircleofideasandordinancesoftheVedicschoolstherehavebeenpreservedmagical
practicesofthemostremoteantiquity,whichwereintendedtopreparetherainmakerforhisofficeand
dedicatehimtoit.
Itisinterestingtoobservethatwhereanoppositeresultisdesired,primitivelogicenjoinstheweather
doctortoobservepreciselyoppositerulesofconduct.InthetropicalislandofJava,wheretherich
vegetationatteststheabundanceoftherainfall,ceremoniesforthemakingofrainarerare,but
ceremoniesforthepreventionofitarenotuncommon.Whenamanisabouttogiveagreatfeastinthe
rainyseasonandhasinvitedmanypeople,hegoestoaweatherdoctorandaskshimtopropupthe
cloudsthatmaybelowering.Ifthedoctorconsentstoexerthisprofessionalpowers,hebeginsto
regulatehisbehaviourbycertainrulesassoonashiscustomerhasdeparted.Hemustobserveafast,and
mayneitherdrinknorbathewhatlittleheeatsmustbeeatendry,andinnocasemayhetouchwater.
Thehost,onhisside,andhisservants,bothmaleandfemale,mustneitherwashclothesnorbathesolong
asthefeastlasts,andtheyhaveallduringitscontinuancetoobservestrictchastity.Thedoctorseats
himselfonanewmatinhisbedroom,andbeforeasmalloillamphemurmurs,shortlybeforethefeast
takesplace,thefollowingprayerorincantation:GrandfatherandGrandmotherSroekoel(thename
seemstobetakenatrandomothersaresometimesused),returntoyourcountry.Akkematisyour
country.Putdownyourwatercask,closeitproperly,thatnotadropmayfallout.Whileheuttersthis
prayerthesorcererlooksupwards,burningincensethewhile.SoamongtheToradjastheraindoctor,
whosespecialbusinessitistodriveawayrain,takescarenottotouchwaterbefore,during,orafterthe
dischargeofhisprofessionalduties.Hedoesnotbathe,heeatswithunwashedhands,hedrinksnothing
butpalmwine,andifhehastocrossastreamheiscarefulnottostepinthewater.Havingthusprepared
himselfforhistaskhehasasmallhutbuiltforhimselfoutsideofthevillageinaricefield,andinthis
huthekeepsupalittlefire,whichonnoaccountmaybesufferedtogoout.Inthefireheburnsvarious
kindsofwood,whicharesupposedtopossessthepropertyofdrivingoffrainandhepuffsinthe
directionfromwhichtherainthreatenstocome,holdinginhishandapacketofleavesandbarkwhich
deriveasimilarcloudcompellingvirtue,notfromtheirchemicalcomposition,butfromtheirnames,
whichhappentosignifysomethingdryorvolatile.Ifcloudsshouldappearintheskywhileheisatwork,
hetakeslimeinthehollowofhishandandblowsittowardsthem.Thelime,beingsoverydry,is
obviouslywelladaptedtodispersethedampclouds.Shouldrainafterwardsbewanted,hehasonlyto
pourwateronhisfire,andimmediatelytherainwilldescendinsheets.
ThereaderwillobservehowexactlytheJavaneseandToradjaobservances,whichareintendedto
preventrain,formtheantithesisoftheIndianobservances,whichaimatproducingit.TheIndiansageis
commandedtotouchwaterthriceadayregularlyaswellasonvariousspecialoccasionstheJavanese
andToradjawizardsmaynottouchitatall.TheIndianlivesoutintheforest,andevenwhenitrainshe
maynottakesheltertheJavaneseandtheToradjasitinahouseorahut.Theonesignifieshissympathy

withwaterbyreceivingtherainonhispersonandspeakingofitrespectfullytheotherslightalampora
fireanddotheirbesttodrivetherainaway.Yettheprincipleonwhichallthreeactisthesameeachof
them,byasortofchildishmakebelieve,identifieshimselfwiththephenomenonwhichhedesiresto
produce.Itistheoldfallacythattheeffectresemblesitscause:ifyouwouldmakewetweather,youmust
bewetifyouwouldmakedryweather,youmustbedry.
InSoutheasternEuropeatthepresentdayceremoniesareobservedforthepurposeofmakingrainwhich
notonlyrestonthesamegeneraltrainofthoughtasthepreceding,butevenintheirdetailsresemblethe
ceremoniespractisedwiththesameintentionbytheBarongaofDelagoaBay.AmongtheGreeksof
ThessalyandMacedonia,whenadroughthaslastedalongtime,itiscustomarytosendaprocessionof
childrenroundtoallthewellsandspringsoftheneighbourhood.Attheheadoftheprocessionwalksa
girladornedwithflowers,whomhercompanionsdrenchwithwaterateveryhaltingplace,whilethey
singaninvocation,ofwhichthefollowingispart:
Perperiaallfreshbedewed,
Freshenalltheneighbourhood
Bythewoods,onthehighway,
Asthougoest,toGodnowpray:
OmyGod,upontheplain,
Sendthouusastill,smallrain
Thatthefieldsmayfruitfulbe,
Andvinesinblossomwemaysee
Thatthegrainbefullandsound,
Andwealthygrowthefolksaround.
IntimeofdroughttheSerbiansstripagirltoherskinandclotheherfromheadtofootingrass,herbs,
andflowers,evenherfacebeinghiddenbehindaveiloflivinggreen.Thusdisguisedsheiscalledthe
Dodola,andgoesthroughthevillagewithatroopofgirls.TheystopbeforeeveryhousetheDodola
keepsturningherselfroundanddancing,whiletheothergirlsformaringabouthersingingoneofthe
Dodolasongs,andthehousewifepoursapailofwateroverher.Oneofthesongstheysingrunsthus:
Wegothroughthevillage
Thecloudsgointhesky
Wegofaster,
Fastergotheclouds
Theyhaveovertakenus,
Andwettedthecornandthevine.
AtPoonainIndia,whenrainisneeded,theboysdressuponeoftheirnumberinnothingbutleavesand
callhimKingofRain.Thentheygoroundtoeveryhouseinthevillage,wherethehouseholderorhis
wifesprinklestheRainKingwithwater,andgivesthepartyfoodofvariouskinds.Whentheyhavethus
visitedallthehouses,theystriptheRainKingofhisleafyrobesandfeastuponwhattheyhavegathered.
BathingispractisedasaraincharminsomepartsofSouthernandWesternRussia.Sometimesafter
serviceinchurchthepriestinhisrobeshasbeenthrowndownonthegroundanddrenchedwithwaterby
hisparishioners.Sometimesitisthewomenwho,withoutstrippingofftheirclothes,batheincrowdson
thedayofSt.JohntheBaptist,whiletheydipinthewaterafiguremadeofbranches,grass,andherbs,
whichissupposedtorepresentthesaint.InKursk,aprovinceofSouthernRussia,whenrainismuch
wanted,thewomenseizeapassingstrangerandthrowhimintotheriver,orsousehimfromheadtofoot.
Lateronweshallseethatapassingstrangerisoftentakenforadeityorthepersonificationofsome
naturalpower.Itisrecordedinofficialdocumentsthatduringadroughtin1790thepeasantsof

ScheroutzandWerboutzcollectedallthewomenandcompelledthemtobathe,inorderthatrainmight
fall.AnArmenianraincharmistothrowthewifeofapriestintothewateranddrenchher.TheArabsof
NorthAfricaflingaholyman,willynilly,intoaspringasaremedyfordrought.InMinahassa,a
provinceofNorthCelebes,thepriestbathesasaraincharm.InCentralCelebeswhentherehasbeenno
rainforalongtimeandthericestalksbegintoshrivelup,manyofthevillagers,especiallytheyoung
folk,gotoaneighbouringbrookandsplasheachotherwithwater,shoutingnoisily,orsquirtwateron
oneanotherthroughbambootubes.Sometimestheyimitatetheplumpofrainbysmackingthesurfaceof
thewaterwiththeirhands,orbyplacinganinvertedgourdonitanddrummingonthegourdwiththeir
fingers.
Womenaresometimessupposedtobeabletomakerainbyploughing,orpretendingtoplough.Thusthe
PshawsandChewsursoftheCaucasushaveaceremonycalledploughingtherain,whichtheyobserve
intimeofdrought.Girlsyokethemselvestoaploughanddragitintoariver,wadinginthewaterupto
theirgirdles.InthesamecircumstancesArmeniangirlsandwomendothesame.Theoldestwoman,or
thepriestswife,wearsthepriestsdress,whiletheothers,dressedasmen,dragtheploughthroughthe
wateragainstthestream.IntheCaucasianprovinceofGeorgia,whenadroughthaslastedlong,
marriageablegirlsareyokedincoupleswithanoxyokeontheirshoulders,apriestholdsthereins,and
thusharnessedtheywadethroughrivers,puddles,andmarshes,praying,screaming,weeping,and
laughing.InadistrictofTransylvaniawhenthegroundisparchedwithdrought,somegirlsstrip
themselvesnaked,and,ledbyanolderwoman,whoisalsonaked,theystealaharrowandcarryitacross
thefieldstoabrook,wheretheysetitafloat.Nexttheysitontheharrowandkeepatinyflameburning
oneachcornerofitforanhour.Thentheyleavetheharrowinthewaterandgohome.Asimilarrain
charmisresortedtoinsomepartsofIndianakedwomendragaploughacrossafieldbynight,whilethe
menkeepcarefullyoutoftheway,fortheirpresencewouldbreakthespell.
Sometimestheraincharmoperatesthroughthedead.ThusinNewCaledoniatherainmakersblackened
themselvesallover,dugupadeadbody,tookthebonestoacave,jointedthem,andhungtheskeleton
oversometaroleaves.Waterwaspouredovertheskeletontorundownontheleaves.Theybelievedthat
thesoulofthedeceasedtookupthewater,converteditintorain,andshowereditdownagain.InRussia,
ifcommonreportmaybebelieved,itisnotlongsincethepeasantsofanydistrictthatchancedtobe
afflictedwithdroughtusedtodigupthecorpseofsomeonewhohaddrunkhimselftodeathandsinkit
inthenearestswamporlake,fullypersuadedthatthiswouldensurethefalloftheneededrain.In1868
theprospectofabadharvest,causedbyaprolongeddrought,inducedtheinhabitantsofavillageinthe
TarashchanskdistricttodigupthebodyofaRaskolnik,orDissenter,whohaddiedinthepreceding
December.Someofthepartybeatthecorpse,orwhatwasleftofit,aboutthehead,exclaiming,Giveus
rain!whileotherspouredwateronitthroughasieve.Herethepouringofwaterthroughasieveseems
plainlyanimitationofashower,andremindsusofthemannerinwhichStrepsiadesinAristophanes
imaginedthatrainwasmadebyZeus.Sometimes,inordertoprocurerain,theToradjasmakeanappeal
tothepityofthedead.Thus,inthevillageofKalingooa,thereisthegraveofafamouschief,the
grandfatherofthepresentruler.Whenthelandsuffersfromunseasonabledrought,thepeoplegotothis
grave,pourwateronit,andsay,Ograndfather,havepityonusifitisyourwillthatthisyearweshould
eat,thengiverain.Afterthattheyhangabamboofullofwateroverthegravethereisasmallholein
thelowerendofthebamboo,sothatthewaterdripsfromitcontinually.Thebambooisalwaysrefilled
withwateruntilraindrenchestheground.Here,asinNewCaledonia,wefindreligionblentwithmagic,
fortheprayertothedeadchief,whichispurelyreligious,isekedoutwithamagicalimitationofrainat
hisgrave.WehaveseenthattheBarongaofDelagoaBaydrenchthetombsoftheirancestors,especially
thetombsoftwins,asaraincharm.AmongsomeoftheIndiantribesintheregionoftheOrinocoitwas
customaryfortherelationsofadeceasedpersontodisinterhisbonesayearafterburial,burnthem,and
scattertheashestothewinds,becausetheybelievedthattheasheswerechangedintorain,whichthe
deadmansentinreturnforhisobsequies.TheChineseareconvincedthatwhenhumanbodiesremain
unburied,thesoulsoftheirlateownersfeelthediscomfortofrain,justaslivingmenwoulddoifthey

wereexposedwithoutsheltertotheinclemencyoftheweather.Thesewretchedsouls,therefore,doallin
theirpowertopreventtherainfromfalling,andoftentheireffortsareonlytoosuccessful.Thendrought
ensues,themostdreadedofallcalamitiesinChina,becausebadharvests,dearth,andfaminefollowinits
train.HenceithasbeenacommonpracticeoftheChineseauthoritiesintimeofdroughttointerthedry
bonesoftheunburieddeadforthepurposeofputtinganendtothescourgeandconjuringdowntherain.
Animals,again,oftenplayanimportantpartintheseweathercharms.TheAnulatribeofNorthern
Australiaassociatethedollarbirdwithrain,andcallittherainbird.Amanwhohasthebirdforhis
totemcanmakerainatacertainpool.Hecatchesasnake,putsitaliveintothepool,andafterholdingit
underwaterforatimetakesitout,killsit,andlaysitdownbythesideofthecreek.Thenhemakesan
archedbundleofgrassstalksinimitationofarainbow,andsetsitupoverthesnake.Afterthatallhe
doesistosingoverthesnakeandthemimicrainbowsoonerorlatertherainwillfall.Theyexplainthis
procedurebysayingthatlongagothedollarbirdhadasamateatthisspotasnake,wholivedinthepool
andusedtomakerainbyspittingupintotheskytillarainbowandcloudsappearedandrainfell.A
commonwayofmakingraininmanypartsofJavaistobatheacatortwocats,amaleandafemale
sometimestheanimalsarecarriedinprocessionwithmusic.EveninBataviayoumayfromtimetotime
seechildrengoingaboutwithacatforthispurposewhentheyhaveduckeditinapool,theyletitgo.
AmongtheWambugweofEastAfrica,whenthesorcererdesirestomakerain,hetakesablacksheep
andablackcalfinbrightsunshine,andhasthemplacedontheroofofthecommonhutinwhichthe
peoplelivetogether.Thenheslitsthestomachsoftheanimalsandscatterstheircontentsinalldirections.
Afterthathepourswaterandmedicineintoavesselifthecharmhassucceeded,thewaterboilsupand
rainfollows.Ontheotherhand,ifthesorcererwishestopreventrainfromfalling,hewithdrawsintothe
interiorofthehut,andthereheatsarockcrystalinacalabash.InordertoprocureraintheWagogo
sacrificeblackfowls,blacksheep,andblackcattleatthegravesofdeadancestors,andtherainmaker
wearsblackclothesduringtherainyseason.AmongtheMatabeletheraincharmemployedbysorcerers
wasmadefromthebloodandgallofablackox.InadistrictofSumatra,inordertoprocurerain,allthe
womenofthevillage,scantilyclad,gototheriver,wadeintoit,andsplasheachotherwiththewater.A
blackcatisthrownintothestreamandmadetoswimaboutforawhile,thenallowedtoescapetothe
bank,pursuedbythesplashingofthewomen.TheGarosofAssamofferablackgoatonthetopofavery
highmountainintimeofdrought.Inallthesecasesthecolouroftheanimalispartofthecharmbeing
black,itwilldarkentheskywithrainclouds.SotheBechuanasburnthestomachofanoxatevening,
becausetheysay,Theblacksmokewillgatherthecloudsandcausetheraintocome.TheTimorese
sacrificeablackpigtotheEarthgoddessforrain,awhiteorredonetotheSungodforsunshine.The
Angonisacrificeablackoxforrainandawhiteoneforfineweather.Amongthehighmountainsof
Japanthereisadistrictinwhich,ifrainhasnotfallenforalongtime,apartyofvillagersgoesin
processiontothebedofamountaintorrent,headedbyapriest,wholeadsablackdog.Atthechosenspot
theytetherthebeasttoastone,andmakeitatargetfortheirbulletsandarrows.Whenitslifeblood
bespatterstherocks,thepeasantsthrowdowntheirweaponsandliftuptheirvoicesinsupplicationtothe
dragondivinityofthestream,exhortinghimtosenddownforthwithashowertocleansethespotfromits
defilement.Customhasprescribedthatontheseoccasionsthecolourofthevictimshallbeblack,asan
emblemofthewishedforrainclouds.Butiffineweatheriswanted,thevictimmustbewhite,withouta
spot.
Theintimateassociationoffrogsandtoadswithwaterhasearnedforthesecreaturesawidespread
reputationascustodiansofrainandhencetheyoftenplayapartincharmsdesignedtodrawneeded
showersfromthesky.SomeoftheIndiansoftheOrinocoheldthetoadtobethegodorlordofthe
waters,andforthatreasonfearedtokillthecreature.Theyhavebeenknowntokeepfrogsunderapot
andtobeatthemwithrodswhentherewasadrought.ItissaidthattheAymaraIndiansoftenmakelittle
imagesoffrogsandotheraquaticanimalsandplacethemonthetopsofthehillsasameansofbringing
downrain.TheThompsonIndiansofBritishColumbiaandsomepeopleinEuropethinkthattokilla

frogwillcauseraintofall.InordertoprocurerainpeopleoflowcasteintheCentralProvincesofIndia
willtieafrogtoarodcoveredwithgreenleavesandbranchesofthenmtree(AzadirachtaIndica)and
carryitfromdoortodoorsinging:
Sendsoon,Ofrog,thejewelofwater!
Andripenthewheatandmilletinthefield.
TheKapusorReddisarealargecasteofcultivatorsandlandownersintheMadrasPresidency.When
rainfails,womenofthecastewillcatchafrogandtieitalivetoanewwinnowingfanmadeofbamboo.
Onthisfantheyspreadafewmargosaleavesandgofromdoortodoorsinging,Ladyfrogmusthave
herbath.Oh!raingod,givealittlewaterforheratleast.WhiletheKapuwomensingthissong,the
womanofthehousepourswateroverthefrogandgivesanalms,convincedthatbysodoingshewill
soonbringraindownintorrents.
Sometimes,whenadroughthaslastedalongtime,peopledroptheusualhocuspocusofimitativemagic
altogether,andbeingfartooangrytowastetheirbreathinprayertheyseekbythreatsandcursesoreven
downrightphysicalforcetoextortthewatersofheavenfromthesupernaturalbeingwhohas,sotosay,
cutthemoffatthemain.InaJapanesevillage,whentheguardiandivinityhadlongbeendeaftothe
peasantsprayersforrain,theyatlastthrewdownhisimageand,withcursesloudandlong,hurledit
headforemostintoastinkingricefield.There,theysaid,youmaystayyourselfforawhile,tosee
howyouwillfeelafterafewdaysscorchinginthisbroilingsunthatisburningthelifefromour
crackingfields.InthelikecircumstancestheFeloupesofSenegambiacastdowntheirfetishesanddrag
themaboutthefields,cursingthemtillrainfalls.
TheChineseareadeptsintheartoftakingthekingdomofheavenbystorm.Thus,whenrainiswanted
theymakeahugedragonofpaperorwoodtorepresenttheraingod,andcarryitaboutinprocessionbut
ifnorainfollows,themockdragonisexecratedandtorntopieces.Atothertimestheythreatenandbeat
thegodifhedoesnotgiverainsometimestheypubliclydeposehimfromtherankofdeity.Ontheother
hand,ifthewishedforrainfalls,thegodispromotedtoahigherrankbyanimperialdecree.InApril
1888themandarinsofCantonprayedtothegodLungwongtostoptheincessantdownpourofrainand
whenheturnedadeafeartotheirpetitionstheyputhiminalockupforfivedays.Thishadasalutary
effect.Therainceasedandthegodwasrestoredtoliberty.Someyearsbefore,intimeofdrought,the
samedeityhadbeenchainedandexposedtothesunfordaysinthecourtyardofhistempleinorderthat
hemightfeelforhimselftheurgentneedofrain.SowhentheSiameseneedrain,theysetouttheiridols
intheblazingsunbutiftheywantdryweather,theyunroofthetemplesandlettherainpourdownon
theidols.Theythinkthattheinconveniencetowhichthegodsarethussubjectedwillinducethemto
grantthewishesoftheirworshippers.
ThereadermaysmileatthemeteorologyoftheFarEastbutpreciselysimilarmodesofprocuringrain
havebeenresortedtoinChristianEuropewithinourownlifetime.BytheendofApril1893therewas
greatdistressinSicilyforlackofwater.Thedroughthadlastedsixmonths.Everydaythesunroseand
setinaskyofcloudlessblue.ThegardensoftheConcadOro,whichsurroundPalermowitha
magnificentbeltofverdure,werewithering.Foodwasbecomingscarce.Thepeoplewereingreatalarm.
Allthemostapprovedmethodsofprocuringrainhadbeentriedwithouteffect.Processionshadtraversed
thestreetsandthefields.Men,women,andchildren,tellingtheirbeads,hadlainwholenightsbeforethe
holyimages.Consecratedcandleshadburneddayandnightinthechurches.Palmbranches,blessedon
PalmSunday,hadbeenhungonthetrees.AtSolaparuta,inaccordancewithaveryoldcustom,thedust
sweptfromthechurchesonPalmSundayhadbeenspreadonthefields.Inordinaryyearstheseholy
sweepingspreservethecropsbutthatyear,ifyouwillbelieveme,theyhadnoeffectwhatever.At
Nicosiatheinhabitants,bareheadedandbarefoot,carriedthecrucifixesthroughallthewardsofthe
townandscourgedeachotherwithironwhips.Itwasallinvain.EventhegreatSt.FrancisofPaolo

himself,whoannuallyperformsthemiracleofrainandiscarriedeveryspringthroughthemarket
gardens,eithercouldnotorwouldnothelp.Masses,vespers,concerts,illuminations,fireworks
nothingcouldmovehim.Atlastthepeasantsbegantolosepatience.Mostofthesaintswerebanished.At
PalermotheydumpedSt.Josephinagardentoseethestateofthingsforhimself,andtheysworetoleave
himthereinthesuntillrainfell.Othersaintswereturned,likenaughtychildren,withtheirfacestothe
wall.Othersagain,strippedoftheirbeautifulrobes,wereexiledfarfromtheirparishes,threatened,
grosslyinsulted,duckedinhorseponds.AtCaltanisettathegoldenwingsofSt.MichaeltheArchangel
weretornfromhisshouldersandreplacedwithwingsofpasteboardhispurplemantlewastakenaway
andacloutwraptabouthiminstead.AtLicatathepatronsaint,St.Angelo,faredevenworse,forhewas
leftwithoutanygarmentsatallhewasreviled,hewasputinirons,hewasthreatenedwithdrowningor
hanging.Rainortherope!roaredtheangrypeopleathim,astheyshooktheirfistsinhisface.
Sometimesanappealismadetothepityofthegods.Whentheircornisbeingburntupbythesun,the
Zuluslookoutforaheavenbird,killit,andthrowitintoapool.Thentheheavenmeltswithtenderness
forthedeathofthebirditwailsforitbyraining,wailingafuneralwail.InZululandwomen
sometimesburytheirchildrenuptotheneckintheground,andthenretiringtoadistancekeepupa
dismalhowlforalongtime.Theskyissupposedtomeltwithpityatthesight.Thenthewomendigthe
childrenoutandfeelsurethatrainwillsoonfollow.Theysaythattheycalltothelordaboveandask
himtosendrain.IfitcomestheydeclarethatUsondorains.IntimesofdroughttheGuanchesof
Teneriffeledtheirsheeptosacredground,andtheretheyseparatedthelambsfromtheirdams,thattheir
plaintivebleatingmighttouchtheheartofthegod.InKumaonawayofstoppingrainistopourhotoilin
theleftearofadog.Theanimalhowlswithpain,hishowlsareheardbyIndra,andoutofpityforthe
beastssufferingsthegodstopstherain.SometimestheToradjasattempttoprocurerainasfollows.They
placethestalksofcertainplantsinwater,saying,Goandaskforrain,andsolongasnorainfallsIwill
notplantyouagain,butthereshallyoudie.Alsotheystringsomefreshwatersnailsonacord,andhang
thecordonatree,andsaytothesnails,Goandaskforrain,andsolongasnoraincomes,Iwillnottake
youbacktothewater.Thenthesnailsgoandweep,andthegodstakepityandsendrain.However,the
foregoingceremoniesarereligiousratherthanmagical,sincetheyinvolveanappealtothecompassionof
higherpowers.
Stonesareoftensupposedtopossessthepropertyofbringingonrain,providedtheybedippedinwater
orsprinkledwithit,ortreatedinsomeotherappropriatemanner.InaSamoanvillageacertainstonewas
carefullyhousedastherepresentativeoftherainmakinggod,andintimeofdroughthispriestscarried
thestoneinprocessionanddippeditinastream.AmongtheTatathitribeofNewSouthWales,the
rainmakerbreaksoffapieceofquartzcrystalandspitsittowardstheskytherestofthecrystalhe
wrapsinemufeathers,soaksbothcrystalandfeathersinwater,andcarefullyhidesthem.IntheKeramin
tribeofNewSouthWalesthewizardretirestothebedofacreek,dropswateronaroundflatstone,then
coversupandconcealsit.AmongsometribesofNorthwesternAustraliatherainmakerrepairstoa
pieceofgroundwhichissetapartforthepurposeofrainmaking.Therehebuildsaheapofstonesor
sand,placesonthetopofithismagicstone,andwalksordancesroundthepilechantinghisincantations
forhours,tillsheerexhaustionobligeshimtodesist,whenhisplaceistakenbyhisassistant.Wateris
sprinkledonthestoneandhugefiresarekindled.Nolaymanmayapproachthesacredspotwhilethe
mysticceremonyisbeingperformed.WhentheSulkaofNewBritainwishtoprocureraintheyblacken
stoneswiththeashesofcertainfruitsandsetthemout,alongwithcertainotherplantsandbuds,inthe
sun.Thenahandfuloftwigsisdippedinwaterandweightedwithstones,whileaspellischanted.After
thatrainshouldfollow.InManipur,onaloftyhilltotheeastofthecapital,thereisastonewhichthe
popularimaginationlikenstoanumbrella.Whenrainiswanted,therajahfetcheswaterfromaspring
belowandsprinklesitonthestone.AtSagamiinJapanthereisastonewhichdrawsdownrainwhenever
waterispouredonit.WhentheWakondyo,atribeofCentralAfrica,desirerain,theysendtothe
Wawamba,whodwellatthefootofsnowymountains,andarethehappypossessorsofarainstone.In
considerationofaproperpayment,theWawambawashthepreciousstone,anointitwithoil,andputitin

apotfullofwater.Afterthattheraincannotfailtocome.InthearidwastesofArizonaandNewMexico
theApachessoughttomakerainbycarryingwaterfromacertainspringandthrowingitonaparticular
pointhighuponarockafterthattheyimaginedthatthecloudswouldsoongather,andthatrainwould
begintofall.
ButcustomsofthissortarenotconfinedtothewildsofAfricaandAsiaorthetorriddesertsofAustralia
andtheNewWorld.TheyhavebeenpractisedinthecoolairandunderthegreyskiesofEurope.Thereis
afountaincalledBarenton,ofromanticfame,inthosewildwoodsofBroceliande,where,iflegendbe
true,thewizardMerlinstillsleepshismagicslumberinthehawthornshade.ThithertheBretonpeasants
usedtoresortwhentheyneededrain.Theycaughtsomeofthewaterinatankardandthrewitonaslab
nearthespring.OnSnowdonthereisalonelytarncalledDulyn,ortheBlackLake,lyinginadismal
dinglesurroundedbyhighanddangerousrocks.Arowofsteppingstonesrunsoutintothelake,andif
anyonestepsonthestonesandthrowswatersoastowetthefartheststone,whichiscalledtheRed
Altar,itisbutachancethatyoudonotgetrainbeforenight,evenwhenitishotweather.Inthesecases
itappearsprobablethat,asinSamoa,thestoneisregardedasmoreorlessdivine.Thisappearsfromthe
customsometimesobservedofdippingacrossintheFountainofBarentontoprocurerain,forthisis
plainlyaChristiansubstitutefortheoldpaganwayofthrowingwateronthestone.Atvariousplacesin
Franceitis,orusedtilllatelytobe,thepracticetodiptheimageofasaintinwaterasameansof
procuringrain.Thus,besidetheoldprioryofCommagny,thereisaspringofSt.Gervais,whitherthe
inhabitantsgoinprocessiontoobtainrainorfineweatheraccordingtotheneedsofthecrops.Intimesof
greatdroughttheythrowintothebasinofthefountainanancientstoneimageofthesaintthatstandsina
sortofnichefromwhichthefountainflows.AtCollobriresandCarpentrasasimilarpracticewas
observedwiththeimagesofSt.PonsandSt.Gensrespectively.InseveralvillagesofNavarreprayersfor
rainusedtobeofferedtoSt.Peter,andbywayofenforcingthemthevillagerscarriedtheimageofthe
saintinprocessiontotheriver,wheretheythriceinvitedhimtoreconsiderhisresolutionandtogrant
theirprayersthen,ifhewasstillobstinate,theyplungedhiminthewater,despitetheremonstrancesof
theclergy,whopleadedwithasmuchtruthaspietythatasimplecautionoradmonitionadministeredto
theimagewouldproduceanequallygoodeffect.Afterthistherainwassuretofallwithintwentyfour
hours.Catholiccountriesdonotenjoyamonopolyofmakingrainbyduckingholyimagesinwater.In
Mingrelia,whenthecropsaresufferingfromwantofrain,theytakeaparticularlyholyimageanddipit
inwatereverydaytillashowerfallsandintheFarEasttheShansdrenchtheimagesofBuddhawith
waterwhenthericeisperishingofdrought.Inallsuchcasesthepracticeisprobablyatbottoma
sympatheticcharm,howeveritmaybedisguisedundertheappearanceofapunishmentorathreat.
Likeotherpeoples,theGreeksandRomanssoughttoobtainrainbymagic,whenprayersand
processionshadprovedineffectual.Forexample,inArcadia,whenthecornandtreeswereparchedwith
drought,thepriestofZeusdippedanoakbranchintoacertainspringonMountLycaeus.Thustroubled,
thewatersentupamistycloud,fromwhichrainsoonfellupontheland.Asimilarmodeofmakingrain
isstillpractised,aswehaveseen,inHalmaheranearNewGuinea.ThepeopleofCrannoninThessaly
hadabronzechariotwhichtheykeptinatemple.Whentheydesiredashowertheyshookthechariotand
theshowerfell.Probablytherattlingofthechariotwasmeanttoimitatethunderwehavealreadyseen
thatmockthunderandlightningformpartofaraincharminRussiaandJapan.Thelegendary
Salmoneus,KingofElis,mademockthunderbydraggingbronzekettlesbehindhischariot,orbydriving
overabronzebridge,whilehehurledblazingtorchesinimitationoflightning.Itwashisimpiouswishto
mimicthethunderingcarofZeusasitrolledacrossthevaultofheaven.Indeedhedeclaredthathewas
actuallyZeus,andcausedsacrificestobeofferedtohimselfassuch.NearatempleofMars,outsidethe
wallsofRome,therewaskeptacertainstoneknownasthelapismanalis.Intimeofdroughtthestone
wasdraggedintoRome,andthiswassupposedtobringdownrainimmediately.
3.TheMagicalControloftheSun

ASTHEMAGICIANthinkshecanmakerain,sohefancieshecancausethesuntoshine,andcan
hastenorstayitsgoingdown.AtaneclipsetheOjebwaysusedtoimaginethatthesunwasbeing
extinguished.Sotheyshotfiretippedarrowsintheair,hopingthustorekindlehisexpiringlight.The
SencisofPerualsoshotburningarrowsatthesunduringaneclipse,butapparentlytheydidthisnotso
muchtorelighthislampastodriveawayasavagebeastwithwhichtheysupposedhimtobestruggling.
ConverselyduringaneclipseofthemoonsometribesoftheOrinocousedtoburylightedbrandsinthe
groundbecause,saidthey,ifthemoonweretobeextinguished,allfireonearthwouldbeextinguished
withher,exceptsuchaswashiddenfromhersight.DuringaneclipseofthesuntheKamtchatkanswere
wonttobringoutfirefromtheirhutsandpraythegreatluminarytoshineasbefore.Buttheprayer
addressedtothesunshowsthatthisceremonywasreligiousratherthanmagical.Purelymagical,onthe
otherhand,wastheceremonyobservedonsimilaroccasionsbytheChilcotinIndians.Menandwomen
tuckeduptheirrobes,astheydointravelling,andthenleaningonstaves,asiftheywereheavyladen,
theycontinuedtowalkinacircletilltheeclipsewasover.Apparentlytheythoughtthustosupportthe
failingstepsofthesunashetrodhiswearyroundinthesky.SimilarlyinancientEgypttheking,asthe
representativeofthesun,walkedsolemnlyroundthewallsofatempleinordertoensurethatthesun
shouldperformhisdailyjourneyroundtheskywithouttheinterruptionofaneclipseorothermishap.
AndaftertheautumnalequinoxtheancientEgyptiansheldafestivalcalledthenativityofthesuns
walkingstick,because,astheluminarydeclineddailyinthesky,andhislightandheatdiminished,he
wassupposedtoneedastaffonwhichtolean.InNewCaledoniawhenawizarddesirestomake
sunshine,hetakessomeplantsandcoralstotheburialground,andfashionsthemintoabundle,adding
twolocksofhaircutfromalivingchildofhisfamily,alsotwoteethoranentirejawbonefromthe
skeletonofanancestor.Hethenclimbsamountainwhosetopcatchesthefirstraysofthemorningsun.
Herehedepositsthreesortsofplantsonaflatstone,placesabranchofdrycoralbesidethem,andhangs
thebundleofcharmsoverthestone.Nextmorninghereturnstothespotandsetsfiretothebundleatthe
momentwhenthesunrisesfromthesea.Asthesmokecurlsup,herubsthestonewiththedrycoral,
invokeshisancestorsandsays:Sun!Idothisthatyoumaybeburninghot,andeatupallthecloudsin
thesky.Thesameceremonyisrepeatedatsunset.TheNewCaledoniansalsomakeadroughtbymeans
ofadiscshapedstonewithaholeinit.Atthemomentwhenthesunrises,thewizardholdsthestonein
hishandandpassesaburningbrandrepeatedlyintothehole,whilehesays:Ikindlethesun,inorder
thathemayeatupthecloudsanddryupourland,sothatitmayproducenothing.TheBanksIslanders
makesunshinebymeansofamocksun.Theytakeaveryroundstone,calledavatloaorsunstone,wind
redbraidaboutit,andstickitwithowlsfeatherstorepresentrays,singingtheproperspellinalow
voice.Thentheyhangitonsomehightree,suchasabanyanoracasuarina,inasacredplace.
TheofferingmadebytheBrahmaninthemorningissupposedtoproducethesun,andwearetoldthat
assuredlyitwouldnotrise,werehenottomakethatoffering.TheancientMexicansconceivedthesun
asthesourceofallvitalforcehencetheynamedhimIpalnemohuani,Hebywhommenlive.Butifhe
bestowedlifeontheworld,heneededalsotoreceivelifefromit.Andastheheartistheseatandsymbol
oflife,bleedingheartsofmenandanimalswerepresentedtothesuntomaintainhiminvigourand
enablehimtorunhiscourseacrossthesky.ThustheMexicansacrificestothesunweremagicalrather
thanreligious,beingdesigned,notsomuchtopleaseandpropitiatehim,asphysicallytorenewhis
energiesofheat,light,andmotion.Theconstantdemandforhumanvictimstofeedthesolarfirewasmet
bywagingwareveryyearontheneighbouringtribesandbringingbacktroopsofcaptivestobe
sacrificedonthealtar.ThustheceaselesswarsoftheMexicansandtheircruelsystemofhuman
sacrifices,themostmonstrousonrecord,sprangingreatmeasurefromamistakentheoryofthesolar
system.Nomorestrikingillustrationcouldbegivenofthedisastrousconsequencesthatmayflowin
practicefromapurelyspeculativeerror.TheancientGreeksbelievedthatthesundroveinachariot
acrosstheskyhencetheRhodians,whoworshippedthesunastheirchiefdeity,annuallydedicateda
chariotandfourhorsestohim,andflungthemintotheseaforhisuse.Doubtlesstheythoughtthataftera
yearsworkhisoldhorsesandchariotwouldbewornout.Fromalikemotive,probably,theidolatrous
kingsofJudahdedicatedchariotsandhorsestothesun,andtheSpartans,Persians,andMassagetae

sacrificedhorsestohim.TheSpartansperformedthesacrificeonthetopofMountTaygetus,the
beautifulrangebehindwhichtheysawthegreatluminaryseteverynight.Itwasasnaturalforthe
inhabitantsofthevalleyofSpartatodothisasitwasfortheislandersofRhodestothrowthechariotand
horsesintothesea,intowhichthesunseemedtothemtosinkatevening.Forthus,whetheronthe
mountainorinthesea,thefreshhorsesstoodreadyforthewearygodwheretheywouldbemost
welcome,attheendofhisdaysjourney.
Assomepeoplethinktheycanlightupthesunorspeedhimonhisway,soothersfancytheycanretard
orstophim.InapassofthePeruvianAndesstandtworuinedtowersonoppositehills.Ironhooksare
clampedintotheirwallsforthepurposeofstretchinganetfromonetowertotheother.Thenetis
intendedtocatchthesun.Storiesofmenwhohavecaughtthesuninanoosearewidelyspread.When
thesunisgoingsouthwardintheautumn,andsinkinglowerandlowerintheArcticsky,theEsquimaux
ofIglulikplaythegameofcatscradleinordertocatchhiminthemeshesofthestringandsoprevent
hisdisappearance.Onthecontrary,whenthesunismovingnorthwardinthespring,theyplaythegame
ofcupandballtohastenhisreturn.WhenanAustralianblackfellowwishestostaythesunfromgoing
downtillhegetshome,heputsasodintheforkofatree,exactlyfacingthesettingsun.Ontheother
hand,tomakeitgodownfaster,theAustraliansthrowsandintotheairandblowwiththeirmouths
towardsthesun,perhapstowaftthelingeringorbwestwardandburyitunderthesandsintowhichit
appearstosinkatnight.
Assomepeopleimaginetheycanhastenthesun,soothersfancytheycanjogthetardymoon.The
nativesofNewGuineareckonmonthsbythemoon,andsomeofthemhavebeenknowntothrowstones
andspearsatthemoon,inordertoaccelerateitsprogressandsotohastenthereturnoftheirfriends,who
wereawayfromhomefortwelvemonthsworkingonatobaccoplantation.TheMalaysthinkthatabright
glowatsunsetmaythrowaweakpersonintoafever.Hencetheyattempttoextinguishtheglowby
spittingoutwaterandthrowingashesatit.TheShuswapIndiansbelievethattheycanbringoncold
weatherbyburningthewoodofatreethathasbeenstruckbylightning.Thebeliefmaybebasedonthe
observationthatintheircountrycoldfollowsathunderstorm.Henceinspring,whentheseIndiansare
travellingoverthesnowonhighground,theyburnsplintersofsuchwoodinthefireinorderthatthe
crustofthesnowmaynotmelt.
4.TheMagicalControloftheWind
ONCEmore,thesavagethinkshecanmakethewindtoblowortobestill.Whenthedayishotanda
Yakuthasalongwaytogo,hetakesastonewhichhehaschancedtofindinananimalorfish,windsa
horsehairseveraltimesroundit,andtiesittoastick.Hethenwavesthestickabout,utteringaspell.
Soonacoolbreezebeginstoblow.Inordertoprocureacoolwindforninedaysthestoneshouldfirstbe
dippedinthebloodofabirdorbeastandthenpresentedtothesun,whilethesorcerermakesthreeturns
contrarytothecourseoftheluminary.IfaHottentotdesiresthewindtodrop,hetakesoneofhisfattest
skinsandhangsitontheendofapole,inthebeliefthatbyblowingtheskindownthewindwillloseall
itsforceandmustitselffall.Fuegianwizardsthrowshellsagainstthewindtomakeitdrop.Thenatives
oftheislandofBibili,offNewGuinea,arereputedtomakewindbyblowingwiththeirmouths.In
stormyweathertheBogadjimpeoplesay,TheBibilifolkareatitagain,blowingaway.Anotherwayof
makingwindwhichispractisedinNewGuineaistostrikeawindstonelightlywithasticktostrikeit
hardwouldbringonahurricane.SoinScotlandwitchesusedtoraisethewindbydippingaraginwater
andbeatingitthriceonastone,saying:
Iknokthisraguponethisstane
Toraisethewindinthedivellisname,
ItsallnotlyetillIpleaseagaine.

InGreenlandawomaninchildbedandforsometimeafterdeliveryissupposedtopossessthepowerof
layingastorm.Shehasonlytogooutofdoors,fillhermouthwithair,andcomingbackintothehouse
blowitoutagain.InantiquitytherewasafamilyatCorinthwhichenjoyedthereputationofbeingableto
stilltheragingwindbutwedonotknowinwhatmanneritsmembersexercisedausefulfunction,which
probablyearnedforthemamoresolidrecompensethanmerereputeamongtheseafaringpopulationof
theisthmus.EveninChristiantimes,underthereignofConstantine,acertainSopatersuffereddeathat
Constantinopleonachargeofbindingthewindsbymagic,becauseithappenedthatthecornshipsof
EgyptandSyriaweredetainedafaroffbycalmsorheadwinds,totherageanddisappointmentofthe
hungryByzantinerabble.Finnishwizardsusedtosellwindtostormstayedmariners.Thewindwas
enclosedinthreeknotsiftheyundidthefirstknot,amoderatewindsprangupifthesecond,itblewhalf
agaleifthethird,ahurricane.IndeedtheEsthonians,whosecountryisdividedfromFinlandonlybyan
armofthesea,stillbelieveinthemagicalpowersoftheirnorthernneighbours.Thebitterwindsthat
blowinspringfromthenorthandnortheast,bringingagueandrheumaticinflammationsintheirtrain,
aresetdownbythesimpleEsthonianpeasantrytothemachinationsoftheFinnishwizardsandwitches.
InparticulartheyregardwithspecialdreadthreedaysinspringtowhichtheygivethenameofDaysof
theCrossoneofthemfallsontheEveofAscensionDay.ThepeopleintheneighbourhoodofFellinfear
togooutonthesedayslestthecruelwindsfromLapplandshouldsmitethemdead.ApopularEsthonian
songruns:
WindoftheCross!rushingandmighty!
Heavytheblowofthywingssweepingpast!
Wildwailingwindofmisfortuneandsorrow,
WizardsofFinlandridebyontheblast.
Itissaid,too,thatsailors,beatingupagainstthewindintheGulfofFinland,sometimesseeastrangesail
heaveinsightasternandoverhaulthemhandoverhand.Onshecomeswithacloudofcanvasallher
studdingsailsoutrightintheteethofthewind,forgingherwaythroughthefoamingbillows,dashing
backthesprayinsheetsfromhercutwater,everysailswollentobursting,everyropestrainedto
cracking.ThenthesailorsknowthatshehailsfromFinland.
Theartoftyingupthewindinthreeknots,sothatthemoreknotsareloosedthestrongerwillblowthe
wind,hasbeenattributedtowizardsinLapplandandtowitchesinShetland,Lewis,andtheIsleofMan.
Shetlandseamenstillbuywindsintheshapeofknottedhandkerchiefsorthreadsfromoldwomenwho
claimtorulethestorms.TherearesaidtobeancientcronesinLerwicknowwholivebysellingwind.
UlyssesreceivedthewindsinaleathernbagfromAeolus,KingoftheWinds.TheMotumotuinNew
GuineathinkthatstormsaresentbyanOiabusorcererforeachwindhehasabamboowhichheopensat
pleasure.OnthetopofMountAguinTogo,adistrictofWestAfrica,residesafetishcalledBagba,who
issupposedtocontrolthewindandtherain.Hispriestissaidtokeepthewindsshutupingreatpots.
Oftenthestormywindisregardedasanevilbeingwhomaybeintimidated,drivenaway,orkilled.When
stormsandbadweatherhavelastedlongandfoodisscarcewiththeCentralEsquimaux,theyendeavour
toconjurethetempestbymakingalongwhipofseaweed,armedwithwhichtheygodowntothebeach
andstrikeoutinthedirectionofthewind,cryingTaba(itisenough)!Oncewhennorthwesterlywinds
hadkepttheicelongonthecoastandfoodwasbecomingscarce,theEsquimauxperformedaceremony
tomakeacalm.Afirewaskindledontheshore,andthemengatheredrounditandchanted.Anoldman
thensteppeduptothefireandinacoaxingvoiceinvitedthedemonofthewindtocomeunderthefire
andwarmhimself.Whenhewassupposedtohavearrived,avesselofwater,towhicheachmanpresent
hadcontributed,wasthrownontheflamesbyanoldman,andimmediatelyaflightofarrowssped
towardsthespotwherethefirehadbeen.Theythoughtthatthedemonwouldnotstaywherehehadbeen
sobadlytreated.Tocompletetheeffect,gunsweredischargedinvariousdirections,andthecaptainofa
Europeanvesselwasinvitedtofireonthewindwithcannon.OnthetwentyfirstofFebruary1883a

similarceremonywasperformedbytheEsquimauxofPointBarrow,Alaska,withtheintentionofkilling
thespiritofthewind.Womendrovethedemonfromtheirhouseswithclubsandknives,withwhichthey
madepassesintheairandthemen,gatheringroundafire,shothimwiththeirriflesandcrushedhim
underaheavystonethemomentthatsteamroseinacloudfromthesmoulderingembers,onwhichatub
ofwaterhadjustbeenthrown.
TheLenguaIndiansoftheGranChacoascribetherushofawhirlwindtothepassageofaspiritandthey
flingsticksatittofrightenitaway.Whenthewindblowsdowntheirhuts,thePayaguasofSouth
Americasnatchupfirebrandsandrunagainstthewind,menacingitwiththeblazingbrands,whileothers
beattheairwiththeirfiststofrightenthestorm.WhentheGuaycurusarethreatenedbyaseverestorm,
themengooutarmed,andthewomenandchildrenscreamtheirloudesttointimidatethedemon.During
atempesttheinhabitantsofaBatakvillageinSumatrahavebeenseentorushfromtheirhousesarmed
withswordandlance.Therajahplacedhimselfattheirhead,andwithshoutsandyellstheyhewedand
hackedattheinvisiblefoe.Anoldwomanwasobservedtobespeciallyactiveinthedefenceofher
house,slashingtheairrightandleftwithalongsabre.Inaviolentthunderstorm,thepealssoundingvery
near,theKayansofBorneohavebeenseentodrawtheirswordsthreateninglyhalfoutoftheirscabbards,
asiftofrightenawaythedemonsofthestorm.InAustraliathehugecolumnsofredsandthatmove
rapidlyacrossadeserttractarethoughtbythenativestobespiritspassingalong.Onceanathleticyoung
blackranafteroneofthesemovingcolumnstokillitwithboomerangs.Hewasawaytwoorthreehours,
andcamebackveryweary,sayinghehadkilledKoochee(thedemon),butthatKoocheehadgrowledat
himandhemustdie.OftheBedouinsofEasternAfricaitissaidthatnowhirlwindeversweepsacross
thepathwithoutbeingpursuedbyadozensavageswithdrawncreeses,whostabintothecentreofthe
dustycolumninordertodriveawaytheevilspiritthatisbelievedtoberidingontheblast.
InthelightoftheseexamplesastorytoldbyHerodotus,whichhismoderncriticshavetreatedasafable,
isperfectlycredible.Hesays,withouthowevervouchingforthetruthofthetale,thatonceinthelandof
thePsylli,themodernTripoli,thewindblowingfromtheSaharahaddriedupallthewatertanks.Sothe
peopletookcounselandmarchedinabodytomakewaronthesouthwind.Butwhentheyenteredthe
desertthesimoonsweptdownonthemandburiedthemtoaman.Thestorymaywellhavebeentoldby
onewhowatchedthemdisappearing,inbattlearray,withdrumsandcymbalsbeating,intotheredcloud
ofwhirlingsand.

VI.MagiciansasKings
THEFOREGOINGevidencemaysatisfyusthatinmanylandsandmanyracesmagichasclaimedto
controlthegreatforcesofnatureforthegoodofman.Ifthathasbeenso,thepractitionersoftheartmust
necessarilybepersonagesofimportanceandinfluenceinanysocietywhichputsfaithintheir
extravagantpretensions,anditwouldbenomatterforsurpriseif,byvirtueofthereputationwhichthey
enjoyandoftheawewhichtheyinspire,someofthemshouldattaintothehighestpositionofauthority
overtheircredulousfellows.Inpointoffactmagiciansappeartohaveoftendevelopedintochiefsand
kings.
Letusbeginbylookingatthelowestraceofmenastowhomwepossesscomparativelyfullandaccurate
information,theaboriginesofAustralia.Thesesavagesareruledneitherbychiefsnorkings.Sofaras
theirtribescanbesaidtohaveapoliticalconstitution,itisademocracyorratheranoligarchyofoldand
influentialmen,whomeetincouncilanddecideonallmeasuresofimportancetothepracticalexclusion
oftheyoungermen.Theirdeliberativeassemblyanswerstothesenateoflatertimes:ifwehadtocoina
wordforsuchagovernmentofelderswemightcallitagerontocracy.Theelderswhoinaboriginal
Australiathusmeetanddirecttheaffairsoftheirtribeappeartobeforthemostparttheheadmenoftheir
respectivetotemclans.NowinCentralAustralia,wherethedesertnatureofthecountryandthealmost

completeisolationfromforeigninfluenceshaveretardedprogressandpreservedthenativesonthewhole
intheirmostprimitivestate,theheadmenofthevarioustotemclansarechargedwiththeimportanttask
ofperformingmagicalceremoniesforthemultiplicationofthetotems,andasthegreatmajorityofthe
totemsareedibleanimalsorplants,itfollowsthatthesemenarecommonlyexpectedtoprovidethe
peoplewithfoodbymeansofmagic.Othershavetomaketheraintofallortorenderotherservicesto
thecommunity.Inshort,amongthetribesofCentralAustraliatheheadmenarepublicmagicians.
Further,theirmostimportantfunctionistotakechargeofthesacredstorehouse,usuallyacleftinthe
rocksoraholeintheground,wherearekepttheholystonesandsticks(churinga)withwhichthesouls
ofallthepeople,bothlivinganddead,areapparentlysupposedtobeinamannerboundup.Thuswhile
theheadmenhavecertainlytoperformwhatweshouldcallcivilduties,suchastoinflictpunishmentfor
breachesoftribalcustom,theirprincipalfunctionsaresacredormagical.
WhenwepassfromAustraliatoNewGuineawefindthat,thoughthenativesstandatafarhigherlevel
ofculturethantheAustralianaborigines,theconstitutionofsocietyamongthemisstillessentially
democraticoroligarchic,andchieftainshipexistsonlyinembryo.ThusSirWilliamMacGregortellsus
thatinBritishNewGuineanoonehaseverarisenwiseenough,boldenough,andstrongenoughto
becomethedespotevenofasingledistrict.Thenearestapproachtothishasbeentheverydistantoneof
somepersonbecomingarenownedwizardbutthathasonlyresultedinlevyingacertainamountof
blackmail.
Accordingtoanativeaccount,theoriginofthepowerofMelanesianchiefsliesentirelyinthebeliefthat
theyhavecommunicationwithmightyghosts,andwieldthatsupernaturalpowerwherebytheycanbring
theinfluenceoftheghoststobear.Ifachiefimposedafine,itwaspaidbecausethepeopleuniversally
dreadedhisghostlypower,andfirmlybelievedthathecouldinflictcalamityandsicknessuponsuchas
resistedhim.Assoonasanyconsiderablenumberofhispeoplebegantodisbelieveinhisinfluencewith
theghosts,hispowertolevyfineswasshaken.Again,Dr.GeorgeBrowntellsusthatinNewBritaina
rulingchiefwasalwayssupposedtoexercisepriestlyfunctions,thatis,heprofessedtobeinconstant
communicationwiththetebarans(spirits),andthroughtheirinfluencehewasenabledtobringrainor
sunshine,fairwindsorfoulones,sicknessorhealth,successordisasterinwar,andgenerallytoprocure
anyblessingorcurseforwhichtheapplicantwaswillingtopayasufficientprice.
StillrisinginthescaleofculturewecometoAfrica,whereboththechieftainshipandthekingshipare
fullydevelopedandheretheevidencefortheevolutionofthechiefoutofthemagician,andespecially
outoftherainmaker,iscomparativelyplentiful.ThusamongtheWambugwe,aBantupeopleofEast
Africa,theoriginalformofgovernmentwasafamilyrepublic,buttheenormouspowerofthesorcerers,
transmittedbyinheritance,soonraisedthemtotherankofpettylordsorchiefs.Ofthethreechiefsliving
inthecountryin1894twoweremuchdreadedasmagicians,andthewealthofcattletheypossessed
cametothemalmostwhollyintheshapeofpresentsbestowedfortheirservicesinthatcapacity.Their
principalartwasthatofrainmaking.ThechiefsoftheWataturu,anotherpeopleofEastAfrica,aresaid
tobenothingbutsorcerersdestituteofanydirectpoliticalinfluence.Again,amongtheWagogoofEast
Africathemainpowerofthechiefs,wearetold,isderivedfromtheirartofrainmaking.Ifachief
cannotmakerainhimself,hemustprocureitfromsomeonewhocan.
Again,amongthetribesoftheUpperNilethemedicinemenaregenerallythechiefs.Theirauthority
restsaboveallupontheirsupposedpowerofmakingrain,forrainistheonethingwhichmatterstothe
peopleinthosedistricts,asifitdoesnotcomedownattherighttimeitmeansuntoldhardshipsforthe
community.Itisthereforesmallwonderthatmenmorecunningthantheirfellowsshouldarrogateto
themselvesthepowerofproducingit,orthathavinggainedsuchareputation,theyshouldtradeonthe
credulityoftheirsimplerneighbours.Hencemostofthechiefsofthesetribesarerainmakers,and
enjoyapopularityinproportiontotheirpowerstogiveraintotheirpeopleattheproperseason.Rain
makingchiefsalwaysbuildtheirvillagesontheslopesofafairlyhighhill,astheynodoubtknowthat

thehillsattracttheclouds,andthattheyare,therefore,fairlysafeintheirweatherforecasts.Eachof
theserainmakershasanumberofrainstones,suchasrockcrystal,aventurine,andamethyst,whichhe
keepsinapot.Whenhewishestoproducerainheplungesthestonesinwater,andtakinginhishanda
peeledcane,whichissplitatthetop,hebeckonswithittothecloudstocomeorwavesthemawayinthe
waytheyshouldgo,mutteringanincantationthewhile.Orhepourswaterandtheentrailsofasheepor
goatintoahollowinastoneandthensprinklesthewatertowardsthesky.Thoughthechiefacquires
wealthbytheexerciseofhissupposedmagicalpowers,heoften,perhapsgenerally,comestoaviolent
endforintimeofdroughttheangrypeopleassembleandkillhim,believingthatitishewhoprevents
therainfromfalling.Yettheofficeisusuallyhereditaryandpassesfromfathertoson.Amongthetribes
whichcherishthesebeliefsandobservethesecustomsaretheLatuka,Bari,Laluba,andLokoiya.
InCentralAfrica,again,theLendutribe,tothewestofLakeAlbert,firmlybelievethatcertainpeople
possessthepowerofmakingrain.Amongthemtherainmakereitherisachieforalmostinvariably
becomesone.TheBanyoroalsohaveagreatrespectforthedispensersofrain,whomtheyloadwitha
profusionofgifts.Thegreatdispenser,hewhohasabsoluteanduncontrollablepowerovertherain,isthe
kingbuthecandeputehispowertootherpersons,sothatthebenefitmaybedistributedandthe
heavenlywaterlaidonoverthevariouspartsofthekingdom.
InWesternaswellasinEasternandCentralAfricawemeetwiththesameunionofchieflywithmagical
functions.ThusintheFantribethestrictdistinctionbetweenchiefandmedicinemandoesnotexist.The
chiefisalsoamedicinemanandasmithtobootfortheFansesteemthesmithscraftsacred,andnone
butchiefsmaymeddlewithit.
AstotherelationbetweentheofficesofchiefandrainmakerinSouthAfricaawellinformedwriter
observes:InveryolddaysthechiefwasthegreatRainmakerofthetribe.Somechiefsallowednoone
elsetocompetewiththem,lestasuccessfulRainmakershouldbechosenaschief.Therewasalso
anotherreason:theRainmakerwassuretobecomearichmanifhegainedagreatreputation,andit
wouldmanifestlyneverdoforthechieftoallowanyonetobetoorich.TheRainmakerexerts
tremendouscontroloverthepeople,andsoitwouldbemostimportanttokeepthisfunctionconnected
withroyalty.Traditionalwaysplacesthepowerofmakingrainasthefundamentalgloryofancientchiefs
andheroes,anditseemsprobablethatitmayhavebeentheoriginofchieftainship.Themanwhomade
therainwouldnaturallybecomethechief.InthesamewayChaka[thefamousZuludespot]usedto
declarethathewastheonlydivinerinthecountry,forifheallowedrivalshislifewouldbeinsecure.
SimilarlyspeakingoftheSouthAfricantribesingeneral,Dr.Moffatsaysthattherainmakerisinthe
estimationofthepeoplenomeanpersonage,possessinganinfluenceoverthemindsofthepeople
superioreventothatoftheking,whoislikewisecompelledtoyieldtothedictatesofthisarchofficial.
TheforegoingevidencerendersitprobablethatinAfricathekinghasoftenbeendevelopedoutofthe
publicmagician,andespeciallyoutoftherainmaker.Theunboundedfearwhichthemagicianinspires
andthewealthwhichheamassesintheexerciseofhisprofessionmaybothbesupposedtohave
contributedtohispromotion.Butifthecareerofamagicianandespeciallyofarainmakeroffersgreat
rewardstothesuccessfulpractitioneroftheart,itisbesetwithmanypitfallsintowhichtheunskilfulor
unluckyartistmayfall.Thepositionofthepublicsorcererisindeedaveryprecariousoneforwherethe
peoplefirmlybelievethathehasitinhispowertomaketheraintofall,thesuntoshine,andthefruitsof
theearthtogrow,theynaturallyimputedroughtanddearthtohisculpablenegligenceorwilful
obstinacy,andtheypunishhimaccordingly.HenceinAfricathechiefwhofailstoprocurerainisoften
exiledorkilled.Thus,insomepartsofWestAfrica,whenprayersandofferingspresentedtotheking
havefailedtoprocurerain,hissubjectsbindhimwithropesandtakehimbyforcetothegraveofhis
forefathersthathemayobtainfromthemtheneededrain.TheBanjarsinWestAfricaascribetotheir
kingthepowerofcausingrainorfineweather.Solongastheweatherisfinetheyloadhimwithpresents
ofgrainandcattle.Butiflongdroughtorrainthreatenstospoilthecrops,theyinsultandbeathimtillthe

weatherchanges.Whentheharvestfailsorthesurfonthecoastistooheavytoallowoffishing,the
peopleofLoangoaccusetheirkingofabadheartanddeposehim.OntheGrainCoastthehighpriest
orfetishking,whobearsthetitleofBodio,isresponsibleforthehealthofthecommunity,thefertilityof
theearth,andtheabundanceoffishintheseaandriversandifthecountrysuffersinanyofthese
respectstheBodioisdeposedfromhisoffice.InUssukuma,agreatdistrictonthesouthernbankofthe
VictoriaNyanza,therainandlocustquestionispartandparceloftheSultansgovernment.He,too,
mustknowhowtomakerainanddriveawaythelocusts.Ifheandhismedicinemenareunableto
accomplishthis,hiswholeexistenceisatstakeintimesofdistress.Onacertainoccasion,whentherain
sogreatlydesiredbythepeopledidnotcome,theSultanwassimplydrivenout(inUtutwa,nearNassa).
Thepeople,infact,holdthatrulersmusthavepoweroverNatureandherphenomena.Again,weare
toldofthenativesoftheNyanazaregiongenerallythattheyarepersuadedthatrainonlyfallsasaresult
ofmagic,andtheimportantdutyofcausingittodescenddevolvesonthechiefofthetribe.Ifraindoes
notcomeatthepropertime,everybodycomplains.Morethanonepettykinghasbeenbanishedhis
countrybecauseofdrought.AmongtheLatukaoftheUpperNile,whenthecropsarewithering,andall
theeffortsofthechieftodrawdownrainhaveprovedfruitless,thepeoplecommonlyattackhimby
night,robhimofallhepossesses,anddrivehimaway.Butoftentheykillhim.
Inmanyotherpartsoftheworldkingshavebeenexpectedtoregulatethecourseofnatureforthegood
oftheirpeopleandhavebeenpunishediftheyfailedtodoso.ItappearsthattheScythians,whenfood
wasscarce,usedtoputtheirkinginbonds.InancientEgyptthesacredkingswereblamedforthefailure
ofthecrops,butthesacredbeastswerealsoheldresponsibleforthecourseofnature.Whenpestilence
andothercalamitieshadfallenontheland,inconsequenceofalongandseveredrought,theprieststook
theanimalsbynightandthreatenedthem,butiftheevildidnotabatetheyslewthebeasts.Onthecoral
islandofNiueorSavageIsland,intheSouthPacific,thereformerlyreignedalineofkings.Butasthe
kingswerealsohighpriests,andweresupposedtomakethefoodgrow,thepeoplebecameangrywith
themintimesofscarcityandkilledthemtillatlast,asoneafteranotherwaskilled,noonewouldbe
king,andthemonarchycametoanend.AncientChinesewritersinformusthatinCoreatheblamewas
laidonthekingwhenevertoomuchortoolittlerainfellandthecropsdidnotripen.Somesaidthathe
mustbedeposed,othersthathemustbeslain.
AmongtheAmericanIndiansthefurthestadvancetowardscivilisationwasmadeunderthemonarchical
andtheocraticgovernmentsofMexicoandPerubutweknowtoolittleoftheearlyhistoryofthese
countriestosaywhetherthepredecessorsoftheirdeifiedkingsweremedicinemenornot.Perhapsa
traceofsuchasuccessionmaybedetectedintheoathwhichtheMexicankings,whentheymountedthe
throne,sworethattheywouldmakethesuntoshine,thecloudstogiverain,theriverstoflow,andthe
earthtobringforthfruitsinabundance.Certainly,inaboriginalAmericathesorcererormedicineman,
surroundedbyahaloofmysteryandanatmosphereofawe,wasapersonageofgreatinfluenceand
importance,andhemaywellhavedevelopedintoachieforkinginmanytribes,thoughpositive
evidenceofsuchadevelopmentappearstobelacking.ThusCatlintellsusthatinNorthAmericathe
medicinemenarevaluedasdignitariesinthetribe,andthegreatestrespectispaidtothembythewhole
communitynotonlyfortheirskillintheirmateriamedica,butmoreespeciallyfortheirtactinmagic
andmysteries,inwhichtheyalldealtoaverygreatextent.Inalltribestheirdoctorsareconjurers
aremagiciansaresoothsayers,andIhadliketohavesaidhighpriests,inasmuchastheysuperintend
andconductalltheirreligiousceremoniestheyarelookeduponbyallasoraclesofthenation.Inall
councilsofwarandpeace,theyhaveaseatwiththechiefs,areregularlyconsultedbeforeanypublicstep
istaken,andthegreatestdeferenceandrespectispaidtotheiropinions.SimilarlyinCaliforniathe
shamanwas,andstillis,perhapsthemostimportantindividualamongtheMaidu.Intheabsenceofany
definitesystemofgovernment,thewordofashamanhasgreatweight:asaclasstheyareregardedwith
muchawe,andasaruleareobeyedmuchmorethanthechief.
InSouthAmericaalsothemagiciansormedicinemenseemtohavebeenonthehighroadto

chieftainshiporkingship.OneoftheearliestsettlersonthecoastofBrazil,theFrenchmanThevet,
reportsthattheIndiansholdthesepages(ormedicinemen)insuchhonourandreverencethatthey
adore,orratheridolisethem.Youmayseethecommonfolkgotomeetthem,prostratethemselves,and
praytothem,saying,GrantthatIbenotill,thatIdonotdie,neitherInormychildren,orsomesuch
request.Andheanswers,Youshallnotdie,youshallnotbeill,andsuchlikereplies.Butsometimesif
ithappensthatthesepagesdonottellthetruth,andthingsturnoutotherwisethantheypredicted,the
peoplemakenoscrupleofkillingthemasunworthyofthetitleanddignityofpages.AmongtheLengua
IndiansoftheGranChacoeveryclanhasitscaziqueorchief,buthepossesseslittleauthority.Invirtue
ofhisofficehehastomakemanypresents,soheseldomgrowsrichandisgenerallymoreshabbilyclad
thananyofhissubjects.Asamatteroffactthemagicianisthemanwhohasmostpowerinhishands,
andheisaccustomedtoreceivepresentsinsteadoftogivethem.Itisthemagiciansdutytobringdown
misfortuneandplaguesontheenemiesofhistribe,andtoguardhisownpeopleagainsthostilemagic.
Fortheseservicesheiswellpaid,andbythemheacquiresapositionofgreatinfluenceandauthority.
ThroughouttheMalayregiontherajahorkingiscommonlyregardedwithsuperstitiousvenerationasthe
possessorofsupernaturalpowers,andtherearegroundsforthinkingthathetoo,likeapparentlysomany
Africanchiefs,hasbeendevelopedoutofasimplemagician.AtthepresentdaytheMalaysfirmly
believethatthekingpossessesapersonalinfluenceovertheworksofnature,suchasthegrowthofthe
cropsandthebearingoffruittrees.Thesameprolificvirtueissupposedtoreside,thoughinalesser
degree,inhisdelegates,andeveninthepersonsofEuropeanswhochancetohavechargeofdistricts.
ThusinSelangor,oneofthenativestatesoftheMalayPeninsula,thesuccessorfailureofthericecrops
isoftenattributedtoachangeofdistrictofficers.TheToorateyasofSouthernCelebesholdthatthe
prosperityofthericedependsonthebehaviouroftheirprinces,andthatbadgovernment,bywhichthey
meanagovernmentwhichdoesnotconformtoancientcustom,willresultinafailureofthecrops.
TheDyaksofSarawakbelievedthattheirfamousEnglishruler,RajahBrooke,wasendowedwitha
certainmagicalvirtuewhich,ifproperlyapplied,couldrenderthericecropsabundant.Hencewhenhe
visitedatribe,theyusedtobringhimtheseedwhichtheyintendedtosownextyear,andhefertilisedit
byshakingoveritthewomensnecklaces,whichhadbeenpreviouslydippedinaspecialmixture.And
whenheenteredavillage,thewomenwouldwashandbathehisfeet,firstwithwater,andthenwiththe
milkofayoungcoconut,andlastlywithwateragain,andallthiswaterwhichhadtouchedhisperson
theypreservedforthepurposeofdistributingitontheirfarms,believingthatitensuredanabundant
harvest.Tribeswhichweretoofaroffforhimtovisitusedtosendhimasmallpieceofwhiteclothanda
littlegoldorsilver,andwhenthesethingshadbeenimpregnatedbyhisgenerativevirtuetheyburied
themintheirfields,andconfidentlyexpectedaheavycrop.OncewhenaEuropeanremarkedthatthe
ricecropsoftheSambantribewerethin,thechiefimmediatelyrepliedthattheycouldnotbeotherwise,
sinceRajahBrookehadnevervisitedthem,andhebeggedthatMr.Brookemightbeinducedtovisithis
tribeandremovethesterilityoftheirland.
Thebeliefthatkingspossessmagicalorsupernaturalpowersbyvirtueofwhichtheycanfertilisethe
earthandconferotherbenefitsontheirsubjectswouldseemtohavebeensharedbytheancestorsofall
theAryanracesfromIndiatoIreland,andithasleftcleartracesofitselfinourowncountrydownto
moderntimes.ThustheancientHindoolawbookcalledTheLawsofManudescribesasfollowsthe
effectsofagoodkingsreign:Inthatcountrywherethekingavoidstakingthepropertyofmortal
sinners,menareborninduetimeandarelonglived.Andthecropsofthehusbandmenspringup,eachas
itwassown,andthechildrendienot,andnomisshapedoffspringisborn.InHomericGreecekingsand
chiefswerespokenofassacredordivinetheirhouses,too,weredivineandtheirchariotssacredandit
wasthoughtthatthereignofagoodkingcausedtheblackearthtobringforthwheatandbarley,thetrees
tobeloadedwithfruit,theflockstomultiply,andtheseatoyieldfish.IntheMiddleAges,when
WaldemarI.,KingofDenmark,travelledinGermany,mothersbroughttheirinfantsandhusbandmen
theirseedforhimtolayhishandson,thinkingthatchildrenwouldboththrivethebetterfortheroyal

touch,andforalikereasonfarmersaskedhimtothrowtheseedforthem.Itwasthebeliefoftheancient
Irishthatwhentheirkingsobservedthecustomsoftheirancestors,theseasonsweremild,thecrops
plentiful,thecattlefruitful,thewatersaboundedwithfish,andthefruittreeshadtobeproppedupon
accountoftheweightoftheirproduce.AcanonattributedtoSt.Patrickenumeratesamongtheblessings
thatattendthereignofajustkingfineweather,calmseas,cropsabundant,andtreesladenwithfruit.
Ontheotherhand,dearth,drynessofcows,blightoffruit,andscarcityofcornwereregardedas
infallibleproofsthatthereigningkingwasbad.
PerhapsthelastrelicofsuchsuperstitionswhichlingeredaboutourEnglishkingswasthenotionthat
theycouldhealscrofulabytheirtouch.ThediseasewasaccordinglyknownastheKingsEvil.Queen
Elizabethoftenexercisedthismiraculousgiftofhealing.OnMidsummerDay1633,CharlestheFirst
curedahundredpatientsatoneswoopinthechapelroyalatHolyrood.ButitwasunderhissonCharles
theSecondthatthepracticeseemstohaveattaineditshighestvogue.Itissaidthatinthecourseofhis
reignCharlestheSecondtouchednearahundredthousandpersonsforscrofula.Thepresstogetnear
himwassometimesterrific.Ononeoccasionsixorsevenofthosewhocametobehealedweretrampled
todeath.ThecoolheadedWilliamtheThirdcontemptuouslyrefusedtolendhimselftothehocuspocus
andwhenhispalacewasbesiegedbytheusualunsavourycrowd,heorderedthemtobeturnedawaywith
adole.Ontheonlyoccasionwhenhewasimportunedintolayinghishandonapatient,hesaidtohim,
Godgiveyoubetterhealthandmoresense.However,thepracticewascontinued,asmighthavebeen
expected,bythedullbigotJamestheSecondandhisdulldaughterQueenAnne.
ThekingsofFrancealsoclaimedtopossessthesamegiftofhealingbytouch,whichtheyaresaidto
havederivedfromClovisorfromSt.Louis,whileourEnglishkingsinheriteditfromEdwardthe
Confessor.SimilarlythesavagechiefsofTongawerebelievedtohealscrofulaandcasesofindurated
liverbythetouchoftheirfeetandthecurewasstrictlyhomoeopathic,forthediseaseaswellasthecure
wasthoughttobecausedbycontactwiththeroyalpersonorwithanythingthatbelongedtoit.
Onthewhole,then,weseemtobejustifiedininferringthatinmanypartsoftheworldthekingisthe
linealsuccessoroftheoldmagicianormedicineman.Whenonceaspecialclassofsorcerershasbeen
segregatedfromthecommunityandentrustedbyitwiththedischargeofdutiesonwhichthepublic
safetyandwelfarearebelievedtodepend,thesemengraduallyrisetowealthandpower,tilltheirleaders
blossomoutintosacredkings.Butthegreatsocialrevolutionwhichthusbeginswithdemocracyand
endsindespotismisattendedbyanintellectualrevolutionwhichaffectsboththeconceptionandthe
functionsofroyalty.Forastimegoeson,thefallacyofmagicbecomesmoreandmoreapparenttothe
acutermindsandisslowlydisplacedbyreligioninotherwords,themagiciangiveswaytothepriest,
who,renouncingtheattempttocontroldirectlytheprocessesofnatureforthegoodofman,seeksto
attainthesameendindirectlybyappealingtothegodstodoforhimwhathenolongerfancieshecando
forhimself.Hencetheking,startingasamagician,tendsgraduallytoexchangethepracticeofmagicfor
thepriestlyfunctionsofprayerandsacrifice.Andwhilethedistinctionbetweenthehumanandthedivine
isstillimperfectlydrawn,itisoftenimaginedthatmenmaythemselvesattaintogodhead,notmerely
aftertheirdeath,butintheirlifetime,throughthetemporaryorpermanentpossessionoftheirwhole
naturebyagreatandpowerfulspirit.Noclassofthecommunityhasbenefitedsomuchaskingsbythis
beliefinthepossibleincarnationofagodinhumanform.Thedoctrineofthatincarnation,andwithitthe
theoryofthedivinityofkingsinthestrictsenseoftheword,willformthesubjectofthefollowing
chapter.

VII.IncarnateHumanGods
THEINSTANCESwhichintheprecedingchaptersIhavedrawnfromthebeliefsandpracticesofrude
peoplesallovertheworld,maysufficetoprovethatthesavagefailstorecognisethoselimitationstohis

powerovernaturewhichseemsoobvioustous.Inasocietywhereeverymanissupposedtobeendowed
moreorlesswithpowerswhichweshouldcallsupernatural,itisplainthatthedistinctionbetweengods
andmenissomewhatblurred,orratherhasscarcelyemerged.Theconceptionofgodsassuperhuman
beingsendowedwithpowerstowhichmanpossessesnothingcomparableindegreeandhardlyevenin
kind,hasbeenslowlyevolvedinthecourseofhistory.Byprimitivepeoplesthesupernaturalagentsare
notregardedasgreatly,ifatall,superiortomanfortheymaybefrightenedandcoercedbyhiminto
doinghiswill.Atthisstageofthoughttheworldisviewedasagreatdemocracyallbeingsinit,whether
naturalorsupernatural,aresupposedtostandonafootingoftolerableequality.Butwiththegrowthof
hisknowledgemanlearnstorealisemoreclearlythevastnessofnatureandhisownlittlenessand
feeblenessinpresenceofit.Therecognitionofhishelplessnessdoesnot,however,carrywithita
correspondingbeliefintheimpotenceofthosesupernaturalbeingswithwhichhisimaginationpeoples
theuniverse.Onthecontrary,itenhanceshisconceptionoftheirpower.Fortheideaoftheworldasa
systemofimpersonalforcesactinginaccordancewithfixedandinvariablelawshasnotyetfullydawned
ordarkeneduponhim.Thegermoftheideahecertainlyhas,andheactsuponit,notonlyinmagicart,
butinmuchofthebusinessofdailylife.Buttheidearemainsundeveloped,andsofarasheattemptsto
explaintheworldhelivesin,hepicturesitasthemanifestationofconsciouswillandpersonalagency.If
thenhefeelshimselftobesofrailandslight,howvastandpowerfulmusthedeemthebeingswho
controlthegiganticmachineryofnature!Thusashisoldsenseofequalitywiththegodsslowlyvanishes,
heresignsatthesametimethehopeofdirectingthecourseofnaturebyhisownunaidedresources,that
is,bymagic,andlooksmoreandmoretothegodsasthesolerepositoriesofthosesupernaturalpowers
whichheonceclaimedtosharewiththem.Withtheadvanceofknowledge,therefore,prayerand
sacrificeassumetheleadingplaceinreligiousritualandmagic,whichoncerankedwiththemasa
legitimateequal,isgraduallyrelegatedtothebackgroundandsinkstothelevelofablackart.Itisnot
regardedasanencroachment,atoncevainandimpious,onthedomainofthegods,andassuch
encountersthesteadyoppositionofthepriests,whosereputationandinfluenceriseorfallwiththoseof
theirgods.Hence,whenatalateperiodthedistinctionbetweenreligionandsuperstitionhasemerged,we
findthatsacrificeandprayeraretheresourceofthepiousandenlightenedportionofthecommunity,
whilemagicistherefugeofthesuperstitiousandignorant.Butwhen,stilllater,theconceptionofthe
elementalforcesaspersonalagentsisgivingwaytotherecognitionofnaturallawthenmagic,basedas
itimplicitlyisontheideaofanecessaryandinvariablesequenceofcauseandeffect,independentof
personalwill,reappearsfromtheobscurityanddiscreditintowhichithadfallen,andbyinvestigatingthe
causalsequencesinnature,directlypreparesthewayforscience.Alchemyleadsuptochemistry.
Thenotionofamangod,orofahumanbeingendowedwithdivineorsupernaturalpowers,belongs
essentiallytothatearlierperiodofreligioushistoryinwhichgodsandmenarestillviewedasbeingsof
muchthesameorder,andbeforetheyaredividedbytheimpassablegulfwhich,tolaterthought,opens
outbetweenthem.Strange,therefore,asmayseemtoustheideaofagodincarnateinhumanform,ithas
nothingverystartlingforearlyman,whoseesinamangodoragodmanonlyahigherdegreeofthe
samesupernaturalpowerswhichhearrogatesinperfectgoodfaithtohimself.Nordoeshedrawanyvery
sharpdistinctionbetweenagodandapowerfulsorcerer.Hisgodsareoftenmerelyinvisiblemagicians
whobehindtheveilofnatureworkthesamesortofcharmsandincantationswhichthehumanmagician
worksinavisibleandbodilyformamonghisfellows.Andasthegodsarecommonlybelievedtoexhibit
themselvesinthelikenessofmentotheirworshippers,itiseasyforthemagician,withhissupposed
miraculouspowers,toacquirethereputationofbeinganincarnatedeity.Thusbeginningaslittlemore
thanasimpleconjurer,themedicinemanormagiciantendstoblossomoutintoafullblowngodand
kinginone.Onlyinspeakingofhimasagodwemustbewareofimportingintothesavageconceptionof
deitythoseveryabstractandcomplexideaswhichweattachtotheterm.Ourideasonthisprofound
subjectarethefruitofalongintellectualandmoralevolution,andtheyaresofarfrombeingsharedby
thesavagethathecannotevenunderstandthemwhentheyareexplainedtohim.Muchofthecontroversy
whichhasragedastothereligionofthelowerraceshassprungmerelyfromamutualmisunderstanding.
Thesavagedoesnotunderstandthethoughtsofthecivilisedman,andfewcivilisedmenunderstandthe

thoughtsofthesavage.Whenthesavageuseshiswordforgod,hehasinhismindabeingofacertain
sort:whenthecivilisedmanuseshiswordforgod,hehasinhismindabeingofaverydifferentsortand
if,ascommonlyhappens,thetwomenareequallyunabletoplacethemselvesattheotherspointof
view,nothingbutconfusionandmistakescanresultfromtheirdiscussions.Ifwecivilisedmeninsiston
limitingthenameofGodtothatparticularconceptionofthedivinenaturewhichweourselveshave
formed,thenwemustconfessthatthesavagehasnogodatall.Butweshalladheremorecloselytothe
factsofhistoryifweallowmostofthehighersavagesatleasttopossessarudimentarynotionofcertain
supernaturalbeingswhomayfittinglybecalledgods,thoughnotinthefullsenseinwhichweusethe
word.Thatrudimentarynotionrepresentsinallprobabilitythegermoutofwhichthecivilisedpeoples
havegraduallyevolvedtheirownhighconceptionsofdeityandifwecouldtracethewholecourseof
religiousdevelopment,wemightfindthatthechainwhichlinksourideaoftheGodheadwiththatofthe
savageisoneandunbroken.
WiththeseexplanationsandcautionsIwillnowadducesomeexamplesofgodswhohavebeenbelieved
bytheirworshipperstobeincarnateinlivinghumanbeings,whethermenorwomen.Thepersonsin
whomadeityisthoughttorevealhimselfarebynomeansalwayskingsordescendantsofkingsthe
supposedincarnationmaytakeplaceeveninmenofthehumblestrank.InIndia,forexample,onehuman
godstartedinlifeasacottonbleacherandanotherasthesonofacarpenter.Ishallthereforenotdrawmy
examplesexclusivelyfromroyalpersonages,asIwishtoillustratethegeneralprincipleofthedeification
oflivingmen,inotherwords,theincarnationofadeityinhumanform.Suchincarnategodsarecommon
inrudesociety.Theincarnationmaybetemporaryorpermanent.Intheformercase,theincarnation
commonlyknownasinspirationorpossessionrevealsitselfinsupernaturalknowledgeratherthanin
supernaturalpower.Inotherwords,itsusualmanifestationsaredivinationandprophecyratherthan
miracles.Ontheotherhand,whentheincarnationisnotmerelytemporary,whenthedivinespirithas
permanentlytakenupitsabodeinahumanbody,thegodmanisusuallyexpectedtovindicatehis
characterbyworkingmiracles.Onlywehavetorememberthatbymenatthisstageofthoughtmiracles
arenotconsideredasbreachesofnaturallaw.Notconceivingtheexistenceofnaturallaw,primitiveman
cannotconceiveabreachofit.Amiracleistohimmerelyanunusuallystrikingmanifestationofa
commonpower.
Thebeliefintemporaryincarnationorinspirationisworldwide.Certainpersonsaresupposedtobe
possessedfromtimetotimebyaspiritordeitywhilethepossessionlasts,theirownpersonalityliesin
abeyance,thepresenceofthespiritisrevealedbyconvulsiveshiveringsandshakingsofthemanswhole
body,bywildgesturesandexcitedlooks,allofwhicharereferred,nottothemanhimself,buttothe
spiritwhichhasenteredintohimandinthisabnormalstateallhisutterancesareacceptedasthevoiceof
thegodorspiritdwellinginhimandspeakingthroughhim.Thus,forexample,intheSandwichIslands,
theking,personatingthegod,utteredtheresponsesoftheoraclefromhisconcealmentinaframeof
wickerwork.ButinthesouthernislandsofthePacificthegodfrequentlyenteredthepriest,who,
inflatedasitwerewiththedivinity,ceasedtoactorspeakasavoluntaryagent,butmovedandspokeas
entirelyundersupernaturalinfluence.Inthisrespecttherewasastrikingresemblancebetweentherude
oraclesofthePolynesians,andthoseofthecelebratednationsofancientGreece.Assoonasthegodwas
supposedtohaveenteredthepriest,thelatterbecameviolentlyagitated,andworkedhimselfuptothe
highestpitchofapparentfrenzy,themusclesofthelimbsseemedconvulsed,thebodyswelled,the
countenancebecameterrific,thefeaturesdistorted,andtheeyeswildandstrained.Inthisstateheoften
rolledontheearth,foamingatthemouth,asiflabouringundertheinfluenceofthedivinitybywhomhe
waspossessed,and,inshrillcries,andviolentandoftenindistinctsounds,revealedthewillofthegod.
Thepriests,whowereattending,andversedinthemysteries,received,andreportedtothepeople,the
declarationswhichhadbeenthusreceived.Whenthepriesthadutteredtheresponseoftheoracle,the
violentparoxysmgraduallysubsided,andcomparativecomposureensued.Thegoddidnot,however,
alwaysleavehimassoonasthecommunicationhadbeenmade.Sometimesthesametaura,orpriest,
continuedfortwoorthreedayspossessedbythespiritordeityapieceofanativecloth,ofapeculiar

kind,wornroundonearm,wasanindicationofinspiration,oroftheindwellingofthegodwiththe
individualwhoworeit.Theactsofthemanduringthisperiodwereconsideredasthoseofthegod,and
hencethegreatestattentionwaspaidtohisexpressions,andthewholeofhisdeportment.When
uruhia(undertheinspirationofthespirit),thepriestwasalwaysconsideredassacredasthegod,andwas
called,duringthisperiod,atua,god,thoughatothertimesonlydenominatedtauraorpriest.
Butexamplesofsuchtemporaryinspirationaresocommonineverypartoftheworldandarenowso
familiarthroughbooksonethnologythatitisneedlesstomultiplyillustrationsofthegeneralprinciple.It
maybewell,however,torefertotwoparticularmodesofproducingtemporaryinspiration,becausethey
areperhapslessknownthansomeothers,andbecauseweshallhaveoccasiontorefertothemlateron.
Oneofthesemodesofproducinginspirationisbysuckingthefreshbloodofasacrificedvictim.Inthe
templeofApolloDiradiotesatArgos,alambwassacrificedbynightonceamonthawoman,whohad
toobservearuleofchastity,tastedthebloodofthelamb,andthusbeinginspiredbythegodshe
prophesiedordivined.AtAegirainAchaiathepriestessofEarthdrankthefreshbloodofabullbefore
shedescendedintothecavetoprophesy.SimilarlyamongtheKuruvikkarans,aclassofbirdcatchersand
beggarsinSouthernIndia,thegoddessKaliisbelievedtodescenduponthepriest,andhegivesoracular
repliesaftersuckingthebloodwhichstreamsfromthecutthroatofagoat.AtafestivaloftheAlfoorsof
Minahassa,inNorthernCelebes,afterapighasbeenkilled,thepriestrushesfuriouslyatit,thrustshis
headintothecarcase,anddrinksoftheblood.Thenheisdraggedawayfromitbyforceandsetona
chair,whereuponhebeginstoprophesyhowthericecropwillturnoutthatyear.Asecondtimeheruns
atthecarcaseanddrinksofthebloodasecondtimeheisforcedintothechairandcontinueshis
predictions.Itisthoughtthatthereisaspiritinhimwhichpossessesthepowerofprophecy.
Theothermodeofproducingtemporaryinspiration,towhichIshallhererefer,consistsintheuseofa
sacredtreeorplant.ThusintheHindooKooshafireiskindledwithtwigsofthesacredcedarandthe
Dainyalorsibyl,withaclothoverherhead,inhalesthethickpungentsmoketillsheisseizedwith
convulsionsandfallssenselesstotheground.Soonsherisesandraisesashrillchant,whichiscaughtup
andloudlyrepeatedbyheraudience.SoApollosprophetessatethesacredlaurelandwasfumigated
withitbeforesheprophesied.TheBacchanalsateivy,andtheirinspiredfurywasbysomebelievedtobe
duetotheexcitingandintoxicatingpropertiesoftheplant.InUgandathepriest,inordertobeinspired
byhisgod,smokesapipeoftobaccofiercelytillheworkshimselfintoafrenzytheloudexcitedtonesin
whichhethentalksarerecognisedasthevoiceofthegodspeakingthroughhim.InMadura,anislandoff
thenorthcoastofJava,eachspirithasitsregularmedium,whoisoftenerawomanthanaman.To
prepareherselfforthereceptionofthespiritsheinhalesthefumesofincense,sittingwithherheadovera
smokingcenser.Graduallyshefallsintoasortoftranceaccompaniedbyshrieks,grimaces,andviolent
spasms.Thespiritisnowsupposedtohaveenteredintoher,andwhenshegrowscalmerherwordsare
regardedasoracular,beingtheutterancesoftheindwellingspirit,whileherownsoulistemporarily
absent.
Thepersontemporarilyinspiredisbelievedtoacquire,notmerelydivineknowledge,butalso,atleast
occasionally,divinepower.InCambodia,whenanepidemicbreaksout,theinhabitantsofseveral
villagesuniteandgowithabandofmusicattheirheadtolookforthemanwhomthelocalgodis
supposedtohavechosenforhistemporaryincarnation.Whenfound,themanisconductedtothealtarof
thegod,wherethemysteryofincarnationtakesplace.Thenthemanbecomesanobjectofvenerationto
hisfellows,whoimplorehimtoprotectthevillageagainsttheplague.AcertainimageofApollo,which
stoodinasacredcaveatHylaenearMagnesia,wasthoughttoimpartsuperhumanstrength.Sacredmen,
inspiredbyit,leapeddownprecipices,toreuphugetreesbytheroots,andcarriedthemontheirbacks
alongthenarrowestdefiles.Thefeatsperformedbyinspireddervishesbelongtothesameclass.
Thusfarwehaveseenthatthesavage,failingtodiscernthelimitsofhisabilitytocontrolnature,ascribes
tohimselfandtoallmencertainpowerswhichweshouldnowcallsupernatural.Further,wehaveseen

that,overandabovethisgeneralsupernaturalism,somepersonsaresupposedtobeinspiredforshort
periodsbyadivinespirit,andthustemporarilytoenjoytheknowledgeandpoweroftheindwelling
deity.Frombeliefsliketheseitisaneasysteptotheconvictionthatcertainmenarepermanently
possessedbyadeity,orinsomeotherundefinedwayareenduedwithsohighadegreeofsupernatural
powerastoberankedasgodsandtoreceivethehomageofprayerandsacrifice.Sometimesthesehuman
godsarerestrictedtopurelysupernaturalorspiritualfunctions.Sometimestheyexercisesupreme
politicalpowerinaddition.Inthelattercasetheyarekingsaswellasgods,andthegovernmentisa
theocracy.ThusintheMarquesasorWashingtonIslandstherewasaclassofmenwhoweredeifiedin
theirlifetime.Theyweresupposedtowieldasupernaturalpowerovertheelements:theycouldgive
abundantharvestsorsmitethegroundwithbarrennessandtheycouldinflictdiseaseordeath.Human
sacrificeswereofferedtothemtoaverttheirwrath.Therewerenotmanyofthem,atthemostoneortwo
ineachisland.Theylivedinmysticseclusion.Theirpowersweresometimes,butnotalways,hereditary.
Amissionaryhasdescribedoneofthesehumangodsfrompersonalobservation.Thegodwasaveryold
manwholivedinalargehousewithinanenclosure.Inthehousewasakindofaltar,andonthebeamsof
thehouseandonthetreesrounditwerehunghumanskeletons,headdown.Nooneenteredtheenclosure
exceptthepersonsdedicatedtotheserviceofthegodonlyondayswhenhumanvictimsweresacrificed
mightordinarypeoplepenetrateintotheprecinct.Thishumangodreceivedmoresacrificesthanallthe
othergodsoftenhewouldsitonasortofscaffoldinfrontofhishouseandcallfortwoorthreehuman
victimsatatime.Theywerealwaysbrought,fortheterrorheinspiredwasextreme.Hewasinvokedall
overtheisland,andofferingsweresenttohimfromeveryside.Again,oftheSouthSeaIslandsin
generalwearetoldthateachislandhadamanwhorepresentedorpersonifiedthedivinity.Suchmen
werecalledgods,andtheirsubstancewasconfoundedwiththatofthedeity.Themangodwas
sometimesthekinghimselfoftenerhewasapriestorsubordinatechief.
TheancientEgyptians,farfromrestrictingtheiradorationtocatsanddogsandsuchsmalldeer,very
liberallyextendedittomen.OneofthesehumandeitiesresidedatthevillageofAnabis,andburnt
sacrificeswereofferedtohimonthealtarsafterwhich,saysPorphyry,hewouldeathisdinnerjustasif
hewereanordinarymortal.InclassicalantiquitytheSicilianphilosopherEmpedoclesgavehimselfout
tobenotmerelyawizardbutagod.Addressinghisfellowcitizensinversehesaid:
Ofriends,inthisgreatcitythatclimbstheyellowslope
OfAgrigentumscitadel,whomakegoodworksyourscope,
Whooffertothestrangerahavenquietandfair,
Allhail!AmongyouhonouredIwalkwithloftyair.
Withgarlands,bloominggarlandsyoucrownmynoblebrow,
Amortalmannolonger,adeathlessgodheadnow.
WhereeerIgo,thepeoplecrowdroundandworshippay,
Andthousandsfollowseekingtolearnthebetterway.
Somecravepropheticvisions,somesmitwithanguishsore
Wouldfainhearwordsofcomfortandsufferpainnomore.
Heassertedthathecouldteachhisdiscipleshowtomakethewindtobloworbestill,theraintofalland
thesuntoshine,howtobanishsicknessandoldageandtoraisethedead.WhenDemetriusPoliorcetes
restoredtheAtheniandemocracyin307B.C.,theAtheniansdecreeddivinehonourstohimandhisfather
Antigonus,bothofthembeingthenalive,underthetitleoftheSaviourGods.Altarsweresetuptothe
Saviours,andapriestappointedtoattendtotheirworship.Thepeoplewentforthtomeettheirdeliverer
withhymnsanddances,withgarlandsandincenseandlibationstheylinedthestreetsandsangthathe
wastheonlytruegod,fortheothergodsslept,ordweltfaraway,orwerenot.Inthewordsofa
contemporarypoet,whichwerechantedinpublicandsunginprivate:
Ofallthegodsthegreatestandthedearest

Tothecityarecome.
ForDemeterandDemetrius
Togethertimehasbrought.
ShecomestoholdtheMaidensawfulrites,
Andhejoyousandfairandlaughing,
Asbefitsagod.
Aglorioussight,withallhisfriendsabouthim,
Heintheirmidst,
Theyliketostars,andhethesun.
SonofPoseidonthemighty,Aphroditesson,
Allhail!
Theothergodsdwellfaraway,
Orhavenoears,
Orarenot,orpayusnoheed.
Buttheewepresentsee,
Nogodofwoodorstone,butgodheadtrue.
Thereforetotheewepray.
TheancientGermansbelievedthattherewassomethingholyinwomen,andaccordinglyconsultedthem
asoracles.Theirsacredwomen,wearetold,lookedontheeddyingriversandlistenedtothemurmuror
theroarofthewater,andfromthesightandsoundforetoldwhatwouldcometopass.Butoftenthe
venerationofthemenwentfurther,andtheyworshippedwomenastrueandlivinggoddesses.For
example,inthereignofVespasianacertainVeleda,ofthetribeoftheBructeri,wascommonlyheldto
beadeity,andinthatcharacterreignedoverherpeople,herswaybeingacknowledgedfarandwide.She
livedinatowerontheriverLippe,atributaryoftheRhine.WhenthepeopleofColognesenttomakea
treatywithher,theambassadorswerenotadmittedtoherpresencethenegotiationswereconducted
throughaminister,whoactedasthemouthpieceofherdivinityandreportedheroracularutterances.The
exampleshowshoweasilyamongourrudeforefatherstheideasofdivinityandroyaltycoalesced.Itis
saidthatamongtheGetaedowntothebeginningofoureratherewasalwaysamanwhopersonifieda
godandwascalledGodbythepeople.Hedweltonasacredmountainandactedasadvisertotheking.
AccordingtotheearlyPortuguesehistorian,DosSantos,theZimbas,orMuzimbas,apeopleofSouth
easternAfrica,donotadoreidolsorrecognizeanygod,butinsteadtheyvenerateandhonourtheirking,
whomtheyregardasadivinity,andtheysayheisthegreatestandbestintheworld.Andthesaidking
saysofhimselfthathealoneisgodoftheearth,forwhichreasonifitrainswhenhedoesnotwishitto
doso,oristoohot,heshootsarrowsattheskyfornotobeyinghim.TheMashonaofSouthernAfrica
informedtheirbishopthattheyhadoncehadagod,butthattheMatabeleshaddrivenhimaway.This
lastwasinreferencetoacuriouscustominsomevillagesofkeepingamantheycalledtheirgod.He
seemedtobeconsultedbythepeopleandhadpresentsgiventohim.Therewasoneatavillage
belongingtoachiefMagondi,intheolddays.Wewereaskednottofireoffanygunsnearthevillage,or
weshouldfrightenhimaway.ThisMashonagodwasformerlyboundtorenderanannualtributetothe
kingoftheMatabeleintheshapeoffourblackoxenandonedance.Amissionaryhasseenanddescribed
thedeitydischargingthelatterpartofhisdutyinfrontoftheroyalhut.Forthreemortalhours,withouta
break,tothebangingofatambourine,theclickofcastanettes,andthedroneofamonotonoussong,the
swarthygodengagedinafrenzieddance,crouchingonhishamslikeatailor,sweatinglikeapig,and
boundingaboutwithanagilitywhichtestifiedtothestrengthandelasticityofhisdivinelegs.
TheBagandaofCentralAfricabelievedinagodofLakeNyanza,whosometimestookuphisabodeina
manorwoman.Theincarnategodwasmuchfearedbyallthepeople,includingthekingandthechiefs.
Whenthemysteryofincarnationhadtakenplace,theman,orratherthegod,removedaboutamileanda
halffromthemarginofthelake,andthereawaitedtheappearanceofthenewmoonbeforeheengagedin

hissacredduties.Fromthemomentthatthecrescentmoonappearedfaintlyinthesky,thekingandall
hissubjectswereatthecommandofthedivineman,orLubare(god),ashewascalled,whoreigned
supremenotonlyinmattersoffaithandritual,butalsoinquestionsofwarandstatepolicy.Hewas
consultedasanoraclebyhiswordhecouldinflictorhealsickness,withholdrain,andcausefamine.
Largepresentsweremadehimwhenhisadvicewassought.ThechiefofUrua,alargeregiontothewest
ofLakeTanganyika,arrogatestohimselfdivinehonoursandpowerandpretendstoabstainfromfood
fordayswithoutfeelingitsnecessityand,indeed,declaresthatasagodheisaltogetheraboverequiring
foodandonlyeats,drinks,andsmokesforthepleasureitaffordshim.AmongtheGallas,whena
womangrowstiredofthecaresofhousekeeping,shebeginstotalkincoherentlyandtodemeanherself
extravagantly.ThisisasignofthedescentoftheholyspiritCallouponher.Immediatelyherhusband
prostrateshimselfandadoreshersheceasestobearthehumbletitleofwifeandiscalledLord
domesticdutieshavenofurtherclaimonher,andherwillisadivinelaw.
ThekingofLoangoishonouredbyhispeopleasthoughhewereagodandheiscalledSambeeand
Pango,whichmeangod.Theybelievethathecanletthemhaverainwhenhelikesandonceayear,in
December,whichisthetimetheywantrain,thepeoplecometobegofhimtograntittothem.Onthis
occasiontheking,standingonhisthrone,shootsanarrowintotheair,whichissupposedtobringonrain.
MuchthesameissaidofthekingofMombasa.Downtoafewyearsago,whenhisspiritualreignon
earthwasbroughttoanabruptendbythecarnalweaponsofEnglishmarinesandbluejackets,thekingof
Beninwasthechiefobjectofworshipinhisdominions.HeoccupiesahigherpostherethanthePope
doesinCatholicEuropeforheisnotonlyGodsvicegerentuponearth,butagodhimself,whose
subjectsbothobeyandadorehimassuch,althoughIbelievetheiradorationtoariseratherfromfearthan
love.ThekingofIddahtoldtheEnglishofficersoftheNigerExpedition,Godmademeafterhisown
imageIamallthesameasGodandheappointedmeaking.
ApeculiarlybloodthirstymonarchofBurma,bynameBadonsachen,whoseverycountenancereflected
theinbredferocityofhisnature,andunderwhosereignmorevictimsperishedbytheexecutionerthanby
thecommonenemy,conceivedthenotionthathewassomethingmorethanmortal,andthatthishigh
distinctionhadbeengrantedhimasarewardforhisnumerousgoodworks.Accordinglyhelaidasidethe
titleofkingandaimedatmakinghimselfagod.Withthisview,andinimitationofBuddha,who,before
beingadvancedtotherankofadivinity,hadquittedhisroyalpalaceandseraglioandretiredfromthe
world,Badonsachenwithdrewfromhispalacetoanimmensepagoda,thelargestintheempire,whichhe
hadbeenengagedinconstructingformanyyears.Hereheheldconferenceswiththemostlearned
monks,inwhichhesoughttopersuadethemthatthefivethousandyearsassignedfortheobservanceof
thelawofBuddhawerenowelapsed,andthathehimselfwasthegodwhowasdestinedtoappearafter
thatperiod,andtoabolishtheoldlawbysubstitutinghisown.Buttohisgreatmortificationmanyofthe
monksundertooktodemonstratethecontraryandthisdisappointment,combinedwithhisloveofpower
andhisimpatienceundertherestraintsofanasceticlife,quicklydisabusedhimofhisimaginary
godhead,anddrovehimbacktohispalaceandhisharem.ThekingofSiamisveneratedequallywitha
divinity.Hissubjectsoughtnottolookhiminthefacetheyprostratethemselvesbeforehimwhenhe
passes,andappearbeforehimontheirknees,theirelbowsrestingontheground.Thereisaspecial
languagedevotedtohissacredpersonandattributes,anditmustbeusedbyallwhospeaktoorofhim.
Eventhenativeshavedifficultyinmasteringthispeculiarvocabulary.Thehairsofthemonarchshead,
thesolesofhisfeet,thebreathofhisbody,indeedeverysingledetailofhisperson,bothoutwardand
inward,haveparticularnames.Whenheeatsordrinks,sleepsorwalks,aspecialwordindicatesthat
theseactsarebeingperformedbythesovereign,andsuchwordscannotpossiblybeappliedtotheactsof
anyotherpersonwhatever.ThereisnowordintheSiameselanguagebywhichanycreatureofhigher
rankorgreaterdignitythanamonarchcanbedescribedandthemissionaries,whentheyspeakofGod,
areforcedtousethenativewordforking.
ButperhapsnocountryintheworldhasbeensoprolificofhumangodsasIndianowherehasthedivine

gracebeenpouredoutinamoreliberalmeasureonallclassesofsocietyfromkingsdowntomilkmen.
ThusamongsttheTodas,apastoralpeopleoftheNeilgherryHillsofSouthernIndia,thedairyisa
sanctuary,andthemilkmanwhoattendstoithasbeendescribedasagod.Onbeingaskedwhetherthe
Todassalutethesun,oneofthesedivinemilkmenreplied,Thosepoorfellowsdoso,butI,tappinghis
chest,I,agod!whyshouldIsalutethesun?Everyone,evenhisownfather,prostrateshimselfbefore
themilkman,andnoonewoulddaretorefusehimanything.Nohumanbeing,exceptanothermilkman,
maytouchhimandhegivesoraclestoallwhoconsulthim,speakingwiththevoiceofagod.
Further,inIndiaeverykingisregardedaslittleshortofapresentgod.TheHindoolawbookofManu
goesfartherandsaysthatevenaninfantkingmustnotbedespisedfromanideathatheisamere
mortalforheisagreatdeityinhumanform.ThereissaidtohavebeenasectinOrissasomeyearsago
whoworshippedthelateQueenVictoriainherlifetimeastheirchiefdivinity.AndtothisdayinIndiaall
livingpersonsremarkableforgreatstrengthorvalourorforsupposedmiraculouspowersruntheriskof
beingworshippedasgods.Thus,asectinthePunjaubworshippedadeitywhomtheycalledNikkalSen.
ThisNikkalSenwasnootherthantheredoubtedGeneralNicholson,andnothingthatthegeneralcould
doorsaydampedtheardourofhisadorers.Themorehepunishedthem,thegreatergrewthereligious
awewithwhichtheyworshippedhim.AtBenaresnotmanyyearsagoacelebrateddeitywasincarnatein
thepersonofaHindoogentlemanwhorejoicedintheeuphoniousnameofSwamiBhaskaranandaji
Saraswati,andlookeduncommonlylikethelateCardinalManning,onlymoreingenuous.Hiseyes
beamedwithkindlyhumaninterest,andhetookwhatisdescribedasaninnocentpleasureinthedivine
honourspaidhimbyhisconfidingworshippers.
AtChinchvad,asmalltownabouttenmilesfromPoonainWesternIndia,therelivesafamilyofwhom
oneineachgenerationisbelievedbyalargeproportionoftheMahrattastobeanincarnationofthe
elephantheadedgodGunputty.Thatcelebrateddeitywasfirstmadefleshabouttheyear1640inthe
personofaBrahmanofPoona,bynameMoorabaGosseyn,whosoughttoworkouthissalvationby
abstinence,mortification,andprayer.Hispietyhaditsreward.Thegodhimselfappearedtohimina
visionofthenightandpromisedthataportionofhis,thatis,ofGunputtysholyspiritshouldabidewith
himandwithhisseedafterhimeventotheseventhgeneration.Thedivinepromisewasfulfilled.Seven
successiveincarnations,transmittedfromfathertoson,manifestedthelightofGunputtytoadarkworld.
Thelastofthedirectline,aheavylookinggodwithveryweakeyes,diedintheyear1810.Butthecause
oftruthwastoosacred,andthevalueofthechurchpropertytooconsiderable,toallowtheBrahmansto
contemplatewithequanimitytheunspeakablelossthatwouldbesustainedbyaworldwhichknewnot
Gunputty.Accordinglytheysoughtandfoundaholyvesselinwhomthedivinespiritofthemasterhad
revealeditselfanew,andtherevelationhasbeenhappilycontinuedinanunbrokensuccessionofvessels
fromthattimetothis.Butamysteriouslawofspiritualeconomy,whoseoperationinthehistoryof
religionwemaydeplorethoughwecannotalter,hasdecreedthatthemiracleswroughtbythegodman
inthesedegeneratedayscannotcomparewiththosewhichwerewroughtbyhispredecessorsindays
gonebyanditisevenreportedthattheonlysignvouchsafedbyhimtothepresentgenerationofvipers
isthemiracleoffeedingthemultitudewhomheannuallyentertainstodinneratChinchvad.
AHindoosect,whichhasmanyrepresentativesinBombayandCentralIndia,holdsthatitsspiritual
chiefsorMaharajas,astheyarecalled,arerepresentativesorevenactualincarnationsonearthofthegod
Krishna.AndasKrishnalooksdownfromheavenwithmostfavouronsuchasministertothewantsof
hissuccessorsandvicarsonearth,apeculiarritecalledSelfdevotionhasbeeninstituted,wherebyhis
faithfulworshippersmakeovertheirbodies,theirsouls,and,whatisperhapsstillmoreimportant,their
worldlysubstancetohisadorableincarnationsandwomenaretaughttobelievethatthehighestblissfor
themselvesandtheirfamiliesistobeattainedbyyieldingthemselvestotheembracesofthosebeingsin
whomthedivinenaturemysteriouslycoexistswiththeformandeventheappetitesoftruehumanity.
Christianityitselfhasnotuniformlyescapedthetaintoftheseunhappydelusionsindeedithasoften

beensulliedbytheextravagancesofvainpretenderstoadivinityequaltoorevensurpassingthatofits
greatFounder.InthesecondcenturyMontanusthePhrygianclaimedtobetheincarnateTrinity,uniting
inhissinglepersonGodtheFather,GodtheSon,andGodtheHolyGhost.Noristhisanisolatedcase,
theexorbitantpretensionofasingleillbalancedmind.Fromtheearliesttimesdowntothepresentday
manysectshavebelievedthatChrist,nayGodhimself,isincarnateineveryfullyinitiatedChristian,and
theyhavecarriedthisbelieftoitslogicalconclusionbyadoringeachother.Tertullianrecordsthatthis
wasdonebyhisfellowChristiansatCarthageinthesecondcenturythedisciplesofSt.Columba
worshippedhimasanembodimentofChristandintheeighthcenturyElipandusofToledospokeof
Christasagodamonggods,meaningthatallbelieversweregodsjustastrulyasJesushimself.The
adorationofeachotherwascustomaryamongtheAlbigenses,andisnoticedhundredsoftimesinthe
recordsoftheInquisitionatToulouseintheearlypartofthefourteenthcentury.
InthethirteenthcenturytherearoseasectcalledtheBrethrenandSistersoftheFreeSpirit,whoheldthat
bylongandassiduouscontemplationanymanmightbeunitedtothedeityinanineffablemannerand
becomeonewiththesourceandparentofallthings,andthathewhohadthusascendedtoGodandbeen
absorbedinhisbeatificessence,actuallyformedpartoftheGodhead,wastheSonofGodinthesame
senseandmannerwithChristhimself,andenjoyedtherebyagloriousimmunityfromthetrammelsofall
lawshumananddivine.Inwardlytransportedbythisblissfulpersuasion,thoughoutwardlypresentingin
theiraspectandmannersashockingairoflunacyanddistraction,thesectariesroamedfromplaceto
place,attiredinthemostfantasticapparelandbeggingtheirbreadwithwildshoutsandclamour,
spurningindignantlyeverykindofhonestlabourandindustryasanobstacletodivinecontemplationand
totheascentofthesoultowardstheFatherofspirits.Inalltheirexcursionstheywerefollowedby
womenwithwhomtheylivedontermsoftheclosestfamiliarity.Thoseofthemwhoconceivedtheyhad
madethegreatestproficiencyinthehigherspirituallifedispensedwiththeuseofclothesaltogetherin
theirassemblies,lookingupondecencyandmodestyasmarksofinwardcorruption,characteristicsofa
soulthatstillgrovelledunderthedominionofthefleshandhadnotyetbeenelevatedintocommunion
withthedivinespirit,itscentreandsource.Sometimestheirprogresstowardsthismysticcommunion
wasacceleratedbytheInquisition,andtheyexpiredintheflames,notmerelywithuncloudedserenity,
butwiththemosttriumphantfeelingsofcheerfulnessandjoy.
Abouttheyear1830thereappeared,inoneoftheStatesoftheAmericanUnionborderingonKentucky,
animpostorwhodeclaredthathewastheSonofGod,theSaviourofmankind,andthathehad
reappearedonearthtorecalltheimpious,theunbelieving,andsinnerstotheirduty.Heprotestedthatif
theydidnotmendtheirwayswithinacertaintime,hewouldgivethesignal,andinamomenttheworld
wouldcrumbletoruins.Theseextravagantpretensionswerereceivedwithfavourevenbypersonsof
wealthandpositioninsociety.AtlastaGermanhumblybesoughtthenewMessiahtoannouncethe
dreadfulcatastrophetohisfellowcountrymenintheGermanlanguage,astheydidnotunderstand
English,anditseemedapitythattheyshouldbedamnedmerelyonthataccount.ThewouldbeSaviour
inreplyconfessedwithgreatcandourthathedidnotknowGerman.What!retortedtheGerman,you
theSonofGod,anddontspeakalllanguages,anddontevenknowGerman?Come,come,youarea
knave,ahypocrite,andamadman.Bedlamistheplaceforyou.Thespectatorslaughed,andwentaway
ashamedoftheircredulity.
Sometimes,atthedeathofthehumanincarnation,thedivinespirittransmigratesintoanotherman.The
BuddhistTartarsbelieveinagreatnumberoflivingBuddhas,whoofficiateasGrandLamasatthehead
ofthemostimportantmonasteries.WhenoneoftheseGrandLamasdieshisdisciplesdonotsorrow,for
theyknowthathewillsoonreappear,beingbornintheformofaninfant.Theironlyanxietyisto
discovertheplaceofhisbirth.Ifatthistimetheyseearainbowtheytakeitasasignsentthembythe
departedLamatoguidethemtohiscradle.Sometimesthedivineinfanthimselfrevealshisidentity.I
amtheGrandLama,hesays,thelivingBuddhaofsuchandsuchatemple.Takemetomyold
monastery.Iamitsimmortalhead.InwhateverwaythebirthplaceoftheBuddhaisrevealed,whether

bytheBuddhasownavowalorbythesigninthesky,tentsarestruck,andthejoyfulpilgrims,often
headedbythekingoroneofthemostillustriousoftheroyalfamily,setforthtofindandbringhomethe
infantgod.GenerallyheisborninTibet,theholyland,andtoreachhimthecaravanhasoftentotraverse
themostfrightfuldeserts.Whenatlasttheyfindthechildtheyfalldownandworshiphim.Before,
however,heisacknowledgedastheGrandLamawhomtheyseekhemustsatisfythemofhisidentity.
Heisaskedthenameofthemonasteryofwhichheclaimstobethehead,howfaroffitis,andhowmany
monksliveinithemustalsodescribethehabitsofthedeceasedGrandLamaandthemannerofhis
death.Thenvariousarticles,asprayerbooks,teapots,andcups,areplacedbeforehim,andhehasto
pointoutthoseusedbyhimselfinhispreviouslife.Ifhedoessowithoutamistakehisclaimsare
admitted,andheisconductedintriumphtothemonastery.AttheheadofalltheLamasistheDalai
LamaofLhasa,theRomeofTibet.Heisregardedasalivinggod,andatdeathhisdivineandimmortal
spiritisbornagaininachild.AccordingtosomeaccountsthemodeofdiscoveringtheDalaiLamais
similartothemethod,alreadydescribed,ofdiscoveringanordinaryGrandLama.Otheraccountsspeak
ofanelectionbydrawinglotsfromagoldenjar.Whereverheisborn,thetreesandplantsputforthgreen
leavesathisbiddingflowersbloomandspringsofwaterriseandhispresencediffusesheavenly
blessings.
Butheisbynomeanstheonlymanwhoposesasagodintheseregions.Aregisterofalltheincarnate
godsintheChineseempireiskeptintheLifanyiianorColonialOfficeatPeking.Thenumberofgods
whohavethustakenoutalicenseisonehundredandsixty.Tibetisblessedwiththirtyofthem,Northern
Mongoliarejoicesinnineteen,andSouthernMongoliabasksinthesunshineofnolessthanfiftyseven.
TheChinesegovernment,withapaternalsolicitudeforthewelfareofitssubjects,forbidsthegodsonthe
registertoberebornanywherebutinTibet.TheyfearlestthebirthofagodinMongoliashouldhave
seriouspoliticalconsequencesbystirringthedormantpatriotismandwarlikespiritoftheMongols,who
mightrallyroundanambitiousnativedeityofroyallineageandseektowinforhim,atthepointofthe
sword,atemporalaswellasaspiritualkingdom.Butbesidesthesepublicorlicensedgodstherearea
greatmanylittleprivategods,orunlicensedpractitionersofdivinity,whoworkmiraclesandblesstheir
peopleinholesandcornersandoflateyearstheChinesegovernmenthaswinkedattherebirthofthese
pettifoggingdeitiesoutsideofTibet.However,oncetheyareborn,thegovernmentkeepsitseyeonthem
aswellasontheregularpractitioners,andifanyofthemmisbehavesheispromptlydegraded,banished
toadistantmonastery,andstrictlyforbiddenevertobebornagainintheflesh.
Fromoursurveyofthereligiouspositionoccupiedbythekinginrudesocietieswemayinferthatthe
claimtodivineandsupernaturalpowersputforwardbythemonarchsofgreathistoricalempireslike
thoseofEgypt,Mexico,andPeru,wasnotthesimpleoutcomeofinflatedvanityortheemptyexpression
ofagrovellingadulationitwasmerelyasurvivalandextensionoftheoldsavageapotheosisofliving
kings.Thus,forexample,aschildrenoftheSuntheIncasofPeruwerereveredlikegodstheycoulddo
nowrong,andnoonedreamedofoffendingagainsttheperson,honour,orpropertyofthemonarchorof
anyoftheroyalrace.Hence,too,theIncasdidnot,likemostpeople,lookonsicknessasanevil.They
considereditamessengersentfromtheirfathertheSuntocallthemtocomeandrestwithhiminheaven.
ThereforetheusualwordsinwhichanIncaannouncedhisapproachingendwerethese:Myfathercalls
metocomeandrestwithhim.Theywouldnotopposetheirfatherswillbyofferingsacrificefor
recovery,butopenlydeclaredthathehadcalledthemtohisrest.Issuingfromthesultryvalleysuponthe
loftytablelandoftheColombianAndes,theSpanishconquerorswereastonishedtofind,incontrastto
thesavagehordestheyhadleftintheswelteringjunglesbelow,apeopleenjoyingafairdegreeof
civilisation,practisingagriculture,andlivingunderagovernmentwhichHumboldthascomparedtothe
theocraciesofTibetandJapan.TheseweretheChibchas,Muyscas,orMozcas,dividedintotwo
kingdoms,withcapitalsatBogotaandTunja,butunitedapparentlyinspiritualallegiancetothehigh
pontiffofSogamozoorIraca.Byalongandasceticnovitiate,thisghostlyrulerwasreputedtohave
acquiredsuchsanctitythatthewatersandtherainobeyedhim,andtheweatherdependedonhiswill.
TheMexicankingsattheiraccession,aswehaveseen,tookanoaththattheywouldmakethesunto

shine,thecloudstogiverain,theriverstoflow,andtheearthtobringforthfruitsinabundance.Weare
toldthatMontezuma,thelastkingofMexico,wasworshippedbyhispeopleasagod.
TheearlyBabyloniankings,fromthetimeofSargonI.tillthefourthdynastyofUrorlater,claimedtobe
godsintheirlifetime.ThemonarchsofthefourthdynastyofUrinparticularhadtemplesbuiltintheir
honourtheysetuptheirstatuesinvarioussanctuariesandcommandedthepeopletosacrificetothem
theeighthmonthwasespeciallydedicatedtothekings,andsacrificeswereofferedtothematthenew
moonandonthefifteenthofeachmonth.Again,theParthianmonarchsoftheArsacidhousestyled
themselvesbrothersofthesunandmoonandwereworshippedasdeities.Itwasesteemedsacrilegeto
strikeevenaprivatememberoftheArsacidfamilyinabrawl.
ThekingsofEgyptweredeifiedintheirlifetime,sacrificeswereofferedtothem,andtheirworshipwas
celebratedinspecialtemplesandbyspecialpriests.Indeedtheworshipofthekingssometimescastthat
ofthegodsintotheshade.ThusinthereignofMerenraahighofficialdeclaredthathehadbuiltmany
holyplacesinorderthatthespiritsoftheking,theeverlivingMerenra,mightbeinvokedmorethanall
thegods.Ithasneverbeendoubtedthatthekingclaimedactualdivinityhewasthegreatgod,
thegoldenHorus,andsonofRa.HeclaimedauthoritynotonlyoverEgypt,butoveralllandsand
nations,thewholeworldinitslengthanditsbreadth,theeastandthewest,theentirecompassofthe
greatcircuitofthesun,theskyandwhatisinit,theearthandallthatisuponit,everycreaturethat
walksupontwooruponfourlegs,allthatflyorflutter,thewholeworldoffersherproductionstohim.
WhateverinfactmightbeassertedoftheSungod,wasdogmaticallypredicableofthekingofEgypt.His
titlesweredirectlyderivedfromthoseoftheSungod.Inthecourseofhisexistence,wearetold,the
kingofEgyptexhaustedallthepossibleconceptionsofdivinitywhichtheEgyptianshadframedfor
themselves.Asuperhumangodbyhisbirthandbyhisroyaloffice,hebecamethedeifiedmanafterhis
death.Thusallthatwasknownofthedivinewassummedupinhim.
Wehavenowcompletedoursketch,foritisnomorethanasketch,oftheevolutionofthatsacred
kingshipwhichattaineditshighestform,itsmostabsoluteexpression,inthemonarchiesofPeruand
Egypt.Historically,theinstitutionappearstohaveoriginatedintheorderofpublicmagiciansor
medicinemenlogicallyitrestsonamistakendeductionfromtheassociationofideas.Menmistookthe
orderoftheirideasfortheorderofnature,andhenceimaginedthatthecontrolwhichtheyhave,orseem
tohave,overtheirthoughts,permittedthemtoexerciseacorrespondingcontroloverthings.Themen
whoforonereasonoranother,becauseofthestrengthortheweaknessoftheirnaturalparts,were
supposedtopossessthesemagicalpowersinthehighestdegree,weregraduallymarkedofffromtheir
fellowsandbecameaseparateclass,whoweredestinedtoexerciseamostfarreachinginfluenceonthe
political,religious,andintellectualevolutionofmankind.Socialprogress,asweknow,consistsmainly
inasuccessivedifferentiationoffunctions,or,insimplerlanguage,adivisionoflabour.Theworkwhich
inprimitivesocietyisdonebyallalikeandbyallequallyill,ornearlyso,isgraduallydistributedamong
differentclassesofworkersandexecutedmoreandmoreperfectlyandsofarastheproducts,materialor
immaterial,ofthisspecialisedlabouraresharedbyall,thewholecommunitybenefitsbytheincreasing
specialisation.Nowmagiciansormedicinemenappeartoconstitutetheoldestartificialorprofessional
classintheevolutionofsociety.Forsorcerersarefoundineverysavagetribeknowntousandamong
thelowestsavages,suchastheAustralianaborigines,theyaretheonlyprofessionalclassthatexists.As
timegoeson,andtheprocessofdifferentiationcontinues,theorderofmedicinemenisitselfsubdivided
intosuchclassesasthehealersofdisease,themakersofrain,andsoforthwhilethemostpowerful
memberoftheorderwinsforhimselfapositionaschiefandgraduallydevelopsintoasacredking,his
oldmagicalfunctionsfallingmoreandmoreintothebackgroundandbeingexchangedforpriestlyor
evendivineduties,inproportionasmagicisslowlyoustedbyreligion.Stilllater,apartitioniseffected
betweenthecivilandthereligiousaspectofthekingship,thetemporalpowerbeingcommittedtoone
manandthespiritualtoanother.Meanwhilethemagicians,whomayberepressedbutcannotbe
extirpatedbythepredominanceofreligion,stilladdictthemselvestotheiroldoccultartsinpreferenceto

thenewerritualofsacrificeandprayerandintimethemoresagaciousoftheirnumberperceivethe
fallacyofmagicandhituponamoreeffectualmodeofmanipulatingtheforcesofnatureforthegoodof
maninshort,theyabandonsorceryforscience.Iamfarfromaffirmingthatthecourseofdevelopment
haseverywhererigidlyfollowedtheselines:ithasdoubtlessvariedgreatlyindifferentsocieties.Imerely
meantoindicateinthebroadestoutlinewhatIconceivetohavebeenitsgeneraltrend.Regardedfrom
theindustrialpointofviewtheevolutionhasbeenfromuniformitytodiversityoffunction:regarded
fromthepoliticalpointofview,ithasbeenfromdemocracytodespotism.Withthelaterhistoryof
monarchy,especiallywiththedecayofdespotismanditsdisplacementbyformsofgovernmentbetter
adaptedtothehigherneedsofhumanity,wearenotconcernedinthisenquiry:ourthemeisthegrowth,
notthedecay,ofagreatand,initstime,beneficentinstitution.

VIII.DepartmentalKingsofNature
THEPRECEDINGinvestigationhasprovedthatthesameunionofsacredfunctionswitharoyaltitle
whichmeetsusintheKingoftheWoodatNemi,theSacrificialKingatRome,andthemagistratecalled
theKingatAthens,occursfrequentlyoutsidethelimitsofclassicalantiquityandisacommonfeatureof
societiesatallstagesfrombarbarismtocivilisation.Further,itappearsthattheroyalpriestisoftena
king,notonlyinnamebutinfact,swayingthesceptreaswellasthecrosier.Allthisconfirmsthe
traditionalviewoftheoriginofthetitularandpriestlykingsintherepublicsofancientGreeceandItaly.
Atleastbyshowingthatthecombinationofspiritualandtemporalpower,ofwhichGraecoItalian
traditionpreservedthememory,hasactuallyexistedinmanyplaces,wehaveobviatedanysuspicionof
improbabilitythatmighthaveattachedtothetradition.Thereforewemaynowfairlyask,Maynotthe
KingoftheWoodhavehadanoriginlikethatwhichaprobabletraditionassignstotheSacrificialKing
ofRomeandthetitularKingofAthens?Inotherwords,maynothispredecessorsinofficehavebeena
lineofkingswhomarepublicanrevolutionstrippedoftheirpoliticalpower,leavingthemonlytheir
religiousfunctionsandtheshadowofacrown?Thereareatleasttworeasonsforansweringthisquestion
inthenegative.OnereasonisdrawnfromtheabodeofthepriestofNemitheotherfromhistitle,the
KingoftheWood.Ifhispredecessorshadbeenkingsintheordinarysense,hewouldsurelyhavebeen
foundresiding,likethefallenkingsofRomeandAthens,inthecityofwhichthesceptrehadpassed
fromhim.ThiscitymusthavebeenAricia,fortherewasnonenearer.ButAriciawasthreemilesoff
fromhisforestsanctuarybythelakeshore.Ifhereigned,itwasnotinthecity,butinthegreenwood.
Againhistitle,KingoftheWood,hardlyallowsustosupposethathehadeverbeenakinginthe
commonsenseoftheword.Morelikelyhewasakingofnature,andofaspecialsideofnature,namely,
thewoodsfromwhichhetookhistitle.Ifwecouldfindinstancesofwhatwemaycalldepartmental
kingsofnature,thatisofpersonssupposedtoruleoverparticularelementsoraspectsofnature,they
wouldprobablypresentacloseranalogytotheKingoftheWoodthanthedivinekingswehavebeen
hithertoconsidering,whosecontrolofnatureisgeneralratherthanspecial.Instancesofsuch
departmentalkingsarenotwanting.
OnahillatBommanearthemouthoftheCongodwellsNamvuluVumu,KingoftheRainandStorm.
OfsomeofthetribesontheUpperNilewearetoldthattheyhavenokingsinthecommonsensethe
onlypersonswhomtheyacknowledgeassucharetheKingsoftheRain,MataKodou,whoarecredited
withthepowerofgivingrainatthepropertime,thatis,therainyseason.Beforetherainsbegintofallat
theendofMarchthecountryisaparchedandariddesertandthecattle,whichformthepeopleschief
wealth,perishforlackofgrass.So,whentheendofMarchdrawson,eachhouseholderbetakeshimself
totheKingoftheRainandoffershimacowthathemaymaketheblessedwatersofheaventodripon
thebrownandwitheredpastures.Ifnoshowerfalls,thepeopleassembleanddemandthatthekingshall
givethemrainandiftheskystillcontinuescloudless,theyripuphisbelly,inwhichheisbelievedto
keepthestorms.AmongsttheBaritribeoneoftheseRainKingsmaderainbysprinklingwateronthe
groundoutofahandbell.

AmongtribesontheoutskirtsofAbyssiniaasimilarofficeexistsandhasbeenthusdescribedbyan
observer:ThepriesthoodoftheAlfai,asheiscalledbytheBareaandKunama,isaremarkableonehe
isbelievedtobeabletomakerain.ThisofficeformerlyexistedamongtheAlgedsandappearstobestill
commontotheNubanegroes.TheAlfaioftheBarea,whoisalsoconsultedbythenorthernKunama,
livesnearTembadereonamountainalonewithhisfamily.Thepeoplebringhimtributeintheformof
clothesandfruits,andcultivateforhimalargefieldofhisown.Heisakindofking,andhisoffice
passesbyinheritancetohisbrotherorsistersson.Heissupposedtoconjuredownrainandtodrive
awaythelocusts.Butifhedisappointsthepeoplesexpectationandagreatdroughtarisesintheland,the
Alfaiisstonedtodeath,andhisnearestrelationsareobligedtocastthefirststoneathim.Whenwe
passedthroughthecountry,theofficeofAlfaiwasstillheldbyanoldmanbutIheardthatrainmaking
hadprovedtoodangerousforhimandthathehadrenouncedhisoffice.
InthebackwoodsofCambodialivetwomysterioussovereignsknownastheKingoftheFireandthe
KingoftheWater.TheirfameisspreadalloverthesouthofthegreatIndoChinesepeninsulabutonlya
faintechoofithasreachedtheWest.DowntoafewyearsagonoEuropean,sofarasisknown,hadever
seeneitherofthemandtheirveryexistencemighthavepassedforafable,wereitnotthattilllately
communicationswereregularlymaintainedbetweenthemandtheKingofCambodia,whoyearbyyear
exchangedpresentswiththem.Theirroyalfunctionsareofapurelymysticorspiritualordertheyhave
nopoliticalauthoritytheyaresimplepeasants,livingbythesweatoftheirbrowandtheofferingsofthe
faithful.Accordingtooneaccounttheyliveinabsolutesolitude,nevermeetingeachotherandnever
seeingahumanface.Theyinhabitsuccessivelyseventowerspercheduponsevenmountains,andevery
yeartheypassfromonetowertoanother.Peoplecomefurtivelyandcastwithintheirreachwhatis
needfulfortheirsubsistence.Thekingshiplastssevenyears,thetimenecessarytoinhabitallthetowers
successivelybutmanydiebeforetheirtimeisout.Theofficesarehereditaryinoneor(accordingto
others)tworoyalfamilies,whoenjoyhighconsideration,haverevenuesassignedtothem,andare
exemptfromthenecessityoftillingtheground.Butnaturallythedignityisnotcoveted,andwhena
vacancyoccurs,alleligiblemen(theymustbestrongandhavechildren)fleeandhidethemselves.
Anotheraccount,admittingthereluctanceofthehereditarycandidatestoacceptthecrown,doesnot
countenancethereportoftheirhermitlikeseclusionintheseventowers.Foritrepresentsthepeopleas
prostratingthemselvesbeforethemystickingswhenevertheyappearinpublic,itbeingthoughtthata
terriblehurricanewouldburstoverthecountryifthismarkofhomagewereomitted.Likemanyother
sacredkings,ofwhomweshallreadinthesequel,theKingsofFireandWaterarenotallowedtodiea
naturaldeath,forthatwouldlowertheirreputation.Accordinglywhenoneofthemisseriouslyill,the
eldersholdaconsultationandiftheythinkhecannotrecovertheystabhimtodeath.Hisbodyisburned
andtheashesarepiouslycollectedandpubliclyhonouredforfiveyears.Partofthemisgiventothe
widow,andshekeepstheminanurn,whichshemustcarryonherbackwhenshegoestoweeponher
husbandsgrave.
WearetoldthattheFireKing,themoreimportantofthetwo,whosesupernaturalpowershavenever
beenquestioned,officiatesatmarriages,festivals,andsacrificesinhonouroftheYanorspirit.Onthese
occasionsaspecialplaceissetapartforhimandthepathbywhichheapproachesisspreadwithwhite
cottoncloths.Areasonforconfiningtheroyaldignitytothesamefamilyisthatthisfamilyisin
possessionofcertainfamoustalismanswhichwouldlosetheirvirtueordisappeariftheypassedoutof
thefamily.Thesetalismansarethree:thefruitofacreepercalledCui,gatheredagesagoatthetimeof
thelastdeluge,butstillfreshandgreenarattan,alsoveryoldbutbearingflowersthatneverfadeand
lastly,aswordcontainingaYanorspirit,whoguardsitconstantlyandworksmiracleswithit.Thespirit
issaidtobethatofaslave,whosebloodchancedtofalluponthebladewhileitwasbeingforged,and
whodiedavoluntarydeathtoexpiatehisinvoluntaryoffence.Bymeansofthetwoformertalismansthe
WaterKingcanraiseafloodthatwoulddrownthewholeearth.IftheFireKingdrawsthemagicsworda
fewinchesfromitssheath,thesunishiddenandmenandbeastsfallintoaprofoundsleepwereheto
drawitquiteoutofthescabbard,theworldwouldcometoanend.Tothiswondrousbrandsacrificesof

buffaloes,pigs,fowls,andducksareofferedforrain.Itiskeptswathedincottonandsilkandamongst
theannualpresentssentbytheKingofCambodiawererichstuffstowrapthesacredsword.
Contrarytothecommonusageofthecountry,whichistoburythedead,thebodiesofboththesemystic
monarchsareburnt,buttheirnailsandsomeoftheirteethandbonesarereligiouslypreservedasamulets.
Itiswhilethecorpseisbeingconsumedonthepyrethatthekinsmenofthedeceasedmagicianfleetothe
forestandhidethemselves,forfearofbeingelevatedtotheinvidiousdignitywhichhehasjustvacated.
Thepeoplegoandsearchforthem,andthefirstwhoselurkingplacetheydiscoverismadeKingofFire
orWater.
These,then,areexamplesofwhatIhavecalleddepartmentalkingsofnature.ButitisafarcrytoItaly
fromtheforestsofCambodiaandthesourcesoftheNile.AndthoughKingsofRain,Water,andFire
havebeenfound,wehavestilltodiscoveraKingoftheWoodtomatchtheAricianpriestwhoborethat
title.Perhapsweshallfindhimnearerhome.

IX.TheWorshipofTrees
1.Treespirits
INTHERELIGIOUShistoryoftheAryanraceinEuropetheworshipoftreeshasplayedanimportant
part.Nothingcouldbemorenatural.ForatthedawnofhistoryEuropewascoveredwithimmense
primaevalforests,inwhichthescatteredclearingsmusthaveappearedlikeisletsinanoceanofgreen.
DowntothefirstcenturybeforeoureratheHercynianforeststretchedeastwardfromtheRhinefora
distanceatoncevastandunknownGermanswhomCaesarquestionedhadtravelledfortwomonths
throughitwithoutreachingtheend.FourcenturieslateritwasvisitedbytheEmperorJulian,andthe
solitude,thegloom,thesilenceoftheforestappeartohavemadeadeepimpressiononhissensitive
nature.HedeclaredthatheknewnothinglikeitintheRomanempire.Inourowncountrythewealdsof
Kent,Surrey,andSussexareremnantsofthegreatforestofAnderida,whichonceclothedthewholeof
thesoutheasternportionoftheisland.Westwarditseemstohavestretchedtillitjoinedanotherforest
thatextendedfromHampshiretoDevon.InthereignofHenryII.thecitizensofLondonstillhuntedthe
wildbullandtheboarinthewoodsofHampstead.EvenunderthelaterPlantagenetstheroyalforests
weresixtyeightinnumber.IntheforestofArdenitwassaidthatdowntomoderntimesasquirrelmight
leapfromtreetotreefornearlythewholelengthofWarwickshire.Theexcavationofancientpile
villagesinthevalleyofthePohasshownthatlongbeforetheriseandprobablythefoundationofRome
thenorthofItalywascoveredwithdensewoodsofelms,chestnuts,andespeciallyofoaks.Archaeology
ishereconfirmedbyhistoryforclassicalwriterscontainmanyreferencestoItalianforestswhichhave
nowdisappeared.AslateasthefourthcenturybeforeoureraRomewasdividedfromcentralEtruriaby
thedreadedCiminianforest,whichLivycomparestothewoodsofGermany.Nomerchant,ifwemay
trusttheRomanhistorian,hadeverpenetrateditspathlesssolitudesanditwasdeemedamostdaring
featwhenaRomangeneral,aftersendingtwoscoutstoexploreitsintricacies,ledhisarmyintotheforest
and,makinghiswaytoaridgeofthewoodedmountains,lookeddownontherichEtrurianfieldsspread
outbelow.InGreecebeautifulwoodsofpine,oak,andothertreesstilllingerontheslopesofthehigh
Arcadianmountains,stilladornwiththeirverdurethedeepgorgethroughwhichtheLadonhurriesto
jointhesacredAlpheus,andwerestill,downtoafewyearsago,mirroredinthedarkbluewatersofthe
lonelylakeofPheneusbuttheyaremerefragmentsoftheforestswhichclothedgreattractsinantiquity,
andwhichatamoreremoteepochmayhavespannedtheGreekpeninsulafromseatosea.
FromanexaminationoftheTeutonicwordsfortempleGrimmhasmadeitprobablethatamongstthe
Germanstheoldestsanctuarieswerenaturalwoods.Howeverthatmaybe,treeworshipiswellattested
forallthegreatEuropeanfamiliesoftheAryanstock.AmongsttheCeltstheoakworshipoftheDruids

isfamiliartoeveryone,andtheiroldwordforsanctuaryseemstobeidenticalinoriginandmeaning
withtheLatinnemus,agroveorwoodlandglade,whichstillsurvivesinthenameofNemi.Sacred
groveswerecommonamongtheancientGermans,andtreeworshipishardlyextinctamongsttheir
descendantsatthepresentday.Howseriousthatworshipwasinformertimesmaybegatheredfromthe
ferociouspenaltyappointedbytheoldGermanlawsforsuchasdaredtopeelthebarkofastandingtree.
Theculpritsnavelwastobecutoutandnailedtothepartofthetreewhichhehadpeeled,andhewasto
bedrivenroundandroundthetreetillallhisgutswerewoundaboutitstrunk.Theintentionofthe
punishmentclearlywastoreplacethedeadbarkbyalivingsubstitutetakenfromtheculprititwasalife
foralife,thelifeofamanforthelifeofatree.AtUpsala,theoldreligiouscapitalofSweden,therewas
asacredgroveinwhicheverytreewasregardedasdivine.TheheathenSlavsworshippedtreesand
groves.TheLithuanianswerenotconvertedtoChristianitytilltowardsthecloseofthefourteenth
century,andamongstthematthedateoftheirconversiontheworshipoftreeswasprominent.Someof
themreveredremarkableoaksandothergreatshadytrees,fromwhichtheyreceivedoracularresponses.
Somemaintainedholygrovesabouttheirvillagesorhouses,whereeventobreakatwigwouldhavebeen
asin.Theythoughtthathewhocutaboughinsuchagroveeitherdiedsuddenlyorwascrippledinone
ofhislimbs.ProofsoftheprevalenceoftreeworshipinancientGreeceandItalyareabundant.Inthe
sanctuaryofAesculapiusatCos,forexample,itwasforbiddentocutdownthecypresstreesundera
penaltyofathousanddrachms.Butnowhere,perhaps,intheancientworldwasthisantiqueformof
religionbetterpreservedthanintheheartofthegreatmetropolisitself.IntheForum,thebusycentreof
Romanlife,thesacredfigtreeofRomuluswasworshippeddowntothedaysoftheempire,andthe
witheringofitstrunkwasenoughtospreadconsternationthroughthecity.Again,ontheslopeofthe
PalatineHillgrewacorneltreewhichwasesteemedoneofthemostsacredobjectsinRome.Whenever
thetreeappearedtoapasserbytobedrooping,hesetupahueandcrywhichwasechoedbythepeople
inthestreet,andsoonacrowdmightbeseenrunninghelterskelterfromallsideswithbucketsofwater,
asif(saysPlutarch)theywerehasteningtoputoutafire.
AmongthetribesoftheFinnishUgrianstockinEuropetheheathenworshipwasperformedforthemost
partinsacredgroves,whichwerealwaysenclosedwithafence.Suchagroveoftenconsistedmerelyofa
gladeorclearingwithafewtreesdottedabout,uponwhichinformertimestheskinsofthesacrificial
victimswerehung.Thecentralpointofthegrove,atleastamongthetribesoftheVolga,wasthesacred
tree,besidewhicheverythingelsesankintoinsignificance.Beforeittheworshippersassembledandthe
priestofferedhisprayers,atitsrootsthevictimwassacrificed,anditsboughssometimesservedasa
pulpit.Nowoodmightbehewnandnobranchbrokeninthegrove,andwomenweregenerallyforbidden
toenterit.
Butitisnecessarytoexamineinsomedetailthenotionsonwhichtheworshipoftreesandplantsis
based.Tothesavagetheworldingeneralisanimate,andtreesandplantsarenoexceptiontotherule.He
thinksthattheyhavesoulslikehisown,andhetreatsthemaccordingly.Theysay,writestheancient
vegetarianPorphyry,thatprimitivemenledanunhappylife,fortheirsuperstitiondidnotstopat
animalsbutextendedeventoplants.Forwhyshouldtheslaughterofanoxorasheepbeagreaterwrong
thanthefellingofafiroranoak,seeingthatasoulisimplantedinthesetreesalso?Similarly,the
HidatsaIndiansofNorthAmericabelievethateverynaturalobjecthasitsspirit,ortospeakmore
properly,itsshade.Totheseshadessomeconsiderationorrespectisdue,butnotequallytoall.For
example,theshadeofthecottonwood,thegreatesttreeinthevalleyoftheUpperMissouri,issupposed
topossessanintelligencewhich,ifproperlyapproached,mayhelptheIndiansincertainundertakings
buttheshadesofshrubsandgrassesareoflittleaccount.WhentheMissouri,swollenbyafreshetin
spring,carriesawaypartofitsbanksandsweepssometalltreeintoitscurrent,itissaidthatthespiritof
thetreecries,whiletherootsstillclingtothelandanduntilthetrunkfallswithasplashintothestream.
FormerlytheIndiansconsidereditwrongtofelloneofthesegiants,andwhenlargelogswereneeded
theymadeuseonlyoftreeswhichhadfallenofthemselves.Tilllatelysomeofthemorecredulousold
mendeclaredthatmanyofthemisfortunesoftheirpeoplewerecausedbythismoderndisregardforthe

rightsofthelivingcottonwood.TheIroquoisbelievedthateachspeciesoftree,shrub,plant,andherb
haditsownspirit,andtothesespiritsitwastheircustomtoreturnthanks.TheWanikaofEasternAfrica
fancythateverytree,andespeciallyeverycoconuttree,hasitsspiritthedestructionofacocoanuttree
isregardedasequivalenttomatricide,becausethattreegivesthemlifeandnourishment,asamother
doesherchild.Siamesemonks,believingthattherearesoulseverywhere,andthattodestroyanything
whateverisforciblytodispossessasoul,willnotbreakabranchofatree,astheywillnotbreakthearm
ofaninnocentperson.Thesemonks,ofcourse,areBuddhists.ButBuddhistanimismisnota
philosophicaltheory.Itissimplyacommonsavagedogmaincorporatedinthesystemofanhistorical
religion.Tosuppose,withBenfeyandothers,thatthetheoriesofanimismandtransmigrationcurrent
amongrudepeoplesofAsiaarederivedfromBuddhism,istoreversethefacts.
Sometimesitisonlyparticularsortsoftreesthataresupposedtobetenantedbyspirits.AtGrbaljin
Dalmatiaitissaidthatamonggreatbeeches,oaks,andothertreestherearesomethatareendowedwith
shadesorsouls,andwhoeverfellsoneofthemmustdieonthespot,oratleastliveaninvalidfortherest
ofhisdays.Ifawoodmanfearsthatatreewhichhehasfelledisoneofthissort,hemustcutoffthehead
ofalivehenonthestumpofthetreewiththeverysameaxewithwhichhecutdownthetree.Thiswill
protecthimfromallharm,evenifthetreebeoneoftheanimatedkind.Thesilkcottontrees,whichrear
theirenormoustrunkstoastupendousheight,farouttoppingalltheothertreesoftheforest,areregarded
withreverencethroughoutWestAfrica,fromtheSenegaltotheNiger,andarebelievedtobetheabode
ofagodorspirit.AmongtheEwespeakingpeoplesoftheSlaveCoasttheindwellinggodofthisgiantof
theforestgoesbythenameofHuntin.Treesinwhichhespeciallydwellsforitisnoteverysilkcotton
treethathethushonoursaresurroundedbyagirdleofpalmleavesandsacrificesoffowls,and
occasionallyofhumanbeings,arefastenedtothetrunkorlaidagainstthefootofthetree.Atree
distinguishedbyagirdleofpalmleavesmaynotbecutdownorinjuredinanywayandevensilkcotton
treeswhicharenotsupposedtobeanimatedbyHuntinmaynotbefelledunlessthewoodmanfirstoffers
asacrificeoffowlsandpalmoiltopurgehimselfoftheproposedsacrilege.Toomitthesacrificeisan
offencewhichmaybepunishedwithdeath.AmongtheKangramountainsofthePunjaubagirlusedto
beannuallysacrificedtoanoldcedartree,thefamiliesofthevillagetakingitinturntosupplythe
victim.Thetreewascutdownnotverymanyyearsago.
Iftreesareanimate,theyarenecessarilysensitiveandthecuttingofthemdownbecomesadelicate
surgicaloperation,whichmustbeperformedwithastenderaregardaspossibleforthefeelingsofthe
sufferers,whootherwisemayturnandrendthecarelessorbunglingoperator.Whenanoakisbeing
felleditgivesakindofshriekesorgroanes,thatmaybeheardamileoff,asifitwerethegeniusofthe
oakelamenting.E.Wyld,Esq.,hathhearditseveralltimes.TheOjebwaysveryseldomcutdowngreen
orlivingtrees,fromtheideathatitputsthemtopain,andsomeoftheirmedicinemenprofesstohave
heardthewailingofthetreesundertheaxe.Treesthatbleedanduttercriesofpainorindignationwhen
theyarehackedorburnedoccurveryofteninChinesebooks,eveninStandardHistories.Oldpeasantsin
somepartsofAustriastillbelievethatforesttreesareanimate,andwillnotallowanincisiontobemade
inthebarkwithoutspecialcausetheyhaveheardfromtheirfathersthatthetreefeelsthecutnotless
thanawoundedmanhishurt.Infellingatreetheybegitspardon.ItissaidthatintheUpperPalatinate
alsooldwoodmenstillsecretlyaskafine,soundtreetoforgivethembeforetheycutitdown.Soin
Jarkinothewoodmancravespardonofthetreehefells.BeforetheIlocanesofLuzoncutdowntreesin
thevirginforestoronthemountains,theyrecitesomeversestothefollowingeffect:Benotuneasy,my
friend,thoughwefellwhatwehavebeenorderedtofell.Thistheydoinordernottodrawdownon
themselvesthehatredofthespiritswholiveinthetrees,andwhoareapttoavengethemselvesby
visitingwithgrievoussicknesssuchasinjurethemwantonly.TheBasogaofCentralAfricathinkthat,
whenatreeiscutdown,theangryspiritwhichinhabitsitmaycausethedeathofthechiefandhisfamily.
Topreventthisdisastertheyconsultamedicinemanbeforetheyfellatree.Ifthemanofskillgives
leavetoproceed,thewoodmanfirstoffersafowlandagoattothetreethenassoonashehasgiventhe
firstblowwiththeaxe,heapplieshismouthtothecutandsuckssomeofthesap.Inthiswayheformsa

brotherhoodwiththetree,justastwomenbecomebloodbrothersbysuckingeachothersblood.After
thathecancutdownhistreebrotherwithimpunity.
Butthespiritsofvegetationarenotalwaystreatedwithdeferenceandrespect.Iffairwordsandkind
treatmentdonotmovethem,strongermeasuresaresometimesresortedto.TheduriantreeoftheEast
Indies,whosesmoothstemoftenshootsuptoaheightofeightyorninetyfeetwithoutsendingouta
branch,bearsafruitofthemostdeliciousflavourandthemostdisgustingstench.TheMalayscultivate
thetreeforthesakeofitsfruit,andhavebeenknowntoresorttoapeculiarceremonyforthepurposeof
stimulatingitsfertility.NearJugrainSelangorthereisasmallgroveofduriantrees,andonaspecially
chosendaythevillagersusedtoassembleinit.Thereupononeofthelocalsorcererswouldtakeahatchet
anddeliverseveralshrewdblowsonthetrunkofthemostbarrenofthetrees,saying,Willyounowbear
fruitornot?Ifyoudonot,Ishallfellyou.Tothisthetreerepliedthroughthemouthofanotherman
whohadclimbedamangostintreehardby(theduriantreebeingunclimbable),Yes,Iwillnowbear
fruitIbegofyounottofellme.SoinJapantomaketreesbearfruittwomengointoanorchard.One
ofthemclimbsupatreeandtheotherstandsatthefootwithanaxe.Themanwiththeaxeasksthetree
whetheritwillyieldagoodcropnextyearandthreatenstocutitdownifitdoesnot.Tothistheman
amongthebranchesrepliesonbehalfofthetreethatitwillbearabundantly.Oddasthismodeof
horticulturemayseemtous,ithasitsexactparallelsinEurope.OnChristmasEvemanyaSouth
SlavonianandBulgarianpeasantswingsanaxethreateninglyagainstabarrenfruittree,whileanother
manstandingbyintercedesforthemenacedtree,saying,Donotcutitdownitwillsoonbearfruit.
Thricetheaxeisswung,andthricetheimpendingblowisarrestedattheentreatyoftheintercessor.After
thatthefrightenedtreewillcertainlybearfruitnextyear.
Theconceptionoftreesandplantsasanimatedbeingsnaturallyresultsintreatingthemasmaleand
female,whocanbemarriedtoeachotherinareal,andnotmerelyafigurativeorpoetical,senseofthe
word.Thenotionisnotpurelyfanciful,forplantslikeanimalshavetheirsexesandreproducetheirkind
bytheunionofthemaleandfemaleelements.Butwhereasinallthehigheranimalstheorgansofthetwo
sexesareregularlyseparatedbetweendifferentindividuals,inmostplantstheyexisttogetherinevery
individualofthespecies.Thisrule,however,isbynomeansuniversal,andinmanyspeciesthemale
plantisdistinctfromthefemale.Thedistinctionappearstohavebeenobservedbysomesavages,forwe
aretoldthattheMaorisareacquaintedwiththesexoftrees,etc.,andhavedistinctnamesforthemale
andfemaleofsometrees.Theancientsknewthedifferencebetweenthemaleandthefemaledatepalm,
andfertilisedthemartificiallybyshakingthepollenofthemaletreeovertheflowersofthefemale.The
fertilisationtookplaceinspring.AmongtheheathenofHarranthemonthduringwhichthepalmswere
fertilisedborethenameoftheDateMonth,andatthistimetheycelebratedthemarriagefestivalofall
thegodsandgoddesses.Differentfromthistrueandfruitfulmarriageofthepalmarethefalseandbarren
marriagesofplantswhichplayapartinHindoosuperstition.Forexample,ifaHindoohasplanteda
groveofmangos,neitherhenorhiswifemaytasteofthefruituntilhehasformallymarriedoneofthe
trees,asabridegroom,toatreeofadifferentsort,commonlyatamarindtree,whichgrowsnearitinthe
grove.Ifthereisnotamarindtoactasbride,ajasminewillservetheturn.Theexpensesofsucha
marriageareoftenconsiderable,forthemoreBrahmansarefeastedatit,thegreaterthegloryofthe
ownerofthegrove.Afamilyhasbeenknowntosellitsgoldenandsilvertrinkets,andtoborrowallthe
moneytheycouldinordertomarryamangotreetoajasminewithduepompandceremony.On
ChristmasEveGermanpeasantsusedtotiefruittreestogetherwithstrawropestomakethembearfruit,
sayingthatthetreeswerethusmarried.
IntheMoluccas,whentheclovetreesareinblossom,theyaretreatedlikepregnantwomen.Nonoise
maybemadenearthemnolightorfiremaybecarriedpastthematnightnoonemayapproachthem
withhishaton,allmustuncoverintheirpresence.Theseprecautionsareobservedlestthetreeshouldbe
alarmedandbearnofruit,orshoulddropitsfruittoosoon,liketheuntimelydeliveryofawomanwho
hasbeenfrightenedinherpregnancy.SointheEastthegrowingricecropisoftentreatedwiththesame

considerateregardasabreedingwoman.ThusinAmboyna,whenthericeisinbloom,thepeoplesay
thatitispregnantandfirenogunsandmakenoothernoisesnearthefield,forfearlest,ifthericewere
thusdisturbed,itwouldmiscarry,andthecropwouldbeallstrawandnograin.
Sometimesitisthesoulsofthedeadwhicharebelievedtoanimatetrees.TheDieritribeofCentral
Australiaregardasverysacredcertaintreeswhicharesupposedtobetheirfatherstransformedhence
theyspeakwithreverenceofthesetrees,andarecarefulthattheyshallnotbecutdownorburned.Ifthe
settlersrequirethemtohewdownthetrees,theyearnestlyprotestagainstit,assertingthatweretheyto
dosotheywouldhavenoluck,andmightbepunishedfornotprotectingtheirancestors.Someofthe
PhilippineIslandersbelievethatthesoulsoftheirancestorsareincertaintrees,whichtheytherefore
spare.Iftheyareobligedtofelloneofthesetrees,theyexcusethemselvestoitbysayingthatitwasthe
priestwhomadethemdoit.Thespiritstakeuptheirabode,bypreference,intallandstatelytreeswith
greatspreadingbranches.Whenthewindrustlestheleaves,thenativesfancyitisthevoiceofthespirit
andtheyneverpassnearoneofthesetreeswithoutbowingrespectfully,andaskingpardonofthespirit
fordisturbinghisrepose.AmongtheIgnorrotes,everyvillagehasitssacredtree,inwhichthesoulsof
thedeadforefathersofthehamletreside.Offeringsaremadetothetree,andanyinjurydonetoitis
believedtoentailsomemisfortuneonthevillage.Werethetreecutdown,thevillageandallits
inhabitantswouldinevitablyperish.
InCoreathesoulsofpeoplewhodieoftheplagueorbytheroadside,andofwomenwhoexpirein
childbirth,invariablytakeuptheirabodeintrees.Tosuchspiritsofferingsofcake,wine,andporkare
madeonheapsofstonespiledunderthetrees.InChinaithasbeencustomaryfromtimeimmemorialto
planttreesongravesinordertherebytostrengthenthesoulofthedeceasedandthustosavehisbody
fromcorruptionandastheevergreencypressandpinearedeemedtobefullerofvitalitythanothertrees,
theyhavebeenchosenbypreferenceforthispurpose.Hencethetreesthatgrowongravesaresometimes
identifiedwiththesoulsofthedeparted.AmongtheMiaoKia,anaboriginalraceofSouthernand
WesternChina,asacredtreestandsattheentranceofeveryvillage,andtheinhabitantsbelievethatitis
tenantedbythesouloftheirfirstancestorandthatitrulestheirdestiny.Sometimesthereisasacred
grovenearavillage,wherethetreesaresufferedtorotanddieonthespot.Theirfallenbranchescumber
theground,andnoonemayremovethemunlesshehasfirstaskedleaveofthespiritofthetreeand
offeredhimasacrifice.AmongtheMaravesofSouthernAfricatheburialgroundisalwaysregardedasa
holyplacewhereneitheratreemaybefellednorabeastkilled,becauseeverythingthereissupposedto
betenantedbythesoulsofthedead.
Inmost,ifnotall,ofthesecasesthespiritisviewedasincorporateinthetreeitanimatesthetreeand
mustsufferanddiewithit.But,accordingtoanotherandprobablylateropinion,thetreeisnotthebody,
butmerelytheabodeofthetreespirit,whichcanquititandreturntoitatpleasure.Theinhabitantsof
Siaoo,anEastIndianisland,believeincertainsylvanspiritswhodwellinforestsoringreatsolitary
trees.Atfullmoonthespiritcomesforthfromhislurkingplaceandroamsabout.Hehasabighead,very
longarmsandlegs,andaponderousbody.Inordertopropitiatethewoodspiritspeoplebringofferings
offood,fowls,goats,andsoforthtotheplaceswhichtheyaresupposedtohaunt.ThepeopleofNias
thinkthat,whenatreedies,itsliberatedspiritbecomesademon,whichcankillacoconutpalmby
merelylightingonitsbranches,andcancausethedeathofallthechildreninahousebyperchingonone
ofthepoststhatsupportit.Further,theyareofopinionthatcertaintreesareatalltimesinhabitedby
rovingdemonswho,ifthetreesweredamaged,wouldbesetfreetogoaboutonerrandsofmischief.
Hencethepeoplerespectthesetrees,andarecarefulnottocutthemdown.
Notafewceremoniesobservedatcuttingdownhauntedtreesarebasedonthebeliefthatthespiritshave
itintheirpowertoquitthetreesatpleasureorincaseofneed.ThuswhenthePelewIslandersarefelling
atree,theyconjurethespiritofthetreetoleaveitandsettleonanother.ThewilynegrooftheSlave
Coast,whowishestofellanashorintree,butknowsthathecannotdoitsolongasthespiritremainsin

thetree,placesalittlepalmoilonthegroundasabait,andthen,whentheunsuspectingspirithasquitted
thetreetopartakeofthisdainty,hastenstocutdownitslateabode.WhentheToboongkoosofCelebes
areabouttoclearapieceofforestinordertoplantrice,theybuildatinyhouseandfurnishitwithtiny
clothesandsomefoodandgold.Thentheycalltogetherallthespiritsofthewood,offerthemthelittle
housewithitscontents,andbeseechthemtoquitthespot.Afterthattheymaysafelycutdownthewood
withoutfearingtowoundthemselvesinsodoing.BeforetheTomori,anothertribeofCelebes,fellatall
treetheylayaquidofbetelatitsfoot,andinvitethespiritwhodwellsinthetreetochangehislodging
moreover,theysetalittleladderagainstthetrunktoenablehimtodescendwithsafetyandcomfort.The
MandelingsofSumatraendeavourtolaytheblameofallsuchmisdeedsatthedooroftheDutch
authorities.Thuswhenamaniscuttingaroadthroughaforestandhastofellatalltreewhichblocksthe
way,hewillnotbegintoplyhisaxeuntilhehassaid:Spiritwholodgestinthistree,takeitnotillthatI
cutdownthydwelling,foritisdoneatnowishofminebutbyorderoftheController.Andwhenhe
wishestoclearapieceofforestlandforcultivation,itisnecessarythatheshouldcometoasatisfactory
understandingwiththewoodlandspiritswholivetherebeforehelayslowtheirleafydwellings.Forthis
purposehegoestothemiddleoftheplotofground,stoopsdown,andpretendstopickupaletter.Then
unfoldingabitofpaperhereadsaloudanimaginaryletterfromtheDutchGovernment,inwhichheis
strictlyenjoinedtosetaboutclearingthelandwithoutdelay.Havingdoneso,hesays:Youhearthat,
spirits.Imustbeginclearingatonce,orIshallbehanged.
Evenwhenatreehasbeenfelled,sawnintoplanks,andusedtobuildahouse,itispossiblethatthe
woodlandspiritmaystillbelurkinginthetimber,andaccordinglysomepeopleseektopropitiatehim
beforeoraftertheyoccupythenewhouse.Hence,whenanewdwellingisreadytheToradjasofCelebes
killagoat,apig,orabuffalo,andsmearallthewoodworkwithitsblood.Ifthebuildingisaloboor
spirithouse,afowloradogiskilledontheridgeoftheroof,anditsbloodallowedtoflowdownonboth
sides.TheruderTonapooinsuchacasesacrificeahumanbeingontheroof.Thissacrificeontheroofof
aloboortempleservesthesamepurposeasthesmearingofbloodonthewoodworkofanordinary
house.Theintentionistopropitiatetheforestspiritswhomaystillbeinthetimbertheyarethusputin
goodhumourandwilldotheinmatesofthehousenoharm.ForalikereasonpeopleinCelebesandthe
Moluccasaremuchafraidofplantingapostupsidedownatthebuildingofahousefortheforestspirit,
whomightstillbeinthetimber,wouldverynaturallyresenttheindignityandvisittheinmateswith
sickness.TheKayansofBorneoareofopinionthattreespiritsstandverystifflyonthepointofhonour
andvisitmenwiththeirdispleasureforanyinjurydonetothem.Henceafterbuildingahouse,whereby
theyhavebeenforcedtoilltreatmanytrees,thesepeopleobserveaperiodofpenanceforayearduring
whichtheymustabstainfrommanythings,suchasthekillingofbears,tigercats,andserpents.
2.BeneficentPowersofTreeSpirits
WHENatreecomestobeviewed,nolongerasthebodyofthetreespirit,butsimplyasitsabodewhich
itcanquitatpleasure,animportantadvancehasbeenmadeinreligiousthought.Animismispassinginto
polytheism.Inotherwords,insteadofregardingeachtreeasalivingandconsciousbeing,mannowsees
initmerelyalifeless,inertmass,tenantedforalongerorshortertimebyasupernaturalbeingwho,ashe
canpassfreelyfromtreetotree,therebyenjoysacertainrightofpossessionorlordshipoverthetrees,
and,ceasingtobeatreesoul,becomesaforestgod.Assoonasthetreespiritisthusinameasure
disengagedfromeachparticulartree,hebeginstochangehisshapeandassumethebodyofaman,in
virtueofageneraltendencyofearlythoughttoclotheallabstractspiritualbeingsinconcretehuman
form.Henceinclassicalartthesylvandeitiesaredepictedinhumanshape,theirwoodlandcharacter
beingdenotedbyabranchorsomeequallyobvioussymbol.Butthischangeofshapedoesnotaffectthe
essentialcharacterofthetreespirit.Thepowerswhichheexercisedasatreesoulincorporateinatree,
hestillcontinuestowieldasagodoftrees.ThisIshallnowattempttoproveindetail.Ishallshow,first,
thattreesconsideredasanimatebeingsarecreditedwiththepowerofmakingtheraintofall,thesunto

shine,flocksandherdstomultiply,andwomentobringfortheasilyand,second,thattheverysame
powersareattributedtotreegodsconceivedasanthropomorphicbeingsorasactuallyincarnateinliving
men.
First,then,treesortreespiritsarebelievedtogiverainandsunshine.WhenthemissionaryJeromeof
PraguewaspersuadingtheheathenLithuanianstofelltheirsacredgroves,amultitudeofwomen
besoughtthePrinceofLithuaniatostophim,sayingthatwiththewoodshewasdestroyingthehouseof
godfromwhichtheyhadbeenwonttogetrainandsunshine.TheMundarisinAssamthinkthatifatree
inthesacredgroveisfelledthesylvangodsevincetheirdispleasurebywithholdingrain.Inorderto
procureraintheinhabitantsofMonyo,avillageintheSagaingdistrictofUpperBurma,chosethelargest
tamarindtreenearthevillageandnameditthehauntofthespirit(nat)whocontrolstherain.Thenthey
offeredbread,coconuts,plantains,andfowlstotheguardianspiritofthevillageandtothespiritwho
givesrain,andtheyprayed,OLordnathavepityonuspoormortals,andstaynottherain.Inasmuchas
ourofferingisgivenungrudgingly,lettherainfalldayandnight.Afterwardslibationsweremadein
honourofthespiritofthetamarindtreeandstilllaterthreeelderlywomen,dressedinfineclothesand
wearingnecklacesandearrings,sangtheRainSong.
Again,treespiritsmakethecropstogrow.AmongsttheMundariseveryvillagehasitssacredgrove,and
thegrovedeitiesareheldresponsibleforthecrops,andareespeciallyhonouredatallthegreat
agriculturalfestivals.ThenegroesoftheGoldCoastareinthehabitofsacrificingatthefootofcertain
talltrees,andtheythinkthatifoneofthesewerefelledallthefruitsoftheearthwouldperish.TheGallas
danceincouplesroundsacredtrees,prayingforagoodharvest.Everycoupleconsistsofamanand
woman,whoarelinkedtogetherbyastick,ofwhicheachholdsoneend.Undertheirarmstheycarry
greencornorgrass.Swedishpeasantsstickaleafybranchineachfurrowoftheircornfields,believing
thatthiswillensureanabundantcrop.ThesameideacomesoutintheGermanandFrenchcustomofthe
HarvestMay.Thisisalargebranchorawholetree,whichisdeckedwithearsofcorn,broughthomeon
thelastwaggonfromtheharvestfield,andfastenedontheroofofthefarmhouseorofthebarn,whereit
remainsforayear.Mannhardthasprovedthatthisbranchortreeembodiesthetreespiritconceivedas
thespiritofvegetationingeneral,whosevivifyingandfructifyinginfluenceisthusbroughttobearupon
thecorninparticular.HenceinSwabiatheHarvestMayisfastenedamongstthelaststalksofcornleft
standingonthefieldinotherplacesitisplantedonthecornfieldandthelastsheafcutisattachedtoits
trunk.
Again,thetreespiritmakestheherdstomultiplyandblesseswomenwithoffspring.InNorthernIndia
theEmblicaofficinalisisasacredtree.OntheeleventhofthemonthPhalgun(February)libationsare
pouredatthefootofthetree,aredoryellowstringisboundaboutthetrunk,andprayersareofferedtoit
forthefruitfulnessofwomen,animals,andcrops.Again,inNorthernIndiathecoconutisesteemedone
ofthemostsacredfruits,andiscalledSriphala,orthefruitofSri,thegoddessofprosperity.Itisthe
symboloffertility,andallthroughUpperIndiaiskeptinshrinesandpresentedbytheprieststowomen
whodesiretobecomemothers.InthetownofQua,nearOldCalabar,thereusedtogrowapalmtree
whichensuredconceptiontoanybarrenwomanwhoateanutfromitsbranches.InEuropetheMaytree
orMaypoleisapparentlysupposedtopossesssimilarpowersoverbothwomenandcattle.Thusinsome
partsofGermanyonthefirstofMaythepeasantssetupMaytreesorMaybushesatthedoorsofstables
andbyres,oneforeachhorseandcowthisisthoughttomakethecowsyieldmuchmilk.OftheIrishwe
aretoldthattheyfancyagreenboughofatree,fastenedonMaydayagainstthehouse,willproduce
plentyofmilkthatsummer.
OnthesecondofJulysomeoftheWendsusedtosetupanoaktreeinthemiddleofthevillagewithan
ironcockfastenedtoitstopthentheydancedroundit,anddrovethecattleroundittomakethemthrive.
TheCircassiansregardthepeartreeastheprotectorofcattle.Sotheycutdownayoungpeartreeinthe
forest,branchit,andcarryithome,whereitisadoredasadivinity.Almosteveryhousehasonesuch

peartree.Inautumn,onthedayofthefestival,thetreeiscarriedintothehousewithgreatceremonyto
thesoundofmusicandamidthejoyouscriesofalltheinmates,whocomplimentitonitsfortunate
arrival.Itiscoveredwithcandles,andacheeseisfastenedtoitstop.Roundaboutittheyeat,drink,and
sing.Thentheybidthetreegoodbyeandtakeitbacktothecourtyard,whereitremainsfortherestof
theyear,setupagainstthewall,withoutreceivinganymarkofrespect.
IntheTuhoetribeofMaoristhepowerofmakingwomenfruitfulisascribedtotrees.Thesetreesare
associatedwiththenavelstringsofdefinitemythicalancestors,asindeedthenavelstringsofallchildren
usedtobehunguponthemdowntoquiterecenttimes.Abarrenwomanhadtoembracesuchatreewith
herarms,andshereceivedamaleorafemalechildaccordingassheembracedtheeastorthewestside.
ThecommonEuropeancustomofplacingagreenbushonMayDaybeforeoronthehouseofabeloved
maidenprobablyoriginatedinthebeliefofthefertilisingpowerofthetreespirit.Insomepartsof
Bavariasuchbushesaresetupalsoatthehousesofnewlymarriedpairs,andthepracticeisonlyomitted
ifthewifeisnearherconfinementforinthatcasetheysaythatthehusbandhassetupaMaybushfor
himself.AmongtheSouthSlavoniansabarrenwoman,whodesirestohaveachild,placesanew
chemiseuponafruitfultreeontheeveofSt.GeorgesDay.Nextmorningbeforesunrisesheexamines
thegarment,andifshefindsthatsomelivingcreaturehascreptonit,shehopesthatherwishwillbe
fulfilledwithintheyear.Thensheputsonthechemise,confidentthatshewillbeasfruitfulasthetreeon
whichthegarmenthaspassedthenight.AmongtheKaraKirghizbarrenwomenrollthemselvesonthe
groundunderasolitaryappletree,inordertoobtainoffspring.Lastly,thepowerofgrantingtowomen
aneasydeliveryatchildbirthisascribedtotreesbothinSwedenandAfrica.InsomedistrictsofSweden
therewasformerlyabardtrdorguardiantree(lime,ash,orelm)intheneighbourhoodofeveryfarm.
Noonewouldpluckasingleleafofthesacredtree,anyinjurytowhichwaspunishedbyillluckor
sickness.Pregnantwomenusedtoclaspthetreeintheirarmsinordertoensureaneasydelivery.Insome
negrotribesoftheCongoregionpregnantwomenmakethemselvesgarmentsoutofthebarkofacertain
sacredtree,becausetheybelievethatthistreedeliversthemfromthedangersthatattendchildbearing.
ThestorythatLetoclaspedapalmtreeandanolivetreeortwolaureltrees,whenshewasabouttogive
birthtothedivinetwinsApolloandArtemis,perhapspointstoasimilarGreekbeliefintheefficacyof
certaintreestofacilitatedelivery.

X.RelicsofTreeWorshipinModernEurope
FROMTHEFOREGOINGreviewofthebeneficentqualitiescommonlyascribedtotreespirits,itiseasy
tounderstandwhycustomsliketheMaytreeorMaypolehaveprevailedsowidelyandfiguredso
prominentlyinthepopularfestivalsofEuropeanpeasants.Inspringorearlysummerorevenon
MidsummerDay,itwasandstillisinmanypartsofEuropethecustomtogoouttothewoods,cutdown
atreeandbringitintothevillage,whereitissetupamidgeneralrejoicingsorthepeoplecutbranchesin
thewoods,andfastenthemoneveryhouse.Theintentionofthesecustomsistobringhometothe
village,andtoeachhouse,theblessingswhichthetreespirithasinitspowertobestow.Hencethe
custominsomeplacesofplantingaMaytreebeforeeveryhouse,orofcarryingthevillageMaytree
fromdoortodoor,thateveryhouseholdmayreceiveitsshareoftheblessing.Outofthemassof
evidenceonthissubjectafewexamplesmaybeselected.
SirHenryPiers,inhisDescriptionofWestmeath,writingin1682says:OnMayeve,everyfamilysets
upbeforetheirdooragreenbush,strewedoverwithyellowflowers,whichthemeadowsyield
plentifully.Incountrieswheretimberisplentiful,theyerecttallslendertrees,whichstandhigh,andthey
continuealmostthewholeyearsoasastrangerwouldgonightoimaginethattheywereallsignsofale
sellers,andthatallhouseswerealehouses.InNorthamptonshireayoungtreetenortwelvefeethigh
usedtobeplantedbeforeeachhouseonMayDaysoastoappeargrowingflowerswerethrownoverit
andstrewnaboutthedoor.AmongancientcustomsstillretainedbytheCornish,maybereckonedthat

ofdeckingtheirdoorsandporchesonthefirstofMaywithgreenboughsofsycamoreandhawthorn,and
ofplantingtrees,orratherstumpsoftrees,beforetheirhouses.InthenorthofEnglanditwasformerly
thecustomforyoungpeopletorisealittleaftermidnightonthemorningofthefirstofMay,andgoout
withmusicandtheblowingofhornsintothewoods,wheretheybrokebranchesandadornedthemwith
nosegaysandcrownsofflowers.Thisdone,theyreturnedaboutsunriseandfastenedtheflowerdecked
branchesoverthedoorsandwindowsoftheirhouses.AtAbingdoninBerkshireyoungpeopleformerly
wentaboutingroupsonMaymorning,singingacarolofwhichthefollowingaretwooftheverses:
Wevebeenramblingallthenight,
Andsometimeofthisday
Andnowreturningbackagain,
Webringagarlandgay.
Agarlandgaywebringyouhere
Andatyourdoorwestand
Itisasproutwellbuddedout,
TheworkofourLordshand.
AtthetownsofSaffronWaldenandDebdeninEssexonthefirstofMaylittlegirlsgoaboutinparties
fromdoortodoorsingingasongalmostidenticalwiththeaboveandcarryinggarlandsadolldressedin
whiteisusuallyplacedinthemiddleofeachgarland.Similarcustomshavebeenandindeedarestill
observedinvariouspartsofEngland.Thegarlandsaregenerallyintheformofhoopsintersectingeach
otheratrightangles.Itappearsthatahoopwreathedwithrowanandmarshmarigold,andbearing
suspendedwithinittwoballs,isstillcarriedonMayDaybyvillagersinsomepartsofIreland.Theballs,
whicharesometimescoveredwithgoldandsilverpaper,aresaidtohaveoriginallyrepresentedthesun
andmoon.
InsomevillagesoftheVosgesMountainsonthefirstSundayofMayyounggirlsgoinbandsfromhouse
tohouse,singingasonginpraiseofMay,inwhichmentionismadeofthebreadandmealthatcomein
May.Ifmoneyisgiventhem,theyfastenagreenboughtothedoorifitisrefused,theywishthefamily
manychildrenandnobreadtofeedthem.IntheFrenchdepartmentofMayenne,boyswhoborethe
nameofMaillotinsusedtogoaboutfromfarmtofarmonthefirstofMaysingingcarols,forwhichthey
receivedmoneyoradrinktheyplantedasmalltreeorabranchofatree.NearSaverneinAlsacebands
ofpeoplegoaboutcarryingMaytrees.Amongstthemisamandressedinawhiteshirtwithhisface
blackenedinfrontofhimiscarriedalargeMaytree,buteachmemberofthebandalsocarriesasmaller
one.Oneofthecompanybearsahugebasket,inwhichhecollectseggs,bacon,andsoforth.
OntheThursdaybeforeWhitsundaytheRussianvillagersgooutintothewoods,singsongs,weave
garlands,andcutdownayoungbirchtree,whichtheydressupinwomansclothes,oradornwithmany
colouredshredsandribbons.Afterthatcomesafeast,attheendofwhichtheytakethedressedupbirch
tree,carryithometotheirvillagewithjoyfuldanceandsong,andsetitupinoneofthehouses,whereit
remainsasanhonouredguesttillWhitsunday.Onthetwointerveningdaystheypayvisitstothehouse
wheretheirguestisbutonthethirdday,Whitsunday,theytakehertoastreamandflingherintoits
waters,throwingtheirgarlandsafterher.InthisRussiancustomthedressingofthebirchinwomans
clothesshowshowclearlythetreeispersonifiedandthethrowingitintoastreamismostprobablya
raincharm.
InsomepartsofSwedenontheeveofMayDayladsgoaboutcarryingeachabunchoffreshbirchtwigs
whollyorpartlyinleaf.Withthevillagefiddlerattheirhead,theymaketheroundofthehousessinging
Maysongstheburdenoftheirsongsisaprayerforfineweather,aplentifulharvest,andworldlyand
spiritualblessings.Oneofthemcarriesabasketinwhichhecollectsgiftsofeggsandthelike.Iftheyare
wellreceived,theystickaleafytwigintheroofoverthecottagedoor.ButinSwedenmidsummeristhe

seasonwhentheseceremoniesarechieflyobserved.OntheEveofSt.John(thetwentythirdofJune)the
housesarethoroughlycleansedandgarnishedwithgreenboughsandflowers.Youngfirtreesareraised
atthedoorwayandelsewhereaboutthehomesteadandveryoftensmallumbrageousarboursare
constructedinthegarden.InStockholmonthisdayaleafmarketisheldatwhichthousandsofMay
poles(MajStnger),fromsixinchestotwelvefeethigh,decoratedwithleaves,flowers,slipsofcoloured
paper,gilteggshellsstrungonreeds,andsoon,areexposedforsale.Bonfiresarelitonthehills,andthe
peopledanceroundthemandjumpoverthem.ButthechiefeventofthedayissettinguptheMaypole.
Thisconsistsofastraightandtallsprucepinetree,strippedofitsbranches.Attimeshoopsandatothers
piecesofwood,placedcrosswise,areattachedtoitatintervalswhilstatothersitisprovidedwithbows,
representing,sotosay,amanwithhisarmsakimbo.FromtoptobottomnotonlytheMajStng(May
pole)itself,butthehoops,bows,etc.,areornamentedwithleaves,flowers,slipsofvariouscloth,gilt
eggshells,etc.andonthetopofitisalargevane,oritmaybeaflag.TheraisingoftheMaypole,the
decorationofwhichisdonebythevillagemaidens,isanaffairofmuchceremonythepeopleflocktoit
fromallquarters,anddancerounditinagreatring.Midsummercustomsofthesamesortusedtobe
observedinsomepartsofGermany.ThusinthetownsoftheUpperHarzMountainstallfirtrees,with
thebarkpeeledofftheirlowertrunks,weresetupinopenplacesanddeckedwithflowersandeggs,
whichwerepaintedyellowandred.Roundthesetreestheyoungfolkdancedbydayandtheoldfolkin
theevening.InsomepartsofBohemiaalsoaMaypoleormidsummertreeiserectedonSt.JohnsEve.
Theladsfetchatallfirorpinefromthewoodandsetituponaheight,wherethegirlsdeckitwith
nosegays,garlands,andredribbons.Itisafterwardsburned.
Itwouldbeneedlesstoillustrateatlengththecustom,whichhasprevailedinvariouspartsofEurope,
suchasEngland,France,andGermany,ofsettingupavillageMaytreeorMaypoleonMayDay.Afew
exampleswillsuffice.ThepuritanicalwriterPhillipStubbesinhisAnatomieofAbuses,firstpublishedat
Londonin1583,hasdescribedwithmanifestdisgusthowtheyusedtobringintheMaypoleinthedays
ofgoodQueenBess.HisdescriptionaffordsusavividglimpseofmerryEnglandintheoldentime.
AgainstMay,Whitsonday,orothertime,alltheyungmenandmaides,oldemenandwives,run
gaddingovernighttothewoods,groves,hils,andmountains,wheretheyspendallthenightinplesant
pastimesandinthemorningtheyreturn,bringingwiththembirchandbranchesoftrees,todecktheir
assemblieswithall.Andnomervaile,forthereisagreatLordpresentamongstthem,assuperintendent
andLordovertheirpastimesandsportes,namely,Sathan,princeofhel.Butthechiefestjeweltheybring
fromthenceistheirMaypole,whichtheybringhomewithgreatveneration,asthus.Theyhavetwentie
orfortieyokeofoxen,everyoxehavingasweetnosegayofflouersplacedonthetipofhishornes,and
theseoxendrawehomethisMaypole(thisstinkyngydol,rather),whichiscoveredalloverwithfloures
andhearbs,boundroundaboutwithstrings,fromthetoptothebottome,andsometimepaintedwith
variablecolours,withtwoorthreehundredmen,womenandchildrenfollowingitwithgreatdevotion.
Andthusbeeingrearedup,withhandkercheefsandflagshoveringonthetop,theystrawtheground
roundeabout,bindegreenboughesaboutit,setupsommerhaules,bowers,andarborshardbyit.And
thenfalltheytodaunceaboutit,likeastheheathenpeopledidatthededicationoftheIdols,whereofthis
isaperfectpattern,orratherthethingitself.Ihavehearditcrediblyreported(andthatvivavoce)bymen
ofgreatgravitieandreputation,thatoffortie,threescore,orahundredmaidesgoingtothewoodover
night,therehavescareslythethirdpartofthemreturnedhomeagaineundefiled.
InSwabiaonthefirstofMayatallfirtreeusedtobefetchedintothevillage,whereitwasdeckedwith
ribbonsandsetupthenthepeopledancedrounditmerrilytomusic.Thetreestoodonthevillagegreen
thewholeyearthrough,untilafreshtreewasbroughtinnextMayDay.InSaxonypeoplewerenot
contentwithbringingthesummersymbolically(askingorqueen)intothevillagetheybroughtthefresh
greenitselffromthewoodsevenintothehouses:thatistheMayorWhitsuntidetrees,whichare
mentionedindocumentsfromthethirteenthcenturyonwards.ThefetchinginoftheMaytreewasalsoa
festival.ThepeoplewentoutintothewoodstoseektheMay(majumquaerere),broughtyoungtrees,
especiallyfirsandbirches,tothevillageandsetthemupbeforethedoorsofthehousesorofthecattle

stallsorintherooms.YoungfellowserectedsuchMaytrees,aswehavealreadysaid,beforethe
chambersoftheirsweethearts.BesidesthesehouseholdMays,agreatMaytreeorMaypole,whichhad
alsobeenbroughtinsolemnprocessiontothevillage,wassetupinthemiddleofthevillageorinthe
marketplaceofthetown.Ithadbeenchosenbythewholecommunity,whowatchedoveritmost
carefully.Generallythetreewasstrippedofitsbranchesandleaves,nothingbutthecrownbeingleft,on
whichweredisplayed,inadditiontomanycolouredribbonsandcloths,avarietyofvictualssuchas
sausages,cakes,andeggs.Theyoungfolkexertedthemselvestoobtaintheseprizes.Inthegreasypoles
whicharestilltobeseenatourfairswehavearelicoftheseoldMaypoles.Notuncommonlytherewas
araceonfootoronhorsebacktotheMaytreeaWhitsundaypastimewhichincourseoftimehasbeen
divestedofitsgoalandsurvivesasapopularcustomtothisdayinmanypartsofGermany.At
BordeauxonthefirstofMaytheboysofeachstreetusedtoerectinitaMaypole,whichtheyadorned
withgarlandsandagreatcrownandeveryeveningduringthewholeofthemonththeyoungpeopleof
bothsexesdancedsingingaboutthepole.DowntothepresentdayMaytreesdeckedwithflowersand
ribbonsaresetuponMayDayineveryvillageandhamletofgayProvence.Underthemtheyoungfolk
makemerryandtheoldfolkrest.
Inallthesecases,apparently,thecustomisorwastobringinanewMaytreeeachyear.However,in
EnglandthevillageMaypoleseemsasarule,atleastinlatertimes,tohavebeenpermanent,not
renewedannually.VillagesofUpperBavariarenewtheirMaypoleonceeverythree,four,orfiveyears.
Itisafirtreefetchedfromtheforest,andamidallthewreaths,flags,andinscriptionswithwhichitis
bedecked,anessentialpartisthebunchofdarkgreenfoliageleftatthetopasamementothatinitwe
havetodo,notwithadeadpole,butwithalivingtreefromthegreenwood.Wecanhardlydoubtthat
originallythepracticeeverywherewastosetupanewMaytreeeveryyear.Astheobjectofthecustom
wastobringinthefructifyingspiritofvegetation,newlyawakenedinspring,theendwouldhavebeen
defeatedif,insteadofalivingtree,greenandsappy,anoldwitheredonehadbeenerectedyearafteryear
orallowedtostandpermanently.When,however,themeaningofthecustomhadbeenforgotten,andthe
Maytreewasregardedsimplyasacentreforholidaymerrymaking,peoplesawnoreasonforfellinga
freshtreeeveryyear,andpreferredtoletthesametreestandpermanently,onlydeckingitwithfresh
flowersonMayDay.ButevenwhentheMaypolehadthusbecomeafixture,theneedofgivingitthe
appearanceofbeingagreentree,notadeadpole,wassometimesfelt.ThusatWeverhaminCheshire
aretwoMaypoles,whicharedecoratedonthisday(MayDay)withalldueattentiontotheancient
solemnitythesidesarehungwithgarlands,andthetopterminatedbyabirchorothertallslendertree
withitsleavesonthebarkbeingpeeled,andthestemsplicedtothepole,soastogivetheappearanceof
onetreefromthesummit.ThustherenewaloftheMaytreeisliketherenewaloftheHarvestMay
eachisintendedtosecureafreshportionofthefertilisingspiritofvegetation,andtopreserveit
throughouttheyear.ButwhereastheefficacyoftheHarvestMayisrestrictedtopromotingthegrowthof
thecrops,thatoftheMaytreeorMaybranchextendsalso,aswehaveseen,towomenandcattle.Lastly,
itisworthnotingthattheoldMaytreeissometimesburnedattheendoftheyear.Thusinthedistrictof
PragueyoungpeoplebreakpiecesofthepublicMaytreeandplacethembehindtheholypicturesintheir
rooms,wheretheyremaintillnextMayDay,andarethenburnedonthehearth.InWrtembergthe
busheswhicharesetuponthehousesonPalmSundayaresometimesleftthereforayearandthenburnt.
Somuchforthetreespiritconceivedasincorporateorimmanentinthetree.Wehavenowtoshowthat
thetreespiritisoftenconceivedandrepresentedasdetachedfromthetreeandclothedinhumanform,
andevenasembodiedinlivingmenorwomen.Theevidenceforthisanthropomorphicrepresentationof
thetreespiritislargelytobefoundinthepopularcustomsofEuropeanpeasantry.
Thereisaninstructiveclassofcasesinwhichthetreespiritisrepresentedsimultaneouslyinvegetable
formandinhumanform,whicharesetsidebysideasiffortheexpresspurposeofexplainingeachother.
Inthesecasesthehumanrepresentativeofthetreespiritissometimesadollorpuppet,sometimesa
livingperson,butwhetherapuppetoraperson,itisplacedbesideatreeorboughsothattogetherthe

personorpuppet,andthetreeorbough,formasortofbilingualinscription,theonebeing,sotospeak,a
translationoftheother.Here,therefore,thereisnoroomleftfordoubtthatthespiritofthetreeis
actuallyrepresentedinhumanform.ThusinBohemia,onthefourthSundayinLent,youngpeoplethrow
apuppetcalledDeathintothewaterthenthegirlsgointothewood,cutdownayoungtree,andfastento
itapuppetdressedinwhiteclothestolooklikeawomanwiththistreeandpuppettheygofromhouseto
housecollectinggratuitiesandsingingsongswiththerefrain:
WecarryDeathoutofthevillage,
WebringSummerintothevillage.
Here,asweshallseelateron,theSummeristhespiritofvegetationreturningorrevivinginspring.In
somepartsofourowncountrychildrengoaboutaskingforpencewithsomesmallimitationsofMay
poles,andwithafinelydresseddollwhichtheycalltheLadyoftheMay.Inthesecasesthetreeandthe
puppetareobviouslyregardedasequivalent.
AtThann,inAlsace,agirlcalledtheLittleMayRose,dressedinwhite,carriesasmallMaytree,which
isgaywithgarlandsandribbons.Hercompanionscollectgiftsfromdoortodoor,singingasong:
LittleMayRoseturnroundthreetimes,
Letuslookatyouroundandround!
RoseoftheMay,cometothegreenwoodaway,
Wewillbemerryall.
SowegofromtheMaytotheroses.
Inthecourseofthesongawishisexpressedthatthosewhogivenothingmaylosetheirfowlsbythe
marten,thattheirvinemaybearnoclusters,theirtreenonuts,theirfieldnocorntheproduceoftheyear
issupposedtodependonthegiftsofferedtotheseMaysingers.Hereandinthecasesmentionedabove,
wherechildrengoaboutwithgreenboughsorgarlandsonMayDaysingingandcollectingmoney,the
meaningisthatwiththespiritofvegetationtheybringplentyandgoodlucktothehouse,andtheyexpect
tobepaidfortheservice.InRussianLithuania,onthefirstofMay,theyusedtosetupagreentree
beforethevillage.Thentherusticswainschosetheprettiestgirl,crownedher,swathedherinbirch
branchesandsetherbesidetheMaytree,wheretheydanced,sang,andshoutedOMay!OMay!In
Brie(IsledeFrance)aMaytreeiserectedinthemidstofthevillageitstopiscrownedwithflowers
lowerdownitistwinedwithleavesandtwigs,stilllowerwithhugegreenbranches.Thegirlsdance
roundit,andatthesametimealadwraptinleavesandcalledFatherMayisledabout.Inthesmalltowns
oftheFrankenWaldmountainsinNorthernBavaria,onthesecondofMay,aWalbertreeiserected
beforeatavern,andamandancesroundit,envelopedinstrawfromheadtofootinsuchawaythatthe
earsofcornuniteabovehisheadtoformacrown.HeiscalledtheWalber,andusedtobeledin
processionthroughthestreets,whichwereadornedwithsprigsofbirch.
AmongsttheSlavsofCarinthia,onSt.GeorgesDay(thetwentythirdofApril),theyoungpeopledeck
withflowersandgarlandsatreewhichhasbeenfelledontheeveofthefestival.Thetreeisthencarried
inprocession,accompaniedwithmusicandjoyfulacclamations,thechieffigureintheprocessionbeing
theGreenGeorge,ayoungfellowcladfromheadtofootingreenbirchbranches.Atthecloseofthe
ceremoniestheGreenGeorge,thatisaneffigyofhim,isthrownintothewater.Itistheaimofthelad
whoactsGreenGeorgetostepoutofhisleafyenvelopeandsubstitutetheeffigysoadroitlythatnoone
shallperceivethechange.Inmanyplaces,however,theladhimselfwhoplaysthepartofGreenGeorge
isduckedinariverorpond,withtheexpressintentionofthusensuringraintomakethefieldsand
meadowsgreeninsummer.Insomeplacesthecattlearecrownedanddrivenfromtheirstallstothe
accompanimentofasong:

GreenGeorgewebring,
GreenGeorgeweaccompany,
Mayhefeedourherdswell.
Ifnot,tothewaterwithhim.
Hereweseethatthesamepowersofmakingrainandfosteringthecattle,whichareascribedtothetree
spiritregardedasincorporateinthetree,arealsoattributedtothetreespiritrepresentedbyalivingman.
AmongthegypsiesofTransylvaniaandRoumaniathefestivalofGreenGeorgeisthechiefcelebration
ofspring.SomeofthemkeepitonEasterMonday,othersonSt.GeorgesDay(thetwentythirdofApril).
Ontheeveofthefestivalayoungwillowtreeiscutdown,adornedwithgarlandsandleaves,andsetup
intheground.Womenwithchildplaceoneoftheirgarmentsunderthetree,andleaveitthereovernight
ifnextmorningtheyfindaleafofthetreelyingonthegarment,theyknowthattheirdeliverywillbe
easy.Sickandoldpeoplegotothetreeintheevening,spitonitthrice,andsay,Youwillsoondie,but
letuslive.Nextmorningthegypsiesgatheraboutthewillow.ThechieffigureofthefestivalisGreen
George,aladwhoisconcealedfromtoptotoeingreenleavesandblossoms.Hethrowsafewhandfuls
ofgrasstothebeastsofthetribe,inorderthattheymayhavenolackoffodderthroughouttheyear.Then
hetakesthreeironnails,whichhavelainforthreedaysandnightsinwater,andknocksthemintothe
willowafterwhichhepullsthemoutandflingsthemintoarunningstreamtopropitiatethewater
spirits.Finally,apretenceismadeofthrowingGreenGeorgeintothewater,butinfactitisonlyapuppet
madeofbranchesandleaveswhichisduckedinthestream.Inthisversionofthecustomthepowersof
grantinganeasydeliverytowomenandofcommunicatingvitalenergytothesickandoldareclearly
ascribedtothewillowwhileGreenGeorge,thehumandoubleofthetree,bestowsfoodonthecattle,
andfurtherensuresthefavourofthewaterspiritsbyputtingtheminindirectcommunicationwiththe
tree.
Withoutcitingmoreexamplestothesameeffect,wemaysumuptheresultsoftheprecedingpagesin
thewordsofMannhardt:Thecustomsquotedsufficetoestablishwithcertaintytheconclusionthatin
thesespringprocessionsthespiritofvegetationisoftenrepresentedbothbytheMaytreeandinaddition
byamandressedingreenleavesorflowersorbyagirlsimilarlyadorned.Itisthesamespiritwhich
animatesthetreeandisactiveintheinferiorplantsandwhichwehaverecognisedintheMaytreeand
theHarvestMay.Quiteconsistentlythespiritisalsosupposedtomanifesthispresenceinthefirstflower
ofspringandrevealshimselfbothinagirlrepresentingaMayrose,andalso,asgiverofharvest,inthe
personoftheWalber.Theprocessionwiththisrepresentativeofthedivinitywassupposedtoproducethe
samebeneficialeffectsonthefowls,thefruittrees,andthecropsasthepresenceofthedeityhimself.In
otherwordsthemummerwasregardednotasanimagebutasanactualrepresentativeofthespiritof
vegetationhencethewishexpressedbytheattendantsontheMayroseandtheMaytreethatthosewho
refusethemgiftsofeggs,bacon,andsoforth,mayhavenoshareintheblessingswhichitisinthepower
oftheitinerantspirittobestow.WemayconcludethatthesebeggingprocessionswithMaytreesorMay
boughsfromdoortodoor(bringingtheMayorthesummer)hadeverywhereoriginallyaseriousand,
sotospeak,sacramentalsignificancepeoplereallybelievedthatthegodofgrowthwaspresentunseenin
theboughbytheprocessionhewasbroughttoeachhousetobestowhisblessing.ThenamesMay,
FatherMay,MayLady,QueenoftheMay,bywhichtheanthropomorphicspiritofvegetationisoften
denoted,showthattheideaofthespiritofvegetationisblentwithapersonificationoftheseasonat
whichhispowersaremoststrikinglymanifested.
Sofarwehaveseenthatthetreespiritorthespiritofvegetationingeneralisrepresentedeitherin
vegetableformalone,asbyatree,bough,orflowerorinvegetableandhumanformsimultaneously,as
byatree,bough,orflowerincombinationwithapuppetoralivingperson.Itremainstoshowthatthe
representationofhimbyatree,bough,orflowerissometimesentirelydropped,whiletherepresentation
ofhimbyalivingpersonremains.Inthiscasetherepresentativecharacterofthepersonisgenerally

markedbydressinghimorherinleavesorflowerssometimes,too,itisindicatedbythenameheorshe
bears.
ThusinsomepartsofRussiaonSt.GeorgesDay(thetwentythirdofApril)ayouthisdressedout,like
ourJackintheGreen,withleavesandflowers.TheSlovenescallhimtheGreenGeorge.Holdinga
lightedtorchinonehandandapieintheother,hegoesouttothecornfields,followedbygirlssinging
appropriatesongs.Acircleofbrushwoodisnextlighted,inthemiddleofwhichissetthepie.Allwho
takepartintheceremonythensitdownaroundthefireanddividethepieamongthem.Inthiscustomthe
GreenGeorgedressedinleavesandflowersisplainlyidenticalwiththesimilarlydisguisedGreen
GeorgewhoisassociatedwithatreeintheCarinthian,Transylvanian,andRoumaniancustomsobserved
onthesameday.Again,wesawthatinRussiaatWhitsuntideabirchtreeisdressedinwomansclothes
andsetupinthehouse.ClearlyequivalenttothisisthecustomobservedonWhitMondaybyRussian
girlsinthedistrictofPinsk.Theychoosetheprettiestoftheirnumber,envelopherinamassoffoliage
takenfromthebirchtreesandmaples,andcarryheraboutthroughthevillage.
InRuhlaassoonasthetreesbegintogrowgreeninspring,thechildrenassembleonaSundayandgoout
intothewoods,wheretheychooseoneoftheirplaymatestobetheLittleLeafMan.Theybreakbranches
fromthetreesandtwinethemaboutthechildtillonlyhisshoespeepoutfromtheleafymantle.Holesare
madeinitforhimtoseethrough,andtwoofthechildrenleadtheLittleLeafManthathemaynot
stumbleorfall.Singinganddancingtheytakehimfromhousetohouse,askingforgiftsoffoodsuchas
eggs,cream,sausages,andcakes.Lastly,theysprinkletheLeafManwithwaterandfeastonthefood
theyhavecollected.IntheFricktal,Switzerland,atWhitsuntideboysgooutintoawoodandswatheone
oftheirnumberinleafyboughs.HeiscalledtheWhitsuntidelout,andbeingmountedonhorsebackwith
agreenbranchinhishandheisledbackintothevillage.Atthevillagewellahaltiscalledandtheleaf
cladloutisdismountedandduckedinthetrough.Therebyheacquirestherightofsprinklingwateron
everybody,andheexercisestherightspeciallyongirlsandstreeturchins.Theurchinsmarchbeforehim
inbandsbegginghimtogivethemaWhitsuntidewetting.
InEnglandthebestknownexampleoftheseleafcladmummersistheJackintheGreen,achimney
sweeperwhowalksencasedinapyramidalframeworkofwickerwork,whichiscoveredwithhollyand
ivy,andsurmountedbyacrownofflowersandribbons.ThusarrayedhedancesonMayDayatthehead
ofatroopofchimneysweeps,whocollectpence.InFricktalasimilarframeofbasketworkiscalledthe
WhitsuntideBasket.Assoonasthetreesbegintobud,aspotischoseninthewood,andherethevillage
ladsmaketheframewithallsecrecy,lestothersshouldforestallthem.Leafybranchesaretwinedround
twohoops,oneofwhichrestsontheshouldersofthewearer,theotherencircleshisclavesholesare
madeforhiseyesandmouthandalargenosegaycrownsthewhole.Inthisguiseheappearssuddenlyin
thevillageatthehourofvespers,precededbythreeboysblowingonhornsmadeofwillowbark.The
greatobjectofhissupportersistosetuptheWhitsuntideBasketonthevillagewell,andtokeepitand
himthere,despitetheeffortsoftheladsfromneighbouringvillages,whoseektocarryoffthe
WhitsuntideBasketandsetitupontheirownwell.
Intheclassofcasesofwhichtheforegoingarespecimensitisobviousthattheleafcladpersonwhois
ledaboutisequivalenttotheMaytree,Maybough,orMaydoll,whichiscarriedfromhousetohouse
bychildrenbegging.Botharerepresentativesofthebeneficentspiritofvegetation,whosevisittothe
houseisrecompensedbyapresentofmoneyorfood.
Oftentheleafcladpersonwhorepresentsthespiritofvegetationisknownasthekingorthequeenthus,
forexample,heorsheiscalledtheMayKing,WhitsuntideKing,QueenofMay,andsoon.Thesetitles,
asMannhardtobserves,implythatthespiritincorporateinvegetationisaruler,whosecreativepower
extendsfarandwide.

InavillagenearSalzwedelaMaytreeissetupatWhitsuntideandtheboysracetoithewhoreachesit
firstiskingagarlandofflowersisputroundhisneckandinhishandhecarriesaMaybush,with
which,astheprocessionmovesalong,hesweepsawaythedew.Ateachhousetheysingasong,wishing
theinmatesgoodluck,referringtotheblackcowinthestallmilkingwhitemilk,blackhenonthenest
layingwhiteeggs,andbeggingagiftofeggs,bacon,andsoon.AtthevillageofEllgothinSilesiaa
ceremonycalledtheKingsRaceisobservedatWhitsuntide.Apolewithaclothtiedtoitissetupina
meadow,andtheyoungmenridepastitonhorseback,eachtryingtosnatchawaytheclothashegallops
by.TheonewhosucceedsincarryingitoffanddippingitintheneighbouringOderisproclaimedKing.
HerethepoleisclearlyasubstituteforaMaytree.InsomevillagesofBrunswickatWhitsuntideaMay
KingiscompletelyenvelopedinaMaybush.InsomepartsofThringenalsotheyhaveaMayKingat
Whitsuntide,butheisdressedupratherdifferently.Aframeofwoodismadeinwhichamancanstand
itiscompletelycoveredwithbirchboughsandissurmountedbyacrownofbirchandflowers,inwhich
abellisfastened.ThisframeisplacedinthewoodandtheMayKinggetsintoit.Therestgooutand
lookforhim,andwhentheyhavefoundhimtheyleadhimbackintothevillagetothemagistrate,the
clergyman,andothers,whohavetoguesswhoisintheverdurousframe.Iftheyguesswrong,theMay
Kingringshisbellbyshakinghishead,andaforfeitofbeerorthelikemustbepaidbytheunsuccessful
guesser.AtWahrstedttheboysatWhitsuntidechoosebylotakingandahighsteward.Thelatteris
completelyconcealedinaMaybush,wearsawoodencrownwreathenwithflowers,andcarriesa
woodensword.Theking,ontheotherhand,isonlydistinguishedbyanosegayinhiscap,andareed,
witharedribbontiedtoit,inhishand.Theybegforeggsfromhousetohouse,threateningthat,where
nonearegiven,nonewillbelaidbythehensthroughouttheyear.Inthiscustomthehighsteward
appears,forsomereason,tohaveusurpedtheinsigniaoftheking.AtHildesheimfiveorsixyoung
fellowsgoaboutontheafternoonofWhitMondaycrackinglongwhipsinmeasuredtimeandcollecting
eggsfromthehouses.ThechiefpersonofthebandistheLeafKing,aladswathedsocompletelyin
birchentwigsthatnothingofhimcanbeseenbuthisfeet.Ahugeheaddressofbirchentwigsaddstohis
apparentstature.Inhishandhecarriesalongcrook,withwhichhetriestocatchstraydogsandchildren.
InsomepartsofBohemiaonWhitMondaytheyoungfellowsdisguisethemselvesintallcapsofbirch
barkadornedwithflowers.Oneofthemisdressedasakinganddraggedonasledgetothevillagegreen,
andifonthewaytheypassapoolthesledgeisalwaysoverturnedintoit.Arrivedatthegreentheygather
roundthekingthecrierjumpsonastoneorclimbsupatreeandreciteslampoonsabouteachhouseand
itsinmates.Afterwardsthedisguisesofbarkarestrippedoffandtheygoaboutthevillageinholiday
attire,carryingaMaytreeandbegging.Cakes,eggs,andcornaresometimesgiventhem.At
Grossvargula,nearLangensalza,intheeighteenthcenturyaGrassKingusedtobeledaboutin
processionatWhitsuntide.Hewasencasedinapyramidofpoplarbranches,thetopofwhichwas
adornedwitharoyalcrownofbranchesandflowers.Herodeonhorsebackwiththeleafypyramidover
him,sothatitslowerendtouchedtheground,andanopeningwasleftinitonlyforhisface.Surrounded
byacavalcadeofyoungfellows,herodeinprocessiontothetownhall,theparsonage,andsoon,where
theyallgotadrinkofbeer.ThenunderthesevenlindensoftheneighbouringSommerberg,theGrass
KingwasstrippedofhisgreencasingthecrownwashandedtotheMayor,andthebrancheswerestuck
intheflaxfieldsinordertomaketheflaxgrowtall.Inthislasttraitthefertilisinginfluenceascribedto
therepresentativeofthetreespiritcomesoutclearly.IntheneighbourhoodofPilsen(Bohemia)a
conicalhutofgreenbranches,withoutanydoor,iserectedatWhitsuntideinthemidstofthevillage.To
thishutridesatroopofvillageladswithakingattheirhead.Hewearsaswordathissideandasugar
loafhatofrushesonhishead.Inhistrainareajudge,acrier,andapersonagecalledtheFrogflayeror
Hangman.Thislastisasortofraggedmerryandrew,wearingarustyoldswordandbestridingasorry
hack.Onreachingthehutthecrierdismountsandgoesrounditlookingforadoor.Findingnone,he
says,Ah,thisisperhapsanenchantedcastlethewitchescreepthroughtheleavesandneednodoor.At
lasthedrawshisswordandhewshiswayintothehut,wherethereisachair,onwhichheseatshimself
andproceedstocriticiseinrhymethegirls,farmers,andfarmservantsoftheneighbourhood.Whenthis
isover,theFrogflayerstepsforwardand,afterexhibitingacagewithfrogsinit,setsupagallowson

whichhehangsthefrogsinarow.IntheneighbourhoodofPlastheceremonydiffersinsomepoints.The
kingandhissoldiersarecompletelycladinbark,adornedwithflowersandribbonstheyallcarryswords
andridehorses,whicharegaywithgreenbranchesandflowers.Whilethevillagedamesandgirlsare
beingcriticisedatthearbour,afrogissecretlypinchedandpokedbythecriertillitquacks.Sentenceof
deathispassedonthefrogbythekingthehangmanbeheadsitandflingsthebleedingbodyamongthe
spectators.Lastly,thekingisdrivenfromthehutandpursuedbythesoldiers.Thepinchingand
beheadingofthefrogaredoubtless,asMannhardtobserves,araincharm.Wehaveseenthatsome
IndiansoftheOrinocobeatfrogsfortheexpresspurposeofproducingrain,andthatkillingafrogisa
Europeanraincharm.
Oftenthespiritofvegetationinspringisrepresentedbyaqueeninsteadofaking.Intheneighbourhood
ofLibchowic(Bohemia),onthefourthSundayinLent,girlsdressedinwhiteandwearingthefirstspring
flowers,asvioletsanddaisies,intheirhair,leadaboutthevillageagirlwhoiscalledtheQueenandis
crownedwithflowers.Duringtheprocession,whichisconductedwithgreatsolemnity,noneofthegirls
maystandstill,butmustkeepwhirlingroundcontinuallyandsinging.IneveryhousetheQueen
announcesthearrivalofspringandwishestheinmatesgoodluckandblessings,forwhichshereceives
presents.InGermanHungarythegirlschoosetheprettiestgirltobetheirWhitsuntideQueen,fastena
toweringwreathonherbrow,andcarryhersingingthroughthestreets.Ateveryhousetheystop,sing
oldballads,andreceivepresents.InthesoutheastofIrelandonMayDaytheprettiestgirlusedtobe
chosenQueenofthedistrictfortwelvemonths.Shewascrownedwithwildflowersfeasting,dancing,
andrusticsportsfollowed,andwereclosedbyagrandprocessionintheevening.Duringheryearof
officeshepresidedoverruralgatheringsofyoungpeopleatdancesandmerrymakings.Ifshemarried
beforenextMayDay,herauthoritywasatanend,buthersuccessorwasnotelectedtillthatdaycame
round.TheMayQueeniscommonInFranceandfamiliarinEngland.
Againthespiritofvegetationissometimesrepresentedbyakingandqueen,alordandlady,ora
bridegroomandbride.Hereagaintheparallelismholdsbetweentheanthropomorphicandthevegetable
representationofthetreespirit,forwehaveseenabovethattreesaresometimesmarriedtoeachother.
AtHalfordinSouthWarwickshirethechildrengofromhousetohouseonMayDay,walkingtwoand
twoinprocessionandheadedbyaKingandQueen.TwoboyscarryaMaypolesomesixorsevenfeet
high,whichiscoveredwithflowersandgreenery.Fastenedtoitnearthetoparetwocrossbarsatright
anglestoeachother.Thesearealsodeckedwithflowers,andfromtheendsofthebarshanghoops
similarlyadorned.AtthehousesthechildrensingMaysongsandreceivemoney,whichisusedto
provideteaforthemattheschoolhouseintheafternoon.InaBohemianvillagenearKniggrtzon
WhitMondaythechildrenplaythekingsgame,atwhichakingandqueenmarchaboutunderacanopy,
thequeenwearingagarland,andtheyoungestgirlcarryingtwowreathsonaplatebehindthem.Theyare
attendedbyboysandgirlscalledgroomsmenandbridesmaids,andtheygofromhousetohouse
collectinggifts.AregularfeatureinthepopularcelebrationofWhitsuntideinSilesiausedtobe,andto
someextentstillis,thecontestforthekingship.Thiscontesttookvariousforms,butthemarkorgoal
wasgenerallytheMaytreeorMaypole.Sometimestheyouthwhosucceededinclimbingthesmooth
poleandbringingdowntheprizewasproclaimedtheWhitsuntideKingandhissweetheartthe
WhitsuntideBride.Afterwardstheking,carryingtheMaybush,repairedwiththerestofthecompanyto
thealehouse,whereadanceandafeastendedthemerrymaking.Oftentheyoungfarmersandlabourers
racedonhorsebacktotheMaypole,whichwasadornedwithflowers,ribbons,andacrown.Hewhofirst
reachedthepolewastheWhitsuntideKing,andtheresthadtoobeyhisordersforthatday.Theworst
riderbecametheclown.AttheMaytreealldismountedandhoistedthekingontheirshoulders.He
nimblyswarmedupthepoleandbroughtdowntheMaybushandthecrown,whichhadbeenfastenedto
thetop.Meanwhiletheclownhurriedtothealehouseandproceededtoboltthirtyrollsofbreadandto
swigfourquartbottlesofbrandywiththeutmostpossibledespatch.Hewasfollowedbytheking,who
boretheMaybushandcrownattheheadofthecompany.Ifontheirarrivaltheclownhadalready
disposedoftherollsandthebrandy,andgreetedthekingwithaspeechandaglassofbeer,hisscorewas

paidbythekingotherwisehehadtosettleithimself.Afterchurchtimethestatelyprocessionwound
throughthevillage.Attheheadofitrodetheking,deckedwithflowersandcarryingtheMaybush.Next
cametheclownwithhisclothesturnedinsideout,agreatflaxenbeardonhischain,andtheWhitsuntide
crownonhishead.Tworidersdisguisedasguardsfollowed.Theprocessiondrewupbeforeevery
farmyardthetwoguardsdismounted,shuttheclownintothehouse,andclaimedacontributionfromthe
housewifetobuysoapwithwhichtowashtheclownsbeard.Customallowedthemtocarryoffany
victualswhichwerenotunderlockandkey.Lastofalltheycametothehouseinwhichthekings
sweetheartlived.ShewasgreetedasWhitsuntideQueenandreceivedsuitablepresentstowit,amany
colouredsash,acloth,andanapron.Thekinggotasaprize,avest,aneckcloth,andsoforth,andhad
therightofsettinguptheMaybushorWhitsuntidetreebeforehismastersyard,whereitremainedas
anhonourabletokentillthesamedaynextyear.Finallytheprocessiontookitswaytothetavern,where
thekingandqueenopenedthedance.SometimestheWhitsuntideKingandQueensucceededtoofficein
adifferentway.Amanofstraw,aslargeaslifeandcrownedwitharedcap,wasconveyedinacart,
betweentwomenarmedanddisguisedasguards,toaplacewhereamockcourtwaswaitingtotryhim.
Agreatcrowdfollowedthecart.Afteraformaltrialthestrawmanwascondemnedtodeathandfastened
toastakeontheexecutionground.Theyoungmenwithbandagedeyestriedtostabhimwithaspear.He
whosucceededbecamekingandhissweetheartqueen.ThestrawmanwasknownastheGoliath.
InaparishofDenmarkitusedtobethecustomatWhitsuntidetodressupalittlegirlastheWhitsun
brideandalittleboyashergroom.Shewasdeckedinallthefineryofagrownupbride,andworea
crownofthefreshestflowersofspringonherhead.Hergroomwasasgayasflowers,ribbons,andknots
couldmakehim.Theotherchildrenadornedthemselvesasbesttheycouldwiththeyellowflowersofthe
trolliusandcaltha.Thentheywentingreatstatefromfarmhousetofarmhouse,twolittlegirlswalkingat
theheadoftheprocessionasbridesmaids,andsixoreightoutridersgallopingaheadonhobbyhorsesto
announcetheircoming.Contributionsofeggs,butter,loaves,cream,coffee,sugar,andtallowcandles
werereceivedandconveyedawayinbaskets.Whentheyhadmadetheroundofthefarms,someofthe
farmerswiveshelpedtoarrangetheweddingfeast,andthechildrendancedmerrilyinclogsonthe
stampedclayfloortillthesunroseandthebirdsbegantosing.Allthisisnowathingofthepast.Only
theoldfolksstillrememberthelittleWhitsunbrideandhermimicpomp.
WehaveseenthatinSwedentheceremoniesassociatedelsewherewithMayDayorWhitsuntide
commonlytakeplaceatMidsummer.AccordinglywefindthatinsomepartsoftheSwedishprovinceof
BlekingetheystillchooseaMidsummersBride,towhomthechurchcoronetisoccasionallylent.The
girlselectsforherselfaBridegroom,andacollectionismadeforthepair,whoforthetimebeingare
lookedonasmanandwife.Theotheryouthsalsochooseeachhisbride.Asimilarceremonyseemstobe
stillkeptupinNorway.
IntheneighbourhoodofBrianon(Dauphin)onMayDaytheladswrapupingreenleavesayoung
fellowwhosesweethearthasdesertedhimormarriedanother.Heliesdownonthegroundandfeignsto
beasleep.Thenagirlwholikeshim,andwouldmarryhim,comesandwakeshim,andraisinghimup
offershimherarmandaflag.Sotheygotothealehouse,wherethepairleadoffthedancing.Butthey
mustmarrywithintheyear,ortheyaretreatedasoldbachelorandoldmaid,andaredebarredthe
companyoftheyoungfolks.TheladiscalledtheBridegroomofthemonthofMay.Inthealehousehe
putsoffhisgarmentofleaves,outofwhich,mixedwithflowers,hispartnerinthedancemakesa
nosegay,andwearsitatherbreastnextday,whenheleadsheragaintothealehouse.Likethisisa
RussiancustomobservedinthedistrictofNerechtaontheThursdaybeforeWhitsunday.Thegirlsgoout
intoabirchwood,windagirdleorbandroundastatelybirch,twistitslowerbranchesintoawreath,and
kisseachotherinpairsthroughthewreath.Thegirlswhokissthroughthewreathcalleachothergossips.
Thenoneofthegirlsstepsforward,andmimickingadrunkenman,flingsherselfontheground,rollson
thegrass,andfeignstofallfastasleep.Anothergirlwakensthepretendedsleeperandkisseshimthen
thewholebevytripssingingthroughthewoodtotwinegarlands,whichtheythrowintothewater.Inthe

fateofthegarlandsfloatingonthestreamtheyreadtheirown.Herethepartofthesleeperwasprobably
atonetimeplayedbyalad.IntheseFrenchandRussiancustomswehaveaforsakenbridegroom,inthe
followingaforsakenbride.OnShroveTuesdaytheSlovenesofOberkraindragastrawpuppetwith
joyouscriesupanddownthevillagethentheythrowitintothewaterorburnit,andfromtheheightof
theflamestheyjudgeoftheabundanceofthenextharvest.Thenoisycrewisfollowedbyafemale
masker,whodragsagreatboardbyastringandgivesoutthatsheisaforsakenbride.
Viewedinthelightofwhathasgonebefore,theawakeningoftheforsakensleeperintheseceremonies
probablyrepresentstherevivalofvegetationinspring.Butitisnoteasytoassigntheirrespectivepartsto
theforsakenbridegroomandtothegirlwhowakeshimfromhisslumber.Isthesleepertheleaflessforest
orthebareearthofwinter?Isthegirlwhoawakenshimthefreshverdureorthegenialsunshineof
spring?Itishardlypossible,ontheevidencebeforeus,toanswerthesequestions.
IntheHighlandsofScotlandtherevivalofvegetationinspringusedtobegraphicallyrepresentedonSt.
BridesDay,thefirstofFebruary.ThusintheHebridesthemistressandservantsofeachfamilytakea
sheafofoats,anddressitupinwomensapparel,putitinalargebasketandlayawoodenclubbyit,and
thistheycallBriidsbedandthenthemistressandservantscrythreetimes,Briidiscome,Briidis
welcome.Thistheydojustbeforegoingtobed,andwhentheyriseinthemorningtheylookamongthe
ashes,expectingtoseetheimpressionofBriidsclubtherewhichiftheydo,theyreckonitatrue
presageofagoodcropandprosperousyear,andthecontrarytheytakeasanillomen.Thesamecustom
isdescribedbyanotherwitnessthus:UponthenightbeforeCandlemasitisusualtomakeabedwith
cornandhay,overwhichsomeblanketsarelaid,inapartofthehouse,nearthedoor.Whenitisready,a
persongoesoutandrepeatsthreetimes,Bridget,Bridget,comeinthybedisready.Oneormore
candlesareleftburningnearitallnight.SimilarlyintheIsleofManontheeveofthefirstofFebruary,
afestivalwasformerlykept,called,intheMankslanguage,LaalBreeshey,inhonouroftheIrishlady
whowentovertotheIsleofMantoreceivetheveilfromSt.Maughold.Thecustomwastogathera
bundleofgreenrushes,andstandingwiththeminthehandonthethresholdofthedoor,toinvitetheholy
SaintBridgettocomeandlodgewiththemthatnight.IntheMankslanguage,theinvitationranthus:
Brede,Brede,targysmythietardynthieaymsnoghtFoshiljeeyndorrysdaBrede,aslhigdaBredee
heetstaigh.InEnglish:Bridget,Bridget,cometomyhouse,cometomyhousetonight.Openthedoor
forBridget,andletBridgetcomein.Afterthesewordswererepeated,therusheswerestrewnonthe
floorbywayofacarpetorbedforSt.Bridget.Acustomverysimilartothiswasalsoobservedinsome
oftheOutIslesoftheancientKingdomofMan.IntheseManxandHighlandceremoniesitisobvious
thatSt.Bride,orSt.Bridget,isanoldheathengoddessoffertility,disguisedinathreadbareChristian
cloak.ProbablysheisnootherthanBrigit,theCelticgoddessoffireandapparentlyofthecrops.
Oftenthemarriageofthespiritofvegetationinspring,thoughnotdirectlyrepresented,isimpliedby
namingthehumanrepresentativeofthespirit,theBride,anddressingherinweddingattire.Thusin
somevillagesofAltmarkatWhitsuntide,whiletheboysgoaboutcarryingaMaytreeorleadingaboy
envelopedinleavesandflowers,thegirlsleadabouttheMayBride,agirldressedasabridewithagreat
nosegayinherhair.Theygofromhousetohouse,theMayBridesingingasonginwhichsheasksfora
presentandtellstheinmatesofeachhousethatiftheygivehersomethingtheywillthemselveshave
somethingthewholeyearthroughbutiftheygivehernothingtheywillthemselveshavenothing.In
somepartsofWestphaliatwogirlsleadaflowercrownedgirlcalledtheWhitsuntideBridefromdoorto
door,singingasonginwhichtheyaskforeggs.

XI.TheInfluenceoftheSexesonVegetation
FROMTHEPRECEDINGexaminationofthespringandsummerfestivalsofEuropewemayinferthat
ourrudeforefatherspersonifiedthepowersofvegetationasmaleandfemale,andattempted,onthe

principleofhomoeopathicorimitativemagic,toquickenthegrowthoftreesandplantsbyrepresenting
themarriageofthesylvandeitiesinthepersonsofaKingandQueenofMay,aWhitsunBridegroomand
Bride,andsoforth.Suchrepresentationswereaccordinglynomeresymbolicorallegoricaldramas,
pastoralplaysdesignedtoamuseorinstructarusticaudience.Theywerecharmsintendedtomakethe
woodstogrowgreen,thefreshgrasstosprout,thecorntoshoot,andtheflowerstoblow.Anditwas
naturaltosupposethatthemorecloselythemockmarriageoftheleafcladorflowerdeckedmummers
apedtherealmarriageofthewoodlandsprites,themoreeffectivewouldbethecharm.Accordinglywe
mayassumewithahighdegreeofprobabilitythattheprofligacywhichnotoriouslyattendedthese
ceremonieswasatonetimenotanaccidentalexcessbutanessentialpartoftherites,andthatinthe
opinionofthosewhoperformedthemthemarriageoftreesandplantscouldnotbefertilewithoutthe
realunionofthehumansexes.AtthepresentdayitmightperhapsbevaintolookincivilisedEuropefor
customsofthissortobservedfortheexplicitpurposeofpromotingthegrowthofvegetation.Butruder
racesinotherpartsoftheworldhaveconsciouslyemployedtheintercourseofthesexesasameansto
ensurethefruitfulnessoftheearthandsomeriteswhicharestill,orweretilllately,keptupinEurope
canbereasonablyexplainedonlyasstuntedrelicsofasimilarpractice.Thefollowingfactswillmake
thisplain.
ForfourdaysbeforetheycommittedtheseedtotheearththePipilesofCentralAmericakeptapartfrom
theirwivesinorderthatonthenightbeforeplantingtheymightindulgetheirpassionstothefullest
extentcertainpersonsareevensaidtohavebeenappointedtoperformthesexualactattheverymoment
whenthefirstseedsweredepositedintheground.Theuseoftheirwivesatthattimewasindeed
enjoineduponthepeoplebythepriestsasareligiousduty,indefaultofwhichitwasnotlawfultosow
theseed.TheonlypossibleexplanationofthiscustomseemstobethattheIndiansconfusedtheprocess
bywhichhumanbeingsreproducetheirkindwiththeprocessbywhichplantsdischargethesame
function,andfanciedthatbyresortingtotheformertheyweresimultaneouslyforwardingthelatter.In
somepartsofJava,attheseasonwhenthebloomwillsoonbeontherice,thehusbandmanandhiswife
visittheirfieldsbynightandthereengageinsexualintercourseforthepurposeofpromotingthegrowth
ofthecrop.IntheLeti,Sarmata,andsomeothergroupsofislandswhichliebetweenthewesternendof
NewGuineaandthenorthernpartofAustralia,theheathenpopulationregardthesunasthemale
principlebywhomtheearthorfemaleprncipleisfertilised.TheycallhimUpuleraorMr.Sun,and
representhimundertheformofalampmadeofcoconutleaves,whichmaybeseenhangingeverywhere
intheirhousesandinthesacredfigtree.Underthetreeliesalargeflatstone,whichservesasa
sacrificialtable.Onittheheadsofslainfoeswereandarestillplacedinsomeoftheislands.Onceayear,
atthebeginningoftherainyseason,Mr.Suncomesdownintotheholyfigtreetofertilisetheearth,and
tofacilitatehisdescentaladderwithsevenrungsisconsideratelyplacedathisdisposal.Itissetupunder
thetreeandisadornedwithcarvedfiguresofthebirdswhoseshrillclarionheraldstheapproachofthe
sunintheeast.Onthisoccasionpigsanddogsaresacrificedinprofusionmenandwomenalikeindulge
inasaturnaliaandthemysticunionofthesunandtheearthisdramaticallyrepresentedinpublic,amid
songanddance,bytherealunionofthesexesunderthetree.Theobjectofthefestival,wearetold,isto
procurerain,plentyoffoodanddrink,abundanceofcattleandchildrenandrichesfromGrandfatherSun.
Theypraythathemaymakeeveryshegoattocasttwoorthreeyoung,thepeopletomultiply,thedead
pigstobereplacedbylivingpigs,theemptyricebasketstobefilled,andsoon.Andtoinducehimto
granttheirrequeststheyofferhimporkandriceandliquor,andinvitehimtofallto.IntheBabarIslands
aspecialflagishoistedatthisfestivalasasymbolofthecreativeenergyofthesunitisofwhitecotton,
aboutninefeethigh,andconsistsofthefigureofamaninanappropriateattitude.Itwouldbeunjustto
treattheseorgiesasamereoutburstofunbridledpassionnodoubttheyaredeliberatelyandsolemnly
organisedasessentialtothefertilityoftheearthandthewelfareofman.
Thesamemeanswhicharethusadoptedtostimulatethegrowthofthecropsarenaturallyemployedto
ensurethefruitfulnessoftrees.InsomepartsofAmboyna,whenthestateofthecloveplantation
indicatesthatthecropislikelytobescanty,themengonakedtotheplantationsbynight,andthereseek

tofertilisethetreespreciselyastheywouldimpregnatewomen,whileatthesametimetheycalloutfor
Morecloves!Thisissupposedtomakethetreesbearfruitmoreabundantly.
TheBagandaofCentralAfricabelievesostronglyintheintimaterelationbetweentheintercourseofthe
sexesandthefertilityofthegroundthatamongthemabarrenwifeisgenerallysentaway,becausesheis
supposedtopreventherhusbandsgardenfrombearingfruit.Onthecontrary,acouplewhohavegiven
proofofextraordinaryfertilitybybecomingtheparentsoftwinsarebelievedbytheBagandatobe
endowedwithacorrespondingpowerofincreasingthefruitfulnessoftheplantaintrees,whichfurnish
themwiththeirstaplefood.Somelittletimeafterthebirthofthetwinsaceremonyisperformed,the
objectofwhichclearlyistotransmitthereproductivevirtueoftheparentstotheplantains.Themother
liesdownonherbackinthethickgrassnearthehouseandplacesafloweroftheplantainbetweenher
legsthenherhusbandcomesandknockstheflowerawaywithhisgenitalmember.Further,theparents
gothroughthecountryperformingdancesinthegardensoffavouredfriends,apparentlyforthepurpose
ofcausingtheplantaintreestobearfruitmoreabundantly.
InvariouspartsofEuropecustomshaveprevailedbothatspringandharvestwhichareclearlybasedon
thesamecrudenotionthattherelationofthehumansexestoeachothercanbesousedastoquickenthe
growthofplants.Forexample,intheUkraineonSt.GeorgesDay(thetwentythirdofApril)thepriest
inhisrobes,attendedbyhisacolytes,goesouttothefieldsofthevillage,wherethecropsarebeginning
toshowgreenabovetheground,andblessesthem.Afterthattheyoungmarriedpeopleliedownin
couplesonthesownfieldsandrollseveraltimesoveronthem,inthebeliefthatthiswillpromotethe
growthofthecrops.InsomepartsofRussiathepriesthimselfisrolledbywomenoverthesprouting
crop,andthatwithoutregardtothemudandholeswhichhemayencounterinhisbeneficentprogress.If
theshepherdresistsorremonstrates,hisflockmurmurs,LittleFather,youdonotreallywishuswell,
youdonotwishustohavecorn,althoughyoudowishtoliveonourcorn.InsomepartsofGermanyat
harvestthemenandwomen,whohavereapedthecorn,rolltogetheronthefield.Thisagainisprobably
amitigationofanolderandrudercustomdesignedtoimpartfertilitytothefieldsbymethodslikethose
resortedtobythePipilesofCentralAmericalongagoandbythecultivatorsofriceinJavaatthepresent
time.
Tothestudentwhocarestotrackthedeviouscourseofthehumanmindinitsgropingsaftertruth,itisof
someinteresttoobservethatthesametheoreticalbeliefinthesympatheticinfluenceofthesexeson
vegetation,whichhasledsomepeoplestoindulgetheirpassionsasameansoffertilisingtheearth,has
ledotherstoseekthesameendbydirectlyoppositemeans.Fromthemomentthattheysowedthemaize
tillthetimethattheyreapedit,theIndiansofNicaragualivedchastely,keepingapartfromtheirwives
andsleepinginaseparateplace.Theyatenosalt,anddrankneithercocoanorchicha,thefermented
liquormadefrommaizeinshorttheseasonwasforthem,astheSpanishhistorianobserves,atimeof
abstinence.TothisdaysomeoftheIndiantribesofCentralAmericapractisecontinenceforthepurpose
oftherebypromotingthegrowthofthecrops.ThuswearetoldthatbeforesowingthemaizetheKekchi
Indianssleepapartfromtheirwives,andeatnofleshforfivedays,whileamongtheLanquinerosand
Cajabonerostheperiodofabstinencefromthesecarnalpleasuresextendstothirteendays.Soamongst
someoftheGermansofTransylvaniaitisarulethatnomanmaysleepwithhiswifeduringthewholeof
thetimethatheisengagedinsowinghisfields.ThesameruleisobservedatKalotaszeginHungarythe
peoplethinkthatifthecustomwerenotobservedthecornwouldbemildewed.SimilarlyaCentral
AustralianheadmanoftheKaitishtribestrictlyabstainsfrommaritalrelationswithhiswifeallthetime
thatheisperformingmagicalceremoniestomakethegrassgrowforhebelievesthatabreachofthis
rulewouldpreventthegrassseedfromsproutingproperly.InsomeoftheMelanesianislands,whenthe
yamvinesarebeingtrained,themensleepnearthegardensandneverapproachtheirwivesshouldthey
enterthegardenafterbreakingthisruleofcontinencethefruitsofthegardenwouldbespoilt.
Ifweaskwhyitisthatsimilarbeliefsshouldlogicallylead,amongdifferentpeoples,tosuchopposite

modesofconductasstrictchastityandmoreorlessopendebauchery,thereason,asitpresentsitselfto
theprimitivemind,isperhapsnotveryfartoseek.Ifrudemanidentifieshimself,inamanner,with
natureifhefailstodistinguishtheimpulsesandprocessesinhimselffromthemethodswhichnature
adoptstoensurethereproductionofplantsandanimals,hemayleaptooneoftwoconclusions.Eitherhe
mayinferthatbyyieldingtohisappetiteshewilltherebyassistinthemultiplicationofplantsand
animalsorhemayimaginethatthevigourwhichherefusestoexpendinreproducinghisownkind,will
formasitwereastoreofenergywherebyothercreatures,whethervegetableoranimal,willsomehow
benefitinpropagatingtheirspecies.Thusfromthesamecrudephilosophy,thesameprimitivenotionsof
natureandlife,thesavagemayderivebydifferentchannelsaruleeitherofprofligacyorofasceticism.
ToreadersbredinreligionwhichissaturatedwiththeasceticidealismoftheEast,theexplanationwhich
Ihavegivenoftheruleofcontinenceobservedundercertaincircumstancesbyrudeorsavagepeoples
mayseemfarfetchedandimprobable.Theymaythinkthatmoralpurity,whichissointimately
associatedintheirmindswiththeobservanceofsucharule,furnishesasufficientexplanationofitthey
mayholdwithMiltonthatchastityinitselfisanoblevirtue,andthattherestraintwhichitimposeson
oneofthestrongestimpulsesofouranimalnaturemarksoutthosewhocansubmittoitasmenraised
abovethecommonherd,andthereforeworthytoreceivethesealofthedivineapprobation.However
naturalthismodeofthoughtmayseemtous,itisutterlyforeignandindeedincomprehensibletothe
savage.Ifheresistsonoccasionthesexualinstinct,itisfromnohighidealism,noetherealaspiration
aftermoralpurity,butforthesakeofsomeulterioryetperfectlydefiniteandconcreteobject,togain
whichheispreparedtosacrificetheimmediategratificationofhissenses.Thatthisisormaybeso,the
examplesIhavecitedareamplysufficienttoprove.Theyshowthatwheretheinstinctofself
preservation,whichmanifestsitselfchieflyinthesearchforfood,conflictsorappearstoconflictwiththe
instinctwhichconducestothepropagationofthespecies,theformerinstinct,astheprimaryandmore
fundamental,iscapableofovermasteringthelatter.Inshort,thesavageiswillingtorestrainhissexual
propensityforthesakeoffood.Anotherobjectforthesakeofwhichheconsentstoexercisethesame
selfrestraintisvictoryinwar.Notonlythewarriorinthefieldbuthisfriendsathomewilloftenbridle
theirsensualappetitesfromabeliefthatbysodoingtheywillthemoreeasilyovercometheirenemies.
Thefallacyofsuchabelief,likethebeliefthatthechastityofthesowerconducestothegrowthofthe
seed,isplainenoughtousyetperhapstheselfrestraintwhichtheseandthelikebeliefs,vainandfalse
astheyare,haveimposedonmankind,hasnotbeenwithoutitsutilityinbracingandstrengtheningthe
breed.Forstrengthofcharacterintheraceasintheindividualconsistsmainlyinthepowerofsacrificing
thepresenttothefuture,ofdisregardingtheimmediatetemptationsofephemeralpleasureformore
distantandlastingsourcesofsatisfaction.Themorethepowerisexercisedthehigherandstronger
becomesthecharactertilltheheightofheroismisreachedinmenwhorenouncethepleasuresoflifeand
evenlifeitselfforthesakeofkeepingorwinningforothers,perhapsindistantages,theblessingsof
freedomandtruth.

XII.TheSacredMarriage
1.DianaasaGoddessofFertility
WEhaveseenthataccordingtoawidespreadbelief,whichisnotwithoutafoundationinfact,plants
reproducetheirkindsthroughthesexualunionofmaleandfemaleelements,andthatontheprincipleof
homoeopathicorimitativemagicthisreproductionissupposedtobestimulatedbytherealormock
marriageofmenandwomen,whomasqueradeforthetimebeingasspiritsofvegetation.Suchmagical
dramashaveplayedagreatpartinthepopularfestivalsofEurope,andbasedastheyareonaverycrude
conceptionofnaturallaw,itisclearthattheymusthavebeenhandeddownfromaremoteantiquity.We
shallhardly,therefore,errinassumingthattheydatefromatimewhentheforefathersofthecivilised
nationsofEuropewerestillbarbarians,herdingtheircattleandcultivatingpatchesofcorninthe

clearingsofthevastforests,whichthencoveredthegreaterpartofthecontinent,fromtheMediterranean
totheArcticOcean.Butiftheseoldspellsandenchantmentsforthegrowthofleavesandblossoms,of
grassandflowersandfruit,havelingereddowntoourowntimeintheshapeofpastoralplaysand
popularmerrymakings,isitnotreasonabletosupposethattheysurvivedinlessattenuatedformssome
twothousandyearsagoamongthecivilisedpeoplesofantiquity?Or,toputitotherwise,isitnotlikely
thatincertainfestivalsoftheancientswemaybeabletodetecttheequivalentsofourMayDay,
Whitsuntide,andMidsummercelebrations,withthisdifference,thatinthosedaystheceremonieshadnot
yetdwindledintomereshowsandpageants,butwerestillreligiousormagicalrites,inwhichtheactors
consciouslysupportedthehighpartsofgodsandgoddesses?Nowinthefirstchapterofthisbookwe
foundreasontobelievethatthepriestwhoborethetitleofKingoftheWoodatNemihadforhismate
thegoddessofthegrove,Dianaherself.Maynotheandshe,asKingandQueenoftheWood,havebeen
seriouscounterpartsofthemerrymummerswhoplaytheKingandQueenofMay,theWhitsuntide
BridegroomandBrideinmodernEurope?andmaynottheirunionhavebeenyearlycelebratedina
theogamyordivinemarriage?Suchdramaticweddingsofgodsandgoddesses,asweshallseepresently,
werecarriedoutassolemnreligiousritesinmanypartsoftheancientworldhencethereisnointrinsic
improbabilityinthesuppositionthatthesacredgroveatNemimayhavebeenthesceneofanannual
ceremonyofthissort.Directevidencethatitwassothereisnone,butanalogypleadsinfavourofthe
view,asIshallnowendeavourtoshow.
Dianawasessentiallyagoddessofthewoodlands,asCereswasagoddessofthecornandBacchusagod
ofthevine.Hersanctuarieswerecommonlyingroves,indeedeverygrovewassacredtoher,andsheis
oftenassociatedwiththeforestgodSilvanusindedications.Butwhateverheroriginmayhavebeen,
Dianawasnotalwaysameregoddessoftrees.LikeherGreeksisterArtemis,sheappearstohave
developedintoapersonificationoftheteeminglifeofnature,bothanimalandvegetable.Asmistressof
thegreenwoodshewouldnaturallybethoughttoownthebeasts,whetherwildortame,thatranged
throughit,lurkingfortheirpreyinitsgloomydepths,munchingthefreshleavesandshootsamongthe
boughs,orcroppingtheherbageintheopengladesanddells.Thusshemightcometobethepatron
goddessbothofhuntersandherdsmen,justasSilvanuswasthegodnotonlyofwoods,butofcattle.
SimilarlyinFinlandthewildbeastsoftheforestwereregardedastheherdsofthewoodlandgodTapio
andofhisstatelyandbeautifulwife.Nomanmightslayoneoftheseanimalswithoutthegracious
permissionoftheirdivineowners.Hencethehunterprayedtothesylvandeities,andvowedrich
offeringstothemiftheywoulddrivethegameacrosshispath.Andcattlealsoseemtohaveenjoyedthe
protectionofthosespiritsofthewoods,bothwhentheywereintheirstallsandwhiletheystrayedinthe
forest.BeforetheGayosofSumatrahuntdeer,wildgoats,orwildpigswithhoundsinthewoods,they
deemitnecessarytoobtaintheleaveoftheunseenLordoftheforest.Thisisdoneaccordingtoa
prescribedformbyamanwhohasspecialskillinwoodcraft.Helaysdownaquidofbetelbeforeastake
whichiscutinaparticularwaytorepresenttheLordoftheWood,andhavingdonesohepraystothe
spirittosignifyhisconsentorrefusal.Inhistreatiseonhunting,ArriantellsusthattheCeltsusedto
offeranannualsacrificetoArtemisonherbirthday,purchasingthesacrificialvictimwiththefineswhich
theyhadpaidintohertreasuryforeveryfox,hare,androethattheyhadkilledinthecourseoftheyear.
Thecustomclearlyimpliedthatthewildbeastsbelongedtothegoddess,andthatshemustbe
compensatedfortheirslaughter.
ButDianawasnotmerelyapatronessofwildbeasts,amistressofwoodsandhills,oflonelygladesand
soundingriversconceivedasthemoon,andespecially,itwouldseem,astheyellowharvestmoon,she
filledthefarmersgrangewithgoodlyfruits,andheardtheprayersofwomenintravail.Inhersacred
groveatNemi,aswehaveseen,shewasespeciallyworshippedasagoddessofchildbirth,whobestowed
offspringonmenandwomen.ThusDiana,liketheGreekArtemis,withwhomshewasconstantly
identified,maybedescribedasagoddessofnatureingeneralandoffertilityinparticular.Weneednot
wonder,therefore,thatinhersanctuaryontheAventineshewasrepresentedbyanimagecopiedfrom
themanybreastedidoloftheEphesianArtemis,withallitscrowdedemblemsofexuberantfecundity.

HencetoowecanunderstandwhyanancientRomanlaw,attributedtoKingTullusHostilius,prescribed
that,whenincesthadbeencommitted,anexpiatorysacrificeshouldbeofferedbythepontiffsinthe
groveofDiana.Forweknowthatthecrimeofincestiscommonlysupposedtocauseadearthhenceit
wouldbemeetthatatonementfortheoffenceshouldbemadetothegoddessoffertility.
Nowontheprinciplethatthegoddessoffertilitymustherselfbefertile,itbehovedDianatohaveamale
partner.Hermate,ifthetestimonyofServiusmaybetrusted,wasthatVirbiuswhohadhis
representative,orperhapsratherhisembodiment,intheKingoftheWoodatNemi.Theaimoftheir
unionwouldbetopromotethefruitfulnessoftheearth,ofanimals,andofmankindanditmight
naturallybethoughtthatthisobjectwouldbemoresurelyattainedifthesacrednuptialswerecelebrated
everyyear,thepartsofthedivinebrideandbridegroombeingplayedeitherbytheirimagesorbyliving
persons.NoancientwritermentionsthatthiswasdoneinthegroveatNemibutourknowledgeofthe
Aricianritualissoscantythatthewantofinformationonthisheadcanhardlycountasafatalobjection
tothetheory.Thattheory,intheabsenceofdirectevidence,mustnecessarilybebasedontheanalogyof
similarcustomspractisedelsewhere.Somemodernexamplesofsuchcustoms,moreorlessdegenerate,
weredescribedinthelastchapter.Hereweshallconsidertheirancientcounterparts.
2.TheMarriageoftheGods
ATBABYLONtheimposingsanctuaryofBelroselikeapyramidabovethecityinaseriesofeight
towersorstories,plantedoneonthetopoftheother.Onthehighesttower,reachedbyanascentwhich
woundaboutalltherest,therestoodaspacioustemple,andinthetempleagreatbed,magnificently
drapedandcushioned,withagoldentablebesideit.Inthetemplenoimagewastobeseen,andno
humanbeingpassedthenightthere,saveasinglewoman,whom,accordingtotheChaldeanpriests,the
godchosefromamongallthewomenofBabylon.Theysaidthatthedeityhimselfcameintothetemple
atnightandsleptinthegreatbedandthewoman,asaconsortofthegod,mighthavenointercourse
withmortalman.
AtThebesinEgyptawomansleptinthetempleofAmmonastheconsortofthegod,and,likethe
humanwifeofBelatBabylon,shewassaidtohavenocommercewithaman.InEgyptiantextssheis
oftenmentionedasthedivineconsort,andusuallyshewasnolessapersonagethantheQueenof
Egyptherself.For,accordingtotheEgyptians,theirmonarchswereactuallybegottenbythegod
Ammon,whoassumedforthetimebeingtheformofthereigningking,andinthatdisguisehad
intercoursewiththequeen.Thedivineprocreationiscarvedandpaintedingreatdetailonthewallsof
twooftheoldesttemplesinEgypt,thoseofDeirelBahariandLuxorandtheinscriptionsattachedtothe
paintingsleavenodoubtastothemeaningofthescenes.
AtAthensthegodofthevine,Dionysus,wasannuallymarriedtotheQueen,anditappearsthatthe
consummationofthedivineunion,aswellastheespousals,wasenactedattheceremonybutwhether
thepartofthegodwasplayedbyamanoranimagewedonotknow.WelearnfromAristotlethatthe
ceremonytookplaceintheoldofficialresidenceoftheKing,knownastheCattlestall,whichstoodnear
thePrytaneumorTownhallonthenortheasternslopeoftheAcropolis.Theobjectofthemarriagecan
hardlyhavebeenanyotherthanthatofensuringthefertilityofthevinesandotherfruittreesofwhich
Dionysuswasthegod.Thusbothinformandinmeaningtheceremonywouldanswertothenuptialsof
theKingandQueenofMay.
InthegreatmysteriessolemnisedatEleusisinthemonthofSeptembertheunionoftheskygodZeus
withthecorngoddessDemeterappearstohavebeenrepresentedbytheunionofthehierophantwiththe
priestessofDemeter,whoactedthepartsofgodandgoddess.Buttheirintercoursewasonlydramaticor
symbolical,forthehierophanthadtemporarilydeprivedhimselfofhisvirilitybyanapplicationof
hemlock.Thetorcheshavingbeenextinguished,thepairdescendedintoamurkyplace,whilethethrong

ofworshippersawaitedinanxioussuspensetheresultofthemysticcongress,onwhichtheybelieved
theirownsalvationtodepend.Afteratimethehierophantreappeared,andinablazeoflightsilently
exhibitedtotheassemblyareapedearofcorn,thefruitofthedivinemarriage.Theninaloudvoicehe
proclaimed,QueenBrimohasbroughtforthasacredboyBrimos,bywhichhemeant,TheMighty
OnehasbroughtforththeMighty.Thecornmotherinfacthadgivenbirthtoherchild,thecorn,andher
travailpangswereenactedinthesacreddrama.Thisrevelationofthereapedcornappearstohavebeen
thecrowningactofthemysteries.Thusthroughtheglamourshedroundtheseritesbythepoetryand
philosophyoflateragestherestilllooms,likeadistantlandscapethroughasunlithaze,asimplerustic
festivaldesignedtocoverthewideEleusinianplainwithaplenteousharvestbyweddingthegoddessof
thecorntotheskygod,whofertilisedthebareearthwithgenialshowers.Everyfewyearsthepeopleof
Plataea,inBoeotia,heldafestivalcalledtheLittleDaedala,atwhichtheyfelledanoaktreeinanancient
oakforest.Outofthetreetheycarvedanimage,andhavingdresseditasabride,theysetitonabullock
cartwithabridesmaidbesideit.Theimageseemsthentohavebeendrawntothebankoftheriver
Asopusandbacktothetown,attendedbyapipinganddancingcrowd.Everysixtyyearsthefestivalof
theGreatDaedalawascelebratedbyallthepeopleofBoeotiaandatitalltheimages,fourteenin
number,whichhadaccumulatedatthelesserfestivals,weredraggedonwainsinprocessiontotheriver
AsopusandthentothetopofMountCithaeron,wheretheywereburntonagreatpyre.Thestorytoldto
explainthefestivalssuggeststhattheycelebratedthemarriageofZeustoHera,representedbytheoaken
imageinbridalarray.InSwedeneveryyearalifesizeimageofFrey,thegodoffertility,bothanimal
andvegetable,wasdrawnaboutthecountryinawaggonattendedbyabeautifulgirlwhowascalledthe
godswife.SheactedalsoashispriestessinhisgreattempleatUpsala.Whereverthewaggoncamewith
theimageofthegodandhisbloomingyoungbride,thepeoplecrowdedtomeetthemandoffered
sacrificesforafruitfulyear.
Thusthecustomofmarryinggodseithertoimagesortohumanbeingswaswidespreadamongthe
nationsofantiquity.Theideasonwhichsuchacustomisbasedaretoocrudetoallowustodoubtthat
thecivilisedBabylonians,Egyptians,andGreeksinheriteditfromtheirbarbarousorsavageforefathers.
Thispresumptionisstrengthenedwhenwefindritesofasimilarkindinvogueamongthelowerraces.
Thus,forexample,wearetoldthatonceuponatimetheWotyaksoftheMalmyzdistrictinRussiawere
distressedbyaseriesofbadharvests.Theydidnotknowwhattodo,butatlastconcludedthattheir
powerfulbutmischieviousgodKeremetmustbeangryatbeingunmarried.Soadeputationofelders
visitedtheWotyaksofCuraandcametoanunderstandingwiththemonthesubject.Thentheyreturned
home,laidinalargestockofbrandy,andhavingmadereadyagailydeckedwaggonandhorses,they
droveinprocessionwithbellsringing,astheydowhentheyarefetchinghomeabride,tothesacred
groveatCura.Theretheyateanddrankmerrilyallnight,andnextmorningtheycutasquarepieceof
turfinthegroveandtookithomewiththem.Afterthat,thoughitfaredwellwiththepeopleofMalmyz,
itfaredillwiththepeopleofCuraforinMalmyzthebreadwasgood,butinCuraitwasbad.Hencethe
menofCurawhohadconsentedtothemarriagewereblamedandroughlyhandledbytheirindignant
fellowvillagers.Whattheymeantbythismarriageceremony,saysthewriterwhoreportsit,itisnot
easytoimagine.Perhaps,asBechterewthinks,theymeanttomarryKeremettothekindlyandfruitful
Mukylcin,theEarthwife,inorderthatshemightinfluencehimforgood.Whenwellsaredugin
Bengal,awoodenimageofagodismadeandmarriedtothegoddessofwater.
Oftenthebridedestinedforthegodisnotalogoracloud,butalivingwomanoffleshandblood.The
IndiansofavillageinPeruhavebeenknowntomarryabeautifulgirl,aboutfourteenyearsofage,toa
stoneshapedlikeahumanbeing,whichtheyregardedasagod(huaca).Allthevillagerstookpartinthe
marriageceremony,whichlastedthreedays,andwasattendedwithmuchrevelry.Thegirlthereafter
remainedavirginandsacrificedtotheidolforthepeople.Theyshowedhertheutmostreverenceand
deemedherdivine.EveryyearaboutthemiddleofMarch,whentheseasonforfishingwiththedragnet
began,theAlgonquinsandHuronsmarriedtheirnetstotwoyounggirls,agedsixorseven.Atthe
weddingfeastthenetwasplacedbetweenthetwomaidens,andwasexhortedtotakecourageandcatch

manyfish.Thereasonforchoosingthebridessoyoungwastomakesurethattheywerevirgins.The
originofthecustomissaidtohavebeenthis.Oneyear,whenthefishingseasoncameround,the
Algonquinscasttheirnetsasusual,buttooknothing.Surprisedattheirwantofsuccess,theydidnot
knowwhattomakeofit,tillthesoulorgenius(oki)ofthenetappearedtotheminthelikenessofatall
wellbuiltman,whosaidtotheminagreatpassion,IhavelostmywifeandIcannotfindonewhohas
knownnoothermanbutmethatiswhyyoudonotsucceed,andwhyyouneverwillsucceedtillyou
givemesatisfactiononthishead.SotheAlgonquinsheldacouncilandresolvedtoappeasethespiritof
thenetbymarryinghimtotwosuchveryyounggirlsthathecouldhavenogroundofcomplaintonthat
scoreforthefuture.Theydidso,andthefishingturnedoutallthatcouldbewished.Thethinggotwind
amongtheirneighbourstheHurons,andtheyadoptedthecustom.Ashareofthecatchwasalwaysgiven
tothefamiliesofthetwogirlswhoactedasbridesofthenetfortheyear.
TheOraonsofBengalworshiptheEarthasagoddess,andannuallycelebratehermarriagewiththeSun
godDharmeatthetimewhenthesaltreeisinblossom.Theceremonyisasfollows.Allbathe,then
themenrepairtothesacredgrove(sarna),whilethewomenassembleatthehouseofthevillagepriest.
AftersacrificingsomefowlstotheSungodandthedemonofthegrove,themeneatanddrink.The
priestisthencarriedbacktothevillageontheshouldersofastrongman.Nearthevillagethewomen
meetthemenandwashtheirfeet.Withbeatingofdrumsandsinging,dancing,andjumping,allproceed
tothepriestshouse,whichhasbeendecoratedwithleavesandflowers.Thentheusualformofmarriage
isperformedbetweenthepriestandhiswife,symbolisingthesupposedunionbetweenSunandEarth.
Aftertheceremonyalleatanddrinkandmakemerrytheydanceandsingobscenesongs,andfinally
indulgeinthevilestorgies.Theobjectistomovethemotherearthtobecomefruitful.ThustheSacred
MarriageoftheSunandEarth,personatedbythepriestandhiswife,iscelebratedasacharmtoensure
thefertilityofthegroundandforthesamepurpose,ontheprincipleofhomoeopathicmagic,thepeople
indulgeinlicentiousorgy.
Itdeservestoberemarkedthatthesupernaturalbeingtowhomwomenaremarriedisoftenagodorspirit
ofwater.ThusMukasa,thegodoftheVictoriaNyanzalake,whowaspropitiatedbytheBagandaevery
timetheyundertookalongvoyage,hadvirginsprovidedforhimtoserveashiswives.LiketheVestals
theywereboundtochastity,butunliketheVestalstheyseemtohavebeenoftenunfaithful.Thecustom
lasteduntilMwangawasconvertedtoChristianity.TheAkikuyuofBritishEastAfricaworshipthesnake
ofacertainriver,andatintervalsofseveralyearstheymarrythesnakegodtowomen,butespeciallyto
younggirls.Forthispurposehutsarebuiltbyorderofthemedicinemen,whothereconsummatethe
sacredmarriagewiththecredulousfemaledevotees.Ifthegirlsdonotrepairtothehutsoftheirown
accordinsufficientnumbers,theyareseizedanddraggedthithertotheembracesofthedeity.The
offspringofthesemysticunionsappearstobefatheredonGod(ngai)certainlytherearechildrenamong
theAkikuyuwhopassforchildrenofGod.Itissaidthatonce,whentheinhabitantsofCayeliinBuru
anEastIndianislandwerethreatenedwithdestructionbyaswarmofcrocodiles,theyascribedthe
misfortunetoapassionwhichtheprinceofthecrocodileshadconceivedforacertaingirl.Accordingly,
theycompelledthedamselsfathertodressherinbridalarrayanddeliverherovertotheclutchesofher
crocodilelover.
AusageofthesamesortisreportedtohaveprevailedintheMaldiveIslandsbeforetheconversionofthe
inhabitantstoIslam.ThefamousArabtravellerIbnBatutahhasdescribedthecustomandthemannerin
whichitcametoanend.Hewasassuredbyseveraltrustworthynatives,whosenameshegives,that
whenthepeopleoftheislandswereidolatersthereappearedtothemeverymonthanevilspiritamong
thejinn,whocamefromacrosstheseainthelikenessofashipfullofburninglamps.Thewontofthe
inhabitants,assoonastheyperceivedhim,wastotakeayoungvirgin,and,havingadornedher,tolead
hertoaheathentemplethatstoodontheshore,withawindowlookingouttosea.Theretheyleftthe
damselforthenight,andwhentheycamebackinthemorningtheyfoundheramaidnomore,anddead.
Everymonththeydrewlots,andheuponwhomthelotfellgaveuphisdaughtertothejinneeofthesea.

ThelastofthemaidensthusofferedtothedemonwasrescuedbyapiousBerber,whobyrecitingthe
Koransucceededindrivingthejinneebackintothesea.
IbnBatutahsnarrativeofthedemonloverandhismortalbridescloselyresemblesawellknowntypeof
folktale,ofwhichversionshavebeenfoundfromJapanandAnnamintheEasttoSenegambia,
Scandinavia,andScotlandintheWest.Thestoryvariesindetailsfrompeopletopeople,butas
commonlytolditrunsthus.Acertaincountryisinfestedbyamanyheadedserpent,dragon,orother
monster,whichwoulddestroythewholepeopleifahumanvictim,generallyavirgin,werenotdelivered
uptohimperiodically.Manyvictimshaveperished,andatlastithasfallentothelotofthekingsown
daughtertobesacrificed.Sheisexposedtothemonster,buttheheroofthetale,generallyayoungman
ofhumblebirth,interposesinherbehalf,slaysthemonster,andreceivesthehandoftheprincessashis
reward.Inmanyofthetalesthemonster,whoissometimesdescribedasaserpent,inhabitsthewaterofa
sea,alake,orafountain.Inotherversionsheisaserpentordragonwhotakespossessionofthesprings
ofwater,andonlyallowsthewatertofloworthepeopletomakeuseofitonconditionofreceivinga
humanvictim.
Itwouldprobablybeamistaketodismissallthesetalesaspureinventionsofthestoryteller.Ratherwe
maysupposethattheyreflectarealcustomofsacrificinggirlsorwomentobethewivesofwaterspirits,
whoareveryoftenconceivedasgreatserpentsordragons.

XIII.TheKingsofRomeandAlba
1.NumaandEgeria
FROMTHEFOREGOINGsurveyofcustomandlegendwemayinferthatthesacredmarriageofthe
powersbothofvegetationandofwaterhasbeencelebratedbymanypeoplesforthesakeofpromoting
thefertilityoftheearth,onwhichthelifeofanimalsandmenultimatelydepends,andthatinsuchrites
thepartofthedivinebridegroomorbrideisoftensustainedbyamanorwoman.Theevidencemay,
therefore,lendsomecountenancetotheconjecturethatinthesacredgroveatNemi,wherethepowersof
vegetationandofwatermanifestedthemselvesinthefairformsofshadywoods,tumblingcascades,and
glassylake,amarriagelikethatofourKingandQueenofMaywasannuallycelebratedbetweenthe
mortalKingoftheWoodandtheimmortalQueenoftheWood,Diana.Inthisconnexionanimportant
figureinthegrovewasthewaternymphEgeria,whowasworshippedbypregnantwomenbecauseshe,
likeDiana,couldgrantthemaneasydelivery.Fromthisitseemsfairlysafetoconcludethat,likemany
othersprings,thewaterofEgeriawascreditedwithapoweroffacilitatingconceptionaswellasdelivery.
Thevotiveofferingsfoundonthespot,whichclearlyrefertothebegettingofchildren,maypossibly
havebeendedicatedtoEgeriaratherthantoDiana,orperhapsweshouldrathersaythatthewaternymph
EgeriaisonlyanotherformofthegreatnaturegoddessDianaherself,themistressofsoundingriversas
wellasofumbrageouswoods,whohadherhomebythelakeandhermirrorinitscalmwaters,and
whoseGreekcounterpartArtemislovedtohauntmeresandsprings.TheidentificationofEgeriawith
DianaisconfirmedbyastatementofPlutarchthatEgeriawasoneoftheoaknymphswhomtheRomans
believedtopresideovereverygreenoakgrovefor,whileDianawasagoddessofthewoodlandsin
general,sheappearstohavebeenintimatelyassociatedwithoaksinparticular,especiallyathersacred
groveofNemi.Perhaps,then,Egeriawasthefairyofaspringthatflowedfromtherootsofasacredoak.
SuchaspringissaidtohavegushedfromthefootofthegreatoakatDodona,andfromitsmurmurous
flowthepriestessdreworacles.AmongtheGreeksadraughtofwaterfromcertainsacredspringsor
wellswassupposedtoconferpropheticpowers.Thiswouldexplainthemorethanmortalwisdomwith
which,accordingtotradition,EgeriainspiredherroyalhusbandorloverNuma.Whenwerememberhow
veryofteninearlysocietythekingisheldresponsibleforthefallofrainandthefruitfulnessoftheearth,
itseemshardlyrashtoconjecturethatinthelegendofthenuptialsofNumaandEgeriawehavea

reminiscenceofasacredmarriagewhichtheoldRomankingsregularlycontractedwithagoddessof
vegetationandwaterforthepurposeofenablinghimtodischargehisdivineormagicalfunctions.In
sucharitethepartofthegoddessmightbeplayedeitherbyanimageorawoman,andifbyawoman,
probablybytheQueen.Ifthereisanytruthinthisconjecture,wemaysupposethattheKingandQueen
ofRomemasqueradedasgodandgoddessattheirmarriage,exactlyastheKingandQueenofEgypt
appeartohavedone.ThelegendofNumaandEgeriapointstoasacredgroveratherthantoahouseas
thesceneofthenuptialunion,which,likethemarriageoftheKingandQueenofMay,orofthevinegod
andtheQueenofAthens,mayhavebeenannuallycelebratedasacharmtoensurethefertilitynotonlyof
theearthbutofmanandbeast.Now,accordingtosomeaccounts,thesceneofthemarriagewasnoother
thanthesacredgroveofNemi,andonquiteindependentgroundswehavebeenledtosupposethatin
thatsamegrovetheKingoftheWoodwasweddedtoDiana.Theconvergenceofthetwodistinctlinesof
enquirysuggeststhatthelegendaryunionoftheRomankingwithEgeriamayhavebeenareflectionor
duplicateoftheunionoftheKingoftheWoodwithEgeriaorherdoubleDiana.Thisdoesnotimplythat
theRomankingseverservedasKingsoftheWoodintheAriciangrove,butonlythattheymay
originallyhavebeeninvestedwithasacredcharacterofthesamegeneralkind,andmayhaveheldoffice
onsimilarterms.Tobemoreexplicit,itispossiblethattheyreigned,notbyrightofbirth,butinvirtueof
theirsupposeddivinityasrepresentativesorembodimentsofagod,andthatassuchtheymatedwitha
goddess,andhadtoprovetheirfitnessfromtimetotimetodischargetheirdivinefunctionsbyengaging
inaseverebodilystruggle,whichmayoftenhaveprovedfataltothem,leavingthecrowntotheir
victoriousadversary.OurknowledgeoftheRomankingshipisfartooscantytoallowustoaffirmany
oneofthesepropositionswithconfidencebutatleasttherearesomescatteredhintsorindicationsofa
similarityinalltheserespectsbetweenthepriestsofNemiandthekingsofRome,orperhapsrather
betweentheirremotepredecessorsinthedarkageswhichprecededthedawnoflegend.
2.TheKingasJupiter
INTHEFIRSTplace,then,itwouldseemthattheRomankingpersonatednolessadeitythanJupiter
himself.Fordowntoimperialtimesvictoriousgeneralscelebratingatriumph,andmagistratespresiding
atthegamesintheCircus,worethecostumeofJupiter,whichwasborrowedfortheoccasionfromhis
greattempleontheCapitolandithasbeenheldwithahighdegreeofprobabilitybothbyancientsand
modernsthatinsodoingtheycopiedthetraditionaryattireandinsigniaoftheRomankings.Theyrodea
chariotdrawnbyfourlaurelcrownedhorsesthroughthecity,whereeveryoneelsewentonfoot:they
worepurplerobesembroideredorspangledwithgold:intherighthandtheyboreabranchoflaurel,and
inthelefthandanivorysceptretoppedwithaneagle:awreathoflaurelcrownedtheirbrows:theirface
wasreddenedwithvermilionandovertheirheadaslaveheldaheavycrownofmassygoldfashionedin
thelikenessofoakleaves.Inthisattiretheassimilationofthemantothegodcomesoutaboveallinthe
eagletoppedsceptre,theoakencrown,andthereddenedface.FortheeaglewasthebirdofJove,theoak
washissacredtree,andthefaceofhisimagestandinginhisfourhorsechariotontheCapitolwasinlike
mannerregularlydyedredonfestivalsindeed,soimportantwasitdeemedtokeepthedivinefeatures
properlyrougedthatoneofthefirstdutiesofthecensorswastocontractforhavingthisdone.Asthe
triumphalprocessionalwaysendedinthetempleofJupiterontheCapitol,itwaspeculiarlyappropriate
thattheheadofthevictorshouldbegracedbyacrownofoakleaves,fornotonlywaseveryoak
consecratedtoJupiter,buttheCapitolinetempleofthegodwassaidtohavebeenbuiltbyRomulus
besideasacredoak,veneratedbyshepherds,towhichthekingattachedthespoilswonbyhimfromthe
enemysgeneralinbattle.WeareexpresslytoldthattheoakcrownwassacredtoCapitolineJupitera
passageofOvidprovesthatitwasregardedasthegodsspecialemblem.
Accordingtoatraditionwhichwehavenoreasontoreject,RomewasfoundedbysettlersfromAlba
Longa,acitysituatedontheslopeoftheAlbanhills,overlookingthelakeandtheCampagna.Henceif
theRomankingsclaimedtoberepresentativesorembodimentsofJupiter,thegodofthesky,ofthe

thunder,andoftheoak,itisnaturaltosupposethatthekingsofAlba,fromwhomthefounderofRome
tracedhisdescent,mayhavesetupthesameclaimbeforethem.NowtheAlbandynastyborethename
ofSilviiorWood,anditcanhardlybewithoutsignificancethatinthevisionofthehistoricgloriesof
RomerevealedtoAeneasintheunderworld,Virgil,anantiquaryaswellasapoet,shouldrepresentall
thelineofSilviiascrownedwithoak.Achapletofoakleaveswouldthusseemtohavebeenpartofthe
insigniaoftheoldkingsofAlbaLongaasoftheirsuccessorsthekingsofRomeinbothcasesitmarked
themonarchasthehumanrepresentativeoftheoakgod.TheRomanannalsrecordthatoneofthekings
ofAlba,Romulus,Remulus,orAmuliusSilviusbyname,setupforbeingagodinhisownperson,the
equalorsuperiorofJupiter.Tosupporthispretensionsandoverawehissubjects,heconstructed
machineswherebyhemimickedtheclapofthunderandtheflashoflightning.Diodorusrelatesthatin
theseasonoffruitage,whenthunderisloudandfrequent,thekingcommandedhissoldierstodrownthe
roarofheavensartillerybyclashingtheirswordsagainsttheirshields.Buthepaidthepenaltyofhis
impiety,forheperished,heandhishouse,struckbyathunderboltinthemidstofadreadfulstorm.
Swollenbytherain,theAlbanlakeroseinfloodanddrownedhispalace.Butstill,saysanancient
historian,whenthewaterislowandthesurfaceunruffledbyabreeze,youmayseetheruinsofthe
palaceatthebottomoftheclearlake.TakenalongwiththesimilarstoryofSalmoneus,kingofElis,this
legendpointstoarealcustomobservedbytheearlykingsofGreeceandItaly,who,liketheirfellowsin
Africadowntomoderntimes,mayhavebeenexpectedtoproducerainandthunderforthegoodofthe
crops.ThepriestlykingNumapassedforanadeptintheartofdrawingdownlightningfromthesky.
Mockthunder,weknow,hasbeenmadebyvariouspeoplesasaraincharminmoderntimeswhyshould
itnothavebeenmadebykingsinantiquity?
Thus,ifthekingsofAlbaandRomeimitatedJupiterasgodoftheoakbywearingacrownofoakleaves,
theyseemalsotohavecopiedhiminhischaracterofaweathergodbypretendingtomakethunderand
lightning.Andiftheydidso,itisprobablethat,likeJupiterinheavenandmanykingsonearth,theyalso
actedaspublicrainmakers,wringingshowersfromthedarkskybytheirenchantmentswheneverthe
parchedearthcriedoutfortherefreshingmoisture.AtRomethesluicesofheavenwereopenedbymeans
ofasacredstone,andtheceremonyappearstohaveformedpartoftheritualofJupiterElicius,thegod
whoelicitsfromthecloudstheflashinglightningandthedrippingrain.Andwhosowellfittedto
performtheceremonyastheking,thelivingrepresentativeoftheskygod?
IfthekingsofRomeapedCapitolineJove,theirpredecessorsthekingsofAlbaprobablylaidthemselves
outtomimicthegreatLatianJupiter,whohadhisseatabovethecityonthesummitoftheAlban
Mountain.Latinus,thelegendaryancestorofthedynasty,wassaidtohavebeenchangedintoLatian
JupiteraftervanishingfromtheworldinthemysteriousfashioncharacteristicoftheoldLatinkings.The
sanctuaryofthegodonthetopofthemountainwasthereligiouscentreoftheLatinLeague,asAlbawas
itspoliticalcapitaltillRomewrestedthesupremacyfromitsancientrival.Apparentlynotemple,inour
senseoftheword,wasevererectedtoJupiteronthishisholymountainasgodoftheskyandthunderhe
appropriatelyreceivedthehomageofhisworshippersintheopenair.Themassivewall,ofwhichsome
remainsstillenclosetheoldgardenofthePassionistmonastery,seemstohavebeenpartofthesacred
precinctwhichTarquintheProud,thelastkingofRome,markedoutforthesolemnannualassemblyof
theLatinLeague.Thegodsoldestsanctuaryonthisairymountaintopwasagroveandbearinginmind
notmerelythespecialconsecrationoftheoaktoJupiter,butalsothetraditionaloakcrownoftheAlban
kingsandtheanalogyoftheCapitolineJupiteratRome,wemaysupposethatthetreesinthegrovewere
oaks.WeknowthatinantiquityMountAlgidus,anoutlyinggroupoftheAlbanhills,wascoveredwith
darkforestsofoakandamongthetribeswhobelongedtotheLatinLeagueintheearliestdays,andwere
entitledtosharethefleshofthewhitebullsacrificedontheAlbanMount,therewasonewhosemembers
styledthemselvestheMenoftheOak,doubtlessonaccountofthewoodsamongwhichtheydwelt.
Butweshoulderrifwepicturedtoourselvesthecountryascoveredinhistoricaltimeswithanunbroken
forestofoaks.TheophrastushasleftusadescriptionofthewoodsofLatiumastheywereinthefourth

centurybeforeChrist.Hesays:ThelandoftheLatinsisallmoist.Theplainsproducelaurels,myrtles,
andwonderfulbeechesfortheyfelltreesofsuchasizethatasinglestemsufficesforthekeelofa
Tyrrhenianship.Pinesandfirsgrowinthemountains.WhattheycallthelandofCirceisalofty
headlandthicklywoodedwithoak,myrtle,andluxuriantlaurels.ThenativessaythatCircedweltthere,
andtheyshowthegraveofElpenor,fromwhichgrowmyrtlessuchaswreathsaremadeof,whereasthe
othermyrtletreesaretall.ThustheprospectfromthetopoftheAlbanMountintheearlydaysofRome
musthavebeenverydifferentinsomerespectsfromwhatitistoday.ThepurpleApennines,indeed,in
theireternalcalmontheonehand,andtheshiningMediterraneaninitseternalunrestontheother,no
doubtlookedthenmuchastheylooknow,whetherbathedinsunshine,orchequeredbythefleeting
shadowsofcloudsbutinsteadofthedesolatebrownexpanseofthefeverstrickenCampagna,spanned
byitslonglinesofruinedaqueducts,likethebrokenarchesofthebridgeinthevisionofMirza,theeye
musthaverangedoverwoodlandsthatstretchedaway,mileaftermile,onallsides,tilltheirvariedhues
ofgreenorautumnalscarletandgoldmeltedinsensiblyintotheblueofthedistantmountainsandsea.
ButJupiterdidnotreignaloneonthetopofhisholymountain.Hehadhisconsortwithhim,thegoddess
Juno,whowasworshippedhereunderthesametitle,Moneta,asontheCapitolatRome.Astheoak
crownwassacredtoJupiterandJunoontheCapitol,sowemaysupposeitwasontheAlbanMount,
fromwhichtheCapitolineworshipwasderived.Thustheoakgodwouldhavehisoakgoddessinthe
sacredoakgrove.SoatDodonatheoakgodZeuswascoupledwithDione,whoseverynameisonlya
dialecticallydifferentformofJunoandsoonthetopofMountCithaeron,aswehaveseen,heappearsto
havebeenperiodicallyweddedtoanoakenimageofHera.Itisprobable,thoughitcannotbepositively
proved,thatthesacredmarriageofJupiterandJunowasannuallycelebratedbyallthepeoplesofthe
Latinstockinthemonthwhichtheynamedafterthegoddess,themidsummermonthofJune.
IfatanytimeoftheyeartheRomanscelebratedthesacredmarriageofJupiterandJuno,astheGreeks
commonlycelebratedthecorrespondingmarriageofZeusandHera,wemaysupposethatunderthe
RepublictheceremonywaseitherperformedoverimagesofthedivinepairoractedbytheFlamenDialis
andhiswifetheFlaminica.FortheFlamenDialiswasthepriestofJoveindeed,ancientandmodern
writershaveregardedhim,withmuchprobability,asalivingimageofJupiter,ahumanembodimentof
theskygod.InearliertimestheRomanking,asrepresentativeofJupiter,wouldnaturallyplaythepartof
theheavenlybridegroomatthesacredmarriage,whilehisqueenwouldfigureastheheavenlybride,just
asinEgyptthekingandqueenmasqueradedinthecharacterofdeities,andasatAthensthequeen
annuallyweddedthevinegodDionysus.ThattheRomankingandqueenshouldactthepartsofJupiter
andJunowouldseemallthemorenaturalbecausethesedeitiesthemselvesborethetitleofKingand
Queen.
Whetherthatwassoornot,thelegendofNumaandEgeriaappearstoembodyareminiscenceofatime
whenthepriestlykinghimselfplayedthepartofthedivinebridegroomandaswehaveseenreasonto
supposethattheRomankingspersonatedtheoakgod,whileEgeriaisexpresslysaidtohavebeenan
oaknymph,thestoryoftheirunioninthesacredgroveraisesapresumptionthatatRomeintheregal
periodaceremonywasperiodicallyperformedexactlyanalogoustothatwhichwasannuallycelebrated
atAthensdowntothetimeofAristotle.ThemarriageoftheKingofRometotheoakgoddess,likethe
weddingofthevinegodtotheQueenofAthens,musthavebeenintendedtoquickenthegrowthof
vegetationbyhomoeopathicmagic.OfthetwoformsoftheritewecanhardlydoubtthattheRomanwas
theolder,andthatlongbeforethenortherninvadersmetwiththevineontheshoresoftheMediterranean
theirforefathershadmarriedthetreegodtothetreegoddessinthevastoakforestsofCentraland
NorthernEurope.IntheEnglandofourdaytheforestshavemostlydisappeared,yetstillonmanya
villagegreenandinmanyacountrylaneafadedimageofthesacredmarriagelingersintherustic
pageantryofMayDay.

XIV.TheSuccessiontotheKingdominAncientLatium

INREGARDtotheRomanking,whosepriestlyfunctionswereinheritedbyhissuccessorthekingofthe
SacredRites,theforegoingdiscussionhasledustothefollowingconclusions.Herepresentedandindeed
personatedJupiter,thegreatgodofthesky,thethunder,andtheoak,andinthatcharactermaderain,
thunder,andlightningforthegoodofhissubjects,likemanymorekingsoftheweatherinotherpartsof
theworld.Further,henotonlymimickedtheoakgodbywearinganoakwreathandotherinsigniaof
divinity,buthewasmarriedtoanoaknymphEgeria,whoappearstohavebeenmerelyalocalformof
Dianainhercharacterofagoddessofwoods,ofwaters,andofchildbirth.Alltheseconclusions,which
wehavereachedmainlybyaconsiderationoftheRomanevidence,maywithgreatprobabilitybeapplied
totheotherLatincommunities.Theytooprobablyhadofoldtheirdivineorpriestlykings,who
transmittedtheirreligiousfunctions,withouttheircivilpowers,totheirsuccessorstheKingsofthe
SacredRites.
Butwehavestilltoask,WhatwastheruleofsuccessiontothekingdomamongtheoldLatintribes?
Accordingtotradition,therewereinalleightkingsofRome,andwithregardtothefivelastofthem,at
allevents,wecanhardlydoubtthattheyactuallysatonthethrone,andthatthetraditionalhistoryoftheir
reignsis,initsmainoutlines,correct.NowitisveryremarkablethatthoughthefirstkingofRome,
Romulus,issaidtohavebeendescendedfromtheroyalhouseofAlba,inwhichthekingshipis
representedashereditaryinthemaleline,notoneoftheRomankingswasimmediatelysucceededbyhis
sononthethrone.Yetseveralleftsonsorgrandsonsbehindthem.Ontheotherhand,oneofthemwas
descendedfromaformerkingthroughhismother,notthroughhisfather,andthreeofthekings,namely
Tatius,theelderTarquin,andServiusTullius,weresucceededbytheirsonsinlaw,whowerealleither
foreignersorofforeigndescent.Thissuggeststhattherighttothekingshipwastransmittedinthefemale
line,andwasactuallyexercisedbyforeignerswhomarriedtheroyalprincesses.Toputitintechnical
language,thesuccessiontothekingshipatRomeandprobablyinLatiumgenerallywouldseemtohave
beendeterminedbycertainruleswhichhavemouldedearlysocietyinmanypartsoftheworld,namely
exogamy,beenamarriage,andfemalekinshipormotherkin.Exogamyistherulewhichobligesamanto
marryawomanofadifferentclanfromhisown:beenamarriageistherulethathemustleavethehome
ofhisbirthandlivewithhiswifespeopleandfemalekinshipormotherkinisthesystemoftracing
relationshipandtransmittingthefamilynamethroughwomeninsteadofthroughmen.Iftheseprinciples
regulateddescentofthekingshipamongtheancientLatins,thestateofthingsinthisrespectwouldbe
somewhatasfollows.Thepoliticalandreligiouscentreofeachcommunitywouldbetheperpetualfire
onthekingshearthtendedbyVestalVirginsoftheroyalclan.Thekingwouldbeamanofanotherclan,
perhapsofanothertownorevenofanotherrace,whohadmarriedadaughterofhispredecessorand
receivedthekingdomwithher.Thechildrenwhomhehadbyherwouldinherittheirmothersname,not
histhedaughterswouldremainathomethesons,whentheygrewup,wouldgoawayintotheworld,
marry,andsettleintheirwivescountry,whetheraskingsorcommoners.Ofthedaughterswhostayedat
home,someorallwouldbededicatedasVestalVirginsforalongerorshortertimetotheserviceofthe
fireonthehearth,andoneofthemwouldintimebecometheconsortofherfatherssuccessor.
Thishypothesishastheadvantageofexplaininginasimpleandnaturalwaysomeobscurefeaturesinthe
traditionalhistoryoftheLatinkingship.ThusthelegendswhichtellhowLatinkingswerebornofvirgin
mothersanddivinefathersbecomeatleastmoreintelligible.For,strippedoftheirfabulouselement,tales
ofthissortmeannomorethanthatawomanhasbeengottenwithchildbyamanunknownandthis
uncertaintyastofatherhoodismoreeasilycompatiblewithasystemofkinshipwhichignorespaternity
thanwithonewhichmakesitallimportant.IfatthebirthoftheLatinkingstheirfatherswerereally
unknown,thefactpointseithertoageneralloosenessoflifeintheroyalfamilyortoaspecialrelaxation
ofmoralrulesoncertainoccasions,whenmenandwomenrevertedforaseasontothelicenceofan
earlierage.SuchSaturnaliasarenotuncommonatsomestagesofsocialevolution.Inourowncountry
tracesofthemlongsurvivedinthepracticesofMayDayandWhitsuntide,ifnotofChristmas.Children
bornofmoreorlesspromiscuousintercoursewhichcharacterisesfestivalsofthiskindwouldnaturally
befatheredonthegodtowhomtheparticularfestivalwasdedicated.

Inthisconnexionitmaybesignificantthatafestivalofjollityanddrunkennesswascelebratedbythe
plebeiansandslavesatRomeonMidsummerDay,andthatthefestivalwasspeciallyassociatedwiththe
firebornKingServiusTullius,beingheldinhonourofFortuna,thegoddesswholovedServiusasEgeria
lovedNuma.ThepopularmerrymakingsatthisseasonincludedfootracesandboatracestheTiberwas
gaywithflowerwreathedboats,inwhichyoungfolksatquaffingwine.Thefestivalappearstohave
beenasortofMidsummerSaturnaliaansweringtotherealSaturnaliawhichfellatMidwinter.Inmodern
Europe,asweshalllearnlateron,thegreatMidsummerfestivalhasbeenaboveallafestivaloflovers
andoffireoneofitsprincipalfeaturesisthepairingofsweethearts,wholeapoverthebonfireshandin
handorthrowflowersacrosstheflamestoeachother.Andmanyomensofloveandmarriagearedrawn
fromtheflowerswhichbloomatthismysticseason.Itisthetimeoftherosesandoflove.Yetthe
innocenceandbeautyofsuchfestivalsinmoderntimesoughtnottoblindustothelikelihoodthatin
earlierdaystheyweremarkedbycoarserfeatures,whichwereprobablyoftheessenceoftherites.
Indeed,amongtherudeEsthonianpeasantrythesefeaturesseemtohavelingereddowntoourown
generation,ifnottothepresentday.OneotherfeatureintheRomancelebrationofMidsummerdeserves
tobespeciallynoticed.Thecustomofrowinginflowerdeckedboatsontheriveronthisdayprovesthat
itwastosomeextentawaterfestivalandwaterhasalways,downtomoderntimes,playeda
conspicuouspartintheritesofMidsummerDay,whichexplainswhytheChurch,inthrowingitscloak
overtheoldheathenfestival,chosetodedicateittoSt.JohntheBaptist.
ThehypothesisthattheLatinkingsmayhavebeenbegottenatanannualfestivalofloveisnecessarilya
mereconjecture,thoughthetraditionalbirthofNumaatthefestivaloftheParilia,whenshepherdsleaped
acrossthespringbonfires,asloversleapacrosstheMidsummerfires,mayperhapsbethoughttolendita
faintcolourofprobability.Butitisquitepossiblethattheuncertaintyastotheirfathersmaynothave
arisentilllongafterthedeathofthekings,whentheirfiguresbegantomeltawayintothecloudlandof
fable,assumingfantasticshapesandgorgeouscolouringastheypassedfromearthtoheaven.Ifthey
werealienimmigrants,strangersandpilgrimsinthelandtheyruledover,itwouldbenaturalenoughthat
thepeopleshouldforgettheirlineage,andforgettingitshouldprovidethemwithanother,whichmadeup
inlustrewhatitlackedintruth.Thefinalapotheosis,whichrepresentedthekingsnotmerelyassprung
fromgodsbutasthemselvesdeitiesincarnate,wouldbemuchfacilitatedifintheirlifetime,aswehave
seenreasontothink,theyhadactuallylaidclaimtodivinity.
IfamongtheLatinsthewomenofroyalbloodalwaysstayedathomeandreceivedastheirconsortsmen
ofanotherstock,andoftenofanothercountry,whoreignedaskingsinvirtueoftheirmarriagewitha
nativeprincess,wecanunderstandnotonlywhyforeignersworethecrownatRome,butalsowhy
foreignnamesoccurinthelistoftheAlbankings.Inastateofsocietywherenobilityisreckonedonly
throughwomeninotherwords,wheredescentthroughthemotheriseverything,anddescentthrough
thefatherisnothingnoobjectionwillbefelttounitinggirlsofthehighestranktomenofhumblebirth,
eventoaliensorslaves,providedthatinthemselvesthemenappeartobesuitablemates.Whatreally
mattersisthattheroyalstock,onwhichtheprosperityandeventheexistenceofthepeopleissupposed
todepend,shouldbeperpetuatedinavigorousandefficientform,andforthispurposeitisnecessarythat
thewomenoftheroyalfamilyshouldbearchildrentomenwhoarephysicallyandmentallyfit,
accordingtothestandardofearlysociety,todischargetheimportantdutyofprocreation.Thusthe
personalqualitiesofthekingsatthisstageofsocialevolutionaredeemedofvitalimportance.Ifthey,
liketheirconsorts,areofroyalanddivinedescent,somuchthebetterbutitisnotessentialthatthey
shouldbeso.
AtAthens,asatRome,wefindtracesofsuccessiontothethronebymarriagewitharoyalprincessfor
twoofthemostancientkingsofAthens,namelyCecropsandAmphictyon,aresaidtohavemarriedthe
daughtersoftheirpredecessors.Thistraditionistoacertainextentconfirmedbyevidence,pointingto
theconclusionthatatAthensmalekinshipwasprecededbyfemalekinship.

Further,ifIamrightinsupposingthatinancientLatiumtheroyalfamilieskepttheirdaughtersathome
andsentforththeirsonstomarryprincessesandreignamongtheirwivespeople,itwillfollowthatthe
maledescendantswouldreigninsuccessivegenerationsoverdifferentkingdoms.Nowthisseemsto
havehappenedbothinancientGreeceandinancientSwedenfromwhichwemaylegitimatelyinferthat
itwasacustompractisedbymorethanonebranchoftheAryanstockinEurope.ManyGreektraditions
relatehowaprincelefthisnativeland,andgoingtoafarcountrymarriedthekingsdaughterand
succeededtothekingdom.VariousreasonsareassignedbyancientGreekwritersforthesemigrationsof
theprinces.Acommononeisthatthekingssonhadbeenbanishedformurder.Thiswouldexplainvery
wellwhyhefledhisownland,butitisnoreasonatallwhyheshouldbecomekingofanother.Wemay
suspectthatsuchreasonsareafterthoughtsdevisedbywriters,who,accustomedtotherulethatason
shouldsucceedtohisfatherspropertyandkingdom,werehardputtoittoaccountforsomanytraditions
ofkingssonswhoquittedthelandoftheirbirthtoreignoveraforeignkingdom.InScandinavian
traditionwemeetwithtracesofsimilarcustoms.Forwereadofdaughtershusbandswhoreceiveda
shareofthekingdomsoftheirroyalfathersinlaw,evenwhenthesefathersinlawhadsonsoftheirown
inparticular,duringthefivegenerationswhichprecededHaroldtheFairhaired,malemembersofthe
Ynglingarfamily,whichissaidtohavecomefromSweden,arereportedintheHeimskringlaorSagasof
theNorwegianKingstohaveobtainedatleastsixprovincesinNorwaybymarriagewiththedaughtersof
thelocalkings.
ThusitwouldseemthatamongsomeAryanpeoples,atacertainstageoftheirsocialevolution,ithas
beencustomarytoregardwomenandnotmenasthechannelsinwhichroyalbloodflows,andtobestow
thekingdomineachsuccessivegenerationonamanofanotherfamily,andoftenofanothercountry,who
marriesoneoftheprincessesandreignsoverhiswifespeople.Acommontypeofpopulartale,which
relateshowanadventurer,comingtoastrangeland,winsthehandofthekingsdaughterandwithher
thehalforthewholeofthekingdom,maywellbeareminiscenceofarealcustom.
Whereusagesandideasofthissortprevail,itisobviousthatthekingshipismerelyanappanageof
marriagewithawomanofthebloodroyal.TheoldDanishhistorianSaxoGrammaticusputsthisviewof
thekingshipveryclearlyinthemouthofHermutrude,alegendaryqueenofScotland.Indeedshewasa
queen,saysHermutrude,andbutthathersexgainsaidit,mightbedeemedakingnay(andthisisyet
truer),whomsoevershethoughtworthyofherbedwasatonceaking,andsheyieldedherkingdomwith
herself.Thushersceptreandherhandwenttogether.Thestatementisallthemoresignificantbecauseit
appearstoreflecttheactualpracticeofthePictishkings.WeknowfromthetestimonyofBedethat,
wheneveradoubtaroseastothesuccession,thePictschosetheirkingsfromthefemaleratherthanthe
maleline.
Thepersonalqualitieswhichrecommendedamanforaroyalallianceandsuccessiontothethronewould
naturallyvaryaccordingtothepopularideasofthetimeandthecharacterofthekingorhissubstitute,
butitisreasonabletosupposethatamongtheminearlysocietyphysicalstrengthandbeautywouldhold
aprominentplace.
Sometimesapparentlytherighttothehandoftheprincessandtothethronehasbeendeterminedbya
race.TheAlitemnianLibyansawardedthekingdomtothefleetestrunner.AmongsttheoldPrussians,
candidatesfornobilityracedonhorsebacktotheking,andtheonewhoreachedhimfirstwasennobled.
AccordingtotraditiontheearliestgamesatOlympiawereheldbyEndymion,whosethissonstoruna
raceforthekingdom.Histombwassaidtobeatthepointoftheracecoursefromwhichtherunners
started.ThefamousstoryofPelopsandHippodamiaisperhapsonlyanotherversionofthelegendthat
thefirstracesatOlympiawererunfornolessaprizethanakingdom.
Thesetraditionsmayverywellreflectarealcustomofracingforabride,forsuchacustomappearsto
haveprevailedamongvariouspeoples,thoughinpracticeithasdegeneratedintoamereformor

pretence.Thusthereisonerace,calledtheLoveChase,whichmaybeconsideredapartoftheformof
marriageamongtheKirghiz.Inthisthebride,armedwithaformidablewhip,mountsafleethorse,andis
pursuedbyalltheyoungmenwhomakeanypretensionstoherhand.Shewillbegivenasaprizetothe
onewhocatchesher,butshehastheright,besidesurgingonherhorsetotheutmost,touseherwhip,
oftenwithnomeanforce,tokeepoffthoseloverswhoareunwelcometoher,andshewillprobably
favourtheonewhomshehasalreadychoseninherheart.Theraceforthebrideisfoundalsoamongthe
KoryaksofNortheasternAsia.Ittakesplaceinalargetent,roundwhichmanyseparatecompartments
calledpologsarearrangedinacontinuouscircle.Thegirlgetsastartandisclearofthemarriageifshe
canrunthroughallthecompartmentswithoutbeingcaughtbythebridegroom.Thewomenofthe
encampmentplaceeveryobstacleinthemansway,trippinghimup,belabouringhimwithswitches,and
soforth,sothathehaslittlechanceofsucceedingunlessthegirlwishesitandwaitsforhim.Similar
customsappeartohavebeenpractisedbyalltheTeutonicpeoplesfortheGerman,AngloSaxon,and
Norselanguagespossessincommonawordformarriagewhichmeanssimplybriderace.Moreover,
tracesofthecustomsurvivedintomoderntimes.
Thusitappearsthattherighttomarryagirl,andespeciallyaprincess,hasoftenbeenconferredasaprize
inanathleticcontest.Therewouldbenoreason,therefore,forsurpriseiftheRomankings,before
bestowingtheirdaughtersinmarriage,shouldhaveresortedtothisancientmodeoftestingthepersonal
qualitiesoftheirfuturesonsinlawandsuccessors.Ifmytheoryiscorrect,theRomankingandqueen
personatedJupiterandhisdivineconsort,andinthecharacterofthesedivinitieswentthroughtheannual
ceremonyofasacredmarriageforthepurposeofcausingthecropstogrowandmenandcattletobe
fruitfulandmultiply.ThustheydidwhatinmorenorthernlandswemaysupposetheKingandQueenof
Maywerebelievedtodoindaysofold.NowwehaveseenthattherighttoplaythepartoftheKingof
MayandtowedtheQueenofMayhassometimesbeendeterminedbyanathleticcontest,particularlyby
arace.Thismayhavebeenarelicofanoldmarriagecustomofthesortwehaveexamined,acustom
designedtotestthefitnessofacandidateformatrimony.Suchatestmightreasonablybeappliedwith
peculiarrigourtothekinginordertoensurethatnopersonaldefectshouldincapacitatehimforthe
performanceofthosesacredritesandceremoniesonwhich,evenmorethanonthedespatchofhiscivil
andmilitaryduties,thesafetyandprosperityofthecommunitywerebelievedtodepend.Anditwouldbe
naturaltorequireofhimthatfromtimetotimeheshouldsubmithimselfafreshtothesameordealforthe
sakeofpubliclydemonstratingthathewasstillequaltothedischargeofhishighcalling.Arelicofthat
testperhapssurvivedintheceremonyknownastheFlightoftheKing(regifugium),whichcontinuedto
beannuallyobservedatRomedowntoimperialtimes.OnthetwentyfourthdayofFebruaryasacrifice
usedtobeofferedintheComitium,andwhenitwasovertheKingoftheSacredRitesfledfromthe
Forum.WemayconjecturethattheFlightoftheKingwasoriginallyaraceforanannualkingship,
whichmayhavebeenawardedasaprizetothefleetestrunner.Attheendoftheyearthekingmightrun
againforasecondtermofofficeandsoon,untilhewasdefeatedanddeposedorperhapsslain.Inthis
waywhathadoncebeenaracewouldtendtoassumethecharacterofaflightandapursuit.Theking
wouldbegivenastartheranandhiscompetitorsranafterhim,andifhewereovertakenhehadtoyield
thecrownandperhapshislifetothelightestoffootamongthem.Intimeamanofmasterfulcharacter
mightsucceedinseatinghimselfpermanentlyonthethroneandreducingtheannualraceorflighttothe
emptyformwhichitseemsalwaystohavebeenwithinhistoricaltimes.Theritewassometimes
interpretedasacommemorationoftheexpulsionofthekingsfromRomebutthisappearstohavebeena
mereafterthoughtdevisedtoexplainaceremonyofwhichtheoldmeaningwasforgotten.Itisfarmore
likelythatinactingthustheKingoftheSacredRiteswasmerelykeepingupanancientcustomwhichin
theregalperiodhadbeenannuallyobservedbyhispredecessorsthekings.Whattheoriginalintentionof
theritemayhavebeenmustprobablyalwaysremainmoreorlessamatterofconjecture.Thepresent
explanationissuggestedwithafullsenseofthedifficultyandobscurityinwhichthesubjectisinvolved.
Thusifmytheoryiscorrect,theyearlyflightoftheRomankingwasarelicofatimewhenthekingship
wasanannualofficeawarded,alongwiththehandofaprincess,tothevictoriousathleteorgladiator,

whothereafterfiguredalongwithhisbrideasagodandgoddessatasacredmarriagedesignedtoensure
thefertilityoftheearthbyhomoeopathicmagic.IfIamrightinsupposingthatinveryearlytimestheold
Latinkingspersonatedagodandwereregularlyputtodeathinthatcharacter,wecanbetterunderstand
themysteriousorviolentendstowhichsomanyofthemaresaidtohavecome.Wehaveseenthat,
accordingtotradition,oneofthekingsofAlbawaskilledbyathunderboltforimpiouslymimickingthe
thunderofJupiter.RomulusissaidtohavevanishedmysteriouslylikeAeneas,ortohavebeencutto
piecesbythepatricianswhomhehadoffended,andtheseventhofJuly,thedayonwhichheperished,
wasafestivalwhichboresomeresemblancetotheSaturnalia.Foronthatdaythefemaleslaveswere
allowedtotakecertainremarkableliberties.Theydressedupasfreewomenintheattireofmatronsand
maids,andinthisguisetheywentforthfromthecity,scoffedandjeeredatallwhomtheymet,and
engagedamongthemselvesinafight,strikingandthrowingstonesateachother.AnotherRomanking
whoperishedbyviolencewasTatius,theSabinecolleagueofRomulus.ItissaidthathewasatLavinium
offeringapublicsacrificetotheancestralgods,whensomemen,towhomhehadgivenumbrage,
despatchedhimwiththesacrificialknivesandspitswhichtheyhadsnatchedfromthealtar.Theoccasion
andthemannerofhisdeathsuggestthattheslaughtermayhavebeenasacrificeratherthanan
assassination.Again,TullusHostilius,thesuccessorofNuma,wascommonlysaidtohavebeenkilledby
lightning,butmanyheldthathewasmurderedattheinstigationofAncusMarcius,whoreignedafter
him.SpeakingofthemoreorlessmythicalNuma,thetypeofthepriestlyking,Plutarchobservesthat
hisfamewasenhancedbythefortunesofthelaterkings.Forofthefivewhoreignedafterhimthelast
wasdeposedandendedhislifeinexile,andoftheremainingfournotonediedanaturaldeathforthree
ofthemwereassassinatedandTullusHostiliuswasconsumedbythunderbolts.
TheselegendsoftheviolentendsoftheRomankingssuggestthatthecontestbywhichtheygainedthe
thronemaysometimeshavebeenamortalcombatratherthanarace.Ifthatwereso,theanalogywhich
wehavetracedbetweenRomeandNemiwouldbestillcloser.Atbothplacesthesacredkings,theliving
representativesofthegodhead,wouldthusbeliabletosufferdepositionanddeathatthehandofany
resolutemanwhocouldprovehisdivinerighttotheholyofficebythestrongarmandthesharpsword.It
wouldnotbesurprisingifamongtheearlyLatinstheclaimtothekingdomshouldoftenhavebeen
settledbysinglecombatfordowntohistoricaltimestheUmbriansregularlysubmittedtheirprivate
disputestotheordealofbattle,andhewhocuthisadversarysthroatwasthoughttherebytohaveproved
thejusticeofhiscausebeyondthereachofcavil.

XV.TheWorshipoftheOak
THEWORSHIPoftheoaktreeoroftheoakgodappearstohavebeensharedbyallthebranchesofthe
AryanstockinEurope.BothGreeksandItaliansassociatedthetreewiththeirhighestgod,Zeusor
Jupiter,thedivinityofthesky,therain,andthethunder.Perhapstheoldestandcertainlyoneofthemost
famoussanctuariesinGreecewasthatofDodona,whereZeuswasreveredintheoracularoak.The
thunderstormswhicharesaidtorageatDodonamorefrequentlythananywhereelseinEurope,would
renderthespotafittinghomeforthegodwhosevoicewasheardalikeintherustlingoftheoakleaves
andinthecrashofthunder.Perhapsthebronzegongswhichkeptupahumminginthewindroundthe
sanctuaryweremeanttomimickthethunderthatmightsooftenbeheardrollingandrumblinginthe
coombsofthesternandbarrenmountainswhichshutinthegloomyvalley.InBoeotia,aswehaveseen,
thesacredmarriageofZeusandHera,theoakgodandtheoakgoddess,appearstohavebeencelebrated
withmuchpompbyareligiousfederationofstates.AndonMountLycaeusinArcadiathecharacterof
Zeusasgodbothoftheoakandoftheraincomesoutclearlyintheraincharmpractisedbythepriestof
Zeus,whodippedanoakbranchinasacredspring.InhislattercapacityZeuswasthegodtowhomthe
Greeksregularlyprayedforrain.Nothingcouldbemorenaturalforoften,thoughnotalways,hehadhis
seatonthemountainswherethecloudsgatherandtheoaksgrow.OntheAcropolisatAthenstherewas
animageofEarthprayingtoZeusforrain.AndintimeofdroughttheAtheniansthemselvesprayed,

Rain,rain,OdearZeus,onthecornlandoftheAtheniansandontheplains.
Again,Zeuswieldedthethunderandlightningaswellastherain.AtOlympiaandelsewherehewas
worshippedunderthesurnameofThunderboltandatAthenstherewasasacrificialhearthofLightning
Zeusonthecitywall,wheresomepriestlyofficialswatchedforlightningoverMountParnesatcertain
seasonsoftheyear.Further,spotswhichhadbeenstruckbylightningwereregularlyfencedinbythe
GreeksandconsecratedtoZeustheDescender,thatis,tothegodwhocamedownintheflashfrom
heaven.Altarsweresetupwithintheseenclosuresandsacrificesofferedonthem.Severalsuchplaces
areknownfrominscriptionstohaveexistedinAthens.
ThuswhenancientGreekkingsclaimedtobedescendedfromZeus,andeventobearhisname,wemay
reasonablysupposethattheyalsoattemptedtoexercisehisdivinefunctionsbymakingthunderandrain
forthegoodoftheirpeopleortheterrorandconfusionoftheirfoes.Inthisrespectthelegendof
Salmoneusprobablyreflectsthepretensionsofawholeclassofpettysovereignswhoreignedofold,
eachoverhislittlecanton,intheoakcladhighlandsofGreece.LiketheirkinsmentheIrishkings,they
wereexpectedtobeasourceoffertilitytothelandandoffecunditytothecattleandhowcouldthey
fulfiltheseexpectationsbetterthanbyactingthepartoftheirkinsmanZeus,thegreatgodoftheoak,the
thunder,andtherain?Theypersonifiedhim,apparently,justastheItaliankingspersonifiedJupiter.
InancientItalyeveryoakwassacredtoJupiter,theItaliancounterpartofZeusandontheCapitolat
Romethegodwasworshippedasthedeitynotmerelyoftheoak,butoftherainandthethunder.
Contrastingthepietyofthegoodoldtimeswiththescepticismofanagewhennobodythoughtthat
heavenwasheaven,orcaredafigforJupiter,aRomanwritertellsusthatinformerdaysnoblematrons
usedtogowithbarefeet,streaminghair,andpureminds,upthelongCapitolineslope,prayingtoJupiter
forrain.Andstraightway,hegoeson,itrainedbucketsful,thenornever,andeverybodyreturned
drippinglikedrownedrats.Butnowadays,sayshe,wearenolongerreligious,sothefieldslie
baking.
WhenwepassfromSoutherntoCentralEuropewestillmeetwiththegreatgodoftheoakandthe
thunderamongthebarbarousAryanswhodweltinthevastprimaevalforests.ThusamongtheCeltsof
GaultheDruidsesteemednothingmoresacredthanthemistletoeandtheoakonwhichitgrewthey
chosegrovesofoaksforthesceneoftheirsolemnservice,andtheyperformednoneoftheirriteswithout
oakleaves.TheCelts,saysaGreekwriter,worshipZeus,andtheCelticimageofZeusisatalloak.
TheCelticconquerors,whosettledinAsiainthethirdcenturybeforeourera,appeartohavecarriedthe
worshipoftheoakwiththemtotheirnewhomeforintheheartofAsiaMinortheGalatiansenatemetin
aplacewhichborethepureCelticnameofDrynemetum,thesacredoakgroveorthetempleofthe
oak.IndeedtheverynameofDruidsisbelievedbygoodauthoritiestomeannomorethanoakmen.
InthereligionoftheancientGermansthevenerationforsacredgrovesseemstohaveheldtheforemost
place,andaccordingtoGrimmthechiefoftheirholytreeswastheoak.Itappearstohavebeen
especiallydedicatedtothegodofthunder,DonarorThunar,theequivalentoftheNorseThorfora
sacredoaknearGeismar,inHesse,whichBonifacecutdownintheeighthcentury,wentamongthe
heathenbythenameofJupitersoak(roburJovis),whichinoldGermanwouldbeDonareseih,theoak
ofDonar.ThattheTeutonicthundergodDonar,Thunar,ThorwasidentifiedwiththeItalianthunder
godJupiterappearsfromourwordThursday,Thunarsday,whichismerelyarenderingoftheLatindies
Jovis.ThusamongtheancientTeutons,asamongtheGreeksandItalians,thegodoftheoakwasalsothe
godofthethunder.Moreover,hewasregardedasthegreatfertilisingpower,whosentrainandcaused
theearthtobearfruitforAdamofBrementellsusthatThorpresidesintheairheitiswhorules
thunderandlightning,windandrains,fineweatherandcrops.Intheserespects,therefore,theTeutonic
thundergodagainresembledhissoutherncounterpartsZeusandJupiter.

AmongsttheSlavsalsotheoakappearstohavebeenthesacredtreeofthethundergodPerun,the
counterpartofZeusandJupiter.ItissaidthatatNovgorodthereusedtostandanimageofPeruninthe
likenessofamanwithathunderstoneinhishand.Afireofoakwoodburneddayandnightinhis
honourandifeveritwentouttheattendantspaidfortheirnegligencewiththeirlives.Perunseems,like
ZeusandJupiter,tohavebeenthechiefgodofhispeopleforProcopiustellsusthattheSlavsbelieve
thatonegod,themakeroflightning,isalonelordofallthings,andtheysacrificetohimoxenandevery
victim.
ThechiefdeityoftheLithuanianswasPerkunasorPerkuns,thegodofthunderandlightning,whose
resemblancetoZeusandJupiterhasoftenbeenpointedout.Oaksweresacredtohim,andwhenthey
werecutdownbytheChristianmissionaries,thepeopleloudlycomplainedthattheirsylvandeitieswere
destroyed.Perpetualfires,kindledwiththewoodofcertainoaktrees,werekeptupinhonourof
Perkunasifsuchafirewentout,itwaslightedagainbyfrictionofthesacredwood.Mensacrificedto
oaktreesforgoodcrops,whilewomendidthesametolimetreesfromwhichwemayinferthatthey
regardedoaksasmaleandlimetreesasfemale.Andintimeofdrought,whentheywantedrain,they
usedtosacrificeablackheifer,ablackhegoat,andablackcocktothethundergodinthedepthsofthe
woods.Onsuchoccasionsthepeopleassembledingreatnumbersfromthecountryroundabout,ateand
drank,andcalleduponPerkunas.Theycarriedabowlofbeerthriceroundthefire,thenpouredtheliquor
ontheflames,whiletheyprayedtothegodtosendshowers.ThusthechiefLithuaniandeitypresentsa
closeresemblancetoZeusandJupiter,sincehewasthegodoftheoak,thethunder,andtherain.
Fromtheforegoingsurveyitappearsthatagodoftheoak,thethunder,andtherainwasworshippedof
oldbyallthemainbranchesoftheAryanstockinEurope,andwasindeedthechiefdeityoftheir
pantheon.

XVI.DianusandDiana
INTHISCHAPTERIproposetorecapitulatetheconclusionstowhichtheenquiryhasthusfarledus,
anddrawingtogetherthescatteredraysoflight,toturnthemonthedarkfigureofthepriestofNemi.
Wehavefoundthatatanearlystageofsocietymen,ignorantofthesecretprocessesofnatureandofthe
narrowlimitswithinwhichitisinourpowertocontrolanddirectthem,havecommonlyarrogatedto
themselvesfunctionswhichinthepresentstateofknowledgeweshoulddeemsuperhumanordivine.
Theillusionhasbeenfosteredandmaintainedbythesamecauseswhichbegotit,namely,themarvellous
orderanduniformitywithwhichnatureconductsheroperations,thewheelsofhergreatmachine
revolvingwithasmoothnessandprecisionwhichenablethepatientobservertoanticipateingeneralthe
season,ifnottheveryhour,whentheywillbringroundthefulfilmentofhishopesorthe
accomplishmentofhisfears.Theregularlyrecurringeventsofthisgreatcycle,orratherseriesofcycles,
soonstampthemselvesevenonthedullmindofthesavage.Heforeseesthem,andforeseeingthem
mistakesthedesiredrecurrenceforaneffectofhisownwill,andthedreadedrecurrenceforaneffectof
thewillofhisenemies.Thusthespringswhichsetthevastmachineinmotion,thoughtheyliefar
beyondourken,shroudedinamysterywhichwecanneverhopetopenetrate,appeartoignorantmanto
liewithinhisreach:hefancieshecantouchthemandsoworkbymagicartallmannerofgoodtohimself
andeviltohisfoes.Intimethefallacyofthisbeliefbecomesapparenttohim:hediscoversthatthereare
thingshecannotdo,pleasureswhichheisunableofhimselftoprocure,painswhicheventhemostpotent
magicianispowerlesstoavoid.Theunattainablegood,theinevitableill,arenowascribedbyhimtothe
actionofinvisiblepowers,whosefavourisjoyandlife,whoseangerismiseryanddeath.Thusmagic
tendstobedisplacedbyreligion,andthesorcererbythepriest.Atthisstageofthoughttheultimate
causesofthingsareconceivedtobepersonalbeings,manyinnumberandoftendiscordantincharacter,
whopartakeofthenatureandevenofthefrailtyofman,thoughtheirmightisgreaterthanhis,andtheir

lifefarexceedsthespanofhisephemeralexistence.Theirsharplymarkedindividualities,theirclearcut
outlineshavenotyetbegun,underthepowerfulsolventofphilosophy,tomeltandcoalesceintothat
singleunknownsubstratumofphenomenawhich,accordingtothequalitieswithwhichourimagination
investsit,goesbyoneorotherofthehighsoundingnameswhichthewitofmanhasdevisedtohidehis
ignorance.Accordingly,solongasmenlookontheirgodsasbeingsakintothemselvesandnotraisedto
anunapproachableheightabovethem,theybelieveittobepossibleforthoseoftheirownnumberwho
surpasstheirfellowstoattaintothedivinerankafterdeathoreveninlife.Incarnatehumandeitiesofthis
lattersortmaybesaidtohaltmidwaybetweentheageofmagicandtheageofreligion.Iftheybearthe
namesanddisplaythepompofdeities,thepowerswhichtheyaresupposedtowieldarecommonlythose
oftheirpredecessorthemagician.Likehim,theyareexpectedtoguardtheirpeopleagainsthostile
enchantments,tohealtheminsickness,toblessthemwithoffspring,andtoprovidethemwithan
abundantsupplyoffoodbyregulatingtheweatherandperformingtheotherceremonieswhichare
deemednecessarytoensurethefertilityoftheearthandthemultiplicationofanimals.Menwhoare
creditedwithpowerssoloftyandfarreachingnaturallyholdthehighestplaceintheland,andwhilethe
riftbetweenthespiritualandthetemporalsphereshasnotyetwidenedtoofar,theyaresupremeincivil
aswellasreligiousmatters:inaword,theyarekingsaswellasgods.Thusthedivinitywhichhedgesa
kinghasitsrootsdeepdowninhumanhistory,andlongagespassbeforethesearesappedbya
profounderviewofnatureandman.
IntheclassicalperiodofGreekandLatinantiquitythereignofkingswasforthemostpartathingofthe
pastyetthestoriesoftheirlineage,titles,andpretensionssufficetoprovethattheytooclaimedtorule
bydivinerightandtoexercisesuperhumanpowers.Hencewemaywithoutunduetemerityassumethat
theKingoftheWoodatNemi,thoughshorninlatertimesofhisgloryandfallenonevildays,
representedalonglineofsacredkingswhohadoncereceivednotonlythehomagebuttheadorationof
theirsubjectsinreturnforthemanifoldblessingswhichtheyweresupposedtodispense.Whatlittlewe
knowofthefunctionsofDianaintheAriciangroveseemstoprovethatshewashereconceivedasa
goddessoffertility,andparticularlyasadivinityofchildbirth.Itisreasonable,therefore,tosupposethat
inthedischargeoftheseimportantdutiesshewasassistedbyherpriest,thetwofiguringasKingand
QueenoftheWoodinasolemnmarriage,whichwasintendedtomaketheearthgaywiththeblossoms
ofspringandthefruitsofautumn,andtogladdentheheartsofmenandwomenwithhealthfuloffspring.
IfthepriestofNemiposednotmerelyasaking,butasagodofthegrove,wehavestilltoask,What
deityinparticulardidhepersonate?TheanswerofantiquityisthatherepresentedVirbius,theconsortor
loverofDiana.Butthisdoesnothelpusmuch,forofVirbiusweknowlittlemorethanthename.Aclue
tothemysteryisperhapssuppliedbytheVestalfirewhichburnedinthegrove.Fortheperpetualholy
firesoftheAryansinEuropeappeartohavebeencommonlykindledandfedwithoakwood,andin
Romeitself,notmanymilesfromNemi,thefueloftheVestalfireconsistedofoakensticksorlogs,as
hasbeenprovedbyamicroscopicanalysisofthecharredembersoftheVestalfire,whichwere
discoveredbyCommendatoreG.Boniinthecourseofthememorableexcavationswhichheconducted
intheRomanforumattheendofthenineteenthcentury.ButtheritualofthevariousLatintownsseems
tohavebeenmarkedbygreatuniformityhenceitisreasonabletoconcludethatwhereverinLatiuma
Vestalfirewasmaintained,itwasfed,asatRome,withwoodofthesacredoak.IfthiswassoatNemi,it
becomesprobablethatthehallowedgrovethereconsistedofanaturaloakwood,andthatthereforethe
treewhichtheKingoftheWoodhadtoguardattheperilofhislifewasitselfanoakindeed,itwasfrom
anevergreenoak,accordingtoVirgil,thatAeneaspluckedtheGoldenBough.Nowtheoakwasthe
sacredtreeofJupiter,thesupremegodoftheLatins.HenceitfollowsthattheKingoftheWood,whose
lifewasboundupinafashionwithanoak,personatednolessadeitythanJupiterhimself.Atleastthe
evidence,slightasitis,seemstopointtothisconclusion.TheoldAlbandynastyoftheSilviiorWoods,
withtheircrownofoakleaves,apparentlyapedthestyleandemulatedthepowersofLatianJupiter,who
dweltonthetopoftheAlbanMount.ItisnotimpossiblethattheKingoftheWood,whoguardedthe
sacredoakalittlelowerdownthemountain,wasthelawfulsuccessorandrepresentativeofthisancient

lineoftheSilviiorWoods.Atallevents,ifIamrightinsupposingthathepassedforahumanJupiter,it
wouldappearthatVirbius,withwhomlegendidentifiedhim,wasnothingbutalocalformofJupiter,
consideredperhapsinhisoriginalaspectasagodofthegreenwood.
ThehypothesisthatinlatertimesatalleventstheKingoftheWoodplayedthepartoftheoakgod
Jupiter,isconfirmedbyanexaminationofhisdivinepartnerDiana.Fortwodistinctlinesofargument
convergetoshowthatifDianawasaqueenofthewoodsingeneral,shewasatNemiagoddessofthe
oakinparticular.Inthefirstplace,sheborethetitleofVesta,andassuchpresidedoveraperpetualfire,
whichwehaveseenreasontobelievewasfedwithoakwood.Butagoddessoffireisnotfarremoved
fromagoddessofthefuelwhichburnsinthefireprimitivethoughtperhapsdrewnosharplineof
distinctionbetweentheblazeandthewoodthatblazes.Inthesecondplace,thenymphEgeriaatNemi
appearstohavebeenmerelyaformofDiana,andEgeriaisdefinitelysaidtohavebeenaDryad,a
nymphoftheoak.ElsewhereinItalythegoddesshadherhomeonoakcladmountains.ThusMount
Algidus,aspuroftheAlbanhills,wascoveredinantiquitywithdarkforestsofoak,bothofthe
evergreenandthedeciduoussort.Inwinterthesnowlaylongonthesecoldhills,andtheirgloomyoak
woodswerebelievedtobeafavouritehauntofDiana,astheyhavebeenofbrigandsinmoderntimes.
Again,MountTifata,thelongabruptridgeoftheApennineswhichlooksdownontheCampanianplain
behindCapua,waswoodedofoldwithevergreenoaks,amongwhichDianahadatemple.HereSulla
thankedthegoddessforhisvictoryovertheMariansintheplainbelow,attestinghisgratitudeby
inscriptionswhichwerelongafterwardstobeseeninthetemple.Onthewhole,then,weconcludethatat
NemitheKingoftheWoodpersonatedtheoakgodJupiterandmatedwiththeoakgoddessDianainthe
sacredgrove.AnechooftheirmysticunionhascomedowntousinthelegendofthelovesofNumaand
Egeria,whoaccordingtosomehadtheirtrystingplaceintheseholywoods.
TothistheoryitmaynaturallybeobjectedthatthedivineconsortofJupiterwasnotDianabutJuno,and
thatifDianahadamateatallhemightbeexpectedtobearthenamenotofJupiter,butofDianusor
Janus,thelatteroftheseformsbeingmerelyacorruptionoftheformer.Allthisistrue,buttheobjection
maybeparriedbyobservingthatthetwopairsofdeities,JupiterandJunoontheoneside,andDianus
andDiana,orJanusandJana,ontheotherside,aremerelyduplicatesofeachother,theirnamesandtheir
functionsbeinginsubstanceandoriginidentical.Withregardtotheirnames,allfourofthemcomefrom
thesameAryanrootDI,meaningbright,whichoccursinthenamesofthecorrespondingGreek
deities,ZeusandhisoldfemaleconsortDione.Inregardtotheirfunctions,JunoandDianawereboth
goddessesoffecundityandchildbirth,andbothweresoonerorlateridentifiedwiththemoon.Astothe
truenatureandfunctionsofJanustheancientsthemselveswerepuzzledandwheretheyhesitated,itis
notforusconfidentlytodecide.ButtheviewmentionedbyVarrothatJanuswasthegodoftheskyis
supportednotonlybytheetymologicalidentityofhisnamewiththatoftheskygodJupiter,butalsoby
therelationinwhichheappearstohavestoodtoJupiterstwomates,JunoandJuturna.Fortheepithet
JunonianbestowedonJanuspointstoamarriageunionbetweenthetwodeitiesandaccordingtoone
accountJanuswasthehusbandofthewaternymphJuturna,whoaccordingtootherswasbelovedby
Jupiter.Moreover,Janus,likeJove,wasregularlyinvoked,andcommonlyspokenofunderthetitleof
Father.Indeed,hewasidentifiedwithJupiternotmerelybythelogicofthelearnedSt.Augustine,butby
thepietyofapaganworshipperwhodedicatedanofferingtoJupiterDianus.Atraceofhisrelationtothe
oakmaybefoundintheoakwoodsoftheJaniculum,thehillontherightbankoftheTiber,whereJanus
issaidtohavereignedasakingintheremotestagesofItalianhistory.
Thus,ifIamright,thesameancientpairofdeitieswasvariouslyknownamongtheGreekandItalian
peoplesasZeusandDione,JupiterandJuno,orDianus(Janus)andDiana(Jana),thenamesofthe
divinitiesbeingidenticalinsubstance,thoughvaryinginformwiththedialectoftheparticulartribe
whichworshippedthem.Atfirst,whenthepeoplesdweltneareachother,thedifferencebetweenthe
deitieswouldbehardlymorethanoneofnameinotherwords,itwouldbealmostpurelydialectical.But
thegradualdispersionofthetribes,andtheirconsequentisolationfromeachother,wouldfavourthe

growthofdivergentmodesofconceivingandworshippingthegodswhomtheyhadcarriedwiththem
fromtheiroldhome,sothatintimediscrepanciesofmythandritualwouldtendtospringupandthereby
toconvertanominalintoarealdistinctionbetweenthedivinities.Accordinglywhen,withtheslow
progressofculture,thelongperiodofbarbarismandseparationwaspassingaway,andtherising
politicalpowerofasinglestrongcommunityhadbeguntodraworhammeritsweakerneighboursintoa
nation,theconfluentpeopleswouldthrowtheirgods,liketheirdialects,intoacommonstockandthusit
mightcomeaboutthatthesameancientdeities,whichtheirforefathershadworshippedtogetherbefore
thedispersion,wouldnowbesodisguisedbytheaccumulatedeffectofdialecticalandreligious
divergenciesthattheiroriginalidentitymightfailtoberecognised,andtheywouldtaketheirplacesside
bysideasindependentdivinitiesinthenationalpantheon.
Thisduplicationofdeities,theresultofthefinalfusionofkindredtribeswhohadlonglivedapart,would
accountfortheappearanceofJanusbesideJupiter,andofDianaorJanabesideJunointheRoman
religion.Atleastthisappearstobeamoreprobabletheorythantheopinion,whichhasfoundfavourwith
somemodernscholars,thatJanuswasoriginallynothingbutthegodofdoors.Thatadeityofhisdignity
andimportance,whomtheRomansreveredasagodofgodsandthefatherofhispeople,shouldhave
startedinlifeasahumble,thoughdoubtlessrespectable,doorkeeperappearsveryunlikely.Soloftyan
endhardlyconsortswithsolowlyabeginning.Itismoreprobablethatthedoor(janua)gotitsname
fromJanusthanthathegothisnamefromit.Thisviewisstrengthenedbyaconsiderationoftheword
januaitself.TheregularwordfordooristhesameinallthelanguagesoftheAryanfamilyfromIndiato
Ireland.ItisdurinSanscrit,thurainGreek,trinGerman,doorinEnglish,dorusinoldIrish,andforis
inLatin.Yetbesidesthisordinarynamefordoor,whichtheLatinssharedwithalltheirAryanbrethren,
theyhadalsothenamejanua,towhichthereisnocorrespondingterminanyIndoEuropeanspeech.The
wordhastheappearanceofbeinganadjectivalformderivedfromthenounJanus.Iconjecturethatit
mayhavebeencustomarytosetupanimageorsymbolofJanusattheprincipaldoorofthehousein
ordertoplacetheentranceundertheprotectionofthegreatgod.Adoorthusguardedmightbeknownas
ajanuaforis,thatis,aJanuandoor,andthephrasemightintimebeabridgedintojanua,thenounforis
beingunderstoodbutnotexpressed.Fromthistotheuseofjanuatodesignateadooringeneral,whether
guardedbyanimageofJanusornot,wouldbeaneasyandnaturaltransition.
Ifthereisanytruthinthisconjecture,itmayexplainverysimplytheoriginofthedoubleheadofJanus,
whichhassolongexercisedtheingenuityofmythologists.Whenithadbecomecustomarytoguardthe
entranceofhousesandtownsbyanimageofJanus,itmightwellbedeemednecessarytomakethe
sentinelgodlookbothways,beforeandbehind,atthesametime,inorderthatnothingshouldescapehis
vigilanteye.Forifthedivinewatchmanalwaysfacedinonedirection,itiseasytoimaginewhat
mischiefmighthavebeenwroughtwithimpunitybehindhisback.Thisexplanationofthedoubleheaded
JanusatRomeisconfirmedbythedoubleheadedidolwhichtheBushnegroesintheinteriorofSurinam
regularlysetupasaguardianattheentranceofavillage.Theidolconsistsofablockofwoodwitha
humanfacerudelycarvedoneachsideitstandsunderagatewaycomposedoftwouprightsandacross
bar.Besidetheidolgenerallyliesawhiteragintendedtokeepoffthedevilandsometimesthereisalsoa
stickwhichseemstorepresentabludgeonorweaponofsomesort.Further,fromthecrossbarhangsa
smalllogwhichservestheusefulpurposeofknockingontheheadanyevilspiritwhomightattemptto
passthroughthegateway.Clearlythisdoubleheadedfetishatthegatewayofthenegrovillagesin
SurinambearsacloseresemblancetothedoubleheadedimagesofJanuswhich,graspingastickinone
handandakeyintheother,stoodsentinelatRomangatesanddoorwaysandwecanhardlydoubtthatin
bothcasestheheadsfacingtwowaysaretobesimilarlyexplainedasexpressiveofthevigilanceofthe
guardiangod,whokepthiseyeonspiritualfoesbehindandbefore,andstoodreadytobludgeonthemon
thespot.Wemay,therefore,dispensewiththetediousandunsatisfactoryexplanationswhich,ifwemay
trustOvid,thewilyJanushimselffobbedoffananxiousRomanenquirer.
ToapplytheseconclusionstothepriestofNemi,wemaysupposethatasthemateofDianahe

representedoriginallyDianusorJanusratherthanJupiter,butthatthedifferencebetweenthesedeities
wasofoldmerelysuperficial,goinglittledeeperthanthenames,andleavingpracticallyunaffectedthe
essentialfunctionsofthegodasapowerofthesky,thethunder,andtheoak.Itwasfitting,therefore,that
hishumanrepresentativeatNemishoulddwell,aswehaveseenreasontobelievehedid,inanoak
grove.HistitleofKingoftheWoodclearlyindicatesthesylvancharacterofthedeitywhomheserved
andsincehecouldonlybeassailedbyhimwhohadpluckedtheboughofacertaintreeinthegrove,his
ownlifemightbesaidtobeboundupwiththatofthesacredtree.Thushenotonlyservedbutembodied
thegreatAryangodoftheoakandasanoakgodhewouldmatewiththeoakgoddess,whethershe
wentbythenameofEgeriaorDiana.Theirunion,howeverconsummated,wouldbedeemedessentialto
thefertilityoftheearthandthefecundityofmanandbeast.Further,astheoakgodwasalsoagodofthe
sky,thethunder,andtherain,sohishumanrepresentativewouldberequired,likemanyotherdivine
kings,tocausethecloudstogather,thethundertopeal,andtheraintodescendindueseason,thatthe
fieldsandorchardsmightbearfruitandthepasturesbecoveredwithluxuriantherbage.Thereputed
possessorofpowerssoexaltedmusthavebeenaveryimportantpersonageandtheremainsofbuildings
andofvotiveofferingswhichhavebeenfoundonthesiteofthesanctuarycombinewiththetestimonyof
classicalwriterstoprovethatinlatertimesitwasoneofthegreatestandmostpopularshrinesinItaly.
Evenintheolddays,whenthechampaigncountryaroundwasstillparcelledoutamongthepettytribes
whocomposedtheLatinLeague,thesacredgroveisknowntohavebeenanobjectoftheircommon
reverenceandcare.AndjustasthekingsofCambodiausedtosendofferingstothemystickingsofFire
andWaterfarinthedimdepthsofthetropicalforest,so,wemaywellbelieve,fromallsidesofthebroad
LatianplaintheeyesandfootstepsofItalianpilgrimsturnedtothequarterwhere,standingsharplyout
againstthefaintbluelineoftheApenninesorthedeeperblueofthedistantsea,theAlbanMountainrose
beforethem,thehomeofthemysteriouspriestofNemi,theKingoftheWood.There,amongthegreen
woodsandbesidethestillwatersofthelonelyhills,theancientAryanworshipofthegodoftheoak,the
thunder,andthedrippingskylingeredinitsearly,almostDruidicalform,longafteragreatpoliticaland
intellectualrevolutionhadshiftedthecapitalofLatinreligionfromtheforesttothecity,fromNemito
Rome.

XVII.TheBurdenofRoyalty
1.RoyalandPriestlyTaboos
ATACERTAINstageofearlysocietythekingorpriestisoftenthoughttobeendowedwith
supernaturalpowersortobeanincarnationofadeity,andconsistentlywiththisbeliefthecourseof
natureissupposedtobemoreorlessunderhiscontrol,andheisheldresponsibleforbadweather,failure
ofthecrops,andsimilarcalamities.Tosomeextentitappearstobeassumedthatthekingspowerover
nature,likethatoverhissubjectsandslaves,isexertedthroughdefiniteactsofwillandthereforeif
drought,famine,pestilence,orstormsarise,thepeopleattributethemisfortunetothenegligenceorguilt
oftheirking,andpunishhimaccordinglywithstripesandbonds,or,ifheremainsobdurate,with
depositionanddeath.Sometimes,however,thecourseofnature,whileregardedasdependentonthe
king,issupposedtobepartlyindependentofhiswill.Hispersonisconsidered,ifwemayexpressitso,
asthedynamicalcentreoftheuniverse,fromwhichlinesofforceradiatetoallquartersoftheheavenso
thatanymotionofhistheturningofhishead,theliftingofhishandinstantaneouslyaffectsandmay
seriouslydisturbsomepartofnature.Heisthepointofsupportonwhichhangsthebalanceoftheworld,
andtheslightestirregularityonhispartmayoverthrowthedelicateequipoise.Thegreatestcaremust,
therefore,betakenbothbyandofhimandhiswholelife,downtoitsminutestdetails,mustbeso
regulatedthatnoactofhis,voluntaryorinvoluntary,maydisarrangeorupsettheestablishedorderof
nature.OfthisclassofmonarchstheMikadoorDairi,thespiritualemperorofJapan,isorratherusedto
beatypicalexample.Heisanincarnationofthesungoddess,thedeitywhorulestheuniverse,godsand
menincludedonceayearallthegodswaituponhimandspendamonthathiscourt.Duringthatmonth,

thenameofwhichmeanswithoutgods,noonefrequentsthetemples,fortheyarebelievedtobe
deserted.TheMikadoreceivesfromhispeopleandassumesinhisofficialproclamationsanddecreesthe
titleofmanifestorincarnatedeity,andheclaimsageneralauthorityoverthegodsofJapan.For
example,inanofficialdecreeoftheyear646theemperorisdescribedastheincarnategodwhogoverns
theuniverse.
ThefollowingdescriptionoftheMikadosmodeoflifewaswrittenabouttwohundredyearsago:
Eventothisdaytheprincesdescendedofthisfamily,moreparticularlythosewhositonthethrone,are
lookeduponaspersonsmostholyinthemselves,andasPopesbybirth.And,inordertopreservethese
advantageousnotionsinthemindsoftheirsubjects,theyareobligedtotakeanuncommoncareoftheir
sacredpersons,andtodosuchthings,which,examinedaccordingtothecustomsofothernations,would
bethoughtridiculousandimpertinent.Itwillnotbeimpropertogiveafewinstancesofit.Hethinksthat
itwouldbeveryprejudicialtohisdignityandholinesstotouchthegroundwithhisfeetforthisreason,
whenheintendstogoanywhere,hemustbecarriedthitheronmensshoulders.Muchlesswillthey
sufferthatheshouldexposehissacredpersontotheopenair,andthesunisnotthoughtworthytoshine
onhishead.Thereissuchaholinessascribedtoallthepartsofhisbodythathedarestocutoffneither
hishair,norhisbeard,norhisnails.However,lestheshouldgrowtoodirty,theymaycleanhiminthe
nightwhenheisasleepbecause,theysay,thatwhichistakenfromhisbodyatthattime,hathbeen
stolenfromhim,andthatsuchatheftdothnotprejudicehisholinessordignity.Inancienttimes,hewas
obligedtositonthethroneforsomehourseverymorning,withtheimperialcrownonhishead,buttosit
altogetherlikeastatue,withoutstirringeitherhandsorfeet,headoreyes,norindeedanypartofhis
body,because,bythismeans,itwasthoughtthathecouldpreservepeaceandtranquillityinhisempire
forif,unfortunately,heturnedhimselfononesideortheother,orifhelookedagoodwhiletowardsany
partofhisdominions,itwasapprehendedthatwar,famine,fire,orsomeothergreatmisfortunewasnear
athandtodesolatethecountry.Butithavingbeenafterwardsdiscovered,thattheimperialcrownwasthe
palladium,whichbyitsimmobilitycouldpreservepeaceintheempire,itwasthoughtexpedientto
deliverhisimperialperson,consecratedonlytoidlenessandpleasures,fromthisburthensomeduty,and
thereforethecrownisatpresentplacedonthethroneforsomehourseverymorning.Hisvictualsmustbe
dressedeverytimeinnewpots,andservedattableinnewdishes:bothareverycleanandneat,butmade
onlyofcommonclaythatwithoutanyconsiderableexpensetheymaybelaidaside,orbroke,afterthey
haveservedonce.Theyaregenerallybroke,forfeartheyshouldcomeintothehandsoflaymen,forthey
believereligiously,thatifanylaymanshouldpresumetoeathisfoodoutofthesesacreddishes,itwould
swellandinflamehismouthandthroat.ThelikeilleffectisdreadedfromtheDairissacredhabitsfor
theybelievethatifalaymanshouldwearthem,withouttheEmperorsexpressleaveorcommand,they
wouldoccasionswellingsandpainsinallpartsofhisbody.Tothesameeffectanearlieraccountofthe
Mikadosays:Itwasconsideredasashamefuldegradationforhimeventotouchthegroundwithhis
foot.Thesunandmoonwerenotevenpermittedtoshineuponhishead.Noneofthesuperfluitiesofthe
bodywereevertakenfromhim,neitherhishair,hisbeard,norhisnailswerecut.Whateverheeatwas
dressedinnewvessels.
Similarpriestlyorratherdivinekingsarefound,atalowerlevelofbarbarism,onthewestcoastof
Africa.AtSharkPointnearCapePadron,inLowerGuinea,livesthepriestlykingKukulu,aloneina
wood.Hemaynottouchawomannorleavehishouseindeedhemaynotevenquithischair,inwhich
heisobligedtosleepsitting,forifhelaydownnowindwouldariseandnavigationwouldbestopped.
Heregulatesstorms,andingeneralmaintainsawholesomeandequablestateoftheatmosphere.On
MountAguinTogotherelivesafetishorspiritcalledBagba,whoisofgreatimportanceforthewholeof
thesurroundingcountry.Thepowerofgivingorwithholdingrainisascribedtohim,andheislordofthe
winds,includingtheHarmattan,thedry,hotwindwhichblowsfromtheinterior.Hispriestdwellsina
houseonthehighestpeakofthemountain,wherehekeepsthewindsbottledupinhugejars.
Applicationsforrain,too,aremadetohim,andhedoesagoodbusinessinamulets,whichconsistofthe

teethandclawsofleopards.Yetthoughhispowerisgreatandheisindeedtherealchiefoftheland,the
ruleofthefetishforbidshimevertoleavethemountain,andhemustspendthewholeofhislifeonits
summit.Onlyonceayearmayhecomedowntomakepurchasesinthemarketbuteventhenhemaynot
setfootinthehutofanymortalman,andmustreturntohisplaceofexilethesameday.Thebusinessof
governmentinthevillagesisconductedbysubordinatechiefs,whoareappointedbyhim.IntheWest
AfricankingdomofCongotherewasasupremepontiffcalledChitomorChitomb,whomthe
negroesregardedasagodonearthandallpowerfulinheaven.Hencebeforetheywouldtastethenew
cropstheyofferedhimthefirstfruits,fearingthatmanifoldmisfortuneswouldbefallthemiftheybroke
thisrule.Whenhelefthisresidencetovisitotherplaceswithinhisjurisdiction,allmarriedpeoplehadto
observestrictcontinencethewholetimehewasoutforitwassupposedthatanyactofincontinence
wouldprovefataltohim.Andifheweretodieanaturaldeath,theythoughtthattheworldwouldperish,
andtheearth,whichhealonesustainedbyhispowerandmerit,wouldimmediatelybeannihilated.
AmongstthesemibarbarousnationsoftheNewWorld,atthedateoftheSpanishconquest,therewere
foundhierarchiesortheocracieslikethoseofJapaninparticular,thehighpontiffoftheZapotecs
appearstohavepresentedacloseparalleltotheMikado.Apowerfulrivaltothekinghimself,this
spirituallordgovernedYopaa,oneofthechiefcitiesofthekingdom,withabsolutedominion.Itis
impossible,wearetold,tooverratethereverenceinwhichhewasheld.Hewaslookedonasagod
whomtheearthwasnotworthytoholdnorthesuntoshineupon.Heprofanedhissanctityifheeven
touchedthegroundwithhisfoot.Theofficerswhoborehispalanquinontheirshouldersweremembers
ofthehighestfamilies:hehardlydeignedtolookonanythingaroundhimandallwhomethimfellwith
theirfacestotheearth,fearingthatdeathwouldovertakethemiftheysawevenhisshadow.Aruleof
continencewasregularlyimposedontheZapotecpriests,especiallyuponthehighpontiffbuton
certaindaysineachyear,whichweregenerallycelebratedwithfeastsanddances,itwascustomaryfor
thehighpriesttobecomedrunk.Whileinthisstate,seemingtobelongneithertoheavennortoearth,one
ofthemostbeautifulofthevirginsconsecratedtotheserviceofthegodswasbroughttohim.Ifthe
childsheborehimwasason,hewasbroughtupasaprinceoftheblood,andtheeldestsonsucceeded
hisfatheronthepontificalthrone.Thesupernaturalpowersattributedtothispontiffarenotspecified,but
probablytheyresembledthoseoftheMikadoandChitom.
Wherever,asinJapanandWestAfrica,itissupposedthattheorderofnature,andeventheexistenceof
theworld,isboundupwiththelifeofthekingorpriest,itisclearthathemustberegardedbyhis
subjectsasasourcebothofinfiniteblessingandofinfinitedanger.Ontheonehand,thepeoplehaveto
thankhimfortherainandsunshinewhichfosterthefruitsoftheearth,forthewindwhichbringsshipsto
theircoasts,andevenforthesolidgroundbeneaththeirfeet.Butwhathegiveshecanrefuseandso
closeisthedependenceofnatureonhisperson,sodelicatethebalanceofthesystemofforceswhereof
heisthecentre,thattheleastirregularityonhispartmaysetupatremorwhichshallshaketheearthtoits
foundations.Andifnaturemaybedisturbedbytheslightestinvoluntaryactoftheking,itiseasyto
conceivetheconvulsionwhichhisdeathmightprovoke.ThenaturaldeathoftheChitom,aswehave
seen,wasthoughttoentailthedestructionofallthings.Clearly,therefore,outofaregardfortheirown
safety,whichmightbeimperilledbyanyrashactoftheking,andstillmorebyhisdeath,thepeoplewill
exactoftheirkingorpriestastrictconformitytothoserules,theobservanceofwhichisdeemed
necessaryforhisownpreservation,andconsequentlyforthepreservationofhispeopleandtheworld.
Theideathatearlykingdomsaredespotismsinwhichthepeopleexistonlyforthesovereign,iswholly
inapplicabletothemonarchiesweareconsidering.Onthecontrary,thesovereigninthemexistsonlyfor
hissubjectshislifeisonlyvaluablesolongashedischargesthedutiesofhispositionbyorderingthe
courseofnatureforhispeoplesbenefit.Sosoonashefailstodoso,thecare,thedevotion,thereligious
homagewhichtheyhadhithertolavishedonhimceaseandarechangedintohatredandcontemptheis
dismissedignominiously,andmaybethankfulifheescapeswithhislife.Worshippedasagodoneday,
heiskilledasacriminalthenext.Butinthischangedbehaviourofthepeoplethereisnothingcapricious
orinconsistent.Onthecontrary,theirconductisentirelyofapiece.Iftheirkingistheirgod,heisor

shouldbealsotheirpreserverandifhewillnotpreservethem,hemustmakeroomforanotherwhowill.
Solong,however,asheanswerstheirexpectations,thereisnolimittothecarewhichtheytakeofhim,
andwhichtheycompelhimtotakeofhimself.Akingofthissortliveshedgedinbyaceremonious
etiquette,anetworkofprohibitionsandobservances,ofwhichtheintentionisnottocontributetohis
dignity,muchlesstohiscomfort,buttorestrainhimfromconductwhich,bydisturbingtheharmonyof
nature,mightinvolvehimself,hispeople,andtheuniverseinonecommoncatastrophe.Farfromadding
tohiscomfort,theseobservances,bytrammellinghiseveryact,annihilatehisfreedomandoftenrender
theverylife,whichitistheirobjecttopreserve,aburdenandsorrowtohim.
OfthesupernaturallyendowedkingsofLoangoitissaidthatthemorepowerfulakingis,themore
taboosisheboundtoobservetheyregulateallhisactions,hiswalkingandhisstanding,hiseatingand
drinking,hissleepingandwaking.Totheserestraintstheheirtothethroneissubjectfrominfancybutas
headvancesinlifethenumberofabstinencesandceremonieswhichhemustobserveincreases,untilat
themomentthatheascendsthethroneheislostintheoceanofritesandtaboos.Inthecraterofan
extinctvolcano,enclosedonallsidesbygrassyslopes,liethescatteredhutsandyamfieldsofRiabba,
thecapitalofthenativekingofFernandoPo.Thismysteriousbeinglivesinthelowestdepthsofthe
crater,surroundedbyaharemoffortywomen,andcovered,itissaid,witholdsilvercoins.Naked
savageasheis,heyetexercisesfarmoreinfluenceintheislandthantheSpanishgovernoratSanta
Isabel.InhimtheconservativespiritoftheBoobiesoraboriginalinhabitantsoftheislandis,asitwere,
incorporate.Hehasneverseenawhitemanand,accordingtothefirmconvictionofalltheBoobies,the
sightofapalefacewouldcausehisinstantdeath.Hecannotbeartolookupontheseaindeeditissaid
thathemayneverseeiteveninthedistance,andthatthereforehewearsawayhislifewithshackleson
hislegsinthedimtwilightofhishut.Certainitisthathehasneversetfootonthebeach.Withthe
exceptionofhismusketandknife,heusesnothingthatcomesfromthewhitesEuropeanclothnever
toucheshisperson,andhescornstobacco,rum,andevensalt.
AmongtheEwespeakingpeoplesoftheSlaveCoastthekingisatthesametimehighpriest.Inthis
qualityhewas,particularlyinformertimes,unapproachablebyhissubjects.Onlybynightwashe
allowedtoquithisdwellinginordertobatheandsoforth.Nonebuthisrepresentative,thesocalled
visibleking,withthreechoseneldersmightconversewithhim,andeventheyhadtositonanoxhide
withtheirbacksturnedtohim.HemightnotseeanyEuropeannoranyhorse,normighthelookuponthe
sea,forwhichreasonhewasnotallowedtoquithiscapitalevenforafewmoments.Theseruleshave
beendisregardedinrecenttimes.ThekingofDahomeyhimselfissubjecttotheprohibitionof
beholdingthesea,andsoarethekingsofLoangoandGreatArdrainGuinea.Theseaisthefetishofthe
Eyeos,tothenorthwestofDahomey,andtheyandtheirkingarethreatenedwithdeathbytheirpriestsif
evertheydaretolookonit.ItisbelievedthatthekingofCayorinSenegalwouldinfalliblydiewithin
theyearifheweretocrossariveroranarmofthesea.InMashonalanddowntorecenttimesthechiefs
wouldnotcrosscertainrivers,particularlytheRurikwiandtheNyadiriandthecustomwasstillstrictly
observedbyatleastonechiefwithinrecentyears.Onnoaccountwillthechiefcrosstheriver.Ifitis
absolutelynecessaryforhimtodoso,heisblindfoldedandcarriedacrosswithshoutingandsinging.
Shouldhewalkacross,hewillgoblindordieandcertainlylosethechieftainship.Soamongthe
MahafalysandSakalavasinthesouthofMadagascarsomekingsareforbiddentosailontheseaorto
crosscertainrivers.AmongtheSakalavasthechiefisregardedasasacredbeing,butheisheldinleash
byacrowdofrestrictions,whichregulatehisbehaviourlikethatoftheemperorofChina.Hecan
undertakenothingwhateverunlessthesorcerershavedeclaredtheomensfavourablehemaynoteat
warmfood:oncertaindayshemaynotquithishutandsoon.AmongsomeofthehilltribesofAssam
boththeheadmanandhiswifehavetoobservemanytaboosinrespectoffoodthustheymaynoteat
buffalo,pork,dog,fowl,ortomatoes.Theheadmanmustbechaste,thehusbandofonewife,andhemust
separatehimselffromherontheeveofageneralorpublicobservanceoftaboo.Inonegroupoftribes
theheadmanisforbiddentoeatinastrangevillage,andundernoprovocationwhatevermayheuttera
wordofabuse.Apparentlythepeopleimaginethattheviolationofanyofthesetaboosbyaheadman

wouldbringdownmisfortuneonthewholevillage.
TheancientkingsofIreland,aswellasthekingsofthefourprovincesofLeinster,Munster,Connaught,
andUlster,weresubjecttocertainquaintprohibitionsortaboos,onthedueobservanceofwhichthe
prosperityofthepeopleofthecountry,aswellastheirown,wassupposedtodepend.Thus,forexample,
thesunmightnotriseonthekingofIrelandinhisbedatTara,theoldcapitalofErinhewasforbidden
toalightonWednesdayatMaghBreagh,totraverseMaghCuillinnaftersunset,toincitehishorseat
FanChomair,togoinashipuponthewatertheMondayafterBealltaine(Mayday),andtoleavethe
trackofhisarmyuponAthMaighnetheTuesdayafterAllHallows.ThekingofLeinstermightnotgo
roundTuathLaigheanlefthandwiseonWednesday,norsleepbetweentheDothair(Dodder)andthe
Duibhlinnwithhisheadincliningtooneside,norencampforninedaysontheplainsofCualann,nor
traveltheroadofDuibhlinnonMonday,norrideadirtyblackheeledhorseacrossMaghMaistean.The
kingofMunsterwasprohibitedfromenjoyingthefeastofLochLeinfromoneMondaytoanotherfrom
banquetingbynightinthebeginningofharvestbeforeGeimatLeitreachafromencampingforninedays
upontheSiuirandfromholdingabordermeetingatGabhran.ThekingofConnaughtmightnot
concludeatreatyrespectinghisancientpalaceofCruachanaftermakingpeaceonAllHallowsDay,nor
goinaspeckledgarmentonagreyspeckledsteedtotheheathofDalChais,norrepairtoanassemblyof
womenatSeaghais,norsitinautumnonthesepulchralmoundsofthewifeofMaine,norcontendin
runningwiththeriderofagreyoneeyedhorseatAthGalltabetweentwoposts.ThekingofUlsterwas
forbiddentoattendthehorsefairatRathLineamongtheyouthsofDalAraidhe,tolistentothefluttering
oftheflocksofbirdsofLinnSaileachaftersunset,tocelebratethefeastofthebullofDairemicDaire,
togointoMaghCobhainthemonthofMarch,andtodrinkofthewaterofBoNeimhidhbetweentwo
darknesses.IfthekingsofIrelandstrictlyobservedtheseandmanyothercustoms,whichwereenjoined
byimmemorialusage,itwasbelievedthattheywouldnevermeetwithmischanceormisfortune,and
wouldliveforninetyyearswithoutexperiencingthedecayofoldagethatnoepidemicormortality
wouldoccurduringtheirreignsandthattheseasonswouldbefavourableandtheearthyielditsfruitin
abundancewhereas,iftheysettheancientusagesatnaught,thecountrywouldbevisitedwithplague,
famine,andbadweather.
ThekingsofEgyptwereworshippedasgods,andtheroutineoftheirdailylifewasregulatedinevery
detailbypreciseandunvaryingrules.ThelifeofthekingsofEgypt,saysDiodorus,wasnotlikethat
ofothermonarchswhoareirresponsibleandmaydojustwhattheychooseonthecontrary,everything
wasfixedforthembylaw,notonlytheirofficialduties,buteventhedetailsoftheirdailylife.The
hoursbothofdayandnightwerearrangedatwhichthekinghadtodo,notwhathepleased,butwhatwas
prescribedforhim.Fornotonlywerethetimesappointedatwhichheshouldtransactpublicbusiness
orsitinjudgmentbuttheveryhoursforhiswalkingandbathingandsleepingwithhiswife,and,in
short,performingeveryactoflifewereallsettled.Customenjoinedasimplediettheonlyfleshhemight
eatwasvealandgoose,andhemightonlydrinkaprescribedquantityofwine.However,thereisreason
tothinkthattheseruleswereobserved,notbytheancientPharaohs,butbythepriestlykingswho
reignedatThebesandEthiopiaatthecloseofthetwentiethdynasty.
Ofthetaboosimposedonpriestswemayseeastrikingexampleintherulesoflifeprescribedforthe
FlamenDialisatRome,whohasbeeninterpretedasalivingimageofJupiter,orahumanembodimentof
theskyspirit.Theyweresuchasthefollowing:TheFlamenDialismightnotrideoreventouchahorse,
norseeanarmyunderarms,norweararingwhichwasnotbroken,norhaveaknotonanypartofhis
garmentsnofireexceptasacredfiremightbetakenoutofhishousehemightnottouchwheatenflour
orleavenedbreadhemightnottouchorevennameagoat,adog,rawmeat,beans,andivyhemightnot
walkunderavinethefeetofhisbedhadtobedaubedwithmudhishaircouldbecutonlybyafree
manandwithabronzeknifeandhishairandnailswhencuthadtobeburiedunderaluckytreehemight
nottouchadeadbodynorenteraplacewhereonewasburnedhemightnotseeworkbeingdoneonholy
dayshemightnotbeuncoveredintheopenairifamaninbondsweretakenintohishouse,thecaptive

hadtobeunboundandthecordshadtobedrawnupthroughaholeintheroofandsoletdownintothe
street.Hiswife,theFlaminica,hadtoobservenearlythesamerules,andothersofherownbesides.She
mightnotascendmorethanthreestepsofthekindofstaircasecalledGreekatacertainfestivalshe
mightnotcombherhairtheleatherofhershoesmightnotbemadefromabeastthathaddiedanatural
death,butonlyfromonethathadbeenslainorsacrificedifsheheardthundershewastabooedtillshe
hadofferedanexpiatorysacrifice.
AmongtheGrebopeopleofSierraLeonethereisapontiffwhobearsthetitleofBodiaandhasbeen
compared,onsomewhatslendergrounds,tothehighpriestoftheJews.Heisappointedinaccordance
withthebehestofanoracle.Atanelaborateceremonyofinstallationheisanointed,aringisputonhis
ankleasabadgeofoffice,andthedoorpostsofhishousearesprinkledwiththebloodofasacrificed
goat.Hehaschargeofthepublictalismansandidols,whichhefeedswithriceandoileverynewmoon
andhesacrificesonbehalfofthetowntothedeadandtodemons.Nominallyhispowerisverygreat,but
inpracticeitisverylimitedforhedarenotdefypublicopinion,andheisheldresponsible,evenwithhis
life,foranyadversitythatbefallsthecountry.Itisexpectedofhimthatheshouldcausetheearthtobring
forthabundantly,thepeopletobehealthy,wartobedrivenfaraway,andwitchcrafttobekeptin
abeyance.Hislifeistrammelledbytheobservanceofcertainrestrictionsortaboos.Thushemaynot
sleepinanyhousebuthisownofficialresidence,whichiscalledtheanointedhousewithreferenceto
theceremonyofanointinghimatinauguration.Hemaynotdrinkwateronthehighway.Hemaynoteat
whileacorpseisinthetown,andhemaynotmournforthedead.Ifhedieswhileinoffice,hemustbe
buriedatdeadofnightfewmayhearofhisburial,andnonemaymournforhimwhenhisdeathismade
public.Shouldhehavefallenavictimtothepoisonordealbydrinkingadecoctionofsassywood,asitis
called,hemustbeburiedunderarunningstreamofwater.
AmongtheTodasofSouthernIndiatheholymilkman,whoactsaspriestofthesacreddairy,issubjectto
avarietyofirksomeandburdensomerestrictionsduringthewholetimeofhisincumbency,whichmay
lastmanyyears.Thushemustliveatthesacreddairyandmaynevervisithishomeoranyordinary
village.Hemustbecelibateifheismarriedhemustleavehiswife.Onnoaccountmayanyordinary
persontouchtheholymilkmanortheholydairysuchatouchwouldsodefilehisholinessthathewould
forfeithisoffice.Itisonlyontwodaysaweek,namelyMondaysandThursdays,thatamerelayman
mayevenapproachthemilkmanonotherdaysifhehasanybusinesswithhim,hemuststandata
distance(somesayaquarterofamile)andshouthismessageacrosstheinterveningspace.Further,the
holymilkmannevercutshishairorpareshisnailssolongasheholdsofficehenevercrossesariverby
abridge,butwadesthroughafordandonlycertainfordsifadeathoccursinhisclan,hemaynotattend
anyofthefuneralceremonies,unlesshefirstresignshisofficeanddescendsfromtheexaltedrankof
milkmantothatofamerecommonmortal.Indeeditappearsthatinolddayshehadtoresigntheseals,or
ratherthepails,ofofficewheneveranymemberofhisclandepartedthislife.However,theseheavy
restraintsarelaidintheirentiretyonlyonmilkmenoftheveryhighestclass.
2.DivorceoftheSpiritualfromtheTemporalPower
THEBURDENSOMEobservancesattachedtotheroyalorpriestlyofficeproducedtheirnaturaleffect.
Eithermenrefusedtoaccepttheoffice,whichhencetendedtofallintoabeyanceoracceptingit,they
sankunderitsweightintospiritlesscreatures,cloisteredrecluses,fromwhosenervelessfingersthereins
ofgovernmentslippedintothefirmergraspofmenwhowereoftencontenttowieldtherealityof
sovereigntywithoutitsname.Insomecountriesthisriftinthesupremepowerdeepenedintoatotaland
permanentseparationofthespiritualandtemporalpowers,theoldroyalhouseretainingtheirpurely
religiousfunctions,whilethecivilgovernmentpassedintothehandsofayoungerandmorevigorous
race.

Totakeexamples.InapreviouspartofthisworkwesawthatinCambodiaitisoftennecessarytoforce
thekingshipsofFireandWateruponthereluctantsuccessors,andthatinSavageIslandthemonarchy
actuallycametoanendbecauseatlastnoonecouldbeinducedtoacceptthedangerousdistinction.In
somepartsofWestAfrica,whenthekingdies,afamilycouncilissecretlyheldtodeterminehis
successor.Heonwhomthechoicefallsissuddenlyseized,bound,andthrownintothefetishhouse,
whereheiskeptindurancetillheconsentstoacceptthecrown.Sometimestheheirfindsmeansof
evadingthehonourwhichitissoughttothrustuponhimaferociouschiefhasbeenknowntogoabout
constantlyarmed,resolutetoresistbyforceanyattempttosethimonthethrone.ThesavageTimmesof
SierraLeone,whoelecttheirking,reservetothemselvestherightofbeatinghimontheeveofhis
coronationandtheyavailthemselvesofthisconstitutionalprivilegewithsuchheartygoodwillthat
sometimestheunhappymonarchdoesnotlongsurvivehiselevationtothethrone.Hencewhenthe
leadingchiefshaveaspiteatamanandwishtoridthemselvesofhim,theyelecthimking.Formerly,
beforeamanwasproclaimedkingofSierraLeone,itusedtobethecustomtoloadhimwithchainsand
thrashhim.Thenthefetterswereknockedoff,thekinglyrobewasplacedonhim,andhereceivedinhis
handsthesymbolofroyaldignity,whichwasnothingbuttheaxeoftheexecutioner.Itisnottherefore
surprisingtoreadthatinSierraLeone,wheresuchcustomshaveprevailed,exceptamongthe
MandingoesandSuzees,fewkingsarenativesofthecountriestheygovern.Sodifferentaretheirideas
fromours,thatveryfewaresolicitousofthehonour,andcompetitionisveryseldomheardof.
TheMikadosofJapanseemearlytohaveresortedtotheexpedientoftransferringthehonoursand
burdensofsupremepowertotheirinfantchildrenandtheriseoftheTycoons,longthetemporal
sovereignsofthecountry,istracedtotheabdicationofacertainMikadoinfavourofhisthreeyearold
son.Thesovereigntyhavingbeenwrestedbyausurperfromtheinfantprince,thecauseoftheMikado
waschampionedbyYoritomo,amanofspiritandconduct,whooverthrewtheusurperandrestoredto
theMikadotheshadow,whileheretainedforhimselfthesubstance,ofpower.Hebequeathedtohis
descendantsthedignityhehadwon,andthusbecamethefounderofthelineofTycoons.Downtothe
latterhalfofthesixteenthcenturytheTycoonswereactiveandefficientrulersbutthesamefate
overtookthemwhichhadbefallentheMikados.Immeshedinthesameinextricablewebofcustomand
law,theydegeneratedintomerepuppets,hardlystirringfromtheirpalacesandoccupiedinaperpetual
roundofemptyceremonies,whiletherealbusinessofgovernmentwasmanagedbythecouncilofstate.
InTonquinthemonarchyranasimilarcourse.Livinglikehispredecessorsineffeminacyandsloth,the
kingwasdrivenfromthethronebyanambitiousadventurernamedMack,whofromafishermanhad
risentobeGrandMandarin.ButthekingsbrotherTringputdowntheusurperandrestoredtheking,
retaining,however,forhimselfandhisdescendantsthedignityofgeneralofalltheforces.
Thenceforwardthekings,thoughinvestedwiththetitleandpompofsovereignty,ceasedtogovern.
Whiletheylivedsecludedintheirpalaces,allrealpoliticalpowerwaswieldedbythehereditary
generals.
InMangaia,aPolynesianisland,religiousandcivilauthoritywerelodgedinseparatehands,spiritual
functionsbeingdischargedbyalineofhereditarykings,whilethetemporalgovernmentwasentrusted
fromtimetotimetoavictoriouswarchief,whoseinvestiture,however,hadtobecompletedbytheking.
SimilarlyinTonga,besidesthecivilkingwhoserighttothethronewaspartlyhereditaryandpartly
derivedfromhiswarlikereputationandthenumberofhisfightingmen,therewasagreatdivinechief
whorankedabovethekingandtheotherchiefsinvirtueofhissupposeddescentfromoneofthechief
gods.Onceayearthefirstfruitsofthegroundwereofferedtohimatasolemnceremony,anditwas
believedthatiftheseofferingswerenotmadethevengeanceofthegodswouldfallinasignalmanneron
thepeople.Peculiarformsofspeech,suchaswereappliedtonooneelse,wereusedinspeakingofhim,
andeverythingthathechancedtotouchbecamesacredortabooed.Whenheandthekingmet,the
monarchhadtositdownonthegroundintokenofrespectuntilhisholinesshadpassedby.Yetthough
heenjoyedthehighestvenerationbyreasonofhisdivineorigin,thissacredpersonagepossessedno
politicalauthority,andifheventuredtomeddlewithaffairsofstateitwasattheriskofreceivinga

rebufffromtheking,towhomtherealpowerbelonged,andwhofinallysucceededinriddinghimselfof
hisspiritualrival.
InsomepartsofWesternAfricatwokingsreignsidebyside,afetishorreligiouskingandacivilking,
butthefetishkingisreallysupreme.Hecontrolstheweatherandsoforth,andcanputastopto
everything.Whenhelayshisredstaffontheground,noonemaypassthatway.Thisdivisionofpower
betweenasacredandasecularruleristobemetwithwhereverthetruenegroculturehasbeenleft
unmolested,butwherethenegroformofsocietyhasbeendisturbed,asinDahomeyandAshantee,there
isatendencytoconsolidatethetwopowersinasingleking.
InsomepartsoftheEastIndianislandofTimorwemeetwithapartitionofpowerlikethatwhichis
representedbythecivilkingandthefetishkingofWesternAfrica.SomeoftheTimoresetribes
recognisetworajahs,theordinaryorcivilrajah,whogovernsthepeople,andthefetishortaboorajah,
whoischargedwiththecontrolofeverythingthatconcernstheearthanditsproducts.Thislatterruler
hastherightofdeclaringanythingtaboohispermissionmustbeobtainedbeforenewlandmaybe
broughtundercultivation,andhemustperformcertainnecessaryceremonieswhentheworkisbeing
carriedout.Ifdroughtorblightthreatensthecrops,hishelpisinvokedtosavethem.Thoughheranks
belowthecivilrajah,heexercisesamomentousinfluenceonthecourseofevents,forhissecular
colleagueisboundtoconsulthiminallimportantmatters.Insomeoftheneighbouringislands,suchas
RottiandeasternFlores,aspiritualrulerofthesamesortisrecognisedundervariousnativenames,
whichallmeanlordoftheground.SimilarlyintheMekeodistrictofBritishNewGuineathereisa
doublechieftainship.Thepeoplearedividedintotwogroupsaccordingtofamilies,andeachofthe
groupshasitschief.Oneofthetwoisthewarchief,theotheristhetaboochief.Theofficeofthelatteris
hereditaryhisdutyistoimposeatabooonanyofthecrops,suchasthecoconutsandarecanuts,
wheneverhethinksitdesirabletoprohibittheiruse.Inhisofficewemayperhapsdetectthebeginningof
apriestlydynasty,butasyethisfunctionsappeartobemoremagicalthanreligious,beingconcerned
withthecontroloftheharvestsratherthanwiththepropitiationofhigherpowers.

XVIII.ThePerilsoftheSoul
1.TheSoulasaMannikin
THEFOREGOINGexampleshavetaughtusthattheofficeofasacredkingorpriestisoftenhedgedin
byaseriesofburdensomerestrictionsortaboos,ofwhichaprincipalpurposeappearstobetopreserve
thelifeofthedivinemanforthegoodofhispeople.Butiftheobjectofthetaboosistosavehislife,the
questionarises,Howistheirobservancesupposedtoeffectthisend?Tounderstandthiswemustknow
thenatureofthedangerwhichthreatensthekingslife,andwhichitistheintentionofthesecurious
restrictionstoguardagainst.Wemust,therefore,ask:Whatdoesearlymanunderstandbydeath?To
whatcausesdoesheattributeit?Andhowdoeshethinkitmaybeguardedagainst?
Asthesavagecommonlyexplainstheprocessesofinanimatenaturebysupposingthattheyareproduced
bylivingbeingsworkinginorbehindthephenomena,soheexplainsthephenomenaoflifeitself.Ifan
animallivesandmoves,itcanonlybe,hethinks,becausethereisalittleanimalinsidewhichmovesit:if
amanlivesandmoves,itcanonlybebecausehehasalittlemanoranimalinsidewhomoveshim.The
animalinsidetheanimal,themaninsidetheman,isthesoul.Andastheactivityofananimalormanis
explainedbythepresenceofthesoul,sothereposeofsleepordeathisexplainedbyitsabsencesleepor
trancebeingthetemporary,deathbeingthepermanentabsenceofthesoul.Henceifdeathbethe
permanentabsenceofthesoul,thewaytoguardagainstitiseithertopreventthesoulfromleavingthe
body,or,ifitdoesdepart,toensurethatitshallreturn.Theprecautionsadoptedbysavagestosecureone
orotheroftheseendstaketheformofcertainprohibitionsortaboos,whicharenothingbutrules

intendedtoensureeitherthecontinuedpresenceorthereturnofthesoul.Inshort,theyarelifepreservers
orlifeguards.Thesegeneralstatementswillnowbeillustratedbyexamples.
AddressingsomeAustralianblacks,aEuropeanmissionarysaid,Iamnotone,asyouthink,buttwo.
Uponthistheylaughed.Youmaylaughasmuchasyoulike,continuedthemissionary,Itellyouthat
Iamtwoinonethisgreatbodythatyouseeisonewithinthatthereisanotherlittleonewhichisnot
visible.Thegreatbodydies,andisburied,butthelittlebodyfliesawaywhenthegreatonedies.Tothis
someoftheblacksreplied,Yes,yes.Wealsoaretwo,wealsohavealittlebodywithinthebreast.On
beingaskedwherethelittlebodywentafterdeath,somesaiditwentbehindthebush,otherssaiditwent
intothesea,andsomesaidtheydidnotknow.TheHuronsthoughtthatthesoulhadaheadandbody,
armsandlegsinshort,thatitwasacompletelittlemodelofthemanhimself.TheEsquimauxbelieve
thatthesoulexhibitsthesameshapeasthebodyitbelongsto,butisofamoresubtleandethereal
nature.AccordingtotheNootkasthesoulhastheshapeofatinymanitsseatisthecrownofthehead.
Solongasitstandserect,itsownerishaleandheartybutwhenfromanycauseitlosesitsupright
position,heloseshissenses.AmongtheIndiantribesoftheLowerFraserRiver,manisheldtohavefour
souls,ofwhichtheprincipalonehastheformofamannikin,whiletheotherthreeareshadowsofit.The
Malaysconceivethehumansoulasalittleman,mostlyinvisibleandofthebignessofathumb,who
correspondsexactlyinshape,proportion,andevenincomplexiontothemaninwhosebodyheresides.
Thismannikinisofathin,unsubstantialnature,thoughnotsoimpalpablebutthatitmaycause
displacementonenteringaphysicalobject,anditcanflitquicklyfromplacetoplaceitistemporarily
absentfromthebodyinsleep,trance,anddisease,andpermanentlyabsentafterdeath.
Soexactistheresemblanceofthemannikintotheman,inotherwords,ofthesoultothebody,that,as
therearefatbodiesandthinbodies,sotherearefatsoulsandthinsoulsasthereareheavybodiesand
lightbodies,longbodiesandshortbodies,sothereareheavysoulsandlightsouls,longsoulsandshort
souls.ThepeopleofNiasthinkthateveryman,beforeheisborn,isaskedhowlongorhowheavyasoul
hewouldlike,andasoulofthedesiredweightorlengthismeasuredouttohim.Theheaviestsoulever
givenoutweighsabouttengrammes.Thelengthofamanslifeisproportionedtothelengthofhissoul
childrenwhodieyounghadshortsouls.TheFijianconceptionofthesoulasatinyhumanbeingcomes
clearlyoutinthecustomsobservedatthedeathofachiefamongtheNakelotribe.Whenachiefdies,
certainmen,whoarethehereditaryundertakers,callhim,ashelies,oiledandornamented,onfinemats,
saying,Rise,sir,thechief,andletusbegoing.Thedayhascomeovertheland.Thentheyconducthim
totheriverside,wheretheghostlyferrymancomestoferryNakeloghostsacrossthestream.Asthey
thusattendthechiefonhislastjourney,theyholdtheirgreatfansclosetothegroundtoshelterhim,
because,asoneofthemexplainedtoamissionary,Hissoulisonlyalittlechild.PeopleinthePunjaub
whotattoothemselvesbelievethatatdeaththesoul,thelittleentiremanorwomaninsidethemortal
frame,willgotoheavenblazonedwiththesametattoopatternswhichadornedthebodyinlife.
Sometimes,however,asweshallsee,thehumansoulisconceivednotinhumanbutinanimalform.
2.AbsenceandRecalloftheSoul
THESOULiscommonlysupposedtoescapebythenaturalopeningsofthebody,especiallythemouth
andnostrils.HenceinCelebestheysometimesfastenfishhookstoasickmansnose,navel,andfeet,so
thatifhissoulshouldtrytoescapeitmaybehookedandheldfast.ATurikontheBaramRiver,in
Borneo,refusedtopartwithsomehooklikestones,becausethey,asitwere,hookedhissoultohisbody,
andsopreventedthespiritualportionofhimfrombecomingdetachedfromthematerial.WhenaSea
Dyaksorcererormedicinemanisinitiated,hisfingersaresupposedtobefurnishedwithfishhooks,with
whichhewillthereafterclutchthehumansoulintheactofflyingaway,andrestoreittothebodyofthe
sufferer.Buthooks,itisplain,maybeusedtocatchthesoulsofenemiesaswellasoffriends.Actingon
thisprincipleheadhuntersinBorneohangwoodenhooksbesidetheskullsoftheirslainenemiesinthe

beliefthatthishelpsthemontheirforaystohookinfreshheads.OneoftheimplementsofaHaida
medicinemanisahollowbone,inwhichhebottlesupdepartingsouls,andsorestoresthemtotheir
owners.WhenanyoneyawnsintheirpresencetheHindoosalwayssnaptheirthumbs,believingthatthis
willhinderthesoulfromissuingthroughtheopenmouth.TheMarquesansusedtoholdthemouthand
noseofadyingman,inordertokeephiminlifebypreventinghissoulfromescapingthesamecustom
isreportedoftheNewCaledoniansandwiththelikeintentiontheBagobosofthePhilippineIslandsput
ringsofbrasswireonthewristsoranklesoftheirsick.Ontheotherhand,theItonamasofSouth
Americasealuptheeyes,nose,andmouthofadyingperson,incasehisghostshouldgetoutandcarry
offothersandforasimilarreasonthepeopleofNias,whofearthespiritsoftherecentlydeceasedand
identifythemwiththebreath,seektoconfinethevagrantsoulinitsearthlytabernaclebybungingupthe
noseortyingupthejawsofthecorpse.BeforeleavingacorpsetheWakelburaofAustraliausedtoplace
hotcoalsinitsearsinordertokeeptheghostinthebody,untiltheyhadgotsuchagoodstartthathe
couldnotovertakethem.InSouthernCelebes,tohindertheescapeofawomanssoulinchildbed,the
nursetiesabandastightlyaspossibleroundthebodyoftheexpectantmother.TheMinangkabauersof
Sumatraobserveasimilarcustomaskeinofthreadorastringissometimesfastenedroundthewristor
loinsofawomaninchildbed,sothatwhenhersoulseekstodepartinherhouroftravailitmayfindthe
egressbarred.Andlestthesoulofababeshouldescapeandbelostassoonasitisborn,theAlfoorsof
Celebes,whenabirthisabouttotakeplace,arecarefultocloseeveryopeninginthehouse,eventhe
keyholeandtheystopupeverychinkandcrannyinthewalls.Alsotheytieupthemouthsofallanimals
insideandoutsidethehouse,forfearoneofthemmightswallowthechildssoul.Forasimilarreasonall
personspresentinthehouse,eventhemotherherself,areobligedtokeeptheirmouthsshutthewhole
timethebirthistakingplace.Whenthequestionwasput,Whytheydidnotholdtheirnosesalso,lestthe
childssoulshouldgetintooneofthem?theanswerwasthatbreathbeingexhaledaswellasinhaled
throughthenostrils,thesoulwouldbeexpelledbeforeitcouldhavetimetosettledown.Popular
expressionsinthelanguageofcivilisedpeoples,suchastohaveonesheartinonesmouth,orthesoul
onthelipsorinthenose,showhownaturalistheideathatthelifeorsoulmayescapebythemouthor
nostrils.
Oftenthesoulisconceivedasabirdreadytotakeflight.Thisconceptionhasprobablylefttracesinmost
languages,anditlingersasametaphorinpoetry.TheMalayscarryouttheconceptionofthebirdsoulin
anumberofoddways.Ifthesoulisabirdonthewing,itmaybeattractedbyrice,andsoeither
preventedfromflyingawayorluredbackagainfromitsperilousflight.ThusinJavawhenachildis
placedonthegroundforthefirsttime(amomentwhichunculturedpeopleseemtoregardasespecially
dangerous),itisputinahencoopandthemothermakesacluckingsound,asifshewerecallinghens.
AndinSintang,adistrictofBorneo,whenaperson,whetherman,woman,orchild,hasfallenoutofa
houseoroffatree,andhasbeenbroughthome,hiswifeorotherkinswomangoesasspeedilyaspossible
tothespotwheretheaccidenthappened,andtherestrewsrice,whichhasbeencolouredyellow,while
sheuttersthewords,Cluck!cluck!soul!Soandsoisinhishouseagain.Cluck!cluck!soul!Thenshe
gathersupthericeinabasket,carriesittothesufferer,anddropsthegrainsfromherhandonhishead,
sayingagain,Cluck!cluck!soul!Heretheintentionclearlyistodecoybacktheloiteringbirdsouland
replaceitintheheadofitsowner.
Thesoulofasleeperissupposedtowanderawayfromhisbodyandactuallytovisittheplaces,toseethe
persons,andtoperformtheactsofwhichhedreams.Forexample,whenanIndianofBrazilorGuiana
wakesupfromasoundsleep,heisfirmlyconvincedthathissoulhasreallybeenawayhunting,fishing,
fellingtrees,orwhateverelsehehasdreamedofdoing,whileallthetimehisbodyhasbeenlying
motionlessinhishammock.AwholeBororovillagehasbeenthrownintoapanicandnearlydeserted
becausesomebodyhaddreamedthathesawenemiesstealthilyapproachingit.AMacusiIndianinweak
health,whodreamedthathisemployerhadmadehimhaulthecanoeupaseriesofdifficultcataracts,
bitterlyreproachedhismasternextmorningforhiswantofconsiderationinthusmakingapoorinvalid
gooutandtoilduringthenight.TheIndiansoftheGranChacoareoftenheardtorelatethemost

incrediblestoriesasthingswhichtheyhavethemselvesseenandheardhencestrangerswhodonotknow
themintimatelysayintheirhastethattheseIndiansareliars.InpointoffacttheIndiansarefirmly
convincedofthetruthofwhattheyrelateforthesewonderfuladventuresaresimplytheirdreams,which
theydonotdistinguishfromwakingrealities.
Nowtheabsenceofthesoulinsleephasitsdangers,foriffromanycausethesoulshouldbe
permanentlydetainedawayfromthebody,thepersonthusdeprivedofthevitalprinciplemustdie.There
isaGermanbeliefthatthesoulescapesfromasleepersmouthintheformofawhitemouseoralittle
bird,andthattopreventthereturnofthebirdoranimalwouldbefataltothesleeper.Hencein
Transylvaniatheysaythatyoushouldnotletachildsleepwithitsmouthopen,oritssoulwillslipoutin
theshapeofamouse,andthechildwillneverwake.Manycausesmaydetainthesleeperssoul.Thus,
hissoulmaymeetthesoulofanothersleeperandthetwosoulsmayfightifaGuineanegrowakenswith
sorebonesinthemorning,hethinksthathissoulhasbeenthrashedbyanothersoulinsleep.Oritmay
meetthesoulofapersonjustdeceasedandbecarriedoffbyithenceintheAruIslandstheinmatesofa
housewillnotsleepthenightafteradeathhastakenplaceinit,becausethesoulofthedeceasedis
supposedtobestillinthehouseandtheyfeartomeetitinadream.Again,thesoulofthesleepermaybe
preventedbyanaccidentorbyphysicalforcefromreturningtohisbody.WhenaDyakdreamsoffalling
intothewater,hesupposesthatthisaccidenthasreallybefallenhisspirit,andhesendsforawizard,who
fishesforthespiritwithahandnetinabasinofwatertillhecatchesitandrestoresittoitsowner.The
Santalstellhowamanfellasleep,andgrowingverythirsty,hissoul,intheformofalizard,lefthisbody
andenteredapitcherofwatertodrink.Justthentheownerofthepitcherhappenedtocoveritsothe
soulcouldnotreturntothebodyandthemandied.Whilehisfriendswerepreparingtoburnthebody
someoneuncoveredthepitchertogetwater.Thelizardthusescapedandreturnedtothebody,which
immediatelyrevivedsothemanroseupandaskedhisfriendswhytheywereweeping.Theytoldhim
theythoughthewasdeadandwereabouttoburnhisbody.Hesaidhehadbeendownawelltogetwater,
buthadfoundithardtogetoutandhadjustreturned.Sotheysawitall.
Itisacommonrulewithprimitivepeoplenottowakenasleeper,becausehissoulisawayandmightnot
havetimetogetbacksoifthemanwakenedwithouthissoul,hewouldfallsick.Ifitisabsolutely
necessarytorouseasleeper,itmustbedoneverygradually,toallowthesoultimetoreturn.AFijianin
Matuku,suddenlywakenedfromanapbysomebodytreadingonhisfoot,hasbeenheardbawlingafter
hissoulandimploringittoreturn.HehadjustbeendreamingthathewasfarawayinTonga,andgreat
washisalarmonsuddenlywakeningtofindhisbodyinMatuku.Deathstaredhiminthefaceunlesshis
soulcouldbeinducedtospeedatonceacrosstheseaandreanimateitsdesertedtenement.Theman
wouldprobablyhavediedoffrightifamissionaryhadnotbeenathandtoallayhisterror.
Stillmoredangerousisitintheopinionofprimitivemantomoveasleeperoralterhisappearance,forif
thisweredonethesoulonitsreturnmightnotbeabletofindorrecogniseitsbody,andsotheperson
woulddie.TheMinangkabauersdeemithighlyimpropertoblackenordirtythefaceofasleeper,lestthe
absentsoulshouldshrinkfromreenteringabodythusdisfigured.PataniMalaysfancythatifapersons
facebepaintedwhilehesleeps,thesoulwhichhasgoneoutofhimwillnotrecognisehim,andhewill
sleepontillhisfaceiswashed.InBombayitisthoughtequivalenttomurdertochangetheaspectofa
sleeper,asbypaintinghisfaceinfantasticcoloursorgivingmoustachestoasleepingwoman.Forwhen
thesoulreturnsitwillnotknowitsownbody,andthepersonwilldie.
Butinorderthatamanssoulshouldquithisbody,itisnotnecessarythatheshouldbeasleep.Itmay
quithiminhiswakinghours,andthensickness,insanity,ordeathwillbetheresult.Thusamanofthe
WurunjeritribeinAustralialayathislastgaspbecausehisspirithaddepartedfromhim.Amedicine
manwentinpursuitandcaughtthespiritbythemiddlejustasitwasabouttoplungeintothesunset
glow,whichisthelightcastbythesoulsofthedeadastheypassinandoutoftheunderworld,where
thesungoestorest.Havingcapturedthevagrantspirit,thedoctorbroughtitbackunderhisopossumrug,

laidhimselfdownonthedyingman,andputthesoulbackintohim,sothatafteratimeherevived.The
KarensofBurmaareperpetuallyanxiousabouttheirsouls,lesttheseshouldgorovingfromtheirbodies,
leavingtheownerstodie.Whenamanhasreasontofearthathissoulisabouttotakethisfatalstep,a
ceremonyisperformedtoretainorrecallit,inwhichthewholefamilymusttakepart.Amealisprepared
consistingofacockandhen,aspecialkindofrice,andabunchofbananas.Thentheheadofthefamily
takesthebowlwhichisusedtoskimrice,andknockingwithitthriceonthetopofthehouseladdersays:
Prrrroo!Comeback,soul,donottarryoutside!Ifitrains,youwillbewet.Ifthesunshines,youwillbe
hot.Thegnatswillstingyou,theleecheswillbiteyou,thetigerswilldevouryou,thethunderwillcrush
you.Prrrroo!Comeback,soul!Hereitwillbewellwithyou.Youshallwantfornothing.Comeandeat
undershelterfromthewindandthestorm.Afterthatthefamilypartakesofthemeal,andtheceremony
endswitheverybodytyingtheirrightwristwithastringwhichhasbeencharmedbyasorcerer.Similarly
theLolosofSouthwesternChinabelievethatthesoulleavesthebodyinchronicillness.Inthatcase
theyreadasortofelaboratelitany,callingonthesoulbynameandbeseechingittoreturnfromthehills,
thevales,therivers,theforests,thefields,orfromwhereveritmaybestraying.Atthesametimecupsof
water,wine,andricearesetatthedoorfortherefreshmentofthewearywanderingspirit.Whenthe
ceremonyisover,theytiearedcordroundthearmofthesickmantotetherthesoul,andthiscordis
wornbyhimuntilitdecaysanddropsoff.
SomeoftheCongotribesbelievethatwhenamanisill,hissoulhaslefthisbodyandiswanderingat
large.Theaidofthesorcereristhencalledintocapturethevagrantspiritandrestoreittotheinvalid.
Generallythephysiciandeclaresthathehassuccessfullychasedthesoulintothebranchofatree.The
wholetownthereuponturnsoutandaccompaniesthedoctortothetree,wherethestrongestmenare
deputedtobreakoffthebranchinwhichthesoulofthesickmanissupposedtobelodged.Thistheydo
andcarrythebranchbacktothetown,insinuatingbytheirgesturesthattheburdenisheavyandhardto
bear.Whenthebranchhasbeenbroughttothesickmanshut,heisplacedinanuprightpositionbyits
side,andthesorcererperformstheenchantmentsbywhichthesoulisbelievedtoberestoredtoits
owner.
Pining,sickness,greatfright,anddeathareascribedbytheBataksofSumatratotheabsenceofthesoul
fromthebody.Atfirsttheytrytobeckonthewandererback,andtolurehim,likeafowl,bystrewing
rice.Thenthefollowingformofwordsiscommonlyrepeated:Comeback,Osoul,whetherthouart
lingeringinthewood,oronthehills,orinthedale.See,Icalltheewithatoembabras,withaneggof
thefowlRajahmoelija,withtheelevenhealingleaves.Detainitnot,letitcomestraighthere,detainit
not,neitherinthewood,noronthehill,norinthedale.Thatmaynotbe.Ocomestraighthome!Once
whenapopulartravellerwasleavingaKayanvillage,themothers,fearingthattheirchildrenssouls
mightfollowhimonhisjourney,broughthimtheboardsonwhichtheycarrytheirinfantsandbegged
himtopraythatthesoulsofthelittleoneswouldreturntothefamiliarboardsandnotgoawaywithhim
intothefarcountry.Toeachboardwasfastenedaloopedstringforthepurposeoftetheringthevagrant
spirits,andthroughtheloopeachbabywasmadetopassachubbyfingertomakesurethatitstinysoul
wouldnotwanderaway.
InanIndianstoryakingconveyshissoulintothedeadbodyofaBrahman,andahunchbackconveyshis
soulintothedesertedbodyoftheking.ThehunchbackisnowkingandthekingisaBrahman.However,
thehunchbackisinducedtoshowhisskillbytransferringhissoultothedeadbodyofaparrot,andthe
kingseizestheopportunitytoregainpossessionofhisownbody.Ataleofthesametype,withvariations
ofdetail,reappearsamongtheMalays.Akinghasincautiouslytransferredhissoultoanape,uponwhich
thevizieradroitlyinsertshisownsoulintothekingsbodyandsotakespossessionofthequeenandthe
kingdom,whilethetruekinglanguishesatcourtintheoutwardsemblanceofanape.Butonedaythe
falseking,whoplayedforhighstakes,waswatchingacombatoframs,andithappenedthattheanimal
onwhichhehadlaidhismoneyfelldowndead.Alleffortstorestoreanimationprovedunavailingtillthe
falseking,withtheinstinctofatruesportsman,transferredhisownsoultothebodyofthedeceasedram,

andthusrenewedthefray.Therealkinginthebodyoftheapesawhischance,andwithgreatpresence
ofminddartedbackintohisownbody,whichthevizierhadrashlyvacated.Sohecametohisownagain,
andtheusurperintheramsbodymetwiththefateherichlydeserved.SimilarlytheGreekstoldhowthe
soulofHermotimusofClazomenaeusedtoquithisbodyandroamfarandwide,bringingback
intelligenceofwhathehadseenonhisramblestohisfriendsathomeuntiloneday,whenhisspiritwas
abroad,hisenemiescontrivedtoseizehisdesertedbodyandcommittedittotheflames.
Thedepartureofthesoulisnotalwaysvoluntary.Itmaybeextractedfromthebodyagainstitswillby
ghosts,demons,orsorcerers.Hence,whenafuneralispassingthehouse,theKarenstietheirchildren
withaspecialkindofstringtoaparticularpartofthehouse,lestthesoulsofthechildrenshouldleave
theirbodiesandgointothecorpsewhichispassing.Thechildrenarekepttiedinthiswayuntilthe
corpseisoutofsight.Andafterthecorpsehasbeenlaidinthegrave,butbeforetheearthhasbeen
shovelledin,themournersandfriendsrangethemselvesroundthegrave,eachwithabamboosplit
lengthwiseinonehandandalittlestickintheothereachmanthrustshisbamboointothegrave,and
drawingthestickalongthegrooveofthebamboopointsouttohissoulthatinthiswayitmayeasily
climbupoutofthetomb.Whiletheearthisbeingshovelledin,thebamboosarekeptoutoftheway,lest
thesoulsshouldbeinthem,andsoshouldbeinadvertentlyburiedwiththeearthasitisbeingthrown
intothegraveandwhenthepeopleleavethespottheycarryawaythebamboos,beggingtheirsoulsto
comewiththem.Further,onreturningfromthegraveeachKarenprovideshimselfwiththreelittlehooks
madeofbranchesoftrees,andcallinghisspirittofollowhim,atshortintervals,ashereturns,hemakesa
motionasifhookingit,andthenthruststhehookintotheground.Thisisdonetopreventthesoulofthe
livingfromstayingbehindwiththesoulofthedead.WhentheKaroBatakshaveburiedsomebodyand
arefillinginthegrave,asorceressrunsaboutbeatingtheairwithastick.Thisshedoesinordertodrive
awaythesoulsofthesurvivors,forifoneofthesesoulshappenedtoslipintothegraveandtobecovered
upwithearth,itsownerwoulddie.
InUea,oneoftheLoyaltyIslands,thesoulsofthedeadseemtohavebeencreditedwiththepowerof
stealingthesoulsoftheliving.Forwhenamanwassickthesouldoctorwouldgowithalargetroopof
menandwomentothegraveyard.Herethemenplayedonflutesandthewomenwhistledsoftlytolure
thesoulhome.Afterthishadgoneonforsometimetheyformedinprocessionandmovedhomewards,
theflutesplayingandthewomenwhistlingalltheway,whiletheyledbackthewanderingsoulanddrove
itgentlyalongwithopenpalms.Onenteringthepatientsdwellingtheycommandedthesoulinaloud
voicetoenterhisbody.
Oftentheabductionofamanssoulissetdowntodemons.Thusfitsandconvulsionsaregenerally
ascribedbytheChinesetotheagencyofcertainmischievousspiritswholovetodrawmenssoulsoutof
theirbodies.AtAmoythespiritswhoservebabiesandchildreninthiswayrejoiceinthehighsounding
titlesofcelestialagenciesbestridinggallopinghorsesandliterarygraduatesresidinghalfwayupinthe
sky.Whenaninfantiswrithinginconvulsions,thefrightenedmotherhastenstotheroofofthehouse,
and,wavingaboutabamboopoletowhichoneofthechildsgarmentsisattached,criesoutseveraltimes
MychildSoandso,comeback,returnhome!Meantime,anotherinmateofthehousebangsawayata
gonginthehopeofattractingtheattentionofthestrayedsoul,whichissupposedtorecognisethe
familiargarmentandtoslipintoit.Thegarmentcontainingthesoulisthenplacedonorbesidethechild,
andifthechilddoesnotdierecoveryissuretofollow,soonerorlater.SimilarlysomeIndianscatcha
manslostsoulinhisbootsandrestoreittohisbodybyputtinghisfeetintothem.
IntheMoluccaswhenamanisunwellitisthoughtthatsomedevilhascarriedawayhissoultothetree,
mountain,orhillwherehe(thedevil)resides.Asorcererhavingpointedoutthedevilsabode,thefriends
ofthepatientcarrythithercookedrice,fruit,fish,raweggs,ahen,achicken,asilkenrobe,gold,armlets,
andsoforth.Havingsetoutthefoodinordertheypray,saying:Wecometooffertoyou,Odevil,this
offeringoffood,clothes,gold,andsoontakeitandreleasethesoulofthepatientforwhomwepray.

Letitreturntohisbody,andhewhonowissickshallbemadewhole.Thentheyeatalittleandletthe
henlooseasaransomforthesoulofthepatientalsotheyputdowntheraweggsbutthesilkenrobe,the
gold,andthearmletstheytakehomewiththem.Assoonastheyarecometothehousetheyplaceaflat
bowlcontainingtheofferingswhichhavebeenbroughtbackatthesickmanshead,andsaytohim:
Nowisyoursoulreleased,andyoushallfarewellandlivetogreyhairsontheearth.
Demonsareespeciallyfearedbypersonswhohavejustenteredanewhouse.Henceatahousewarming
amongtheAlfoorsofMinahassainCelebesthepriestperformsaceremonyforthepurposeofrestoring
theirsoulstotheinmates.Hehangsupabagattheplaceofsacrificeandthengoesthroughalistofthe
gods.Therearesomanyofthemthatthistakeshimthewholenightthroughwithoutstopping.Inthe
morningheoffersthegodsaneggandsomerice.Bythistimethesoulsofthehouseholdaresupposedto
begatheredinthebag.Sothepriesttakesthebag,andholdingitontheheadofthemasterofthehouse,
says,Hereyouhaveyoursoulgo(soul)tomorrowawayagain.Hethendoesthesame,sayingthe
samewords,tothehousewifeandalltheothermembersofthefamily.AmongstthesameAlfoorsone
wayofrecoveringasickmanssoulistoletdownabowlbyabeltoutofawindowandfishforthesoul
tillitiscaughtinthebowlandhauledup.Andamongthesamepeople,whenapriestisbringingbacka
sickmanssoulwhichhehascaughtinacloth,heisprecededbyagirlholdingthelargeleafofacertain
palmoverhisheadasanumbrellatokeephimandthesoulfromgettingwet,incaseitshouldrainand
heisfollowedbyamanbrandishingaswordtodeterothersoulsfromanyattemptatrescuingthe
capturedspirit.
Sometimesthelostsoulisbroughtbackinavisibleshape.TheSalishorFlatheadIndiansofOregon
believethatamanssoulmaybeseparatedforatimefromhisbodywithoutcausingdeathandwithout
themanbeingawareofhisloss.Itisnecessary,however,thatthelostsoulshouldbesoonfoundand
restoredtoitsownerorhewilldie.Thenameofthemanwhohaslosthissoulisrevealedinadreamto
themedicineman,whohastenstoinformthesuffererofhisloss.Generallyanumberofmenhave
sustainedalikelossatthesametimealltheirnamesarerevealedtothemedicineman,andallemploy
himtorecovertheirsouls.Thewholenightlongthesesoullessmengoaboutthevillagefromlodgeto
lodge,dancingandsinging.Towardsdaybreaktheygointoaseparatelodge,whichisclosedupsoasto
betotallydark.Asmallholeisthenmadeintheroof,throughwhichthemedicineman,withabunchof
feathers,brushesinthesouls,intheshapeofbitsofboneandthelike,whichhereceivesonapieceof
matting.Afireisnextkindled,bythelightofwhichthemedicinemansortsoutthesouls.Firstheputs
asidethesoulsofdeadpeople,ofwhichthereareusuallyseveralforifheweretogivethesoulofadead
persontoalivingman,themanwoulddieinstantly.Nexthepicksoutthesoulsofallthepersons
present,andmakingthemalltositdownbeforehim,hetakesthesoulofeach,intheshapeofasplinter
ofbone,wood,orshell,andplacingitontheownershead,patsitwithmanyprayersandcontortionstill
itdescendsintotheheartandsoresumesitsproperplace.
Again,soulsmaybeextractedfromtheirbodiesordetainedontheirwanderingsnotonlybyghostsand
demonsbutalsobymen,especiallybysorcerers.InFiji,ifacriminalrefusedtoconfess,thechiefsent
forascarfwithwhichtocatchawaythesouloftherogue.Atthesightorevenatthementionofthe
scarftheculpritgenerallymadeacleanbreast.Forifhedidnot,thescarfwouldbewavedoverhishead
tillhissoulwascaughtinit,whenitwouldbecarefullyfoldedupandnailedtotheendofachiefs
canoeandforwantofhissoulthecriminalwouldpineanddie.ThesorcerersofDangerIslandusedto
setsnaresforsouls.Thesnaresweremadeofstoutcinet,aboutfifteentothirtyfeetlong,withloopson
eithersideofdifferentsizes,tosuitthedifferentsizesofsoulsforfatsoulstherewerelargeloops,for
thinsoulsthereweresmallones.Whenamanwassickagainstwhomthesorcerershadagrudge,theyset
upthesesoulsnaresnearhishouseandwatchedfortheflightofhissoul.Ifintheshapeofabirdoran
insectitwascaughtinthesnare,themanwouldinfalliblydie.InsomepartsofWestAfrica,indeed,
wizardsarecontinuallysettingtrapstocatchsoulsthatwanderfromtheirbodiesinsleepandwhenthey
havecaughtone,theytieitupoverthefire,andasitshrivelsintheheattheownersickens.Thisisdone,

notoutofanygrudgetowardsthesufferer,butpurelyasamatterofbusiness.Thewizarddoesnotcare
whosesoulhehascaptured,andwillreadilyrestoreittoitsowner,ifonlyheispaidfordoingso.Some
sorcererskeepregularasylumsforstrayedsouls,andanybodywhohaslostormislaidhisownsoulcan
alwayshaveanotheronefromtheasylumonpaymentoftheusualfee.Noblamewhateverattachesto
menwhokeeptheseprivateasylumsorsettrapsforpassingsoulsitistheirprofession,andinthe
exerciseofittheyareactuatedbynoharshorunkindlyfeelings.Buttherearealsowretcheswhofrom
purespiteorforthesakeoflucresetandbaittrapswiththedeliberatepurposeofcatchingthesoulofa
particularmanandinthebottomofthepot,hiddenbythebait,areknivesandsharphookswhichtear
andrendthepoorsoul,eitherkillingitoutrightormaulingitsoastoimpairthehealthofitsownerwhen
itsucceedsinescapingandreturningtohim.MissKingsleyknewaKrumanwhobecameveryanxious
abouthissoul,becauseforseveralnightshehadsmeltinhisdreamsthesavourysmellofsmoked
crawfishseasonedwithredpepper.Clearlysomeillwisherhadsetatrapbaitedwiththisdaintyforhis
dreamsoul,intendingtodohimgrievousbodily,orratherspiritual,harmandforthenextfewnights
greatpainsweretakentokeephissoulfromstrayingabroadinhissleep.Intheswelteringheatofthe
tropicalnighthelaysweatingandsnortingunderablanket,hisnoseandmouthtiedupwitha
handkerchieftopreventtheescapeofhisprecioussoul.InHawaiithereweresorcererswhocaughtsouls
oflivingpeople,shutthemupincalabashes,andgavethemtopeopletoeat.Bysqueezingacaptured
soulintheirhandstheydiscoveredtheplacewherepeoplehadbeensecretlyburied.
Nowhereperhapsistheartofabductinghumansoulsmorecarefullycultivatedorcarriedtohigher
perfectionthanintheMalayPeninsula.Herethemethodsbywhichthewizardworkshiswillarevarious,
andsotooarehismotives.Sometimeshedesirestodestroyanenemy,sometimestowintheloveofa
coldorbashfulbeauty.Thus,totakeaninstanceofthelattersortofcharm,thefollowingarethe
directionsgivenforsecuringthesoulofonewhomyouwishtorenderdistraught.Whenthemoon,just
risen,looksredabovetheeasternhorizon,goout,andstandinginthemoonlight,withthebigtoeofyour
rightfootonthebigtoeofyourleft,makeaspeakingtrumpetofyourrighthandandrecitethroughitthe
followingwords:
OM.Iloosemyshaft,Ilooseitandthemooncloudsover,
Ilooseit,andthesunisextinguished.
Ilooseit,andthestarsburndim.
Butitisnotthesun,moon,andstarsthatIshootat,
Itisthestalkoftheheartofthatchildofthecongregation,
Soandso.
Cluck!cluck!soulofSoandso,comeandwalkwithme,
Comeandsitwithme,
Comeandsleepandsharemypillow.
Cluck!cluck!soul.
Repeatthisthriceandaftereveryrepetitionblowthroughyourhollowfist.Oryoumaycatchthesoulin
yourturban,thus.Gooutonthenightofthefullmoonandthetwosucceedingnightssitdownonanant
hillfacingthemoon,burnincense,andrecitethefollowingincantation:
Ibringyouabetelleaftochew,
Dabthelimeontoit,PrinceFerocious,
ForSomebody,PrinceDistractionsdaughter,tochew.
Somebodyatsunrisebedistraughtforloveofme
Somebodyatsunsetbedistraughtforloveofme.
Asyourememberyourparents,rememberme
Asyourememberyourhouseandhouseladder,rememberme

Whenthunderrumbles,rememberme
Whenwindwhistles,rememberme
Whentheheavensrain,rememberme
Whencockscrow,rememberme
Whenthedialbirdtellsitstales,rememberme
Whenyoulookupatthesun,rememberme
Whenyoulookupatthemoon,rememberme,
ForinthatselfsamemoonIamthere.
Cluck!cluck!soulofSomebodycomehithertome.
Idonotmeantoletyouhavemysoul,
Letyoursoulcomehithertomine.
Nowwavetheendofyourturbantowardsthemoonseventimeseachnight.Gohomeandputitunder
yourpillow,andifyouwanttowearitinthedaytime,burnincenseandsay,ItisnotaturbanthatI
carryinmygirdle,butthesoulofSomebody.
TheIndiansoftheNassRiver,inBritishColumbia,areimpressedwithabeliefthataphysicianmay
swallowhispatientssoulbymistake.Adoctorwhoisbelievedtohavedonesoismadebytheother
membersofthefacultytostandoverthepatient,whileoneofthemthrustshisfingersdownthedoctors
throat,anotherkneadshiminthestomachwithhisknuckles,andathirdslapshimontheback.Ifthesoul
isnotinhimafterall,andifthesameprocesshasbeenrepeateduponallthemedicalmenwithout
success,itisconcludedthatthesoulmustbeintheheaddoctorsbox.Apartyofdoctors,therefore,
waitsuponhimathishouseandrequestshimtoproducehisbox.Whenhehasdonesoandarrangedits
contentsonanewmat,theytakethevotaryofAesculapiusandholdhimupbytheheelswithhisheadin
aholeinthefloor.Inthispositiontheywashhishead,andanywaterremainingfromtheablutionis
takenandpoureduponthesickmanshead.Nodoubtthelostsoulisinthewater.
3.TheSoulasaShadowandaReflection
BUTthespiritualdangersIhaveenumeratedarenottheonlyoneswhichbesetthesavage.Oftenhe
regardshisshadoworreflectionashissoul,oratalleventsasavitalpartofhimself,andassuchitis
necessarilyasourceofdangertohim.Forifitistrampledupon,struck,orstabbed,hewillfeeltheinjury
asifitweredonetohispersonandifitisdetachedfromhimentirely(ashebelievesthatitmaybe)he
willdie.IntheislandofWetartherearemagicianswhocanmakeamanillbystabbinghisshadowwith
apikeorhackingitwithasword.AfterSankarahaddestroyedtheBuddhistsinIndia,itissaidthathe
journeyedtoNepaul,wherehehadsomedifferenceofopinionwiththeGrandLama.Toprovehis
supernaturalpowers,hesoaredintotheair.ButashemounteduptheGrandLama,perceivinghis
shadowswayingandwaveringontheground,struckhisknifeintoitanddownfellSankaraandbrokehis
neck.
IntheBanksIslandstherearesomestonesofaremarkablylongshapewhichgobythenameofeating
ghosts,becausecertainpowerfulanddangerousghostsarebelievedtolodgeinthem.Ifamansshadow
fallsononeofthesestones,theghostwilldrawhissouloutfromhim,sothathewilldie.Suchstones,
therefore,aresetinahousetoguarditandamessengersenttoahousebytheabsentownerwillcallout
thenameofthesender,lestthewatchfulghostinthestoneshouldfancythathecamewithevilintentand
shoulddohimamischief.AtafuneralinChina,whenthelidisabouttobeplacedonthecoffin,mostof
thebystanders,withtheexceptionofthenearestkin,retireafewstepsorevenretreattoanotherroom,
forapersonshealthisbelievedtobeendangeredbyallowinghisshadowtobeenclosedinacoffin.And
whenthecoffinisabouttobeloweredintothegravemostofthespectatorsrecoiltoalittledistancelest
theirshadowsshouldfallintothegraveandharmshouldthusbedonetotheirpersons.Thegeomancer

andhisassistantsstandonthesideofthegravewhichisturnedawayfromthesunandthegravediggers
andcoffinbearersattachtheirshadowsfirmlytotheirpersonsbytyingastripofclothtightlyroundtheir
waists.Norisithumanbeingsalonewhoarethusliabletobeinjuredbymeansoftheirshadows.
Animalsaretosomeextentinthesamepredicament.Asmallsnail,whichfrequentstheneighbourhood
ofthelimestonehillsinPerak,isbelievedtosuckthebloodofcattlethroughtheirshadowshencethe
beastsgrowleanandsometimesdiefromlossofblood.TheancientssupposedthatinArabia,ifahyaena
trodonamansshadow,itdeprivedhimofthepowerofspeechandmotionandthatifadog,standing
onaroofinthemoonlight,castashadowonthegroundandahyaenatrodonit,thedogwouldfalldown
asifdraggedwitharope.Clearlyinthesecasestheshadow,ifnotequivalenttothesoul,isatleast
regardedasalivingpartofthemanortheanimal,sothatinjurydonetotheshadowisfeltbytheperson
oranimalasifitweredonetohisbody.
Conversely,iftheshadowisavitalpartofamanorananimal,itmayundercertaincircumstancesbeas
hazardoustobetouchedbyitasitwouldbetocomeintocontactwiththepersonoranimal.Hencethe
savagemakesitaruletoshuntheshadowofcertainpersonswhomforvariousreasonsheregardsas
sourcesofdangerousinfluence.Amongstthedangerousclasseshecommonlyranksmournersand
womeningeneral,butespeciallyhismotherinlaw.TheShuswapIndiansthinkthattheshadowofa
mournerfallinguponapersonwouldmakehimsick.AmongsttheKurnaiofVictorianovicesat
initiationwerecautionednottoletawomansshadowfallacrossthem,asthiswouldmakethemthin,
lazy,andstupid.AnAustraliannativeissaidtohaveoncenearlydiedoffrightbecausetheshadowofhis
motherinlawfellonhislegsashelayasleepunderatree.Theaweanddreadwithwhichtheuntutored
savagecontemplateshismotherinlawareamongstthemostfamiliarfactsofanthropology.IntheYuin
tribesofNewSouthWalestherulewhichforbadeamantoholdanycommunicationwithhiswifes
motherwasverystrict.Hemightnotlookatheroreveninherdirection.Itwasagroundofdivorceifhis
shadowhappenedtofallonhismotherinlaw:inthatcasehehadtoleavehiswife,andshereturnedto
herparents.InNewBritainthenativeimaginationfailstoconceivetheextentandnatureofthe
calamitieswhichwouldresultfromamansaccidentallyspeakingtohiswifesmothersuicideofoneor
bothwouldprobablybetheonlycourseopentothem.ThemostsolemnformofoathaNewBritoncan
takeis,Sir,ifIamnottellingthetruth,IhopeImayshakehandswithmymotherinlaw.
Wheretheshadowisregardedassointimatelyboundupwiththelifeofthemanthatitslossentails
debilityordeath,itisnaturaltoexpectthatitsdiminutionshouldberegardedwithsolicitudeand
apprehension,asbetokeningacorrespondingdecreaseinthevitalenergyofitsowner.InAmboynaand
Uliase,twoislandsneartheequator,wherenecessarilythereislittleornoshadowcastatnoon,the
peoplemakeitarulenottogooutofthehouseatmidday,becausetheyfancythatbydoingsoaman
maylosetheshadowofhissoul.TheMangaianstellofamightywarrior,Tukaitawa,whosestrength
waxedandwanedwiththelengthofhisshadow.Inthemorning,whenhisshadowfelllongest,his
strengthwasgreatestbutastheshadowshortenedtowardsnoonhisstrengthebbedwithit,tillexactlyat
noonitreacheditslowestpointthen,astheshadowstretchedoutintheafternoon,hisstrengthreturned.
AcertainherodiscoveredthesecretofTukaitawasstrengthandslewhimatnoon.ThesavageBesisisof
theMalayPeninsulafeartoburytheirdeadatnoon,becausetheyfancythattheshortnessoftheir
shadowsatthathourwouldsympatheticallyshortentheirownlives.
Nowhere,perhaps,doestheequivalenceoftheshadowtothelifeorsoulcomeoutmoreclearlythanin
somecustomspractisedtothisdayinSoutheasternEurope.InmodernGreece,whenthefoundationofa
newbuildingisbeinglaid,itisthecustomtokillacock,aram,oralamb,andtoletitsbloodflowonthe
foundationstone,underwhichtheanimalisafterwardsburied.Theobjectofthesacrificeistogive
strengthandstabilitytothebuilding.Butsometimes,insteadofkillingananimal,thebuilderenticesa
mantothefoundationstone,secretlymeasureshisbody,orapartofit,orhisshadow,andburiesthe
measureunderthefoundationstoneorhelaysthefoundationstoneuponthemansshadow.Itis
believedthatthemanwilldiewithintheyear.TheRoumaniansofTransylvaniathinkthathewhose

shadowisthusimmuredwilldiewithinfortydayssopersonspassingbyabuildingwhichisincourseof
erectionmayhearawarningcry,Bewarelesttheytakethyshadow!Notlongagotherewerestill
shadowtraderswhosebusinessitwastoprovidearchitectswiththeshadowsnecessaryforsecuringtheir
walls.Inthesecasesthemeasureoftheshadowislookedonasequivalenttotheshadowitself,andto
buryitistoburythelifeorsouloftheman,who,deprivedofit,mustdie.Thusthecustomisasubstitute
fortheoldpracticeofimmuringalivingpersoninthewalls,orcrushinghimunderthefoundationstone
ofanewbuilding,inordertogivestrengthanddurabilitytothestructure,ormoredefinitelyinorderthat
theangryghostmayhaunttheplaceandguarditagainsttheintrusionofenemies.
Assomepeoplesbelieveamanssoultobeinhisshadow,soother(orthesame)peoplesbelieveittobe
inhisreflectioninwateroramirror.ThustheAndamanesedonotregardtheirshadowsbuttheir
reflections(inanymirror)astheirsouls.WhentheMotumotuofNewGuineafirstsawtheirlikenesses
inalookingglass,theythoughtthattheirreflectionsweretheirsouls.InNewCaledoniatheoldmenare
ofopinionthatapersonsreflectioninwateroramirrorishissoulbuttheyoungermen,taughtbythe
Catholicpriests,maintainthatitisareflectionandnothingmore,justlikethereflectionofpalmtreesin
thewater.Thereflectionsoul,beingexternaltotheman,isexposedtomuchthesamedangersasthe
shadowsoul.TheZuluswillnotlookintoadarkpoolbecausetheythinkthereisabeastinitwhichwill
takeawaytheirreflections,sothattheydie.TheBasutossaythatcrocodileshavethepowerofthus
killingamanbydragginghisreflectionunderwater.Whenoneofthemdiessuddenlyandfromno
apparentcause,hisrelativeswillallegethatacrocodilemusthavetakenhisshadowsometimewhenhe
crossedastream.InSaddleIsland,Melanesia,thereisapoolintowhichifanyonelookshediesthe
malignantspirittakesholduponhislifebymeansofhisreflectiononthewater.
WecannowunderstandwhyitwasamaximbothinancientIndiaandancientGreecenottolookat
onesreflectioninwater,andwhytheGreeksregardeditasanomenofdeathifamandreamedofseeing
himselfsoreflected.Theyfearedthatthewaterspiritswoulddragthepersonsreflectionorsoulunder
water,leavinghimsoullesstoperish.Thiswasprobablytheoriginoftheclassicalstoryofthebeautiful
Narcissus,wholanguishedanddiedthroughseeinghisreflectioninthewater.
Further,wecannowexplainthewidespreadcustomofcoveringupmirrorsorturningthemtothewall
afteradeathhastakenplaceinthehouse.Itisfearedthatthesoul,projectedoutofthepersoninthe
shapeofhisreflectioninthemirror,maybecarriedoffbytheghostofthedeparted,whichiscommonly
supposedtolingeraboutthehousetilltheburial.ThecustomisthusexactlyparalleltotheArucustomof
notsleepinginahouseafteradeathforfearthatthesoul,projectedoutofthebodyinadream,maymeet
theghostandbecarriedoffbyit.Thereasonwhysickpeopleshouldnotseethemselvesinamirror,and
whythemirrorinasickroomisthereforecoveredup,isalsoplainintimeofsickness,whenthesoul
mighttakeflightsoeasily,itisparticularlydangeroustoprojectitoutofthebodybymeansofthe
reflectioninamirror.Theruleisthereforepreciselyparalleltotheruleobservedbysomepeoplesofnot
allowingsickpeopletosleepforinsleepthesoulisprojectedoutofthebody,andthereisalwaysarisk
thatitmaynotreturn.
Aswithshadowsandreflections,sowithportraitstheyareoftenbelievedtocontainthesoulofthe
personportrayed.Peoplewhoholdthisbeliefarenaturallylothtohavetheirlikenessestakenforifthe
portraitisthesoul,oratleastavitalpartofthepersonportrayed,whoeverpossessestheportraitwillbe
abletoexerciseafatalinfluenceovertheoriginalofit.ThustheEsquimauxofBeringStraitbelievethat
personsdealinginwitchcrafthavethepowerofstealingapersonsshade,sothatwithoutithewillpine
awayanddie.OnceatavillageonthelowerYukonRiveranexplorerhadsetuphiscameratogeta
pictureofthepeopleastheyweremovingaboutamongtheirhouses.Whilehewasfocusingthe
instrument,theheadmanofthevillagecameupandinsistedonpeepingunderthecloth.Beingallowedto
doso,hegazedintentlyforaminuteatthemovingfiguresonthegroundglass,thensuddenlywithdrew
hisheadandbawledatthetopofhisvoicetothepeople,Hehasallofyourshadesinthisbox.Apanic

ensuedamongthegroup,andinaninstanttheydisappearedhelterskelterintotheirhouses.The
TepehuanesofMexicostoodinmortalterrorofthecamera,andfivedayspersuasionwasnecessaryto
inducethemtoposeforit.Whenatlasttheyconsented,theylookedlikecriminalsabouttobeexecuted.
Theybelievedthatbyphotographingpeopletheartistcouldcarryofftheirsoulsanddevourthemathis
leisuremoments.Theysaidthat,whenthepicturesreachedhiscountry,theywoulddieorsomeother
evilwouldbefallthem.WhenDr.CatatandsomecompanionswereexploringtheBaracountryonthe
westcoastofMadagascar,thepeoplesuddenlybecamehostile.Thedaybeforethetravellers,notwithout
difficulty,hadphotographedtheroyalfamily,andnowfoundthemselvesaccusedoftakingthesoulsof
thenativesforthepurposeofsellingthemwhentheyreturnedtoFrance.Denialwasvainincompliance
withthecustomofthecountrytheywereobligedtocatchthesouls,whichwerethenputintoabasket
andorderedbyDr.Catattoreturntotheirrespectiveowners.
SomevillagersinSikhimbetrayedalivelyhorrorandhidawaywheneverthelensofacamera,orthe
evileyeoftheboxastheycalledit,wasturnedonthem.Theythoughtittookawaytheirsoulswiththeir
pictures,andsoputitinthepoweroftheownerofthepicturestocastspellsonthem,andtheyalleged
thataphotographofthesceneryblightedthelandscape.UntilthereignofthelateKingofSiamno
Siamesecoinswereeverstampedwiththeimageoftheking,foratthattimetherewasastrong
prejudiceagainstthemakingofportraitsinanymedium.Europeanswhotravelintothejunglehave,even
atthepresenttime,onlytopointacameraatacrowdtoprocureitsinstantdispersion.Whenacopyof
thefaceofapersonismadeandtakenawayfromhim,aportionofhislifegoeswiththepicture.Unless
thesovereignhadbeenblessedwiththeyearsofaMethusalehhecouldscarcelyhavepermittedhislife
tobedistributedinsmallpiecestogetherwiththecoinsoftherealm.
BeliefsofthesamesortstilllingerinvariouspartsofEurope.Notverymanyyearsagosomeoldwomen
intheGreekislandofCarpathuswereveryangryathavingtheirlikenessesdrawn,thinkingthatin
consequencetheywouldpineanddie.TherearepersonsintheWestofScotlandwhorefusetohave
theirlikenessestakenlestitproveunluckyandgiveasinstancesthecasesofseveraloftheirfriendswho
neverhadadayshealthafterbeingphotographed.

XIX.TabooedActs
1.TaboosonIntercoursewithStrangers
SOmuchfortheprimitiveconceptionsofthesoulandthedangerstowhichitisexposed.These
conceptionsarenotlimitedtoonepeopleorcountrywithvariationsofdetailtheyarefoundalloverthe
world,andsurvive,aswehaveseen,inmodernEurope.Beliefssodeepseatedandsowidespreadmust
necessarilyhavecontributedtoshapethemouldinwhichtheearlykingshipwascast.Forifeveryperson
wasatsuchpainstosavehisownsoulfromtheperilswhichthreateneditonsomanysides,howmuch
morecarefullymusthehavebeenguardeduponwhoselifehungthewelfareandeventheexistenceof
thewholepeople,andwhomthereforeitwasthecommoninterestofalltopreserve?Thereforewe
shouldexpecttofindthekingslifeprotectedbyasystemofprecautionsorsafeguardsstillmore
numerousandminutethanthosewhichinprimitivesocietyeverymanadoptsforthesafetyofhisown
soul.Nowinpointoffactthelifeoftheearlykingsisregulated,aswehaveseenandshallseemorefully
presently,byaveryexactcodeofrules.Maywenotthenconjecturethattheserulesareinfactthevery
safeguardswhichweshouldexpecttofindadoptedfortheprotectionofthekingslife?Anexamination
oftherulesthemselvesconfirmsthisconjecture.Forfromthisitappearsthatsomeoftherulesobserved
bythekingsareidenticalwiththoseobservedbyprivatepersonsoutofregardforthesafetyoftheir
soulsandevenofthosewhichseempeculiartotheking,many,ifnotall,aremostreadilyexplainedon
thehypothesisthattheyarenothingbutsafeguardsorlifeguardsoftheking.Iwillnowenumeratesome
oftheseroyalrulesortaboos,offeringoneachofthemsuchcommentsandexplanationsasmayserveto

settheoriginalintentionoftheruleinitsproperlight.
Astheobjectoftheroyaltaboosistoisolatethekingfromallsourcesofdanger,theirgeneraleffectisto
compelhimtoliveinastateofseclusion,moreorlesscomplete,accordingtothenumberandstringency
oftherulesheobserves.Nowofallsourcesofdangernonearemoredreadedbythesavagethanmagic
andwitchcraft,andhesuspectsallstrangersofpractisingtheseblackarts.Toguardagainstthebaneful
influenceexertedvoluntarilyorinvoluntarilybystrangersisthereforeanelementarydictateofsavage
prudence.Hencebeforestrangersareallowedtoenteradistrict,oratleastbeforetheyarepermittedto
minglefreelywiththeinhabitants,certainceremoniesareoftenperformedbythenativesofthecountry
forthepurposeofdisarmingthestrangersoftheirmagicalpowers,ofcounteractingthebanefulinfluence
whichisbelievedtoemanatefromthem,orofdisinfecting,sotospeak,thetaintedatmospherebywhich
theyaresupposedtobesurrounded.Thus,whentheambassadorssentbyJustinII.,EmperoroftheEast,
toconcludeapeacewiththeTurkshadreachedtheirdestination,theywerereceivedbyshamans,who
subjectedthemtoaceremonialpurificationforthepurposeofexorcisingallharmfulinfluence.Having
depositedthegoodsbroughtbytheambassadorsinanopenplace,thesewizardscarriedburningbranches
ofincenseroundthem,whiletheyrangabellandbeatonatambourine,snortingandfallingintoastate
offrenzyintheireffortstodispelthepowersofevil.Afterwardstheypurifiedtheambassadors
themselvesbyleadingthemthroughtheflames.IntheislandofNanumea(SouthPacific)strangersfrom
shipsorfromotherislandswerenotallowedtocommunicatewiththepeopleuntiltheyall,orafewas
representativesoftherest,hadbeentakentoeachofthefourtemplesintheisland,andprayersoffered
thatthegodwouldavertanydiseaseortreacherywhichthesestrangersmighthavebroughtwiththem.
Meatofferingswerealsolaiduponthealtars,accompaniedbysongsanddancesinhonourofthegod.
Whiletheseceremoniesweregoingon,allthepeopleexceptthepriestsandtheirattendantskeptoutof
sight.AmongsttheOtDanomsofBorneoitisthecustomthatstrangersenteringtheterritoryshouldpay
tothenativesacertainsum,whichisspentinthesacrificeofbuffaloesorpigstothespiritsoftheland
andwater,inordertoreconcilethemtothepresenceofthestrangers,andtoinducethemnottowithdraw
theirfavourfromthepeopleofthecountry,buttoblessthericeharvest,andsoforth.Themenofa
certaindistrictinBorneo,fearingtolookuponaEuropeantravellerlestheshouldmakethemill,warned
theirwivesandchildrennottogonearhim.Thosewhocouldnotrestraintheircuriositykilledfowlsto
appeasetheevilspiritsandsmearedthemselveswiththeblood.Moredreaded,saysatravellerin
CentralBorneo,thantheevilspiritsoftheneighbourhoodaretheevilspiritsfromadistancewhich
accompanytravellers.WhenacompanyfromthemiddleMahakamRivervisitedmeamongtheBluu
Kayansintheyear1897,nowomanshowedherselfoutsideherhousewithoutaburningbundleof
plehidingbark,thestinkingsmokeofwhichdrivesawayevilspirits.
WhenCrevauxwastravellinginSouthAmericaheenteredavillageoftheApalaiIndians.Afew
momentsafterhisarrivalsomeoftheIndiansbroughthimanumberoflargeblackants,ofaspecies
whosebiteispainful,fastenedonpalmleaves.Thenallthepeopleofthevillage,withoutdistinctionof
ageorsex,presentedthemselvestohim,andhehadtostingthemallwiththeantsontheirfaces,thighs,
andotherpartsoftheirbodies.Sometimes,whenheappliedtheantstootenderly,theycalledoutMore!
more!andwerenotsatisfiedtilltheirskinwasthicklystuddedwithtinyswellingslikewhatmighthave
beenproducedbywhippingthemwithnettles.Theobjectofthisceremonyismadeplainbythecustom
observedinAmboynaandUliaseofsprinklingsickpeoplewithpungentspices,suchasgingerand
cloves,chewedfine,inorderbythepricklingsensationtodriveawaythedemonofdiseasewhichmay
beclingingtotheirpersons.InJavaapopularcureforgoutorrheumatismistorubSpanishpepperinto
thenailsofthefingersandtoesofthesuffererthepungencyofthepepperissupposedtobetoomuch
forthegoutorrheumatism,whoaccordinglydepartsinhaste.SoontheSlaveCoastthemotherofasick
childsometimesbelievesthatanevilspirithastakenpossessionofthechildsbody,andinordertodrive
himout,shemakessmallcutsinthebodyofthelittlesuffererandinsertsgreenpeppersorspicesinthe
wounds,believingthatshewilltherebyhurttheevilspiritandforcehimtobegone.Thepoorchild
naturallyscreamswithpain,butthemotherhardensherheartinthebeliefthatthedemonissuffering

equally.
Itisprobablethatthesamedreadofstrangers,ratherthananydesiretodothemhonour,isthemotiveof
certainceremonieswhicharesometimesobservedattheirreception,butofwhichtheintentionisnot
directlystated.IntheOngtongJavaIslands,whichareinhabitedbyPolynesians,thepriestsorsorcerers
seemtowieldgreatinfluence.Theirmainbusinessistosummonorexorcisespiritsforthepurposeof
avertingordispellingsickness,andofprocuringfavourablewinds,agoodcatchoffish,andsoon.When
strangerslandontheislands,theyarefirstofallreceivedbythesorcerers,sprinkledwithwater,anointed
withoil,andgirtwithdriedpandanusleaves.Atthesametimesandandwaterarefreelythrownaboutin
alldirections,andthenewcomerandhisboatarewipedwithgreenleaves.Afterthisceremonythe
strangersareintroducedbythesorcererstothechief.InAfghanistanandinsomepartsofPersiathe
traveller,beforeheentersavillage,isfrequentlyreceivedwithasacrificeofanimallifeorfood,oroffire
andincense.TheAfghanBoundaryMission,inpassingbyvillagesinAfghanistan,wasoftenmetwith
fireandincense.Sometimesatrayoflightedembersisthrownunderthehoofsofthetravellershorse,
withthewords,Youarewelcome.OnenteringavillageinCentralAfricaEminPashawasreceived
withthesacrificeoftwogoatstheirbloodwassprinkledonthepathandthechiefsteppedovertheblood
togreetEmin.Sometimesthedreadofstrangersandtheirmagicistoogreattoallowoftheirreception
onanyterms.ThuswhenSpekearrivedatacertainvillage,thenativesshuttheirdoorsagainsthim,
becausetheyhadneverbeforeseenawhitemannorthetinboxesthatthemenwerecarrying:Who
knows,theysaid,butthattheseveryboxesaretheplunderingWatutatransformedandcometokillus?
Youcannotbeadmitted.Nopersuasioncouldavailwiththem,andthepartyhadtoproceedtothenext
village.
Thefearthusentertainedofalienvisitorsisoftenmutual.Enteringastrangelandthesavagefeelsthathe
istreadingenchantedground,andhetakesstepstoguardagainstthedemonsthathauntitandthe
magicalartsofitsinhabitants.ThusongoingtoastrangelandtheMaorisperformedcertainceremonies
tomakeitcommon,lestitmighthavebeenpreviouslysacred.WhenBaronMikluchoMaclaywas
approachingavillageontheMaclayCoastofNewGuinea,oneofthenativeswhoaccompaniedhim
brokeabranchfromatreeandgoingasidewhisperedtoitforawhilethensteppinguptoeachmember
oftheparty,oneafteranother,hespatsomethinguponhisbackandgavehimsomeblowswiththe
branch.Lastly,hewentintotheforestandburiedthebranchunderwitheredleavesinthethickestpartof
thejungle.Thisceremonywasbelievedtoprotectthepartyagainstalltreacheryanddangerinthevillage
theywereapproaching.Theideaprobablywasthatthemalignantinfluencesweredrawnofffromthe
personsintothebranchandburiedwithitinthedepthsoftheforest.InAustralia,whenastrangetribe
hasbeeninvitedintoadistrictandisapproachingtheencampmentofthetribewhichownstheland,the
strangerscarrylightedbarkorburningsticksintheirhands,forthepurpose,theysay,ofclearingand
purifyingtheair.WhentheToradjasareonaheadhuntingexpeditionandhaveenteredtheenemys
country,theymaynoteatanyfruitswhichthefoehasplantednoranyanimalwhichhehasreareduntil
theyhavefirstcommittedanactofhostility,asbyburningahouseorkillingaman.Theythinkthatif
theybrokethisruletheywouldreceivesomethingofthesoulorspiritualessenceoftheenemyinto
themselves,whichwoulddestroythemysticvirtueoftheirtalismans.
Again,itisbelievedthatamanwhohasbeenonajourneymayhavecontractedsomemagicevilfrom
thestrangerswithwhomhehasassociated.Hence,onreturninghome,beforeheisreadmittedtothe
societyofhistribeandfriends,hehastoundergocertainpurificatoryceremonies.ThustheBechuanas
cleanseorpurifythemselvesafterjourneysbyshavingtheirheads,etc.,lesttheyshouldhavecontracted
fromstrangerssomeevilbywitchcraftorsorcery.InsomepartsofWesternAfrica,whenamanreturns
homeafteralongabsence,beforeheisallowedtovisithiswife,hemustwashhispersonwitha
particularfluid,andreceivefromthesorcereracertainmarkonhisforehead,inordertocounteractany
magicspellwhichastrangerwomanmayhavecastonhiminhisabsence,andwhichmightbe
communicatedthroughhimtothewomenofhisvillage.TwoHindooambassadors,whohadbeensentto

EnglandbyanativeprinceandhadreturnedtoIndia,wereconsideredtohavesopollutedthemselvesby
contactwithstrangersthatnothingbutbeingbornagaincouldrestorethemtopurity.Forthepurposeof
regenerationitisdirectedtomakeanimageofpuregoldofthefemalepowerofnature,intheshape
eitherofawomanorofacow.Inthisstatuethepersontoberegeneratedisenclosed,anddragged
throughtheusualchannel.Asastatueofpuregoldandofproperdimensionswouldbetooexpensive,it
issufficienttomakeanimageofthesacredYoni,throughwhichthepersontoberegeneratedistopass.
Suchanimageofpuregoldwasmadeattheprincescommand,andhisambassadorswerebornagainby
beingdraggedthroughit.
Whenprecautionslikethesearetakenonbehalfofthepeopleingeneralagainstthemalignantinfluence
supposedtobeexercisedbystrangers,itisnowonderthatspecialmeasuresareadoptedtoprotectthe
kingfromthesameinsidiousdanger.InthemiddleagestheenvoyswhovisitedaTartarKhanwere
obligedtopassbetweentwofiresbeforetheywereadmittedtohispresence,andthegiftstheybrought
werealsocarriedbetweenthefires.Thereasonassignedforthecustomwasthatthefirepurgedawayany
magicinfluencewhichthestrangersmightmeantoexerciseovertheKhan.Whensubjectchiefscome
withtheirretinuestovisitKalamba(themostpowerfulchiefoftheBashilangeintheCongoBasin)for
thefirsttimeorafterbeingrebellious,theyhavetobathe,menandwomentogether,intwobrookson
twosuccessivedays,passingthenightsundertheopenskyinthemarketplace.Afterthesecondbath
theyproceed,entirelynaked,tothehouseofKalamba,whomakesalongwhitemarkonthebreastand
foreheadofeachofthem.Thentheyreturntothemarketplaceanddress,afterwhichtheyundergothe
pepperordeal.Pepperisdroppedintotheeyesofeachofthem,andwhilethisisbeingdonethesufferer
hastomakeaconfessionofallhissins,toanswerallquestionsthatmaybeputtohim,andtotake
certainvows.Thisendstheceremony,andthestrangersarenowfreetotakeuptheirquartersinthetown
foraslongastheychoosetoremain.
2.TaboosonEatingandDrinking
INTHEOPINIONofsavagestheactsofeatinganddrinkingareattendedwithspecialdangerforat
thesetimesthesoulmayescapefromthemouth,orbeextractedbythemagicartsofanenemypresent.
AmongtheEwespeakingpeoplesoftheSlaveCoastthecommonbeliefseemstobethattheindwelling
spiritleavesthebodyandreturnstoitthroughthemouthhence,shouldithavegoneout,itbehovesa
mantobecarefulaboutopeninghismouth,lestahomelessspiritshouldtakeadvantageofthe
opportunityandenterhisbody.This,itappears,isconsideredmostlikelytotakeplacewhilethemanis
eating.Precautionsarethereforeadoptedtoguardagainstthesedangers.ThusoftheBataksitissaid
thatsincethesoulcanleavethebody,theyalwaystakecaretopreventtheirsoulfromstrayingon
occasionswhentheyhavemostneedofit.Butitisonlypossibletopreventthesoulfromstrayingwhen
oneisinthehouse.Atfeastsonemayfindthewholehouseshutup,inorderthatthesoulmaystayand
enjoythegoodthingssetbeforeit.TheZafimaneloinMadagascarlocktheirdoorswhentheyeat,and
hardlyanyoneeverseesthemeating.TheWaruawillnotallowanyonetoseethemeatinganddrinking,
beingdoublyparticularthatnopersonoftheoppositesexshallseethemdoingso.Ihadtopayamanto
letmeseehimdrinkIcouldnotmakeamanletawomanseehimdrink.Whenofferedadrinkthey
oftenaskthataclothmaybehelduptohidethemwhilstdrinking.
Ifthesearetheordinaryprecautionstakenbycommonpeople,theprecautionstakenbykingsare
extraordinary.ThekingofLoangomaynotbeseeneatingordrinkingbymanorbeastunderpainof
death.Afavouritedoghavingbrokenintotheroomwherethekingwasdining,thekingorderedittobe
killedonthespot.Oncethekingsownson,aboyoftwelveyearsold,inadvertentlysawthekingdrink.
Immediatelythekingorderedhimtobefinelyapparelledandfeasted,afterwhichhecommandedhimto
becutinquarters,andcarriedaboutthecitywithaproclamationthathehadseenthekingdrink.When
thekinghasamindtodrink,hehasacupofwinebroughthethatbringsithasabellinhishand,andas

soonashehasdeliveredthecuptotheking,heturnshisfacefromhimandringsthebell,onwhichall
presentfalldownwiththeirfacestotheground,andcontinuesotillthekinghasdrank.Hiseatingis
muchinthesamestyle,forwhichhehasahouseonpurpose,wherehisvictualsaresetuponabensaor
table:whichhegoesto,andshutsthedoor:whenhehasdone,heknocksandcomesout.Sothatnone
everseethekingeatordrink.Foritisbelievedthatifanyoneshould,thekingshallimmediatelydie.
Theremnantsofhisfoodareburied,doubtlesstopreventthemfromfallingintothehandsofsorcerers,
whobymeansofthesefragmentsmightcastafatalspelloverthemonarch.Therulesobservedbythe
neighbouringkingofCacongoweresimilaritwasthoughtthatthekingwoulddieifanyofhissubjects
weretoseehimdrink.ItisacapitaloffencetoseethekingofDahomeyathismeals.Whenhedrinksin
public,ashedoesonextraordinaryoccasions,hehideshimselfbehindacurtain,orhandkerchiefsare
helduproundhishead,andallthepeoplethrowthemselveswiththeirfacestotheearth.Whentheking
ofBunyoroinCentralAfricawenttodrinkmilkinthedairy,everymanmustleavetheroyalenclosure
andallthewomenhadtocovertheirheadstillthekingreturned.Noonemightseehimdrink.Onewife
accompaniedhimtothedairyandhandedhimthemilkpot,butsheturnedawayherfacewhilehe
drainedit.
3.TaboosonShowingtheFace
INSOMEoftheprecedingcasestheintentionofeatinganddrinkinginstrictseclusionmayperhapsbe
tohinderevilinfluencesfromenteringthebodyratherthantopreventtheescapeofthesoul.This
certainlyisthemotiveofsomedrinkingcustomsobservedbynativesoftheCongoregion.Thusweare
toldofthesepeoplethatthereishardlyanativewhowoulddaretoswallowaliquidwithoutfirst
conjuringthespirits.Oneofthemringsabellallthetimeheisdrinkinganothercrouchesdownand
placeshislefthandontheearthanotherveilshisheadanotherputsastalkofgrassoraleafinhishair,
ormarkshisforeheadwithalineofclay.Thisfetishcustomassumesveryvariedforms.Toexplainthem,
theblackissatisfiedtosaythattheyareanenergeticmodeofconjuringspirits.Inthispartoftheworld
achiefwillcommonlyringabellateachdraughtofbeerwhichheswallows,andatthesamemomenta
ladstationedinfrontofhimbrandishesaspeartokeepatbaythespiritswhichmighttrytosneakinto
theoldchiefsbodybythesameroadasthebeer.Thesamemotiveofwardingoffevilspiritsprobably
explainsthecustomobservedbysomeAfricansultansofveilingtheirfaces.TheSultanofDarfurwraps
uphisfacewithapieceofwhitemuslin,whichgoesroundhisheadseveraltimes,coveringhismouth
andnosefirst,andthenhisforehead,sothatonlyhiseyesarevisible.Thesamecustomofveilingthe
faceasamarkofsovereigntyissaidtobeobservedinotherpartsofCentralAfrica.TheSultanofWadai
alwaysspeaksfrombehindacurtainnooneseeshisfaceexcepthisintimatesandafewfavoured
persons.
4.TaboosonQuittingtheHouse
BYANEXTENSIONofthelikeprecautionkingsaresometimesforbiddenevertoleavetheirpalaces
or,iftheyareallowedtodoso,theirsubjectsareforbiddentoseethemabroad.ThefetishkingofBenin,
whowasworshippedasadeitybyhissubjects,mightnotquithispalace.Afterhiscoronationthekingof
Loangoisconfinedtohispalace,whichhemaynotleave.ThekingofOnitshadoesnotstepoutofhis
houseintothetownunlessahumansacrificeismadetopropitiatethegods:onthisaccounthenevergoes
outbeyondtheprecinctsofhispremises.Indeedwearetoldthathemaynotquithispalaceunderpain
ofdeathorofgivinguponeormoreslavestobeexecutedinhispresence.Asthewealthofthecountryis
measuredinslaves,thekingtakesgoodcarenottoinfringethelaw.YetonceayearattheFeastofYams
thekingisallowed,andevenrequiredbycustom,todancebeforehispeopleoutsidethehighmudwall
ofthepalace.Indancinghecarriesagreatweight,generallyasackofearth,onhisbacktoprovethathe
isstillabletosupporttheburdenandcaresofstate.Wereheunabletodischargethisduty,hewouldbe
immediatelydeposedandperhapsstoned.ThekingsofEthiopiawereworshippedasgods,butwere

mostlykeptshutupintheirpalaces.OnthemountainouscoastofPontustheredweltinantiquityarude
andwarlikepeoplenamedtheMosyniorMosynoeci,throughwhoseruggedcountrytheTenThousand
marchedontheirfamousretreatfromAsiatoEurope.Thesebarbarianskepttheirkinginclosecustodyat
thetopofahightower,fromwhichafterhiselectionhewasnevermoreallowedtodescend.Herehe
dispensedjusticetohispeoplebutifheoffendedthem,theypunishedhimbystoppinghisrationsfora
wholeday,orevenstarvinghimtodeath.ThekingsofSabaeaorSheba,thespicecountryofArabia,
werenotallowedtogooutoftheirpalacesiftheydidso,themobstonedthemtodeath.Butatthetopof
thepalacetherewasawindowwithachainattachedtoit.Ifanymandeemedhehadsufferedwrong,he
pulledthechain,andthekingperceivedhimandcalledhiminandgavejudgment.
5.TaboosonLeavingFoodover
AGAIN,magicmischiefmaybewroughtuponamanthroughtheremainsofthefoodhehaspartakenof,
orthedishesoutofwhichhehaseaten.Ontheprinciplesofsympatheticmagicarealconnexion
continuestosubsistbetweenthefoodwhichamanhasinhisstomachandtherefuseofitwhichhehas
leftuntouched,andhencebyinjuringtherefuseyoucansimultaneouslyinjuretheeater.Amongthe
NarrinyeriofSouthAustraliaeveryadultisconstantlyonthelookoutforbonesofbeasts,birds,orfish,
ofwhichthefleshhasbeeneatenbysomebody,inordertoconstructadeadlycharmoutofthem.Every
oneisthereforecarefultoburnthebonesoftheanimalswhichhehaseaten,lesttheyshouldfallintothe
handsofasorcerer.Toooften,however,thesorcerersucceedsingettingholdofsuchabone,andwhen
hedoessohebelievesthathehasthepoweroflifeanddeathovertheman,woman,orchildwhoatethe
fleshoftheanimal.Toputthecharminoperationhemakesapasteofredochreandfishoil,insertsinit
theeyeofacodandasmallpieceofthefleshofacorpse,andhavingrolledthecompoundintoaball
sticksitonthetopofthebone.Afterbeingleftforsometimeinthebosomofadeadbody,inorderthat
itmayderiveadeadlypotencybycontactwithcorruption,themagicalimplementissetupintheground
nearthefire,andastheballmelts,sothepersonagainstwhomthecharmisdirectedwasteswithdisease
iftheballismeltedquiteaway,thevictimwilldie.Whenthebewitchedmanlearnsofthespellthatis
beingcastuponhim,heendeavourstobuythebonefromthesorcerer,andifheobtainsithebreaksthe
charmbythrowingtheboneintoariverorlake.InTana,oneoftheNewHebrides,peopleburyorthrow
intotheseatheleavingsoftheirfood,lesttheseshouldfallintothehandsofthediseasemakers.Forifa
diseasemakerfindstheremnantsofameal,saytheskinofabanana,hepicksitupandburnsitslowlyin
thefire.Asitburns,thepersonwhoatethebananafallsillandsendstothediseasemaker,offeringhim
presentsifhewillstopburningthebananaskin.InNewGuineathenativestaketheutmostcareto
destroyorconcealthehusksandotherremainsoftheirfood,lesttheseshouldbefoundbytheirenemies
andusedbythemfortheinjuryordestructionoftheeaters.Hencetheyburntheirleavings,throwthem
intothesea,orotherwiseputthemoutofharmsway.
Fromalikefear,nodoubt,ofsorcery,noonemaytouchthefoodwhichthekingofLoangoleavesupon
hisplateitisburiedinaholeintheground.Andnoonemaydrinkoutofthekingsvessel.Inantiquity
theRomansusedimmediatelytobreaktheshellsofeggsandofsnailswhichtheyhadeaten,inorderto
preventenemiesfrommakingmagicwiththem.Thecommonpractice,stillobservedamongus,of
breakingeggshellsaftertheeggshavebeeneatenmayverywellhaveoriginatedinthesame
superstition.
Thesuperstitiousfearofthemagicthatmaybewroughtonamanthroughtheleavingsofhisfoodhas
hadthebeneficialeffectofinducingmanysavagestodestroyrefusewhich,iflefttorot,mightthrough
itscorruptionhaveprovedareal,notamerelyimaginary,sourceofdiseaseanddeath.Norisitonlythe
sanitaryconditionofatribewhichhasbenefitedbythissuperstitioncuriouslyenoughthesamebaseless
dread,thesamefalsenotionofcausation,hasindirectlystrengthenedthemoralbondsofhospitality,
honour,andgoodfaithamongmenwhoentertainit.Foritisobviousthatnoonewhointendstoharma

manbyworkingmagicontherefuseofhisfoodwillhimselfpartakeofthatfood,becauseifhedidsohe
would,ontheprinciplesofsympatheticmagic,sufferequallywithhisenemyfromanyinjurydonetothe
refuse.Thisistheideawhichinprimitivesocietylendssanctitytothebondproducedbyeatingtogether
byparticipationinthesamefoodtwomengive,asitwere,hostagesfortheirgoodbehavioureach
guaranteestheotherthathewilldevisenomischiefagainsthim,since,beingphysicallyunitedwithhim
bythecommonfoodintheirstomachs,anyharmhemightdotohisfellowwouldrecoilonhisownhead
withpreciselythesameforcewithwhichitfellontheheadofhisvictim.Instrictlogic,however,the
sympatheticbondlastsonlysolongasthefoodisinthestomachofeachoftheparties.Hencethe
covenantformedbyeatingtogetherislesssolemnanddurablethanthecovenantformedbytransfusing
thebloodofthecovenantingpartiesintoeachothersveins,forthistransfusionseemstoknitthem
togetherforlife.

XX.TabooedPersons
1.ChiefsandKingstabooed
WEhaveseenthattheMikadosfoodwascookedeverydayinnewpotsandservedupinnewdishes
bothpotsanddisheswereofcommonclay,inorderthattheymightbebrokenorlaidasideaftertheyhad
beenonceused.Theyweregenerallybroken,foritwasbelievedthatifanyoneelseatehisfoodoutof
thesesacreddishes,hismouthandthroatwouldbecomeswollenandinflamed.Thesameilleffectwas
thoughttobeexperiencedbyanyonewhoshouldweartheMikadosclotheswithouthisleavehewould
haveswellingsandpainsalloverhisbody.InFijithereisaspecialname(kanalama)forthedisease
supposedtobecausedbyeatingoutofachiefsdishesorwearinghisclothes.Thethroatandbody
swell,andtheimpiouspersondies.Ihadafinematgiventomebyamanwhodurstnotuseitbecause
Thakombauseldestsonhadsatuponit.Therewasalwaysafamilyorclanofcommonerswhowere
exemptfromthisdanger.IwastalkingaboutthisoncetoThakombau.Ohyes,saidhe.Here,Soand
so!comeandscratchmyback.Themanscratchedhewasoneofthosewhocoulddoitwithimpunity.
ThenameofthementhushighlyprivilegedwasNandukani,orthedirtofthechief.
IntheevileffectsthussupposedtofollowupontheuseofthevesselsorclothesoftheMikadoanda
Fijianchiefweseethatothersideofthegodmanscharactertowhichattentionhasbeenalreadycalled.
Thedivinepersonisasourceofdangeraswellasofblessinghemustnotonlybeguarded,hemustalso
beguardedagainst.Hissacredorganism,sodelicatethatatouchmaydisorderit,isalso,asitwere,
electricallychargedwithapowerfulmagicalorspiritualforcewhichmaydischargeitselfwithfatal
effectonwhatevercomesincontactwithit.Accordinglytheisolationofthemangodisquiteas
necessaryforthesafetyofothersasforhisown.Hismagicalvirtueisinthestrictestsenseoftheword
contagious:hisdivinityisafire,which,underproperrestraints,confersendlessblessings,but,ifrashly
touchedorallowedtobreakbounds,burnsanddestroyswhatittouches.Hencethedisastrouseffects
supposedtoattendabreachoftabootheoffenderhasthrusthishandintothedivinefire,whichshrivels
upandconsumeshimonthespot.
TheNubas,forexample,whoinhabitthewoodedandfertilerangeofJebelNubainEasternAfrica,
believethattheywoulddieiftheyenteredthehouseoftheirpriestlykinghowever,theycanevadethe
penaltyoftheirintrusionbybaringtheleftshoulderandgettingthekingtolayhishandonit.Andwere
anymantositonastonewhichthekinghasconsecratedtohisownuse,thetransgressorwoulddie
withintheyear.TheCazembesofAngolaregardtheirkingassoholythatnoonecantouchhimwithout
beingkilledbythemagicalpowerwhichpervadeshissacredperson.Butsincecontactwithhimis
sometimesunavoidable,theyhavedevisedameanswherebythesinnercanescapewithhislife.Kneeling
downbeforethekinghetouchesthebackoftheroyalhandwiththebackofhisown,thensnapshis
fingersafterwardshelaysthepalmofhishandonthepalmofthekingshand,thensnapshisfingers

again.Thisceremonyisrepeatedfourorfivetimes,andavertstheimminentdangerofdeath.InTongait
wasbelievedthatifanyonefedhimselfwithhisownhandsaftertouchingthesacredpersonofasuperior
chieforanythingthatbelongedtohim,hewouldswellupanddiethesanctityofthechief,likeavirulent
poison,infectedthehandsofhisinferior,and,beingcommunicatedthroughthemtothefood,proved
fataltotheeater.Acommonerwhohadincurredthisdangercoulddisinfecthimselfbyperforminga
certainceremony,whichconsistedintouchingthesoleofachiefsfootwiththepalmandbackofeach
ofhishands,andafterwardsrinsinghishandsinwater.Iftherewasnowaternear,herubbedhishands
withthejuicystemofaplantainorbanana.Afterthathewasfreetofeedhimselfwithhisownhands
withoutdangerofbeingattackedbythemaladywhichwouldotherwisefollowfromeatingwithtabooed
orsanctifiedhands.Butuntiltheceremonyofexpiationordisinfectionhadbeenperformed,ifhewished
toeathehadeithertogetsomeonetofeedhim,orelsetogodownonhiskneesandpickupthefood
fromthegroundwithhismouthlikeabeast.Hemightnotevenuseatoothpickhimself,butmightguide
thehandofanotherpersonholdingthetoothpick.TheTongansweresubjecttoindurationoftheliverand
certainformsofscrofula,whichtheyoftenattributedtoafailuretoperformtherequisiteexpiationafter
havinginadvertentlytouchedachieforhisbelongings.Hencetheyoftenwentthroughtheceremonyasa
precaution,withoutknowingthattheyhaddoneanythingtocallforit.ThekingofTongacouldnot
refusetoplayhispartintheritebypresentinghisfoottosuchasdesiredtotouchit,evenwhenthey
appliedtohimataninconvenienttime.Afatunwieldyking,whoperceivedhissubjectsapproaching
withthisintention,whilehechancedtobetakinghiswalksabroad,hasbeensometimesseentowaddle
asfastashislegscouldcarryhimoutoftheirway,inordertoescapetheimportunateandnotwholly
disinterestedexpressionoftheirhomage.Ifanyonefanciedhemighthavealreadyunwittinglyeatenwith
tabooedhands,hesatdownbeforethechief,and,takingthechiefsfoot,presseditagainsthisown
stomach,thatthefoodinhisbellymightnotinjurehim,andthathemightnotswellupanddie.Since
scrofulawasregardedbytheTongansasaresultofeatingwithtabooedhands,wemayconjecturethat
personswhosufferedfromitamongthemoftenresortedtothetouchorpressureofthekingsfootasa
curefortheirmalady.TheanalogyofthecustomwiththeoldEnglishpracticeofbringingscrofulous
patientstothekingtobehealedbyhistouchissufficientlyobvious,andsuggests,asIhavealready
pointedoutelsewhere,thatamongourownremoteancestorsscrofulamayhaveobtaineditsnameofthe
KingsEvil,fromabelief,likethatoftheTongans,thatitwascausedaswellascuredbycontactwith
thedivinemajestyofkings.
InNewZealandthedreadofthesanctityofchiefswasatleastasgreatasinTonga.Theirghostlypower,
derivedfromanancestralspirit,diffuseditselfbycontagionovereverythingtheytouched,andcould
strikedeadallwhorashlyorunwittinglymeddledwithit.Forinstance,itoncehappenedthataNew
Zealandchiefofhighrankandgreatsanctityhadlefttheremainsofhisdinnerbythewayside.Aslave,a
stout,hungryfellow,comingupafterthechiefhadgone,sawtheunfinisheddinner,andateitupwithout
askingquestions.Hardlyhadhefinishedwhenhewasinformedbyahorrorstrickenspectatorthatthe
foodofwhichhehadeatenwasthechiefs.Iknewtheunfortunatedelinquentwell.Hewasremarkable
forcourage,andhadsignalisedhimselfinthewarsofthetribe,butnosoonerdidhehearthefatal
newsthanhewasseizedbythemostextraordinaryconvulsionsandcrampinthestomach,whichnever
ceasedtillhedied,aboutsundownthesameday.Hewasastrongman,intheprimeoflife,andifany
pakeha[European]freethinkershouldhavesaidhewasnotkilledbythetapuofthechief,whichhad
beencommunicatedtothefoodbycontact,hewouldhavebeenlistenedtowithfeelingsofcontemptfor
hisignoranceandinabilitytounderstandplainanddirectevidence.Thisisnotasolitarycase.AMaori
womanhavingeatenofsomefruit,andbeingafterwardstoldthatthefruithadbeentakenfromatabooed
place,exclaimedthatthespiritofthechief,whosesanctityhadbeenthusprofaned,wouldkillher.This
wasintheafternoon,andnextdaybytwelveoclockshewasdead.AMaorichiefstinderboxwasonce
themeansofkillingseveralpersonsfor,havingbeenlostbyhim,andfoundbysomemenwhouseditto
lighttheirpipes,theydiedoffrightonlearningtowhomithadbelonged.So,too,thegarmentsofahigh
NewZealandchiefwillkillanyoneelsewhowearsthem.Achiefwasobservedbyamissionaryto
throwdownaprecipiceablanketwhichhefoundtooheavytocarry.Beingaskedbythemissionarywhy

hedidnotleaveitonatreefortheuseofafuturetraveller,thechiefrepliedthatitwasthefearofits
beingtakenbyanotherwhichcausedhimtothrowitwherehedid,forifitwereworn,histapu(thatis,
hisspiritualpowercommunicatedbycontacttotheblanketandthroughtheblankettotheman)would
killtheperson.ForasimilarreasonaMaorichiefwouldnotblowafirewithhismouthforhissacred
breathwouldcommunicateitssanctitytothefire,whichwouldpassitontothepotonthefire,which
wouldpassitontothemeatinthepot,whichwouldpassitontothemanwhoatethemeat,whichwasin
thepot,whichstoodonthefire,whichwasbreathedonbythechiefsothattheeater,infectedbythe
chiefsbreathconveyedthroughtheseintermediaries,wouldsurelydie.
ThusinthePolynesianrace,towhichtheMaorisbelong,superstitionerectedroundthepersonsofsacred
chiefsareal,thoughatthesametimepurelyimaginarybarrier,totransgresswhichactuallyentailedthe
deathofthetransgressorwheneverhebecameawareofwhathehaddone.Thisfatalpowerofthe
imaginationworkingthroughsuperstitiousterrorsisbynomeansconfinedtooneraceitappearstobe
commonamongsavages.Forexample,amongtheaboriginesofAustraliaanativewilldieafterthe
inflictionofeventhemostsuperficialwound,ifonlyhebelievesthattheweaponwhichinflictedthe
woundhadbeensungoverandthusendowedwithmagicalvirtue.Hesimplyliesdown,refusesfood,
andpinesaway.SimilarlyamongsomeoftheIndiantribesofBrazil,ifthemedicinemanpredictedthe
deathofanyonewhohadoffendedhim,thewretchtooktohishammockinstantlyinsuchfull
expectationofdying,thathewouldneithereatnordrink,andthepredictionwasasentencewhichfaith
effectuallyexecuted.
2.Mournerstabooed
THUSregardinghissacredchiefsandkingsaschargedwithamysteriousspiritualforcewhichsotosay
explodesatcontact,thesavagenaturallyranksthemamongthedangerousclassesofsociety,andimposes
uponthemthesamesortofrestraintsthathelaysonmanslayers,menstruouswomen,andotherpersons
whomhelooksuponwithacertainfearandhorror.Forexample,sacredkingsandpriestsinPolynesia
werenotallowedtotouchfoodwiththeirhands,andhadthereforetobefedbyothersandaswehave
justseen,theirvessels,garments,andotherpropertymightnotbeusedbyothersonpainofdiseaseand
death.Nowpreciselythesameobservancesareexactedbysomesavagesfromgirlsattheirfirst
menstruation,womenafterchildbirth,homicides,mourners,andallpersonswhohavecomeintocontact
withthedead.Thus,forexample,tobeginwiththelastclassofpersons,amongtheMaorisanyonewho
hadhandledacorpse,helpedtoconveyittothegrave,ortouchedadeadmansbones,wascutofffrom
allintercourseandalmostallcommunicationwithmankind.Hecouldnotenteranyhouse,orcomeinto
contactwithanypersonorthing,withoututterlybedevillingthem.Hemightnoteventouchfoodwithhis
hands,whichhadbecomesofrightfullytabooedoruncleanastobequiteuseless.Foodwouldbesetfor
himontheground,andhewouldthensitorkneeldown,and,withhishandscarefullyheldbehindhis
back,wouldgnawatitasbesthecould.Insomecaseshewouldbefedbyanotherperson,whowith
outstretchedarmcontrivedtodoitwithouttouchingthetabooedmanbutthefeederwashimself
subjectedtomanysevererestrictions,littlelessonerousthanthosewhichwereimposedupontheother.
Inalmosteverypopulousvillagetherelivedadegradedwretch,thelowestofthelow,whoearnedasorry
pittancebythuswaitinguponthedefiled.Cladinrags,daubedfromheadtofootwithredochreand
stinkingsharkoil,alwayssolitaryandsilent,generallyold,haggard,andwizened,oftenhalfcrazed,he
mightbeseensittingmotionlessalldayapartfromthecommonpathorthoroughfareofthevillage,
gazingwithlacklustreeyesonthebusydoingsinwhichhemightnevertakeapart.Twiceadayadole
offoodwouldbethrownonthegroundbeforehimtomunchaswellashecouldwithouttheuseofhis
handsandatnight,huddlinghisgreasytattersabouthim,hewouldcrawlintosomemiserablelairof
leavesandrefuse,where,dirty,cold,andhungry,hepassed,inbrokenghosthauntedslumbers,a
wretchednightasapreludetoanotherwretchedday.Suchwastheonlyhumanbeingdeemedfitto
associateatarmslengthwithonewhohadpaidthelastofficesofrespectandfriendshiptothedead.

Andwhen,thedismaltermofhisseclusionbeingover,themournerwasabouttomixwithhisfellows
oncemore,allthedisheshehadusedinhisseclusionwerediligentlysmashed,andallthegarmentshe
hadwornwerecarefullythrownaway,lesttheyshouldspreadthecontagionofhisdefilementamong
others,justasthevesselsandclothesofsacredkingsandchiefsaredestroyedorcastawayforasimilar
reason.Socompleteintheserespectsistheanalogywhichthesavagetracesbetweenthespiritual
influencesthatemanatefromdivinitiesandfromthedead,betweentheodourofsanctityandthestench
ofcorruption.
Therulewhichforbidspersonswhohavebeenincontactwiththedeadtotouchfoodwiththeirhands
wouldseemtohavebeenuniversalinPolynesia.ThusinSamoathosewhoattendedthedeceasedwere
mostcarefulnottohandlefood,andfordayswerefedbyothersasiftheywerehelplessinfants.Baldness
andthelossofteethweresupposedtobethepunishmentinflictedbythehouseholdgodiftheyviolated
therule.Again,inTonga,nopersoncantouchadeadchiefwithoutbeingtaboodfortenlunarmonths,
exceptchiefs,whoareonlytaboodforthree,four,orfivemonths,accordingtothesuperiorityofthe
deadchiefexceptagainitbethebodyofTooitonga[thegreatdivinechief],andtheneventhegreatest
chiefwouldbetaboodtenmonths.Duringthetimeamanistaboodhemustnotfeedhimselfwith
hisownhands,butmustbefedbysomebodyelse:hemustnotevenuseatoothpickhimself,butmust
guideanotherpersonshandholdingthetoothpick.Ifheishungryandthereisnoonetofeedhim,he
mustgodownuponhishandsandknees,andpickuphisvictualswithhismouth:andifheinfringes
uponanyoftheserules,itisfirmlyexpectedthathewillswellupanddie.
AmongtheShuswapofBritishColumbiawidowsandwidowersinmourningaresecludedandforbidden
totouchtheirownheadorbodythecupsandcookingvesselswhichtheyusemaybeusedbynoone
else.Theymustbuildasweathousebesideacreek,sweatthereallnightandbatheregularly,afterwhich
theymustrubtheirbodieswithbranchesofspruce.Thebranchesmaynotbeusedmorethanonce,and
whentheyhaveservedtheirpurposetheyarestuckintothegroundallroundthehut.Nohunterwould
comenearsuchmourners,fortheirpresenceisunlucky.Iftheirshadowweretofallonanyone,he
wouldbetakenillatonce.Theyemploythornbushesforbedandpillow,inordertokeepawaytheghost
ofthedeceasedandthornbushesarealsolaidallaroundtheirbeds.Thislastprecautionshowsclearly
whatthespiritualdangeriswhichleadstotheexclusionofsuchpersonsfromordinarysocietyitis
simplyafearoftheghostwhoissupposedtobehoveringnearthem.IntheMekeodistrictofBritish
NewGuineaawidowerlosesallhiscivilrightsandbecomesasocialoutcast,anobjectoffearand
horror,shunnedbyall.Hemaynotcultivateagarden,norshowhimselfinpublic,nortraversethe
village,norwalkontheroadsandpaths.Likeawildbeasthemustskulkinthelonggrassandthe
bushesandifheseesorhearsanyonecoming,especiallyawoman,hemusthidebehindatreeora
thicket.Ifhewishestofishorhunt,hemustdoitaloneandatnight.Ifhewouldconsultanyone,even
themissionary,hedoessobystealthandatnightheseemstohavelosthisvoiceandspeaksonlyin
whispers.Werehetojoinapartyoffishersorhunters,hispresencewouldbringmisfortuneonthemthe
ghostofhisdeadwifewouldfrightenawaythefishorthegame.Hegoesabouteverywhereandatall
timesarmedwithatomahawktodefendhimself,notonlyagainstwildboarsinthejungle,butagainstthe
dreadedspiritofhisdepartedspouse,whowoulddohimanillturnifshecouldforallthesoulsofthe
deadaremalignantandtheironlydelightistoharmtheliving.
3.WomentabooedatMenstruationandChildbirth
INGENERAL,wemaysaythattheprohibitiontousethevessels,garments,andsoforthofcertain
persons,andtheeffectssupposedtofollowaninfractionoftherule,areexactlythesamewhetherthe
personstowhomthethingsbelongaresacredorwhatwemightcalluncleanandpolluted.Asthe
garmentswhichhavebeentouchedbyasacredchiefkillthosewhohandlethem,sodothethingswhich
havebeentouchedbyamenstruouswomen.AnAustralianblackfellow,whodiscoveredthathiswifehad

lainonhisblanketathermenstrualperiod,killedheranddiedofterrorhimselfwithinafortnight.Hence
Australianwomenatthesetimesareforbiddenunderpainofdeathtotouchanythingthatmenuse,or
eventowalkonapaththatanymanfrequents.Theyarealsosecludedatchildbirth,andallvesselsused
bythemduringtheirseclusionareburned.InUgandathepotswhichawomantouches,whilethe
impurityofchildbirthorofmenstruationisonher,shouldbedestroyedspearsandshieldsdefiledbyher
toucharenotdestroyed,butonlypurified.AmongalltheDnandmostotherAmericantribes,
hardlyanyotherbeingwastheobjectofsomuchdreadasamenstruatingwoman.Assoonassignsof
thatconditionmadethemselvesapparentinayounggirlshewascarefullysegregatedfromallbutfemale
company,andhadtolivebyherselfinasmallhutawayfromthegazeofthevillagersorofthemale
membersoftherovingband.Whileinthatawfulstate,shehadtoabstainfromtouchinganything
belongingtoman,orthespoilsofanyvenisonorotheranimal,lestshewouldtherebypollutethesame,
andcondemnthehunterstofailure,owingtotheangerofthegamethusslighted.Driedfishformedher
diet,andcoldwater,absorbedthroughadrinkingtube,washeronlybeverage.Moreover,asthevery
sightofherwasdangeroustosociety,aspecialskinbonnet,withfringesfallingoverherfacedownto
herbreast,hidherfromthepublicgaze,evensometimeaftershehadrecoveredhernormalstate.
AmongtheBribriIndiansofCostaRicaamenstruouswomanisregardedasunclean.Theonlyplatesshe
mayuseforherfoodarebananaleaves,which,whenshehasdonewiththem,shethrowsawayinsome
sequesteredspotforwereacowtofindthemandeatthem,theanimalwouldwasteawayandperish.
Andshedrinksoutofaspecialvesselforalikereasonbecauseifanyonedrankoutofthesamecup
afterher,hewouldsurelydie.
Amongmanypeoplessimilarrestrictionsareimposedonwomeninchildbedandapparentlyforsimilar
reasonsatsuchperiodswomenaresupposedtobeinadangerousconditionwhichwouldinfectany
personorthingtheymighttouchhencetheyareputintoquarantineuntil,withtherecoveryoftheir
healthandstrength,theimaginarydangerhaspassedaway.Thus,inTahitiawomanafterchildbirthwas
secludedforafortnightorthreeweeksinatemporaryhuterectedonsacredgroundduringthetimeof
herseclusionshewasdebarredfromtouchingprovisions,andhadtobefedbyanother.Further,ifany
oneelsetouchedthechildatthisperiod,hewassubjectedtothesamerestrictionsasthemotheruntilthe
ceremonyofherpurificationhadbeenperformed.SimilarlyintheislandofKadiak,offAlaska,awoman
abouttobedeliveredretirestoamiserablelowhovelbuiltofreeds,whereshemustremainfortwenty
daysafterthebirthofherchild,whatevertheseasonmaybe,andsheisconsideredsouncleanthatno
onewilltouchher,andfoodisreachedtoheronsticks.TheBribriIndiansregardthepollutionof
childbedasmuchmoredangerouseventhanthatofmenstruation.Whenawomanfeelshertime
approaching,sheinformsherhusband,whomakeshastetobuildahutforherinalonelyspot.Thereshe
mustlivealone,holdingnoconversewithanybodysavehermotheroranotherwoman.Afterherdelivery
themedicinemanpurifiesherbybreathingonherandlayingananimal,itmattersnotwhat,uponher.
Buteventhisceremonyonlymitigatesheruncleannessintoastateconsideredtobeequivalenttothatof
amenstruouswomanandforafulllunarmonthshemustliveapartfromherhousemates,observingthe
sameruleswithregardtoeatinganddrinkingasathermonthlyperiods.Thecaseisstillworse,the
pollutionisstillmoredeadly,ifshehashadamiscarriageorhasbeendeliveredofastillbornchild.In
thatcaseshemaynotgonearalivingsoul:themerecontactwiththingsshehasusedisexceedingly
dangerous:herfoodishandedtoherattheendofalongstick.Thislastsgenerallyforthreeweeks,after
whichshemaygohome,subjectonlytotherestrictionsincidenttoanordinaryconfinement.
SomeBantutribesentertainevenmoreexaggeratednotionsofthevirulentinfectionspreadbyawoman
whohashadamiscarriageandhasconcealedit.Anexperiencedobserverofthesepeopletellsusthatthe
bloodofchildbirthappearstotheeyesoftheSouthAfricanstobetaintedwithapollutionstillmore
dangerousthanthatofthemenstrualfluid.Thehusbandisexcludedfromthehutforeightdaysofthe
lyinginperiod,chieflyfromfearthathemightbecontaminatedbythissecretion.Hedarenottakehis
childinhisarmsforthethreefirstmonthsafterthebirth.Butthesecretionofchildbedisparticularly
terriblewhenitistheproductofamiscarriage,especiallyaconcealedmiscarriage.Inthiscaseitisnot

merelythemanwhoisthreatenedorkilled,itisthewholecountry,itistheskyitselfwhichsuffers.Bya
curiousassociationofideasaphysiologicalfactcausescosmictroubles!Asforthedisastrouseffect
whichamiscarriagemayhaveonthewholecountryIwillquotethewordsofamedicinemanandrain
makeroftheBaPeditribe:Whenawomanhashadamiscarriage,whenshehasallowedherbloodto
flow,andhashiddenthechild,itisenoughtocausetheburningwindstoblowandtoparchthecountry
withheat.Therainnolongerfalls,forthecountryisnolongerinorder.Whentherainapproachesthe
placewherethebloodis,itwillnotdaretoapproach.Itwillfearandremainatadistance.Thatwoman
hascommittedagreatfault.Shehasspoiledthecountryofthechief,forshehashiddenbloodwhichhad
notyetbeenwellcongealedtofashionaman.Thatbloodistaboo.Itshouldneverdripontheroad!The
chiefwillassemblehismenandsaytothem,Areyouinorderinyourvillages?Someonewillanswer,
Suchandsuchawomanwaspregnantandwehavenotyetseenthechildwhichshehasgivenbirthto.
Thentheygoandarrestthewoman.Theysaytoher,Showuswhereyouhavehiddenit.Theygoand
digatthespot,theysprinkletheholewithadecoctionoftwosortsofrootspreparedinaspecialpot.
Theytakealittleoftheearthofthisgrave,theythrowitintotheriver,thentheybringbackwaterfrom
theriverandsprinkleitwheresheshedherblood.Sheherselfmustwasheverydaywiththemedicine.
Thenthecountrywillbemoistenedagain(byrain).Further,we(medicinemen),summonthewomenof
thecountrywetellthemtoprepareaballoftheearthwhichcontainstheblood.Theybringittousone
morning.Ifwewishtopreparemedicinewithwhichtosprinklethewholecountry,wecrumblethisearth
topowderattheendoffivedayswesendlittleboysandlittlegirls,girlsthatyetknownothingof
womensaffairsandhavenotyethadrelationswithmen.Weputthemedicineinthehornsofoxen,and
thesechildrengotoallthefords,toalltheentrancesofthecountry.Alittlegirlturnsupthesoilwithher
mattock,theothersdipabranchinthehornandsprinkletheinsideoftheholesaying,Rain!rain!So
weremovethemisfortunewhichthewomenhavebroughtontheroadstherainwillbeabletocome.
Thecountryispurified!
4.Warriorstabooed
ONCEmore,warriorsareconceivedbythesavagetomove,sotosay,inanatmosphereofspiritual
dangerwhichconstrainsthemtopractiseavarietyofsuperstitiousobservancesquitedifferentintheir
naturefromthoserationalprecautionswhich,asamatterofcourse,theyadoptagainstfoesoffleshand
blood.Thegeneraleffectoftheseobservancesistoplacethewarrior,bothbeforeandaftervictory,inthe
samestateofseclusionorspiritualquarantineinwhich,forhisownsafety,primitivemanputshishuman
godsandotherdangerouscharacters.ThuswhentheMaoriswentoutonthewarpaththeyweresacred
ortaboointhehighestdegree,andtheyandtheirfriendsathomehadtoobservestrictlymanycurious
customsoverandabovethenumeroustaboosofordinarylife.Theybecame,intheirreverentlanguageof
Europeanswhoknewthemintheoldfightingdays,tabooedaninchthickandasfortheleaderofthe
expedition,hewasquiteunapproachable.Similarly,whentheIsraelitesmarchedforthtowartheywere
boundbycertainrulesofceremonialpurityidenticalwithrulesobservedbyMaorisandAustralian
blackfellowsonthewarpath.Thevesselstheyusedweresacred,andtheyhadtopractisecontinenceand
acustomofpersonalcleanlinessofwhichtheoriginalmotive,ifwemayjudgefromtheavowedmotive
ofsavageswhoconformtothesamecustom,wasafearlesttheenemyshouldobtaintherefuseoftheir
persons,andthusbeenabledtoworktheirdestructionbymagic.AmongsomeIndiantribesofNorth
Americaayoungwarriorinhisfirstcampaignhadtoconformtocertaincustoms,ofwhichtwowere
identicalwiththeobservancesimposedbythesameIndiansongirlsattheirfirstmenstruation:the
vesselsheateanddrankoutofmightbetouchedbynootherperson,andhewasforbiddentoscratchhis
headoranyotherpartofhisbodywithhisfingersifhecouldnothelpscratchinghimself,hehadtodoit
withastick.Thelatterrule,liketheonewhichforbidsatabooedpersontofeedhimselfwithhisown
fingers,seemstorestonthesupposedsanctityorpollution,whicheverwechoosetocallit,ofthetabooed
hands.MoreoveramongtheseIndiantribesthemenonthewarpathhadalwaystosleepatnightwith
theirfacesturnedtowardstheirowncountryhoweveruneasytheposture,theymightnotchangeit.They

mightnotsituponthebareground,norwettheirfeet,norwalkonabeatenpathiftheycouldhelpit
whentheyhadnochoicebuttowalkonapath,theysoughttocounteracttheilleffectofdoingsoby
doctoringtheirlegswithcertainmedicinesorcharmswhichtheycarriedwiththemforthepurpose.No
memberofthepartywaspermittedtostepoverthelegs,hands,orbodyofanyothermemberwho
chancedtobesittingorlyingonthegroundanditwasequallyforbiddentostepoverhisblanket,gun,
tomahawk,oranythingthatbelongedtohim.Ifthisrulewasinadvertentlybroken,itbecamethedutyof
thememberwhosepersonorpropertyhadbeensteppedovertoknocktheothermemberdown,andit
wassimilarlythedutyofthatothertobeknockeddownpeaceablyandwithoutresistance.Thevessels
outofwhichthewarriorsatetheirfoodwerecommonlysmallbowlsofwoodorbirchbark,withmarks
todistinguishthetwosidesinmarchingfromhometheIndiansinvariablydrankoutofonesideofthe
bowl,andinreturningtheydrankoutoftheother.Whenontheirwayhometheycamewithinadays
marchofthevillage,theyhungupalltheirbowlsontrees,orthrewthemawayontheprairie,doubtless
topreventtheirsanctityordefilementfrombeingcommunicatedwithdisastrouseffectstotheirfriends,
justaswehaveseenthatthevesselsandclothesofthesacredMikado,ofwomenatchildbirthand
menstruation,andofpersonsdefiledbycontactwiththedeadaredestroyedorlaidasideforasimilar
reason.ThefirstfourtimesthatanApacheIndiangoesoutonthewarpath,heisboundtorefrainfrom
scratchinghisheadwithhisfingersandfromlettingwatertouchhislips.Hencehescratcheshishead
withastick,anddrinksthroughahollowreedorcane.Stickandreedareattachedtothewarriorsbelt
andtoeachotherbyaleathernthong.Therulenottoscratchtheirheadswiththeirfingers,buttousea
stickforthepurposeinstead,wasregularlyobservedbyOjebwaysonthewarpath.
WithregardtotheCreekIndiansandkindredtribeswearetoldtheywillnotcohabitwithwomenwhile
theyareoutatwartheyreligiouslyabstainfromeverykindofintercourseevenwiththeirownwives,for
thespaceofthreedaysandnightsbeforetheygotowar,andsoaftertheyreturnhome,becausetheyare
tosanctifythemselves.AmongtheBaPediandBaThongatribesofSouthAfricanotonlyhavethe
warriorstoabstainfromwomen,butthepeopleleftbehindinthevillagesarealsoboundtocontinence
theythinkthatanyincontinenceontheirpartwouldcausethornstogrowonthegroundtraversedbythe
warriors,andthatsuccesswouldnotattendtheexpedition.
Whyexactlymanysavageshavemadeitaruletorefrainfromwomenintimeofwar,wecannotsayfor
certain,butwemayconjecturethattheirmotivewasasuperstitiousfearlest,ontheprinciplesof
sympatheticmagic,closecontactwithwomenshouldinfectthemwithfeminineweaknessand
cowardice.Similarlysomesavagesimaginethatcontactwithawomaninchildbedenervateswarriors
andenfeeblestheirweapons.IndeedtheKayansofCentralBorneogosofarastoholdthattotoucha
loomorwomensclotheswouldsoweakenamanthathewouldhavenosuccessinhunting,fishing,and
war.Henceitisnotmerelysexualintercoursewithwomenthatthesavagewarriorsometimesshunshe
iscarefultoavoidthesexaltogether.ThusamongthehilltribesofAssam,notonlyaremenforbiddento
cohabitwiththeirwivesduringorafteraraid,buttheymaynoteatfoodcookedbyawomannay,they
shouldnotaddressawordeventotheirownwives.Onceawoman,whounwittinglybroketheruleby
speakingtoherhusbandwhilehewasunderthewartaboo,sickenedanddiedwhenshelearnedtheawful
crimeshehadcommitted.
5.Manslayerstabooed
IFTHEREADERstilldoubtswhethertherulesofconductwhichwehavejustbeenconsideringare
basedonsuperstitiousfearsordictatedbyarationalprudence,hisdoubtswillprobablybedissipated
whenhelearnsthatrulesofthesamesortareoftenimposedevenmorestringentlyonwarriorsafterthe
victoryhasbeenwonandwhenallfearofthelivingcorporealfoeisatanend.Insuchcasesonemotive
fortheinconvenientrestrictionslaidonthevictorsintheirhouroftriumphisprobablyadreadofthe
angryghostsoftheslainandthatthefearofthevengefulghostsdoesinfluencethebehaviourofthe

slayersisoftenexpresslyaffirmed.Thegeneraleffectofthetabooslaidonsacredchiefs,mourners,
womenatchildbirth,menonthewarpath,andsoon,istosecludeorisolatethetabooedpersonsfrom
ordinarysociety,thiseffectbeingattainedbyavarietyofrules,whichobligethemenorwomentolivein
separatehutsorintheopenair,toshunthecommerceofthesexes,toavoidtheuseofvesselsemployed
byothers,andsoforth.Nowthesameeffectisproducedbysimilarmeansinthecaseofvictorious
warriors,particularlysuchashaveactuallyshedthebloodoftheirenemies.IntheislandofTimor,when
awarlikeexpeditionhasreturnedintriumphbringingtheheadsofthevanquishedfoe,theleaderofthe
expeditionisforbiddenbyreligionandcustomtoreturnatoncetohisownhouse.Aspecialhutis
preparedforhim,inwhichhehastoresidefortwomonths,undergoingbodilyandspiritualpurification.
Duringthistimehemaynotgotohiswifenorfeedhimselfthefoodmustbeputintohismouthby
anotherperson.Thattheseobservancesaredictatedbyfearoftheghostsoftheslainseemscertainfor
fromanotheraccountoftheceremoniesperformedonthereturnofasuccessfulheadhunterinthesame
islandwelearnthatsacrificesareofferedonthisoccasiontoappeasethesoulofthemanwhoseheadhas
beentakenthepeoplethinkthatsomemisfortunewouldbefallthevictorweresuchofferingsomitted.
Moreover,apartoftheceremonyconsistsofadanceaccompaniedbyasong,inwhichthedeathofthe
slainmanislamentedandhisforgivenessisentreated.Benotangry,theysay,becauseyourheadis
herewithushadwebeenlesslucky,ourheadsmightnowhavebeenexposedinyourvillage.Wehave
offeredthesacrificetoappeaseyou.Yourspiritmaynowrestandleaveusatpeace.Whywereyouour
enemy?Woulditnothavebeenbetterthatweshouldremainfriends?Thenyourbloodwouldnothave
beenspiltandyourheadwouldnothavebeencutoff.ThepeopleofPalooinCentralCelebestakethe
headsoftheirenemiesinwarandafterwardspropitiatethesoulsoftheslaininthetemple.
AmongthetribesatthemouthoftheWanigelaRiver,inNewGuinea,amanwhohastakenlifeis
consideredtobeimpureuntilhehasundergonecertainceremonies:assoonaspossibleafterthedeedhe
cleanseshimselfandhisweapon.Thissatisfactorilyaccomplished,herepairstohisvillageandseats
himselfonthelogsofsacrificialstaging.Nooneapproacheshimortakesanynoticewhateverofhim.A
houseispreparedforhimwhichisputinchargeoftwoorthreesmallboysasservants.Hemayeatonly
toastedbananas,andonlythecentreportionofthemtheendsbeingthrownaway.Onthethirddayof
hisseclusionasmallfeastispreparedbyhisfriends,whoalsofashionsomenewperinealbandsforhim.
Thisiscallediviporo.Thenextdaythemandonsallhisbestornamentsandbadgesfortakinglife,and
salliesforthfullyarmedandparadesthevillage.Thenextdayahuntisorganised,andakangaroo
selectedfromthegamecaptured.Itiscutopenandthespleenandliverrubbedoverthebackoftheman.
Hethenwalkssolemnlydowntothenearestwater,andstandingstraddlelegsinitwasheshimself.All
theyounguntriedwarriorsswimbetweenhislegs.Thisissupposedtoimpartcourageandstrengthto
them.Thefollowingday,atearlydawn,hedashesoutofhishouse,fullyarmed,andcallsaloudthename
ofhisvictim.Havingsatisfiedhimselfthathehasthoroughlyscaredtheghostofthedeadman,he
returnstohishouse.Thebeatingofflooringboardsandthelightingoffiresisalsoacertainmethodof
scaringtheghost.Adaylaterhispurificationisfinished.Hecanthenenterhiswifeshouse.
InWindessi,DutchNewGuinea,whenapartyofheadhuntershasbeensuccessful,andtheyarenearing
home,theyannouncetheirapproachandsuccessbyblowingontritonshells.Theircanoesarealso
deckedwithbranches.Thefacesofthemenwhohavetakenaheadareblackenedwithcharcoal.If
severalhavetakenpartinkillingthesamevictim,hisheadisdividedamongthem.Theyalwaystime
theirarrivalsoastoreachhomeintheearlymorning.Theycomerowingtothevillagewithagreat
noise,andthewomenstandreadytodanceintheverandahsofthehouses.Thecanoesrowpasttheroom
sramorhousewheretheyoungmenliveandastheypass,themurderersthrowasmanypointedsticks
orbamboosatthewallortheroofastherewereenemieskilled.Thedayisspentveryquietly.Nowand
thentheydrumorblowontheconchatothertimestheybeatthewallsofthehouseswithloudshoutsto
driveawaytheghostsoftheslain.SotheYabimofNewGuineabelievethatthespiritofamurderedman
pursueshismurdererandseekstodohimamischief.Hencetheydriveawaythespiritwithshoutsand
thebeatingofdrums.WhentheFijianshadburiedamanalive,astheyoftendid,theyusedatnightfallto

makeagreatuproarbymeansofbamboos,trumpetshells,andsoforth,forthepurposeoffrightening
awayhisghost,lestheshouldattempttoreturntohisoldhome.Andtorenderhishouseunattractiveto
himtheydismantleditandclotheditwitheverythingthattotheirideasseemedmostrepulsive.Onthe
eveningofthedayonwhichtheyhadtorturedaprisonertodeath,theAmericanIndianswerewonttorun
throughthevillagewithhideousyells,beatingwithsticksonthefurniture,thewalls,andtheroofsofthe
hutstopreventtheangryghostoftheirvictimfromsettlingthereandtakingvengeanceforthetorments
thathisbodyhadenduredattheirhands.Once,saysatraveller,onapproachinginthenightavillage
ofOttawas,Ifoundalltheinhabitantsinconfusion:theywereallbusilyengagedinraisingnoisesofthe
loudestandmostinharmoniouskind.Uponinquiry,Ifoundthatabattlehadbeenlatelyfoughtbetween
theOttawasandtheKickapoos,andthattheobjectofallthisnoisewastopreventtheghostsofthe
departedcombatantsfromenteringthevillage.
AmongtheBasutosablutionisspeciallyperformedonreturnfrombattle.Itisabsolutelynecessarythat
thewarriorsshouldridthemselves,assoonaspossible,ofthebloodtheyhaveshed,ortheshadesoftheir
victimswouldpursuethemincessantly,anddisturbtheirslumbers.Theygoinaprocession,andinfull
armour,totheneareststream.Atthemomenttheyenterthewateradiviner,placedhigherup,throws
somepurifyingsubstancesintothecurrent.Thisis,however,notstrictlynecessary.Thejavelinsand
battleaxesalsoundergotheprocessofwashing.AmongtheBageshuofEastAfricaamanwhohas
killedanothermaynotreturntohisownhouseonthesameday,thoughhemayenterthevillageand
spendthenightinafriendshouse.Hekillsasheepandsmearshischest,hisrightarm,andhisheadwith
thecontentsoftheanimalsstomach.Hischildrenarebroughttohimandhesmearstheminlikemanner.
Thenhesmearseachsideofthedoorwaywiththetripeandentrails,andfinallythrowstherestofthe
stomachontheroofofhishouse.Forawholedayhemaynottouchfoodwithhishands,butpicksitup
withtwosticksandsoconveysittohismouth.Hiswifeisnotunderanysuchrestrictions.Shemayeven
gotomournforthemanwhomherhusbandhaskilled,ifshewishestodoso.AmongtheAngoni,tothe
northoftheZambesi,warriorswhohaveslainfoesonanexpeditionsmeartheirbodiesandfaceswith
ashes,hanggarmentsoftheirvictimsontheirpersons,andtiebarkropesroundtheirnecks,sothatthe
endshangdownovertheirshouldersorbreasts.Thiscostumetheywearforthreedaysaftertheirreturn,
andrisingatbreakofdaytheyrunthroughthevillageutteringfrightfulyellstodriveawaytheghostsof
theslain,which,iftheywerenotthusbanishedfromthehouses,mightbringsicknessandmisfortuneon
theinmates.
Insomeoftheseaccountsnothingissaidofanenforcedseclusion,atleastaftertheceremonialcleansing,
butsomeSouthAfricantribescertainlyrequiretheslayerofaverygallantfoeinwartokeepapartfrom
hiswifeandfamilyfortendaysafterhehaswashedhisbodyinrunningwater.Healsoreceivesfromthe
tribaldoctoramedicinewhichhechewswithhisfood.WhenaNandiofEastAfricahaskilledamember
ofanothertribe,hepaintsonesideofhisbody,spear,andswordred,andtheothersidewhite.Forfour
daysaftertheslaughterheisconsidereduncleanandmaynotgohome.Hehastobuildasmallshelterby
ariverandlivetherehemaynotassociatewithhiswifeorsweetheart,andhemayeatnothingbut
porridge,beef,andgoatsflesh.Attheendofthefourthdayhemustpurifyhimselfbytakingastrong
purgemadefromthebarkofthesegetettreeandbydrinkinggoatsmilkmixedwithblood.Amongthe
BantutribesofKavirondo,whenamanhaskilledanenemyinwarfareheshaveshisheadonhisreturn
home,andhisfriendsrubamedicine,whichgenerallyconsistsofgoatsdung,overhisbodytoprevent
thespiritoftheslainmanfromtroublinghim.Exactlythesamecustomispractisedforthesamereason
bytheWageiaofEastAfrica.WiththeJaLuoofKavirondothecustomissomewhatdifferent.Three
daysafterhisreturnfromthefightthewarriorshaveshishead.Butbeforehemayenterhisvillagehehas
tohangalivefowl,headuppermost,roundhisneckthenthebirdisdecapitatedanditsheadlefthanging
roundhisneck.Soonafterhisreturnafeastismadefortheslainman,inorderthathisghostmaynot
haunthisslayer.InthePelewIslands,whenthemenreturnfromawarlikeexpeditioninwhichtheyhave
takenalife,theyoungwarriorswhohavebeenoutfightingforthefirsttime,andallwhohandledthe
slain,areshutupinthelargecouncilhouseandbecometabooed.Theymaynotquittheedifice,nor

bathe,nortouchawoman,noreatfishtheirfoodislimitedtococonutsandsyrup.Theyrubthemselves
withcharmedleavesandchewcharmedbetel.Afterthreedaystheygotogethertobatheasnearas
possibletothespotwherethemanwaskilled.
AmongtheNatchezIndiansofNorthAmericayoungbraveswhohadtakentheirfirstscalpswere
obligedtoobservecertainrulesofabstinenceforsixmonths.Theymightnotsleepwiththeirwivesnor
eatfleshtheironlyfoodwasfishandhastypudding.Iftheybroketheserules,theybelievedthatthesoul
ofthemantheyhadkilledwouldworktheirdeathbymagic,thattheywouldgainnomoresuccesses
overtheenemy,andthattheleastwoundinflictedonthemwouldprovemortal.WhenaChoctawhad
killedanenemyandtakenhisscalp,hewentintomourningforamonth,duringwhichhemightnotcomb
hishair,andifhisheaditchedhemightnotscratchitexceptwithalittlestickwhichheworefastenedto
hiswristforthepurpose.Thisceremonialmourningfortheenemiestheyhadslainwasnotuncommon
amongtheNorthAmericanIndians.
Thusweseethatwarriorswhohavetakenthelifeofafoeinbattlearetemporarilycutofffromfree
intercoursewiththeirfellows,andespeciallywiththeirwives,andmustundergocertainritesof
purificationbeforetheyarereadmittedtosociety.Nowifthepurposeoftheirseclusionandofthe
expiatoryriteswhichtheyhavetoperformis,aswehavebeenledtobelieve,nootherthantoshakeoff,
frighten,orappeasetheangryspiritoftheslainman,wemaysafelyconjecturethatthesimilar
purificationofhomicidesandmurderers,whohaveimbruedtheirhandsinthebloodofafellow
tribesman,hadatfirstthesamesignificance,andthattheideaofamoralorspiritualregeneration
symbolisedbythewashing,thefasting,andsoon,wasmerelyalaterinterpretationputupontheold
custombymenwhohadoutgrowntheprimitivemodesofthoughtinwhichthecustomoriginated.The
conjecturewillbeconfirmedifwecanshowthatsavageshaveactuallyimposedcertainrestrictionson
themurdererofafellowtribesmanfromadefinitefearthatheishauntedbytheghostofhisvictim.This
wecandowithregardtotheOmahasofNorthAmerica.AmongtheseIndiansthekinsmenofamurdered
manhadtherighttoputthemurderertodeath,butsometimestheywaivedtheirrightinconsiderationof
presentswhichtheyconsentedtoaccept.Whenthelifeofthemurdererwasspared,hehadtoobserve
certainstringentrulesforaperiodwhichvariedfromtwotofouryears.Hemustwalkbarefoot,andhe
mighteatnowarmfood,norraisehisvoice,norlookaround.Hewascompelledtopullhisrobeabout
himandtohaveittiedattheneckeveninhotweatherhemightnotletithanglooseorflyopen.He
mightnotmovehishandsabout,buthadtokeepthemclosetohisbody.Hemightnotcombhishair,and
itmightnotbeblownaboutbythewind.Whenthetribewentouthunting,hewasobligedtopitchhis
tentaboutaquarterofmilefromtherestofthepeoplelesttheghostofhisvictimshouldraiseahigh
wind,whichmightcausedamage.Onlyoneofhiskindredwasallowedtoremainwithhimathistent.
Noonewishedtoeatwithhim,fortheysaid,IfweeatwithhimwhomWakandahates,Wakandawill
hateus.Sometimeshewanderedatnightcryingandlamentinghisoffence.Attheendofhislong
isolationthekinsmenofthemurderedmanheardhiscryingandsaid,Itisenough.Begone,andwalk
amongthecrowd.Putonmoccasinsandwearagoodrobe.Herethereasonallegedforkeepingthe
murdererataconsiderabledistancefromthehuntersgivesthecluetoalltheotherrestrictionslaidon
him:hewashauntedandthereforedangerous.TheancientGreeksbelievedthatthesoulofamanwho
hadjustbeenkilledwaswrothwithhisslayerandtroubledhimwhereforeitwasneedfulevenforthe
involuntaryhomicidetodepartfromhiscountryforayearuntiltheangerofthedeadmanhadcooled
downnormighttheslayerreturnuntilsacrificehadbeenofferedandceremoniesofpurification
performed.Ifhisvictimchancedtobeaforeigner,thehomicidehadtoshunthenativecountryofthe
deadmanaswellashisown.ThelegendofthematricideOrestes,howheroamedfromplacetoplace
pursuedbytheFuriesofhismurderedmother,andnonewouldsitatmeatwithhim,ortakehimin,tillhe
hadbeenpurified,reflectsfaithfullytherealGreekdreadofsuchaswerestillhauntedbyanangryghost.
6.HuntersandFisherstabooed

INSAVAGEsocietythehunterandthefishermanhaveoftentoobserverulesofabstinenceandto
submittoceremoniesofpurificationofthesamesortasthosewhichareobligatoryonthewarriorandthe
manslayerandthoughwecannotinallcasesperceivetheexactpurposewhichtheserulesand
ceremoniesaresupposedtoserve,wemaywithsomeprobabilityassumethat,justasthedreadofthe
spiritsofhisenemiesisthemainmotivefortheseclusionandpurificationofthewarriorwhohopesto
takeorhasalreadytakentheirlives,sothehuntsmanorfishermanwhocomplieswithsimilarcustomsis
principallyactuatedbyafearofthespiritsofthebeasts,birds,orfishwhichhehaskilledorintendsto
kill.Forthesavagecommonlyconceivesanimalstobeendowedwithsoulsandintelligenceslikehis
own,andhencehenaturallytreatsthemwithsimilarrespect.Justasheattemptstoappeasetheghostsof
themenhehasslain,soheessaystopropitiatethespiritsoftheanimalshehaskilled.Theseceremonies
ofpropitiationwillbedescribedlateroninthisworkherewehavetodeal,first,withthetaboos
observedbythehunterandthefishermanbeforeorduringthehuntingandfishingseasons,and,second,
withtheceremoniesofpurificationwhichhavetobepractisedbythesemenonreturningwiththeirbooty
fromasuccessfulchase.
Whilethesavagerespects,moreorless,thesoulsofallanimals,hetreatswithparticulardeferencethe
spiritsofsuchasareeitherespeciallyusefultohimorformidableonaccountoftheirsize,strength,or
ferocity.Accordinglythehuntingandkillingofthesevaluableordangerousbeastsaresubjecttomore
elaboraterulesandceremoniesthantheslaughterofcomparativelyuselessandinsignificantcreatures.
ThustheIndiansofNootkaSoundpreparedthemselvesforcatchingwhalesbyobservingafastfora
week,duringwhichtheyateverylittle,bathedinthewaterseveraltimesaday,sang,andrubbedtheir
bodies,limbs,andfaceswithshellsandbushestilltheylookedasiftheyhadbeenseverelytornwith
briars.Theywerelikewiserequiredtoabstainfromanycommercewiththeirwomenforthelikeperiod,
thislastconditionbeingconsideredindispensabletotheirsuccess.Achiefwhofailedtocatchawhale
hasbeenknowntoattributehisfailuretoabreachofchastityonthepartofhismen.Itshouldbe
remarkedthattheconductthusprescribedasapreparationforwhalingispreciselythatwhichinthesame
tribeofIndianswasrequiredofmenabouttogoonthewarpath.Rulesofthesamesortare,orwere
formerly,observedbyMalagasywhalers.Foreightdaysbeforetheywenttoseathecrewofawhaler
usedtofast,abstainingfromwomenandliquor,andconfessingtheirmostsecretfaultstoeachotherand
ifanymanwasfoundtohavesinneddeeply,hewasforbiddentoshareintheexpedition.Intheislandof
Mabuiagcontinencewasimposedonthepeoplebothbeforetheywenttohuntthedugongandwhilethe
turtleswerepairing.TheturtleseasonlastsduringpartsofOctoberandNovemberandifatthattime
unmarriedpersonshadsexualintercoursewitheachother,itwasbelievedthatwhenthecanoe
approachedthefloatingturtle,themalewouldseparatefromthefemaleandbothwoulddivedownin
differentdirections.SoatMowatinNewGuineamenhavenorelationwithwomenwhentheturtlesare
coupling,thoughthereisconsiderablelaxityofmoralsatothertimes.IntheislandofUap,oneofthe
Carolinegroup,everyfishermanplyinghiscraftliesunderamoststricttabooduringthewholeofthe
fishingseason,whichlastsforsixoreightweeks.Wheneverheisonshorehemustspendallhistimein
themensclubhouse,andundernopretextwhatevermayhevisithisownhouseorsomuchaslookupon
thefacesofhiswifeandwomenkind.Werehebuttostealaglanceatthem,theythinkthatflyingfish
mustinevitablyboreouthiseyesatnight.Ifhiswife,mother,ordaughterbringsanygiftforhimor
wishestotalkwithhim,shemuststanddowntowardstheshorewithherbackturnedtothemens
clubhouse.Thenthefishermanmaygooutandspeaktoher,orwithhisbackturnedtoherhemay
receivewhatshehasbroughthimafterwhichhemustreturnatoncetohisrigorousconfinement.Indeed
thefishermenmaynotevenjoinindanceandsongwiththeothermenoftheclubhouseintheevening
theymustkeeptothemselvesandbesilent.InMirzapur,whentheseedofthesilkwormisbroughtinto
thehouse,theKolorBhuiyarputsitinaplacewhichhasbeencarefullyplasteredwithholycowdungto
bringgoodluck.Fromthattimetheownermustbecarefultoavoidceremonialimpurity.Hemustgive
upcohabitationwithhiswifehemaynotsleeponabed,norshavehimself,norcuthisnails,noranoint
himselfwithoil,noreatfoodcookedwithbutter,nortelllies,nordoanythingelsethathedeemswrong.
HevowstoSingarmatiDevithat,ifthewormsaredulyborn,hewillmakeheranoffering.Whenthe

cocoonsopenandthewormsappear,heassemblesthewomenofthehouseandtheysingthesamesong
asatthebirthofababy,andredleadissmearedonthepartingofthehairofallthemarriedwomenof
theneighbourhood.Whenthewormspair,rejoicingsaremadeasatamarriage.Thusthesilkwormsare
treatedasfaraspossiblelikehumanbeings.Hencethecustomwhichprohibitsthecommerceofthe
sexeswhilethewormsarehatchingmaybeonlyanextension,byanalogy,oftherulewhichisobserved
bymanyraces,thatthehusbandmaynotcohabitwithhiswifeduringpregnancyandlactation.
IntheislandofNiasthehunterssometimesdigpits,coverthemlightlyoverwithtwigs,grass,and
leaves,andthendrivethegameintothem.Whiletheyareengagedindiggingthepits,theyhaveto
observeanumberoftaboos.Theymaynotspit,orthegamewouldturnbackindisgustfromthepits.
Theymaynotlaugh,orthesidesofthepitwouldfallin.Theymayeatnosalt,preparenofodderfor
swine,andinthepittheymaynotscratchthemselves,foriftheydid,theearthwouldbeloosenedand
wouldcollapse.Andthenightafterdiggingthepittheymayhavenointercoursewithawoman,orall
theirlabourwouldbeinvain.
Thispracticeofobservingstrictchastityasaconditionofsuccessinhuntingandfishingisverycommon
amongruderacesandtheinstancesofitwhichhavebeencitedrenderitprobablethattheruleisalways
basedonasuperstitionratherthanonaconsiderationofthetemporaryweaknesswhichabreachofthe
custommayentailonthehunterorfisherman.Ingeneralitappearstobesupposedthattheevileffectof
incontinenceisnotsomuchthatitweakenshim,asthat,forsomereasonorother,itoffendstheanimals,
whoinconsequencewillnotsufferthemselvestobecaught.ACarrierIndianofBritishColumbiaused
toseparatefromhiswifeforafullmonthbeforehesettrapsforbears,andduringthistimehemightnot
drinkfromthesamevesselashiswife,buthadtouseaspecialcupmadeofbirchbark.Theneglectof
theseprecautionswouldcausethegametoescapeafterithadbeensnared.Butwhenhewasaboutto
snaremartens,theperiodofcontinencewascutdowntotendays.
Anexaminationofallthemanycasesinwhichthesavagebridleshispassionsandremainschastefrom
motivesofsuperstition,wouldbeinstructive,butIcannotattemptitnow.Iwillonlyaddafew
miscellaneousexamplesofthecustombeforepassingtotheceremoniesofpurificationwhichare
observedbythehunterandfishermanafterthechaseandthefishingareover.Theworkersinthesalt
pansnearSiphoum,inLaos,mustabstainfromallsexualrelationsattheplacewheretheyareatwork
andtheymaynotcovertheirheadsnorshelterthemselvesunderanumbrellafromtheburningraysofthe
sun.AmongtheKachinsofBurmathefermentusedinmakingbeerispreparedbytwowomen,chosen
bylot,whoduringthethreedaysthattheprocesslastsmayeatnothingacidandmayhavenoconjugal
relationswiththeirhusbandsotherwiseitissupposedthatthebeerwouldbesour.AmongtheMasai
honeywineisbrewedbyamanandawomanwholiveinahutsetapartforthemtillthewineisready
fordrinking.Buttheyarestrictlyforbiddentohavesexualintercoursewitheachotherduringthistimeit
isdeemedessentialthattheyshouldbechastefortwodaysbeforetheybegintobrewandforthewhole
ofthesixdaysthatthebrewinglasts.TheMasaibelievethatwerethecoupletocommitabreachof
chastity,notonlywouldthewinebeundrinkablebutthebeeswhichmadethehoneywouldflyaway.
Similarlytheyrequirethatamanwhoismakingpoisonshouldsleepaloneandobserveothertaboos
whichrenderhimalmostanoutcast.TheWandorobbo,atribeofthesameregionastheMasai,believe
thatthemerepresenceofawomanintheneighbourhoodofamanwhoisbrewingpoisonwoulddeprive
thepoisonofitsvenom,andthatthesamethingwouldhappenifthewifeofthepoisonmakerwereto
commitadulterywhileherhusbandwasbrewingthepoison.Inthislastcaseitisobviousthata
rationalisticexplanationofthetabooisimpossible.Howcouldthelossofvirtueinthepoisonbea
physicalconsequenceofthelossofvirtueinthepoisonmakerswife?Clearlytheeffectwhichthewifes
adulteryissupposedtohaveonthepoisonisacaseofsympatheticmagichermisconduct
sympatheticallyaffectsherhusbandandhisworkatadistance.Wemay,accordingly,inferwithsome
confidencethattheruleofcontinenceimposedonthepoisonmakerhimselfisalsoasimplecaseof
sympatheticmagic,andnot,asacivilisedreadermightbedisposedtoconjecture,awiseprecaution

designedtopreventhimfromaccidentallypoisoninghiswife.
AmongtheBaPediandBaThongatribesofSouthAfrica,whenthesiteofanewvillagehasbeen
chosenandthehousesarebuilding,allthemarriedpeopleareforbiddentohaveconjugalrelationswith
eachother.Ifitwerediscoveredthatanycouplehadbrokenthisrule,theworkofbuildingwould
immediatelybestopped,andanothersitechosenforthevillage.Fortheythinkthatabreachofchastity
wouldspoilthevillagewhichwasgrowingup,thatthechiefwouldgrowleanandperhapsdie,andthat
theguiltywomanwouldneverbearanotherchild.AmongtheChamsofCochinChina,whenadamis
madeorrepairedonariverforthesakeofirrigation,thechiefwhooffersthetraditionalsacrificesand
implorestheprotectionofthedeitiesontheworkhastostayallthetimeinawretchedhovelofstraw,
takingnopartinthelabour,andobservingthestrictestcontinenceforthepeoplebelievethatabreachof
hischastitywouldentailabreachofthedam.Here,itisplain,therecanbenoideaofmaintainingthe
merebodilyvigourofthechieffortheaccomplishmentofataskinwhichhedoesnotevenbearahand.
Ifthetaboosorabstinencesobservedbyhuntersandfishermenbeforeandduringthechasearedictated,
aswehaveseenreasontobelieve,bysuperstitiousmotives,andchieflybyadreadofoffendingor
frighteningthespiritsofthecreatureswhomitisproposedtokill,wemayexpectthattherestraints
imposedaftertheslaughterhasbeenperpetratedwillbeatleastasstringent,theslayerandhisfriends
havingnowtheaddedfearoftheangryghostsofhisvictimsbeforetheireyes.Whereasonthe
hypothesisthattheabstinencesinquestion,includingthosefromfood,drink,andsleep,aremerely
salutaryprecautionsformaintainingthemeninhealthandstrengthtodotheirwork,itisobviousthatthe
observanceoftheseabstinencesortaboosaftertheworkisdone,thatis,whenthegameiskilledandthe
fishcaught,mustbewhollysuperfluous,absurd,andinexplicable.ButasIshallnowshow,thesetaboos
oftencontinuetobeenforcedorevenincreasedinstringencyafterthedeathoftheanimals,inother
words,afterthehunterorfisherhasaccomplishedhisobjectbymakinghisbagorlandinghisfish.The
rationalistictheoryofthemthereforebreaksdownentirelythehypothesisofsuperstitionisclearlythe
onlyoneopentous.
AmongtheInuitorEsquimauxofBeringStraitthedeadbodiesofvariousanimalsmustbetreatedvery
carefullybythehunterwhoobtainsthem,sothattheirshadesmaynotbeoffendedandbringbadluckor
evendeathuponhimorhispeople.HencetheUnalithunterwhohashadahandinthekillingofawhite
whale,orevenhashelpedtotakeonefromthenet,isnotallowedtodoanyworkforthenextfourdays,
thatbeingthetimeduringwhichtheshadeorghostofthewhaleissupposedtostaywithitsbody.Atthe
sametimenooneinthevillagemayuseanysharporpointedinstrumentforfearofwoundingthe
whalesshade,whichisbelievedtobehoveringinvisibleintheneighbourhoodandnoloudnoisemay
bemadelestitshouldfrightenoroffendtheghost.Whoevercutsawhalesbodywithanironaxewill
die.Indeedtheuseofallironinstrumentsisforbiddeninthevillageduringthesefourdays.
ThesesameEsquimauxcelebrateagreatannualfestivalinDecemberwhenthebladdersofalltheseals,
whales,walrus,andwhitebearsthathavebeenkilledintheyeararetakenintotheassemblyhouseofthe
village.Theyremainthereforseveraldays,andsolongastheydosothehuntersavoidallintercourse
withwomen,sayingthatiftheyfailedinthatrespecttheshadesofthedeadanimalswouldbeoffended.
SimilarlyamongtheAleutsofAlaskathehunterwhohadstruckawhalewithacharmedspearwouldnot
throwagain,butreturnedatoncetohishomeandseparatedhimselffromhispeopleinahutspecially
constructedforthepurpose,wherehestayedforthreedayswithoutfoodordrink,andwithouttouching
orlookinguponawoman.Duringthistimeofseclusionhesnortedoccasionallyinimitationofthe
woundedanddyingwhale,inordertopreventthewhalewhichhehadstruckfromleavingthecoast.On
thefourthdayheemergedfromhisseclusionandbathedinthesea,shriekinginahoarsevoiceand
beatingthewaterwithhishands.Then,takingwithhimacompanion,herepairedtothatpartoftheshore
whereheexpectedtofindthewhalestranded.Ifthebeastwasdead,heatoncecutouttheplacewhere
thedeathwoundhadbeeninflicted.Ifthewhalewasnotdead,heagainreturnedtohishomeand

continuedwashinghimselfuntilthewhaledied.Herethehuntersimitationofthewoundedwhaleis
probablyintendedbymeansofhomoeopathicmagictomakethebeastdieinearnest.Oncemorethesoul
ofthegrimpolarbearisoffendedifthetabooswhichconcernhimarenotobserved.Hissoultarriesfor
threedaysnearthespotwhereitlefthisbody,andduringthesedaystheEsquimauxareparticularly
carefultoconformrigidlytothelawsoftaboo,becausetheybelievethatpunishmentovertakesthe
transgressorwhosinsagainstthesoulofabearfarmorespeedilythanhimwhosinsagainstthesoulsof
theseabeasts.
WhentheKayanshaveshotoneofthedreadedBorneanpanthers,theyareveryanxiousaboutthesafety
oftheirsouls,fortheythinkthatthesoulofapantherisalmostmorepowerfulthantheirown.Hence
theystepeighttimesoverthecarcaseofthedeadbeastrecitingthespell,Panther,thysoulundermy
soul.Onreturninghometheysmearthemselves,theirdogs,andtheirweaponswiththebloodoffowls
inordertocalmtheirsoulsandhinderthemfromfleeingawayfor,beingthemselvesfondofthefleshof
fowls,theyascribethesametastetotheirsouls.Foreightdaysafterwardstheymustbathebydayandby
nightbeforegoingoutagaintothechase.AmongtheHottentots,whenamanhaskilledalion,leopard,
elephant,orrhinoceros,heisesteemedagreathero,buthehastoremainathomequiteidleforthree
days,duringwhichhiswifemaynotcomenearhimsheisalsoenjoinedtorestrictherselftoapoordiet
andtoeatnomorethanisbarelynecessarytokeepherinhealth.SimilarlytheLappsdeemittheheight
ofglorytokillabear,whichtheyconsiderthekingofbeasts.Nevertheless,allthemenwhotakepartin
theslaughterareregardedasunclean,andmustlivebythemselvesforthreedaysinahutortentmade
speciallyforthem,wheretheycutupandcookthebearscarcase.Thereindeerwhichbroughtinthe
carcaseonasledgemaynotbedrivenbyawomanforawholeyearindeed,accordingtooneaccount,it
maynotbeusedbyanybodyforthatperiod.Beforethemengointothetentwheretheyaretobe
secluded,theystripthemselvesofthegarmentstheyhadworninkillingthebear,andtheirwivesspitthe
redjuiceofalderbarkintheirfaces.Theyenterthetentnotbytheordinarydoorbutbyanopeningatthe
back.Whenthebearsfleshhasbeencooked,aportionofitissentbythehandsoftwomentothe
women,whomaynotapproachthemenstentwhilethecookingisgoingon.Themenwhoconveythe
fleshtothewomenpretendtobestrangersbringingpresentsfromaforeignlandthewomenkeepupthe
pretenceandpromisetotieredthreadsroundthelegsofthestrangers.Thebearsfleshmaynotbe
passedintothewomenthroughthedooroftheirtent,butmustbethrustinataspecialopeningmadeby
liftingupthehemofthetentcover.Whenthethreedaysseclusionisoverandthemenareatlibertyto
returntotheirwives,theyrun,oneaftertheother,roundthefire,holdingthechainbywhichpotsare
suspendedoverit.Thisisregardedasaformofpurificationtheymaynowleavethetentbytheordinary
doorandrejointhewomen.Buttheleaderofthepartymuststillabstainfromcohabitationwithhiswife
fortwodaysmore.
Again,theCaffresaresaidtodreadgreatlytheboaconstrictororanenormousserpentresemblingit
andbeinginfluencedbycertainsuperstitiousnotionstheyevenfeartokillit.Themanwhohappenedto
putittodeath,whetherinselfdefenceorotherwise,wasformerlyrequiredtolieinarunningstreamof
waterduringthedayforseveralweekstogetherandnobeastwhateverwasallowedtobeslaughteredat
thehamlettowhichhebelonged,untilthisdutyhadbeenfullyperformed.Thebodyofthesnakewas
thentakenandcarefullyburiedinatrench,dugclosetothecattlefold,whereitsremains,likethoseofa
chief,werehenceforwardkeptperfectlyundisturbed.Theperiodofpenance,asinthecaseofmourning
forthedead,isnowhappilyreducedtoafewdays.InMadrasitisconsideredagreatsintokillacobra.
Whenthishashappened,thepeoplegenerallyburnthebodyoftheserpent,justastheyburnthebodies
ofhumanbeings.Themurdererdeemshimselfpollutedforthreedays.Ontheseconddaymilkispoured
ontheremainsofthecobra.Onthethirddaytheguiltywretchisfreefrompollution.
Intheselastcasestheanimalwhoseslaughterhastobeatonedforissacred,thatis,itisonewhoselifeis
commonlysparedfrommotivesofsuperstition.Yetthetreatmentofthesacrilegiousslayerseemsto
resemblesocloselythetreatmentofhuntersandfishermenwhohavekilledanimalsforfoodinthe

ordinarycourseofbusiness,thattheideasonwhichbothsetsofcustomsarebasedmaybeassumedtobe
substantiallythesame.Thoseideas,ifIamright,aretherespectwhichthesavagefeelsforthesoulsof
beasts,especiallyvaluableorformidablebeasts,andthedreadwhichheentertainsoftheirvengeful
ghosts.Someconfirmationofthisviewmaybedrawnfromtheceremoniesobservedbyfishermenof
Annamwhenthecarcaseofawhaleiswashedashore.Thesefisherfolk,wearetold,worshipthewhale
onaccountofthebenefitstheyderivefromit.Thereishardlyavillageontheseashorewhichhasnotits
smallpagoda,containingthebones,moreorlessauthentic,ofawhale.Whenadeadwhaleiswashed
ashore,thepeopleaccorditasolemnburial.Themanwhofirstcaughtsightofitactsaschiefmourner,
performingtheriteswhichaschiefmournerandheirhewouldperformforahumankinsman.Heputson
allthegarbofwoe,thestrawhat,thewhiterobewithlongsleevesturnedinsideout,andtheother
paraphernaliaoffullmourning.Asnextofkintothedeceasedhepresidesoverthefuneralrites.
Perfumesareburned,sticksofincensekindled,leavesofgoldandsilverscattered,crackersletoff.When
thefleshhasbeencutoffandtheoilextracted,theremainsofthecarcaseareburiedinthesand.After
wardsashedissetupandofferingsaremadeinit.Usuallysometimeaftertheburialthespiritofthe
deadwhaletakespossessionofsomepersoninthevillageanddeclaresbyhismouthwhetherheisa
maleorafemale.

XXI.TabooedThings
1.TheMeaningofTaboo
THUSinprimitivesocietytherulesofceremonialpurityobservedbydivinekings,chiefs,andpriests
agreeinmanyrespectswiththerulesobservedbyhomicides,mourners,womeninchildbed,girlsat
puberty,huntersandfishermen,andsoon.Tousthesevariousclassesofpersonsappeartodiffertotally
incharacterandconditionsomeofthemweshouldcallholy,otherswemightpronounceuncleanand
polluted.Butthesavagemakesnosuchmoraldistinctionbetweenthemtheconceptionsofholinessand
pollutionarenotyetdifferentiatedinhismind.Tohimthecommonfeatureofallthesepersonsisthat
theyaredangerousandindanger,andthedangerinwhichtheystandandtowhichtheyexposeothersis
whatweshouldcallspiritualorghostly,andthereforeimaginary.Thedanger,however,isnotlessreal
becauseitisimaginaryimaginationactsuponmanasreallyasdoesgravitation,andmaykillhimas
certainlyasadoseofprussicacid.Tosecludethesepersonsfromtherestoftheworldsothatthedreaded
spiritualdangershallneitherreachthemnorspreadfromthem,istheobjectofthetabooswhichthey
havetoobserve.Thesetaboosact,sotosay,aselectricalinsulatorstopreservethespiritualforcewith
whichthesepersonsarechargedfromsufferingorinflictingharmbycontactwiththeouterworld.
TotheillustrationsofthesegeneralprincipleswhichhavebeenalreadygivenIshallnowaddsomemore,
drawingmyexamples,first,fromtheclassoftabooedthings,and,second,fromtheclassoftabooed
wordsforintheopinionofthesavageboththingsandwordsmay,likepersons,bechargedor
electrified,eithertemporarilyorpermanently,withthemysteriousvirtueoftaboo,andmaytherefore
requiretobebanishedforalongerorshortertimefromthefamiliarusageofcommonlife.Andthe
exampleswillbechosenwithspecialreferencetothosesacredchiefs,kingsandpriests,who,morethan
anybodyelse,livefencedaboutbytabooasbyawall.Tabooedthingswillbeillustratedinthepresent
chapter,andtabooedwordsinthenext.
2.Irontabooed
INTHEFIRSTplacewemayobservethattheawfulsanctityofkingsnaturallyleadstoaprohibitionto
touchtheirsacredpersons.ThusitwasunlawfultolayhandsonthepersonofaSpartanking:noone
mighttouchthebodyofthekingorqueenofTahiti:itisforbiddentotouchthepersonofthekingof
SiamunderpainofdeathandnoonemaytouchthekingofCambodia,foranypurposewhatever,

withouthisexpresscommand.InJuly1874thekingwasthrownfromhiscarriageandlayinsensibleon
theground,butnotoneofhissuitedaredtotouchhimaEuropeancomingtothespotcarriedtheinjured
monarchtohispalace.FormerlynoonemighttouchthekingofCoreaandifhedeignedtotoucha
subject,thespottouchedbecamesacred,andthepersonthushonouredhadtowearavisiblemark
(generallyacordofredsilk)fortherestofhislife.Aboveall,noironmighttouchthekingsbody.In
1800KingTiengtsongtaioangdiedofatumourintheback,noonedreamingofemployingthelancet,
whichwouldprobablyhavesavedhislife.Itissaidthatonekingsufferedterriblyfromanabscessinthe
lip,tillhisphysiciancalledinajester,whosepranksmadethekinglaughheartily,andsotheabscess
burst.RomanandSabinepriestsmightnotbeshavedwithironbutonlywithbronzerazorsorshearsand
wheneveranirongravingtoolwasbroughtintothesacredgroveoftheArvalBrothersatRomeforthe
purposeofcuttinganinscriptioninstone,anexpiatorysacrificeofalambandapigmustbeoffered,
whichwasrepeatedwhenthegravingtoolwasremovedfromthegrove.Asageneralruleironmightnot
bebroughtintoGreeksanctuaries.InCretesacrificeswereofferedtoMenedemuswithouttheuseof
iron,becausethelegendranthatMenedemushadbeenkilledbyanironweaponintheTrojanwar.The
ArchonofPlataeamightnottouchironbutonceayear,attheannualcommemorationofthemenwho
fellatthebattleofPlataea,hewasallowedtocarryaswordwherewithtosacrificeabull.Tothisdaya
Hottentotpriestneverusesanironknife,butalwaysasharpsplintofquartz,insacrificingananimalor
circumcisingalad.AmongtheOvamboofSouthwestAfricacustomrequiresthatladsshouldbe
circumcisedwithasharpflintifnoneistohand,theoperationmaybeperformedwithiron,buttheiron
mustafterwardsbeburied.AmongsttheMoquisofArizonastoneknives,hatchets,andsoonhavepassed
outofcommonuse,butareretainedinreligiousceremonies.AfterthePawneeshadceasedtousestone
arrowheadsforordinarypurposes,theystillemployedthemtoslaythesacrifices,whetherhuman
captivesorbuffaloanddeer.AmongsttheJewsnoirontoolwasusedinbuildingtheTempleat
Jerusalemorinmakinganaltar.Theoldwoodenbridge(PonsSublicius)atRome,whichwasconsidered
sacred,wasmadeandhadtobekeptinrepairwithouttheuseofironorbronze.Itwasexpressly
providedbylawthatthetempleofJupiterLiberatFurfomightberepairedwithirontools.Thecouncil
chamberatCyzicuswasconstructedofwoodwithoutanyironnails,thebeamsbeingsoarrangedthat
theycouldbetakenoutandreplaced.
Thissuperstitiousobjectiontoironperhapsdatesfromthatearlytimeinthehistoryofsocietywheniron
wasstillanovelty,andassuchwasviewedbymanywithsuspicionanddislike.Foreverythingnewis
apttoexcitetheaweanddreadofthesavage.Itisacurioussuperstition,saysapioneerinBorneo,
thisoftheDusuns,toattributeanythingwhethergoodorbad,luckyorunluckythathappenstothem
tosomethingnovelwhichhasarrivedintheircountry.Forinstance,mylivinginKindramhascausedthe
intenselyhotweatherwehaveexperiencedoflate.Theunusuallyheavyrainswhichhappenedtofollow
theEnglishsurveyoftheNicobarIslandsinthewinterof18861887wereimputedbythealarmed
nativestothewrathofthespiritsatthetheodolites,dumpylevellers,andotherstrangeinstrumentswhich
hadbeensetupinsomanyoftheirfavouritehauntsandsomeofthemproposedtosoothetheangerof
thespiritsbysacrificingapig.Intheseventeenthcenturyasuccessionofbadseasonsexcitedarevolt
amongtheEsthonianpeasantry,whotracedtheoriginoftheeviltoawatermill,whichputastreamto
someinconveniencebycheckingitsflow.ThefirstintroductionofironploughsharesintoPolandhaving
beenfollowedbyasuccessionofbadharvests,thefarmersattributedthebadnessofthecropstotheiron
ploughshares,anddiscardedthemfortheoldwoodenones.TothisdaytheprimitiveBaduwisofJava,
wholivechieflybyhusbandry,willusenoirontoolsintillingtheirfields.
Thegeneraldislikeofinnovation,whichalwaysmakesitselfstronglyfeltinthesphereofreligion,is
sufficientbyitselftoaccountforthesuperstitiousaversiontoironentertainedbykingsandpriestsand
attributedbythemtothegodspossiblythisaversionmayhavebeenintensifiedinplacesbysomesuch
accidentalcauseastheseriesofbadseasonswhichcastdiscreditonironploughsharesinPoland.Butthe
disfavourinwhichironisheldbythegodsandtheirministershasanotherside.Theirantipathytothe
metalfurnishesmenwithaweaponwhichmaybeturnedagainstthespiritswhenoccasionserves.As

theirdislikeofironissupposedtobesogreatthattheywillnotapproachpersonsandthingsprotectedby
theobnoxiousmetal,ironmayobviouslybeemployedasacharmforbanningghostsandother
dangerousspirits.Andoftenitissoused.ThusintheHighlandsofScotlandthegreatsafeguardagainst
theelfinraceisiron,or,betteryet,steel.Themetalinanyform,whetherasasword,aknife,agun
barrel,orwhatnot,isallpowerfulforthispurpose.Wheneveryouenterafairydwellingyoushould
alwaysremembertostickapieceofsteel,suchasaknife,aneedle,orafishhook,inthedoorforthen
theelveswillnotbeabletoshutthedoortillyoucomeoutagain.So,too,whenyouhaveshotadeerand
arebringingithomeatnight,besuretothrustaknifeintothecarcase,forthatkeepsthefairiesfrom
layingtheirweightonit.Aknifeornailinyourpocketisquiteenoughtopreventthefairiesfromlifting
youupatnight.Nailsinthefrontofabedwardoffelvesfromwomeninthestrawandfromtheir
babesbuttomakequitesureitisbettertoputthesmoothingironunderthebed,andthereapinghookin
thewindow.Ifabullhasfallenoverarockandbeenkilled,anailstuckintoitwillpreservetheflesh
fromthefairies.MusicdiscoursedonaJewsharpkeepstheelfinwomenawayfromthehunter,because
thetongueoftheinstrumentisofsteel.InMoroccoironisconsideredagreatprotectionagainstdemons
henceitisusualtoplaceaknifeordaggerunderasickmanspillow.TheSinghalesebelievethatthey
areconstantlysurroundedbyevilspirits,wholieinwaittodothemharm.Apeasantwouldnotdareto
carrygoodfood,suchascakesorroastmeat,fromoneplacetoanotherwithoutputtinganironnailonit
topreventademonfromtakingpossessionoftheviandsandsomakingtheeaterill.Nosickperson,
whethermanorwoman,wouldventureoutofthehousewithoutabunchofkeysoraknifeinhishand,
forwithoutsuchatalismanhewouldfearthatsomedevilmighttakeadvantageofhisweakstatetoslip
intohisbody.Andifamanhasalargesoreonhisbodyhetriestokeepamorselofirononitasa
protectionagainstdemons.OntheSlaveCoastwhenamotherseesherchildgraduallywastingaway,she
concludesthatademonhasenteredintothechild,andtakeshermeasuresaccordingly.Tolurethedemon
outofthebodyofheroffspring,sheoffersasacrificeoffoodandwhilethedevilisboltingit,she
attachesironringsandsmallbellstoherchildsanklesandhangsironchainsroundhisneck.The
jinglingoftheironandthetinklingofthebellsaresupposedtopreventthedemon,whenhehas
concludedhisrepast,fromenteringagainintothebodyofthelittlesufferer.Hencemanychildrenmaybe
seeninthispartofAfricaweigheddownwithironornaments.
3.SharpWeaponstabooed
THEREisapriestlykingtothenorthofZengwihinBurma,reveredbytheSotihasthehighestspiritual
andtemporalauthority,intowhosehousenoweaponorcuttinginstrumentmaybebrought.Thisrule
mayperhapsbeexplainedbyacustomobservedbyvariouspeoplesafteradeaththeyrefrainfromthe
useofsharpinstrumentssolongastheghostofthedeceasedissupposedtobenear,lesttheyshould
woundit.ThusamongtheEsquimauxofBeringStraitduringthedayonwhichapersondiesinthe
villagenooneispermittedtowork,andtherelativesmustperformnolabourduringthethreefollowing
days.Itisespeciallyforbiddenduringthisperiodtocutwithanyedgedinstrument,suchasaknifeoran
axeandtheuseofpointedinstruments,likeneedlesorbodkins,isalsoforbidden.Thisissaidtobedone
toavoidcuttingorinjuringtheshade,whichmaybepresentatanytimeduringthisperiod,and,if
accidentallyinjuredbyanyofthesethings,itwouldbecomeveryangryandbringsicknessordeathtothe
people.Therelativesmustalsobeverycarefulatthistimenottomakeanyloudorharshnoisesthatmay
startleorangertheshade.WehaveseenthatinlikemannerafterkillingawhitewhaletheseEsquimaux
abstainfromtheuseofcuttingorpointedinstrumentsforfourdays,lesttheyshouldunwittinglycutor
stabthewhalesghost.Thesametabooissometimesobservedbythemwhenthereisasickpersoninthe
village,probablyfromafearofinjuringhisshadewhichmaybehoveringoutsideofhisbody.Aftera
deaththeRoumaniansofTransylvaniaarecarefulnottoleaveaknifelyingwiththesharpedge
uppermostsolongasthecorpseremainsinthehouse,orelsethesoulwillbeforcedtorideonthe
blade.Forsevendaysafteradeath,thecorpsebeingstillinthehouse,theChineseabstainfromtheuse
ofknivesandneedles,andevenofchopsticks,eatingtheirfoodwiththeirfingers.Onthethird,sixth,

ninth,andfortiethdaysafterthefuneraltheoldPrussiansandLithuaniansusedtoprepareameal,to
which,standingatthedoor,theyinvitedthesoulofthedeceased.Atthesemealstheysatsilentroundthe
tableandusednoknivesandthewomenwhoservedupthefoodwerealsowithoutknives.Ifanymorsels
fellfromthetabletheywereleftlyingthereforthelonelysoulsthathadnolivingrelationsorfriendsto
feedthem.Whenthemealwasoverthepriesttookabroomandsweptthesoulsoutofthehouse,saying,
Dearsouls,yehaveeatenanddrunk.Goforth,goforth.Wecannowunderstandwhynocutting
instrumentmaybetakenintothehouseoftheBurmesepontiff.Likesomanypriestlykings,heis
probablyregardedasdivine,anditisthereforerightthathissacredspiritshouldnotbeexposedtothe
riskofbeingcutorwoundedwheneveritquitshisbodytohoverinvisibleintheairortoflyonsome
distantmission.
4.Bloodtabooed
WEhaveseenthattheFlamenDialiswasforbiddentotouchorevennamerawflesh.Atcertaintimesa
Brahmanteacherisenjoinednottolookonrawflesh,blood,orpersonswhosehandshavebeencutoff.
InUgandathefatheroftwinsisinastateoftabooforsometimeafterbirthamongotherrulesheis
forbiddentokillanythingortoseeblood.InthePelewIslandswhenaraidhasbeenmadeonavillage
andaheadcarriedoff,therelationsoftheslainmanaretabooedandhavetosubmittocertain
observancesinordertoescapethewrathofhisghost.Theyareshutupinthehouse,touchnorawflesh,
andchewbeteloverwhichanincantationhasbeenutteredbytheexorcist.Afterthistheghostofthe
slaughteredmangoesawaytotheenemyscountryinpursuitofhismurderer.Thetabooisprobably
basedonthecommonbeliefthatthesoulorspiritoftheanimalisintheblood.Astabooedpersonsare
believedtobeinaperilousstateforexample,therelationsoftheslainmanareliabletotheattacksof
hisindignantghostitisespeciallynecessarytoisolatethemfromcontactwithspiritshencethe
prohibitiontotouchrawmeat.Butasusualthetabooisonlythespecialenforcementofageneral
preceptinotherwords,itsobservanceisparticularlyenjoinedincircumstanceswhichseemurgentlyto
callforitsapplication,butapartfromsuchcircumstancestheprohibitionisalsoobserved,thoughless
strictly,asacommonruleoflife.ThussomeoftheEsthonianswillnottastebloodbecausetheybelieve
thatitcontainstheanimalssoul,whichwouldenterthebodyofthepersonwhotastedtheblood.Some
IndiantribesofNorthAmerica,throughastrongprincipleofreligion,abstaininthestrictestmanner
fromeatingthebloodofanyanimal,asitcontainsthelifeandspiritofthebeast.Jewishhunterspoured
outthebloodofthegametheyhadkilledandcovereditupwithdust.Theywouldnottastetheblood,
believingthatthesoulorlifeoftheanimalwasintheblood,oractuallywastheblood.
Itisacommonrulethatroyalbloodmaynotbeshedupontheground.Hencewhenakingoroneofhis
familyistobeputtodeathamodeofexecutionisdevisedbywhichtheroyalbloodshallnotbespilt
upontheearth.Abouttheyear1688thegeneralissimoofthearmyrebelledagainstthekingofSiamand
puthimtodeathafterthemannerofroyalcriminals,orasprincesofthebloodaretreatedwhen
convictedofcapitalcrimes,whichisbyputtingthemintoalargeironcaldron,andpoundingthemto
pieceswithwoodenpestles,becausenoneoftheirroyalbloodmustbespiltontheground,itbeing,by
theirreligion,thoughtgreatimpietytocontaminatethedivinebloodbymixingitwithearth.When
KublaiKhandefeatedandtookhisuncleNayan,whohadrebelledagainsthim,hecausedNayantobe
puttodeathbybeingwraptinacarpetandtossedtoandfrotillhedied,becausehewouldnothavethe
bloodofhisLineImperialspiltuponthegroundorexposedintheeyeofHeavenandbeforetheSun.
FriarRicoldmentionstheTartarmaxim:OneKhanwillputanothertodeathtogetpossessionofthe
throne,buthetakesgreatcarethatthebloodbenotspilt.Fortheysaythatitishighlyimproperthatthe
bloodoftheGreatKhanshouldbespiltuponthegroundsotheycausethevictimtobesmothered
somehoworother.ThelikefeelingprevailsatthecourtofBurma,whereapeculiarmodeofexecution
withoutbloodshedisreservedforprincesoftheblood.

Thereluctancetospillroyalbloodseemstobeonlyaparticularcaseofageneralunwillingnesstoshed
bloodoratleasttoallowittofallontheground.MarcoPolotellsusthatinhisdaypersonscaughtinthe
streetsofCambaluc(Peking)atunseasonablehourswerearrested,andiffoundguiltyofamisdemeanor
werebeatenwithastick.Underthispunishmentpeoplesometimesdie,buttheyadoptitinorderto
eschewbloodshed,fortheirBacsissaythatitisanevilthingtoshedmansblood.InWestSussex
peoplebelievethatthegroundonwhichhumanbloodhasbeenshedisaccursedandwillremainbarren
forever.Amongsomeprimitivepeoples,whenthebloodofatribesmanhastobespiltitisnotsuffered
tofallupontheground,butisreceiveduponthebodiesofhisfellowtribesmen.ThusinsomeAustralian
tribesboyswhoarebeingcircumcisedarelaidonaplatform,formedbythelivingbodiesofthe
tribesmenandwhenaboystoothisknockedoutasaninitiatoryceremony,heisseatedontheshoulders
ofaman,onwhosebreastthebloodflowsandmaynotbewipedaway.AlsotheGaulsusedtodrink
theirenemiesbloodandpaintthemselvestherewith.SoalsotheywritethattheoldIrishwerewontand
sohaveIseensomeoftheIrishdo,butnottheirenemiesbutfriendsblood,as,namely,attheexecution
ofanotabletraitoratLimerick,calledMurroghOBrien,Isawanoldwoman,whichwashisfoster
mother,takeuphisheadwhilsthewasquarteredandsuckupallthebloodthatranthereout,sayingthat
theearthwasnotworthytodrinkit,andtherewithalsosteepedherfaceandbreastandtoreherhair,
cryingoutandshriekingmostterribly.AmongtheLatukaofCentralAfricatheearthonwhichadropof
bloodhasfallenatchildbirthiscarefullyscrapedupwithanironshovel,putintoapotalongwiththe
waterusedinwashingthemother,andburiedtolerablydeepoutsidethehouseonthelefthandside.In
WestAfrica,ifadropofyourbloodhasfallenontheground,youmustcarefullycoveritup,ruband
stampitintothesoilifithasfallenonthesideofacanoeoratree,theplaceiscutoutandthechip
destroyed.OnemotiveoftheseAfricancustomsmaybeawishtopreventthebloodfromfallingintothe
handsofmagicians,whomightmakeaneviluseofit.ThatisadmittedlythereasonwhypeopleinWest
Africastampoutanybloodoftheirswhichhasdroppedonthegroundorcutoutanywoodthathasbeen
soakedwithit.FromalikedreadofsorcerynativesofNewGuineaarecarefultoburnanysticks,leaves,
orragswhicharestainedwiththeirbloodandifthebloodhasdrippedonthegroundtheyturnupthe
soilandifpossiblelightafireonthespot.Thesamefearexplainsthecuriousdutiesdischargedbya
classofmencalledramangaorbluebloodamongtheBetsileoofMadagascar.Itistheirbusinesstoeat
allthenailparingsandtolickupallthespiltbloodofthenobles.Whenthenoblesparetheirnails,the
paringsarecollectedtothelastscrapandswallowedbytheseramanga.Iftheparingsaretoolarge,they
aremincedsmallandsogulpeddown.Again,shouldanoblemanwoundhimself,sayincuttinghisnails
ortreadingonsomething,theramangalickupthebloodasfastaspossible.Noblesofhighrankhardly
goanywherewithoutthesehumbleattendantsbutifitshouldhappenthattherearenoneofthempresent,
thecutnailsandthespiltbloodarecarefullycollectedtobeafterwardsswallowedbytheramanga.There
isscarcelyanoblemanofanypretensionswhodoesnotstrictlyobservethiscustom,theintentionof
whichprobablyistopreventthesepartsofhispersonfromfallingintothehandsofsorcerers,whoonthe
principlesofcontagiousmagiccouldworkhimharmthereby.
Thegeneralexplanationofthereluctancetoshedbloodonthegroundisprobablytobefoundinthe
beliefthatthesoulisintheblood,andthatthereforeanygroundonwhichitmayfallnecessarily
becomestabooorsacred.InNewZealandanythinguponwhichevenadropofahighchiefsblood
chancestofallbecomestabooorsacredtohim.Forinstance,apartyofnativeshavingcometovisita
chiefinafinenewcanoe,thechiefgotintoit,butindoingsoasplinterenteredhisfoot,andtheblood
trickledonthecanoe,whichatoncebecamesacredtohim.Theownerjumpedout,draggedthecanoe
ashoreoppositethechiefshouse,andleftitthere.Again,achiefinenteringamissionaryshouse
knockedhisheadagainstabeam,andthebloodflowed.Thenativessaidthatinformertimesthehouse
wouldhavebelongedtothechief.Asusuallyhappenswithtaboosofuniversalapplication,the
prohibitiontospillthebloodofatribesmanonthegroundapplieswithpeculiarstringencytochiefsand
kings,andisobservedintheircaselongafterithasceasedtobeobservedinthecaseofothers.

5.TheHeadtabooed
MANYpeoplesregardtheheadaspeculiarlysacredthespecialsanctityattributedtoitissometimes
explainedbyabeliefthatitcontainsaspiritwhichisverysensitivetoinjuryordisrespect.Thusthe
Yorubasholdthateverymanhasthreespiritualinmates,ofwhomthefirst,calledOlori,dwellsinthe
headandisthemansprotector,guardian,andguide.Offeringsaremadetothisspirit,chieflyoffowls,
andsomeofthebloodmixedwithpalmoilisrubbedontheforehead.TheKarenssupposethatabeing
calledthetsoresidesintheupperpartofthehead,andwhileitretainsitsseatnoharmcanbefallthe
personfromtheeffortsofthesevenKelahs,orpersonifiedpassions.Butifthetsobecomesheedlessor
weakcertaineviltothepersonistheresult.Hencetheheadiscarefullyattendedto,andallpossiblepains
aretakentoprovidesuchdressandattireaswillbepleasingtothetso.TheSiamesethinkthataspirit
calledkhuanorkwundwellsinthehumanhead,ofwhichitistheguardianspirit.Thespiritmustbe
carefullyprotectedfrominjuryofeverykindhencetheactofshavingorcuttingthehairisaccompanied
withmanyceremonies.Thekwunisverysensitiveonpointsofhonour,andwouldfeelmortallyinsulted
iftheheadinwhichheresidesweretouchedbythehandofastranger.TheCambodiansesteemitagrave
offencetotouchamansheadsomeofthemwillnotenteraplacewhereanythingwhateveris
suspendedovertheirheadsandthemeanestCambodianwouldneverconsenttoliveunderaninhabited
room.HencethehousesarebuiltofonestoryonlyandeventheGovernmentrespectstheprejudiceby
neverplacingaprisonerinthestocksunderthefloorofahouse,thoughthehousesareraisedhighabove
theground.ThesamesuperstitionexistsamongsttheMalaysforanearlytravellerreportsthatinJava
peoplewearnothingontheirheads,andsaythatnothingmustbeontheirheadsandifanyperson
weretoputhishandupontheirheadtheywouldkillhimandtheydonotbuildhouseswithstoreys,in
orderthattheymaynotwalkovereachothersheads.
ThesamesuperstitionastotheheadisfoundinfullforcethroughoutPolynesia.ThusofGattanewa,a
Marquesanchief,itissaidthattotouchthetopofhishead,oranythingwhichhadbeenonhishead,
wassacrilege.Topassoverhisheadwasanindignitynevertobeforgotten.ThesonofaMarquesan
highpriesthasbeenseentorollonthegroundinanagonyofrageanddespair,beggingfordeath,
becausesomeonehaddesecratedhisheadanddeprivedhimofhisdivinitybysprinklingafewdropsof
wateronhishair.ButitwasnottheMarquesanchiefsonlywhoseheadsweresacred.Theheadofevery
Marquesanwastaboo,andmightneitherbetouchednorsteppedoverbyanotherevenafathermightnot
stepovertheheadofhissleepingchildwomenwereforbiddentocarryortouchanythingthathadbeen
incontactwith,orhadmerelyhungover,theheadoftheirhusbandorfather.Noonewasallowedtobe
overtheheadofthekingofTonga.InTahitianyonewhostoodoverthekingorqueen,orpassedhis
handovertheirheads,mightbeputtodeath.Untilcertainriteswereperformedoverit,aTahitianinfant
wasespeciallytaboowhatevertouchedthechildshead,whileitwasinthisstate,becamesacredand
wasdepositedinaconsecratedplacerailedinforthepurposeatthechildshouse.Ifabranchofatree
touchedthechildshead,thetreewascutdownandifinitsfallitinjuredanothertreesoastopenetrate
thebark,thattreealsowascutdownasuncleanandunfitforuse.Aftertheriteswereperformedthese
specialtaboosceasedbuttheheadofaTahitianwasalwayssacred,henevercarriedanythingonit,and
totouchitwasanoffence.SosacredwastheheadofaMaorichiefthatifheonlytoucheditwithhis
fingers,hewasobligedimmediatelytoapplythemtohisnose,andsnuffupthesanctitywhichtheyhad
acquiredbythetouch,andthusrestoreittothepartfromwhenceitwastaken.Onaccountofthe
sacrednessofhisheadaMaorichiefcouldnotblowthefirewithhismouth,forthebreathbeingsacred,
communicatedhissanctitytoit,andabrandmightbetakenbyaslave,oramanofanothertribe,orthe
firemightbeusedforotherpurposes,suchascooking,andsocausehisdeath.
6.Hairtabooed
WHENtheheadwasconsideredsosacredthatitmightnotevenbetouchedwithoutgraveoffence,itis

obviousthatthecuttingofthehairmusthavebeenadelicateanddifficultoperation.Thedifficultiesand
dangerswhich,ontheprimitiveview,besettheoperationareoftwokinds.Thereisfirstthedangerof
disturbingthespiritofthehead,whichmaybeinjuredintheprocessandmayrevengeitselfuponthe
personwhomolestshim.Secondly,thereisthedifficultyofdisposingoftheshornlocks.Forthesavage
believesthatthesympatheticconnexionwhichexistsbetweenhimselfandeverypartofhisbody
continuestoexistevenafterthephysicalconnexionhasbeenbroken,andthatthereforehewillsuffer
fromanyharmthatmaybefalltheseveralpartsofhisbody,suchastheclippingsofhishairorthe
paringsofhisnails.Accordinglyhetakescarethattheseseveredportionsofhimselfshallnotbeleftin
placeswheretheymighteitherbeexposedtoaccidentalinjuryorfallintothehandsofmaliciouspersons
whomightworkmagiconthemtohisdetrimentordeath.Suchdangersarecommontoall,butsacred
personshavemoretofearfromthemthanordinarypeople,sotheprecautionstakenbythemare
proportionatelystringent.Thesimplestwayofevadingtheperilisnottocutthehairatallandthisisthe
expedientadoptedwheretheriskisthoughttobemorethanusuallygreat.TheFrankishkingswerenever
allowedtocroptheirhairfromtheirchildhoodupwardstheyhadtokeepitunshorn.Topollthelong
locksthatfloatedontheirshoulderswouldhavebeentorenouncetheirrighttothethrone.Whenthe
wickedbrothersClotaireandChildebertcovetedthekingdomoftheirdeadbrotherClodomir,they
inveigledintotheirpowertheirlittlenephews,thetwosonsofClodomirandhavingdoneso,theysenta
messengerbearingscissorsandanakedswordtothechildrensgrandmother,QueenClotilde,atParis.
TheenvoyshowedthescissorsandtheswordtoClotilde,andbadeherchoosewhetherthechildren
shouldbeshornandliveorremainunshornanddie.Theproudqueenrepliedthatifhergrandchildren
werenottocometothethroneshewouldratherseethemdeadthanshorn.Andmurderedtheywereby
theirruthlessuncleClotairewithhisownhand.ThekingofPonape,oneoftheCarolineIslands,must
wearhishairlong,andsomusthisgrandees.AmongtheHos,anegrotribeofWestAfrica,thereare
priestsonwhoseheadnorazormaycomeduringthewholeoftheirlives.Thegodwhodwellsintheman
forbidsthecuttingofhishaironpainofdeath.Ifthehairisatlasttoolong,theownermustpraytohis
godtoallowhimatleasttoclipthetipsofit.Thehairisinfactconceivedastheseatandlodgingplace
ofhisgod,sothatwereitshornthegodwouldlosehisabodeinthepriest.ThemembersofaMasai
clan,whoarebelievedtopossesstheartofmakingrain,maynotpluckouttheirbeards,becausetheloss
oftheirbeardswould,itissupposed,entailthelossoftheirrainmakingpowers.Theheadchiefandthe
sorcerersoftheMasaiobservethesameruleforalikereason:theythinkthatweretheytopullouttheir
beards,theirsupernaturalgiftswoulddesertthem.
Again,menwhohavetakenavowofvengeancesometimeskeeptheirhairunshorntilltheyhave
fulfilledtheirvow.ThusoftheMarquesanswearetoldthatoccasionallytheyhavetheirheadentirely
shaved,exceptonelockonthecrown,whichiswornlooseorputupinaknot.Butthelattermodeof
wearingthehairisonlyadoptedbythemwhentheyhaveasolemnvow,astorevengethedeathofsome
nearrelation,etc.Insuchcasethelockisnevercutoffuntiltheyhavefulfilledtheirpromise.Asimilar
customwassometimesobservedbytheancientGermansamongtheChattitheyoungwarriorsnever
clippedtheirhairortheirbeardtilltheyhadslainanenemy.AmongtheToradjas,whenachildshairis
cuttoriditofvermin,somelocksareallowedtoremainonthecrownoftheheadasarefugeforoneof
thechildssouls.Otherwisethesoulwouldhavenoplaceinwhichtosettle,andthechildwouldsicken.
TheKaroBataksaremuchafraidoffrighteningawaythesoulofachildhencewhentheycutitshair,
theyalwaysleaveapatchunshorn,towhichthesoulcanretreatbeforetheshears.Usuallythislock
remainsunshornallthroughlife,oratleastuptillmanhood.
7.CeremoniesatHaircutting
BUTwhenitbecomesnecessarytocropthehair,measuresaretakentolessenthedangerswhichare
supposedtoattendtheoperation.ThechiefofNamosiinFijialwaysateamanbywayofprecaution
whenhehadhadhishaircut.Therewasacertainclanthathadtoprovidethevictim,andtheyusedto

sitinsolemncouncilamongthemselvestochoosehim.Itwasasacrificialfeasttoavertevilfromthe
chief.AmongsttheMaorismanyspellswereutteredathaircuttingone,forexample,wasspokento
consecratetheobsidianknifewithwhichthehairwascutanotherwaspronouncedtoavertthethunder
andlightningwhichhaircuttingwasbelievedtocause.Hewhohashadhishaircutisinimmediate
chargeoftheAtua(spirit)heisremovedfromthecontactandsocietyofhisfamilyandhistribehedare
nottouchhisfoodhimselfitisputintohismouthbyanotherpersonnorcanheforsomedaysresume
hisaccustomedoccupationsorassociatewithhisfellowmen.Thepersonwhocutsthehairisalso
tabooedhishandshavingbeenincontactwithasacredhead,hemaynottouchfoodwiththemor
engageinanyotheremploymentheisfedbyanotherpersonwithfoodcookedoverasacredfire.He
cannotbereleasedfromthetaboobeforethefollowingday,whenherubshishandswithpotatoorfern
rootwhichhasbeencookedonasacredfireandthisfoodhavingbeentakentotheheadofthefamilyin
thefemalelineandeatenbyher,hishandsarefreedfromthetaboo.InsomepartsofNewZealandthe
mostsacreddayoftheyearwasthatappointedforhaircuttingthepeopleassembledinlargenumbers
onthatdayfromalltheneighbourhood.
8.DisposalofCutHairandNails
BUTevenwhenthehairandnailshavebeensafelycut,thereremainsthedifficultyofdisposingofthem,
fortheirownerbelieveshimselfliabletosufferfromanyharmthatmaybefallthem.Thenotionthata
manmaybebewitchedbymeansoftheclippingsofhishair,theparingsofhisnails,oranyothersevered
portionofhispersonisalmostworldwide,andattestedbyevidencetooample,toofamiliar,andtoo
tediousinitsuniformitytobehereanalysedatlength.Thegeneralideaonwhichthesuperstitionrestsis
thatofthesympatheticconnexionsupposedtopersistbetweenapersonandeverythingthathasonce
beenpartofhisbodyorinanywaycloselyrelatedtohim.Averyfewexamplesmustsuffice.They
belongtothatbranchofsympatheticmagicwhichmaybecalledcontagious.Dreadofsorcery,weare
told,formedoneofthemostsalientcharacteristicsoftheMarquesanislandersintheolddays.The
sorcerertooksomeofthehair,spittle,orotherbodilyrefuseofthemanhewishedtoinjure,wrappedit
upinaleaf,andplacedthepacketinabagwovenofthreadsorfibres,whichwereknottedinanintricate
way.Thewholewasthenburiedwithcertainrites,andthereuponthevictimwastedawayofa
languishingsicknesswhichlastedtwentydays.Hislife,however,mightbesavedbydiscoveringand
digginguptheburiedhair,spittle,orwhatnotforassoonasthiswasdonethepowerofthecharm
ceased.AMaorisorcererintentonbewitchingsomebodysoughttogetatressofhisvictimshair,the
paringsofhisnails,someofhisspittle,orashredofhisgarment.Havingobtainedtheobject,whateverit
was,hechantedcertainspellsandcursesoveritinafalsettovoiceandburieditintheground.Asthe
thingdecayed,thepersontowhomithadbelongedwassupposedtowasteaway.WhenanAustralian
blackfellowwishestogetridofhiswife,hecutsoffalockofherhairinhersleep,tiesittohisspear
thrower,andgoeswithittoaneighbouringtribe,wherehegivesittoafriend.Hisfriendsticksthespear
throwerupeverynightbeforethecampfire,andwhenitfallsdownitisasignthatthewifeisdead.The
wayinwhichthecharmoperateswasexplainedtoDr.HowittbyaWirajuriman.Yousee,hesaid,
whenablackfellowdoctorgetsholdofsomethingbelongingtoamanandroastsitwiththings,and
singsoverit,thefirecatchesholdofthesmelloftheman,andthatsettlesthepoorfellow.
TheHuzulsoftheCarpathiansimaginethatifmicegetapersonsshornhairandmakeanestofit,the
personwillsufferfromheadacheorevenbecomeidiotic.SimilarlyinGermanyitisacommonnotion
thatifbirdsfindapersonscuthair,andbuildtheirnestswithit,thepersonwillsufferfromheadache
sometimesitisthoughtthathewillhaveaneruptiononthehead.Thesamesuperstitionprevails,orused
toprevail,inWestSussex.
Againitisthoughtthatcutorcombedouthairmaydisturbtheweatherbyproducingrainandhail,
thunderandlightning.WehaveseenthatinNewZealandaspellwasutteredathaircuttingtoavert

thunderandlightning.IntheTyrol,witchesaresupposedtousecutorcombedouthairtomake
hailstonesorthunderstormswith.ThlinkeetIndianshavebeenknowntoattributestormyweathertothe
rashactofagirlwhohadcombedherhairoutsideofthehouse.TheRomansseemtohaveheldsimilar
views,foritwasamaximwiththemthatnooneonshipboardshouldcuthishairornailsexceptina
storm,thatis,whenthemischiefwasalreadydone.IntheHighlandsofScotlanditissaidthatnosister
shouldcombherhairatnightifshehaveabrotheratsea.InWestAfrica,whentheManiofChitombeor
Jumbadied,thepeopleusedtorunincrowdstothecorpseandtearouthishair,teeth,andnails,which
theykeptasaraincharm,believingthatotherwisenorainwouldfall.TheMakokooftheAnzikos
beggedthemissionariestogivehimhalftheirbeardsasaraincharm.
Ifcuthairandnailsremaininsympatheticconnexionwiththepersonfromwhosebodytheyhavebeen
severed,itisclearthattheycanbeusedashostagesforhisgoodbehaviourbyanyonewhomaychance
topossessthemforontheprinciplesofcontagiousmagichehasonlytoinjurethehairornailsinorder
tohurtsimultaneouslytheiroriginalowner.HencewhentheNandihavetakenaprisonertheyshavehis
headandkeeptheshornhairasasuretythathewillnotattempttoescapebutwhenthecaptiveis
ransomed,theyreturnhisshornhairwithhimtohisownpeople.
Topreservethecuthairandnailsfrominjuryandfromthedangeroususestowhichtheymaybeputby
sorcerers,itisnecessarytodeposittheminsomesafeplace.TheshornlocksofaMaorichiefwere
gatheredwithmuchcareandplacedinanadjoiningcemetery.TheTahitiansburiedthecuttingsoftheir
hairatthetemples.InthestreetsofSokuamoderntravellerobservedcairnsoflargestonespiledagainst
wallswithtuftsofhumanhairinsertedinthecrevices.Onaskingthemeaningofthis,hewastoldthat
whenanynativeoftheplacepolledhishairhecarefullygathereduptheclippingsanddepositedthemin
oneofthesecairns,allofwhichweresacredtothefetishandthereforeinviolable.Thesecairnsofsacred
stones,hefurtherlearned,weresimplyaprecautionagainstwitchcraft,forifamanwerenotthuscareful
indisposingofhishair,someofitmightfallintothehandsofhisenemies,whowould,bymeansofit,
beabletocastspellsoverhimandsocompasshisdestruction.WhenthetopknotofaSiamesechildhas
beencutwithgreatceremony,theshorthairsareputintoalittlevesselmadeofplantainleavesandset
adriftonthenearestriverorcanal.Astheyfloataway,allthatwaswrongorharmfulinthechilds
dispositionisbelievedtodepartwiththem.Thelonghairsarekepttillthechildmakesapilgrimageto
theholyFootprintofBuddhaonthesacredhillatPrabat.Theyarethenpresentedtothepriests,whoare
supposedtomakethemintobrusheswithwhichtheysweeptheFootprintbutinfactsomuchhairisthus
offeredeveryyearthatthepriestscannotuseitall,sotheyquietlyburnthesuperfluityassoonasthe
pilgrimsbacksareturned.ThecuthairandnailsoftheFlamenDialiswereburiedunderaluckytree.
TheshorntressesoftheVestalVirginswerehungonanancientlotustree.
Oftentheclippedhairandnailsarestowedawayinanysecretplace,notnecessarilyinatempleor
cemeteryoratatree,asinthecasesalreadymentioned.ThusinSwabiayouarerecommendedtodeposit
yourclippedhairinsomespotwhereneithersunnormooncanshineonit,forexampleintheearthor
underastone.InDanzigitisburiedinabagunderthethreshold.InUgi,oneoftheSolomonIslands,
menburytheirhairlestitshouldfallintothehandsofanenemy,whowouldmakemagicwithitandso
bringsicknessorcalamityonthem.ThesamefearseemstobegeneralinMelanesia,andhasledtoa
regularpracticeofhidingcuthairandnails.ThesamepracticeprevailsamongmanytribesofSouth
Africa,fromafearlestwizardsshouldgetholdoftheseveredparticlesandworkevilwiththem.The
Caffrescarrystillfurtherthisdreadofallowinganyportionofthemselvestofallintothehandsofan
enemyfornotonlydotheyburytheircuthairandnailsinasecretspot,butwhenoneofthemcleansthe
headofanotherhepreservestheverminwhichhecatches,carefullydeliveringthemtothepersonto
whomtheyoriginallyappertained,supposing,accordingtotheirtheory,thatastheyderivedtheirsupport
fromthebloodofthemanfromwhomtheyweretaken,shouldtheybekilledbyanother,thebloodofhis
neighbourwouldbeinhispossession,thusplacinginhishandsthepowerofsomesuperhuman
influence.

Sometimestheseveredhairandnailsarepreserved,nottopreventthemfromfallingintothehandsofa
magician,butthattheownermayhavethemattheresurrectionofthebody,towhichsomeraceslook
forward.ThustheIncasofPerutookextremecaretopreservethenailparingsandthehairsthatwere
shornoffortornoutwithacombplacingtheminholesornichesinthewallsandiftheyfellout,any
otherIndianthatsawthempickedthemupandputthemintheirplacesagain.Iveryoftenaskeddifferent
Indians,atvarioustimes,whytheydidthis,inordertoseewhattheywouldsay,andtheyallrepliedin
thesamewordssaying,Knowthatallpersonswhoarebornmustreturntolife(theyhavenowordto
expressresurrection),andthesoulsmustriseoutoftheirtombswithallthatbelongedtotheirbodies.
We,therefore,inorderthatwemaynothavetosearchforourhairandnailsatatimewhentherewillbe
muchhurryandconfusion,placetheminoneplace,thattheymaybebroughttogethermore
conveniently,and,wheneveritispossible,wearealsocarefultospitinoneplace.SimilarlytheTurks
neverthrowawaytheparingsoftheirnails,butcarefullystowthemincracksofthewallsorofthe
boards,inthebeliefthattheywillbeneededattheresurrection.TheArmeniansdonotthrowawaytheir
cuthairandnailsandextractedteeth,buthidetheminplacesthatareesteemedholy,suchasacrackin
thechurchwall,apillarofthehouse,orahollowtree.Theythinkthatalltheseseveredportionsof
themselveswillbewantedattheresurrection,andthathewhohasnotstowedthemawayinasafeplace
willhavetohuntaboutforthemonthegreatday.InthevillageofDrumconrathinIrelandthereusedto
besomeoldwomenwho,havingascertainedfromScripturethatthehairsoftheirheadswereall
numberedbytheAlmighty,expectedtohavetoaccountforthematthedayofjudgment.Inordertobe
abletodosotheystuffedtheseveredhairawayinthethatchoftheircottages.
Somepeopleburntheirloosehairtosaveitfromfallingintothehandsofsorcerers.Thisisdonebythe
PatagoniansandsomeoftheVictoriantribes.IntheUpperVosgestheysaythatyoushouldneverleave
theclippingsofyourhairandnailslyingabout,butburnthemtohinderthesorcerersfromusingthem
againstyou.ForthesamereasonItalianwomeneitherburntheirloosehairsorthrowthemintoaplace
wherenooneislikelytolookforthem.ThealmostuniversaldreadofwitchcraftinducestheWest
Africannegroes,theMakololoofSouthAfrica,andtheTahitianstoburnorburytheirshornhair.Inthe
Tyrolmanypeopleburntheirhairlestthewitchesshoulduseittoraisethunderstormsothersburnor
buryittopreventthebirdsfromliningtheirnestswithit,whichwouldcausetheheadsfromwhichthe
haircametoache.
Thisdestructionofthehairandnailsplainlyinvolvesaninconsistencyofthought.Theobjectofthe
destructionisavowedlytopreventtheseseveredportionsofthebodyfrombeingusedbysorcerers.But
thepossibilityoftheirbeingsouseddependsuponthesupposedsympatheticconnexionbetweenthem
andthemanfromwhomtheyweresevered.Andifthissympatheticconnexionstillexists,clearlythese
severedportionscannotbedestroyedwithoutinjurytotheman.
9.Spittletabooed
THESAMEfearofwitchcraftwhichhasledsomanypeopletohideordestroytheirloosehairandnails
hasinducedotherorthesamepeopletotreattheirspittleinalikefashion.Forontheprinciplesof
sympatheticmagicthespittleispartoftheman,andwhateverisdonetoitwillhaveacorresponding
effectonhim.AChiloteIndian,whohasgatheredupthespittleofanenemy,willputitinapotato,and
hangthepotatointhesmoke,utteringcertainspellsashedoessointhebeliefthathisfoewillwaste
awayasthepotatodriesinthesmoke.Orhewillputthespittleinafrogandthrowtheanimalintoan
inaccessible,unnavigableriver,whichwillmakethevictimquakeandshakewithague.Thenativesof
Urewera,adistrictofNewZealand,enjoyedahighreputationfortheirskillinmagic.Itwassaidthat
theymadeuseofpeoplesspittletobewitchthem.Hencevisitorswerecarefultoconcealtheirspittle,lest
theyshouldfurnishthesewizardswithahandleforworkingthemharm.Similarlyamongsometribesof
SouthAfricanomanwillspitwhenanenemyisnear,lesthisfoeshouldfindthespittleandgiveittoa

wizard,whowouldthenmixitwithmagicalingredientssoastoinjurethepersonfromwhomitfell.
Eveninamansownhousehissalivaiscarefullysweptawayandobliteratedforasimilarreason.
Ifcommonfolkarethuscautious,itisnaturalthatkingsandchiefsshouldbedoublyso.IntheSandwich
Islandschiefswereattendedbyaconfidentialservantbearingaportablespittoon,andthedepositwas
carefullyburiedeverymorningtoputitoutofthereachofsorcerers.OntheSlaveCoast,forthesame
reason,wheneverakingorchiefexpectorates,thesalivaisscrupulouslygatheredupandhiddenor
buried.ThesameprecautionsaretakenforthesamereasonwiththespittleofthechiefofTabaliin
SouthernNigeria.
Themagicalusetowhichspittlemaybeputmarksitout,likebloodornailparings,asasuitablematerial
basisforacovenant,sincebyexchangingtheirsalivathecovenantingpartiesgiveeachotheraguarantee
ofgoodfaith.Ifeitherofthemafterwardsforeswearshimself,theothercanpunishhisperfidybya
magicaltreatmentofthepurjurersspittlewhichhehasinhiscustody.ThuswhentheWajaggaofEast
Africadesiretomakeacovenant,thetwopartieswillsometimessitdownwithabowlofmilkorbeer
betweenthem,andafterutteringanincantationoverthebeveragetheyeachtakeamouthfulofthemilk
orbeerandspititintotheothersmouth.Inurgentcases,whenthereisnotimetospendonceremony,
thetwowillsimplyspitintoeachothersmouth,whichsealsthecovenantjustaswell.
10.Foodstabooed
ASMIGHThavebeenexpected,thesuperstitionsofthesavageclusterthickaboutthesubjectoffood
andheabstainsfromeatingmanyanimalsandplants,wholesomeenoughinthemselves,whichforone
reasonoranotherhefancieswouldprovedangerousorfataltotheeater.Examplesofsuchabstinenceare
toofamiliarandfartoonumeroustoquote.Butiftheordinarymanisthusdeterredbysuperstitiousfear
frompartakingofvariousfoods,therestraintsofthiskindwhicharelaiduponsacredortabooedpersons,
suchaskingsandpriests,arestillmorenumerousandstringent.WehavealreadyseenthattheFlamen
Dialiswasforbiddentoeatorevennameseveralplantsandanimals,andthatthefleshdietofEgyptian
kingswasrestrictedtovealandgoose.Inantiquitymanypriestsandmanykingsofbarbarouspeoples
abstainedwhollyfromafleshdiet.TheGangasorfetishpriestsoftheLoangoCoastareforbiddentoeat
orevenseeavarietyofanimalsandfish,inconsequenceofwhichtheirfleshdietisextremelylimited
oftentheyliveonlyonherbsandroots,thoughtheymaydrinkfreshblood.Theheirtothethroneof
Loangoisforbiddenfrominfancytoeatporkfromearlychildhoodheisinterdictedtheuseofthecola
fruitincompanyatpubertyheistaughtbyapriestnottopartakeoffowlsexceptsuchashehashimself
killedandcookedandsothenumberoftaboosgoesonincreasingwithhisyears.InFernandoPothe
kingafterinstallationisforbiddentoeatcocco(arumacaule),deer,andporcupine,whicharethe
ordinaryfoodsofthepeople.TheheadchiefoftheMasaimayeatnothingbutmilk,honey,andthe
roastedliversofgoatsforifhepartookofanyotherfoodhewouldlosehispowerofsoothsayingandof
compoundingcharms.
11.KnotsandRingstabooed
WEhaveseenthatamongthemanytabooswhichtheFlamenDialisatRomehadtoobserve,therewas
onethatforbadehimtohaveaknotonanypartofhisgarments,andanotherthatobligedhimtowearno
ringunlessitwerebroken.InlikemannerMoslempilgrimstoMeccaareinastateofsanctityortaboo
andmaywearontheirpersonsneitherknotsnorrings.Theserulesareprobablyofkindredsignificance,
andmayconvenientlybeconsideredtogether.Tobeginwithknots,manypeopleindifferentpartsofthe
worldentertainastrongobjectiontohavinganyknotabouttheirpersonatcertaincriticalseasons,
particularlychildbirth,marriage,anddeath.ThusamongtheSaxonsofTransylvania,whenawomanisin
travailallknotsonhergarmentsareuntied,becauseitisbelievedthatthiswillfacilitateherdelivery,and

withthesameintentionallthelocksinthehouse,whetherondoorsorboxes,areunlocked.TheLapps
thinkthatalyinginwomanshouldhavenoknotonhergarments,becauseaknotwouldhavetheeffect
ofmakingthedeliverydifficultandpainful.IntheEastIndiesthissuperstitionisextendedtothewhole
timeofpregnancythepeoplebelievethatifapregnantwomanweretotieknots,orbraid,ormake
anythingfast,thechildwouldtherebybeconstrictedorthewomanwouldherselfbetiedupwhenher
timecame.Nay,someofthemenforcetheobservanceoftheruleonthefatheraswellasthemotherof
theunbornchild.AmongtheSeaDyaksneitheroftheparentsmaybindupanythingwithastringor
makeanythingfastduringthewifespregnancy.IntheToumbuluhtribeofNorthCelebesaceremonyis
performedinthefourthorfifthmonthofawomanspregnancy,andafteritherhusbandisforbidden,
amongmanyotherthings,totieanyfastknotsandtositwithhislegscrossedovereachother.
Inallthesecasestheideaseemstobethatthetyingofaknotwould,astheysayintheEastIndies,tie
upthewoman,inotherwords,impedeandperhapspreventherdelivery,ordelayherconvalescence
afterthebirth.Ontheprinciplesofhomoeopathicorimitativemagicthephysicalobstacleorimpediment
ofaknotonacordwouldcreateacorrespondingobstacleorimpedimentinthebodyofthewoman.That
thisisreallytheexplanationoftheruleappearsfromacustomobservedbytheHosofWestAfricaata
difficultbirth.Whenawomanisinhardlabourandcannotbringforth,theycallinamagiciantoheraid.
Helooksatherandsays,Thechildisboundinthewomb,thatiswhyshecannotbedelivered.Onthe
entreatiesofherfemalerelationshethenpromisestoloosenthebondsothatshemaybringforth.For
thatpurposeheordersthemtofetchatoughcreeperfromtheforest,andwithithebindsthehandsand
feetofthesuffereronherback.Thenhetakesaknifeandcallsoutthewomansname,andwhenshe
answershecutsthroughthecreeperwithaknife,saying,Icutthroughtodaythybondsandthychilds
bonds.Afterthathechopsupthecreepersmall,putsthebitsinavesselofwater,andbathesthewoman
withthewater.Herethecuttingofthecreeperwithwhichthewomanshandsandfeetareboundisa
simplepieceofhomoeopathicorimitativemagic:byreleasingherlimbsfromtheirbondsthemagician
imaginesthathesimultaneouslyreleasesthechildinherwombfromthetrammelswhichimpedeits
birth.Thesametrainofthoughtunderliesapracticeobservedbysomepeoplesofopeningalllocks,
doors,andsoon,whileabirthistakingplaceinthehouse.WehaveseenthatatsuchatimetheGermans
ofTransylvaniaopenallthelocks,andthesamethingisdonealsoinVoigtlandandMecklenburg.In
NorthwesternArgyllshiresuperstitiouspeopleusedtoopeneverylockinthehouseatchildbirth.Inthe
islandofSalsettenearBombay,whenawomanisinhardlabour,alllocksofdoorsordrawersareopened
withakeytofacilitateherdelivery.AmongtheMandelingsofSumatrathelidsofallchests,boxes,pans,
andsoforthareopenedandifthisdoesnotproducethedesiredeffect,theanxioushusbandhastostrike
theprojectingendsofsomeofthehousebeamsinordertoloosenthemfortheythinkthateverything
mustbeopenandloosetofacilitatethedelivery.InChittagong,whenawomancannotbringherchildto
thebirth,themidwifegivesorderstothrowalldoorsandwindowswideopen,touncorkallbottles,to
removethebungsfromallcasks,tounloosethecowsinthestall,thehorsesinthestable,thewatchdogin
hiskennel,tosetfreesheep,fowls,ducks,andsoforth.Thisuniversallibertyaccordedtotheanimals
andeventoinanimatethingsis,accordingtothepeople,aninfalliblemeansofensuringthewomans
deliveryandallowingthebabetobeborn.IntheislandofSaghalien,whenawomanisinlabour,her
husbandundoeseverythingthatcanbeundone.Heloosenstheplaitsofhishairandthelacesofhis
shoes.Thenheuntieswhateveristiedinthehouseoritsvicinity.Inthecourtyardhetakestheaxeoutof
theloginwhichitisstuckheunfastenstheboat,ifitismooredtoatree,hewithdrawsthecartridges
fromhisgun,andthearrowsfromhiscrossbow.
Again,wehaveseenthataToumbuluhmanabstainsnotonlyfromtyingknots,butalsofromsittingwith
crossedlegsduringhiswifespregnancy.Thetrainofthoughtisthesameinbothcases.Whetheryou
crossthreadsintyingaknot,oronlycrossyourlegsinsittingatyourease,youareequally,onthe
principlesofhomoeopathicmagic,crossingorthwartingthefreecourseofthings,andyouractioncannot
butcheckandimpedewhatevermaybegoingforwardinyourneighbourhood.Ofthisimportanttruththe
Romanswerefullyaware.Tositbesideapregnantwomanorapatientundermedicaltreatmentwith

claspedhands,saysthegravePliny,istocastamalignantspellovertheperson,anditisworsestillifyou
nurseyourlegorlegswithyourclaspedhands,orlayonelegovertheother.Suchpostureswere
regardedbytheoldRomansasaletandhindrancetobusinessofeverysort,andatacouncilofwarora
meetingofmagistrates,atprayersandsacrifices,nomanwassufferedtocrosshislegsorclasphishands.
Thestockinstanceofthedreadfulconsequencesthatmightflowfromdoingoneortheotherwasthatof
Alcmena,whotravailedwithHerculesforsevendaysandsevennights,becausethegoddessLucinasat
infrontofthehousewithclaspedhandsandcrossedlegs,andthechildcouldnotbebornuntilthe
goddesshadbeenbeguiledintochangingherattitude.ItisaBulgariansuperstitionthatifapregnant
womanisinthehabitofsittingwithcrossedlegs,shewillsuffermuchinchildbed.Insomepartsof
Bavaria,whenconversationcomestoastandstillandsilenceensues,theysay,Surelysomebodyhas
crossedhislegs.
Themagicaleffectofknotsintrammellingandobstructinghumanactivitywasbelievedtobemanifested
atmarriagenotlessthanatbirth.DuringtheMiddleAges,anddowntotheeighteenthcentury,itseems
tohavebeencommonlyheldinEuropethattheconsummationofmarriagecouldbepreventedbyany
onewho,whiletheweddingceremonywastakingplace,eitherlockedalockortiedaknotinacord,and
thenthrewthelockorthecordaway.Thelockortheknottedcordhadtobeflungintowateranduntilit
hadbeenfoundandunlocked,oruntied,norealunionofthemarriedpairwaspossible.Henceitwasa
graveoffence,notonlytocastsuchaspell,butalsotostealormakeawaywiththematerialinstrumentof
it,whetherlockorknottedcord.Intheyear1718theparliamentofBordeauxsentencedsomeonetobe
burnedaliveforhavingspreaddesolationthroughawholefamilybymeansofknottedcordsandin1705
twopersonswerecondemnedtodeathinScotlandforstealingcertaincharmedknotswhichawomanhad
made,inordertherebytomartheweddedhappinessofSpaldingofAshintilly.Thebeliefintheefficacy
ofthesecharmsappearstohavelingeredintheHighlandsofPertshiredowntotheendoftheeighteenth
century,foratthattimeitwasstillcustomaryinthebeautifulparishofLogierait,betweentheriver
TummelandtheriverTay,tounloosecarefullyeveryknotintheclothesofthebrideandbridegroom
beforethecelebrationofthemarriageceremony.Wemeetwiththesamesuperstitionandthesame
customatthepresentdayinSyria.ThepersonswhohelpaSyrianbridegroomtodonhiswedding
garmentstakecarethatnoknotistiedonthemandnobuttonbuttoned,fortheybelievethatabutton
buttonedoraknottiedwouldputitwithinthepowerofhisenemiestodeprivehimofhisnuptialrights
bymagicalmeans.ThefearofsuchcharmsisdiffusedalloverNorthAfricaatthepresentday.Torender
abridegroomimpotenttheenchanterhasonlytotieaknotinahandkerchiefwhichhehadpreviously
placedquietlyonsomepartofthebridegroomsbodywhenhewasmountedonhorsebackreadytofetch
hisbride:solongastheknotinthehandkerchiefremainstied,solongwillthebridegroomremain
powerlesstoconsummatethemarriage.
Themaleficentpowerofknotsmayalsobemanifestedintheinflictionofsickness,disease,andallkinds
ofmisfortune.ThusamongtheHosofWestAfricaasorcererwillsometimescursehisenemyandtiea
knotinastalkofgrass,saying,IhavetiedupSoandsointhisknot.Mayallevillightuponhim!When
hegoesintothefield,mayasnakestinghim!Whenhegoestothechase,mayaraveningbeastattack
him!Andwhenhestepsintoariver,maythewatersweephimaway!Whenitrains,maythelightning
strikehim!Mayevilnightsbehis!Itisbelievedthatintheknotthesorcererhasboundupthelifeofhis
enemy.IntheKoranthereisanallusiontothemischiefofthosewhopuffintotheknots,andanArab
commentatoronthepassageexplainsthatthewordsrefertowomenwhopractisemagicbytyingknotsin
cords,andthenblowingandspittinguponthem.Hegoesontorelatehow,onceuponatime,awicked
JewbewitchedtheprophetMohammedhimselfbytyingnineknotsonastring,whichhethenhidina
well.Sotheprophetfellill,andnobodyknowswhatmighthavehappenedifthearchangelGabrielhad
notopportunelyrevealedtotheholymantheplacewheretheknottedcordwasconcealed.ThetrustyAli
soonfetchedthebalefulthingfromthewellandtheprophetrecitedoveritcertaincharms,whichwere
speciallyrevealedtohimforthepurpose.Ateveryverseofthecharmsaknotuntieditself,andthe
prophetexperiencedacertainrelief.

Ifknotsaresupposedtokill,theyarealsosupposedtocure.Thisfollowsfromthebeliefthattoundothe
knotswhicharecausingsicknesswillbringthesuffererrelief.Butapartfromthisnegativevirtueof
maleficentknots,therearecertainbeneficentknotstowhichapositivepowerofhealingisascribed.
Plinytellsusthatsomefolkcureddiseasesofthegroinbytakingathreadfromaweb,tyingsevenor
nineknotsonit,andthenfasteningittothepatientsgroinbuttomakethecureeffectualitwas
necessarytonamesomewidowaseachknotwastied.ODonovandescribesaremedyforfever
employedamongtheTurcomans.Theenchantertakessomecamelhairandspinsitintoastoutthread,
droningaspellthewhile.Nexthetiessevenknotsonthethread,blowingoneachknotbeforehepullsit
tight.Thisknottedthreadisthenwornasabraceletonhiswristbythepatient.Everydayoneofthe
knotsisuntiedandblownupon,andwhentheseventhknotisundonethewholethreadisrolledupintoa
ballandthrownintoariver,bearingaway(astheyimagine)thefeverwithit.
Againknotsmaybeusedbyanenchantresstowinaloverandattachhimfirmlytoherself.Thusthe
lovesickmaidinVirgilseekstodrawDaphnistoherfromthecitybyspellsandbytyingthreeknotson
eachofthreestringsofdifferentcolours.SoanArabmaiden,whohadlostherhearttoacertainman,
triedtogainhisloveandbindhimtoherselfbytyingknotsinhiswhipbutherjealousrivalundidthe
knots.Onthesameprinciplemagicknotsmaybeemployedtostoparunaway.InSwazielandyoumay
oftenseegrasstiedinknotsatthesideofthefootpaths.Everyoneoftheseknotstellsofadomestic
tragedy.Awifehasrunawayfromherhusband,andheandhisfriendshavegoneinpursuit,bindingup
thepaths,astheycallit,inthisfashiontopreventthefugitivefromdoublingbackoverthem.Anet,from
itsaffluenceofknots,hasalwaysbeenconsideredinRussiaveryefficaciousagainstsorcerershencein
someplaces,whenabrideisbeingdressedinherweddingattire,afishingnetisflungoverhertokeep
heroutofharmsway.Forasimilarpurposethebridegroomandhiscompanionsareoftengirtwith
piecesofnet,oratleastwithtightdrawngirdles,forbeforeawizardcanbegintoinjurethemhemust
undoalltheknotsinthenet,ortakeoffthegirdles.ButoftenaRussianamuletismerelyaknotted
thread.Askeinofredwoolwoundaboutthearmsandlegsisthoughttowardoffaguesandfeversand
nineskeins,fastenedroundachildsneck,aredeemedapreservativeagainstscarlatina.IntheTver
Governmentabagofaspecialkindistiedtotheneckofthecowwhichwalksbeforetherestofaherd,
inordertokeepoffwolvesitsforcebindsthemawoftheraveningbeast.Onthesameprinciple,a
padlockiscarriedthriceroundaherdofhorsesbeforetheygoafieldinthespring,andthebearerlocks
andunlocksitashegoes,saying,Ilockfrommyherdthemouthsofthegreywolveswiththissteel
lock.
Knotsandlocksmayservetoavertnotonlywizardsandwolvesbutdeathitself.Whentheybroughta
womantothestakeatSt.Andrewsin1572toburnheraliveforawitch,theyfoundonherawhitecloth
likeacollar,withstringsandmanyknotsonthestrings.Theytookitfromher,sorelyagainstherwill,for
sheseemedtothinkthatshecouldnotdieinthefire,ifonlytheclothwiththeknottedstringswasonher.
Whenitwastakenaway,shesaid,NowIhavenohopeofmyself.InmanypartsofEnglanditis
thoughtthatapersoncannotdiesolongasanylocksarelockedorboltsshotinthehouse.Itistherefore
averycommonpracticetoundoalllocksandboltswhenthesuffererisplainlynearhisend,inorderthat
hisagonymaynotbeundulyprolonged.Forexample,intheyear1863,atTaunton,achildlaysickof
scarlatinaanddeathseemedinevitable.Ajuryofmatronswas,asitwere,empanelled,andtoprevent
thechilddyinghardallthedoorsinthehouse,allthedrawers,alltheboxes,allthecupboardswere
thrownwideopen,thekeystakenout,andthebodyofthechildplacedunderabeam,wherebyasure,
certain,andeasypassageintoeternitycouldbesecured.Strangetosay,thechilddeclinedtoavailitself
ofthefacilitiesfordyingsoobliginglyplacedatitsdisposalbythesagacityandexperienceoftheBritish
matronsofTauntonitpreferredtoliveratherthangiveuptheghostjustthen.
Therulewhichprescribesthatatcertainmagicalandreligiousceremoniesthehairshouldhanglooseand
thefeetshouldbebareisprobablybasedonthesamefearoftrammellingandimpedingtheactionin
hand,whateveritmaybe,bythepresenceofanyknotorconstriction,whetherontheheadoronthefeet

oftheperformer.Asimilarpowertobindandhamperspiritualaswellasbodilyactivitiesisascribedby
somepeopletorings.ThusintheislandofCarpathuspeopleneverbuttontheclothestheyputupona
deadbodyandtheyarecarefultoremoveallringsfromitforthespirit,theysay,canevenbedetained
inthelittlefinger,andcannotrest.Hereitisplainthatevenifthesoulisnotdefinitelysupposedtoissue
atdeathfromthefingertips,yettheringisconceivedtoexerciseacertainconstrictiveinfluencewhich
detainsandimprisonstheimmortalspiritinspiteofitseffortstoescapefromthetabernacleofclayin
shortthering,liketheknot,actsasaspiritualfetter.ThismayhavebeenthereasonofanancientGreek
maxim,attributedtoPythagoras,whichforbadepeopletowearrings.Nobodymightentertheancient
ArcadiansanctuaryoftheMistressatLycosurawitharingonhisorherfinger.Personswhoconsulted
theoracleofFaunushadtobechaste,toeatnoflesh,andtowearnorings.
Ontheotherhand,thesameconstrictionwhichhinderstheegressofthesoulmaypreventtheentranceof
evilspiritshencewefindringsusedasamuletsagainstdemons,witches,andghosts.IntheTyrolitis
saidthatawomaninchildbedshouldnevertakeoffherweddingring,orspiritsandwitcheswillhave
poweroverher.AmongtheLapps,thepersonwhoisabouttoplaceacorpseinthecoffinreceivesfrom
thehusband,wife,orchildrenofthedeceasedabrassring,whichhemustwearfastenedtohisrightarm
untilthecorpseissafelydepositedinthegrave.Theringisbelievedtoservethepersonasanamulet
againstanyharmwhichtheghostmightdotohim.Howfarthecustomofwearingfingerringsmayhave
beeninfluencedby,orevenhavesprungfrom,abeliefintheirefficacyasamuletstokeepthesoulinthe
body,ordemonsoutofit,isaquestionwhichseemsworthconsidering.Hereweareonlyconcernedwith
thebeliefinsofarasitseemstothrowlightontherulethattheFlamenDialismightnotweararing
unlessitwerebroken.Takeninconjunctionwiththerulewhichforbadehimtohaveaknotonhis
garments,itpointstoafearthatthepowerfulspiritembodiedinhimmightbetrammelledandhampered
initsgoingsoutandcomingsinbysuchcorporealandspiritualfettersasringsandknots.

XXII.TabooedWords
1.PersonalNamestabooed
UNABLEtodiscriminateclearlybetweenwordsandthings,thesavagecommonlyfanciesthatthelink
betweenanameandthepersonorthingdenominatedbyitisnotamerearbitraryandidealassociation,
butarealandsubstantialbondwhichunitesthetwoinsuchawaythatmagicmaybewroughtonaman
justaseasilythroughhisnameasthroughhishair,hisnails,oranyothermaterialpartofhisperson.In
fact,primitivemanregardshisnameasavitalportionofhimselfandtakescareofitaccordingly.Thus,
forexample,theNorthAmericanIndianregardshisname,notasamerelabel,butasadistinctpartof
hispersonality,justasmuchasarehiseyesorhisteeth,andbelievesthatinjurywillresultassurelyfrom
themalicioushandlingofhisnameasfromawoundinflictedonanypartofhisphysicalorganism.This
beliefwasfoundamongthevarioustribesfromtheAtlantictothePacific,andhasoccasionedanumber
ofcuriousregulationsinregardtotheconcealmentandchangeofnames.SomeEsquimauxtakenew
nameswhentheyareold,hopingtherebytogetanewleaseoflife.TheTolampoosofCelebesbelieve
thatifyouwriteamansnamedownyoucancarryoffhissoulalongwithit.Manysavagesatthepresent
dayregardtheirnamesasvitalpartsofthemselves,andthereforetakegreatpainstoconcealtheirreal
names,lesttheseshouldgivetoevildisposedpersonsahandlebywhichtoinjuretheirowners.
Thus,tobeginwiththesavageswhorankatthebottomofthesocialscale,wearetoldthatthesecrecy
withwhichamongtheAustralianaboriginespersonalnamesareoftenkeptfromgeneralknowledge
arisesingreatmeasurefromthebeliefthatanenemy,whoknowsyourname,hasinitsomethingwhich
hecanusemagicallytoyourdetriment.AnAustralianblack,saysanotherwriter,isalwaysvery
unwillingtotellhisrealname,andthereisnodoubtthatthisreluctanceisduetothefearthatthroughhis
namehemaybeinjuredbysorcerers.AmongstthetribesofCentralAustraliaeveryman,woman,and

childhas,besidesapersonalnamewhichisincommonuse,asecretorsacrednamewhichisbestowed
bytheoldermenuponhimorhersoonafterbirth,andwhichisknowntononebutthefullyinitiated
membersofthegroup.Thissecretnameisnevermentionedexceptuponthemostsolemnoccasionsto
utteritinthehearingofwomenorofmenofanothergroupwouldbeamostseriousbreachoftribal
custom,asseriousasthemostflagrantcaseofsacrilegeamongourselves.Whenmentionedatall,the
nameisspokenonlyinawhisper,andnotuntilthemostelaborateprecautionshavebeentakenthatit
shallbeheardbynoonebutmembersofthegroup.Thenativethinksthatastrangerknowinghissecret
namewouldhavespecialpowertoworkhimillbymeansofmagic.
ThesamefearseemstohaveledtoacustomofthesamesortamongsttheancientEgyptians,whose
comparativelyhighcivilisationwasstrangelydashedandchequeredwithrelicsofthelowestsavagery.
EveryEgyptianreceivedtwonames,whichwereknownrespectivelyasthetruenameandthegood
name,orthegreatnameandthelittlenameandwhilethegoodorlittlenamewasmadepublic,thetrue
orgreatnameappearstohavebeencarefullyconcealed.ABrahmanchildreceivestwonames,onefor
commonuse,theotherasecretnamewhichnonebuthisfatherandmothershouldknow.Thelatteris
onlyusedatceremoniessuchasmarriage.Thecustomisintendedtoprotectthepersonagainstmagic,
sinceacharmonlybecomeseffectualincombinationwiththerealname.Similarly,thenativesofNias
believethatharmmaybedonetoapersonbythedemonswhohearhisnamepronounced.Hencethe
namesofinfants,whoareespeciallyexposedtotheassaultsofevilsprits,areneverspokenandoftenin
hauntedspots,suchasthegloomydepthsoftheforest,thebanksofariver,orbesideabubblingspring,
menwillabstainfromcallingeachotherbytheirnamesforalikereason.
TheIndiansofChiloekeeptheirnamessecretanddonotliketohavethemutteredaloudfortheysay
thattherearefairiesorimpsonthemainlandorneighbouringislandswho,iftheyknewfolksnames,
woulddothemaninjurybutsolongastheydonotknowthenames,thesemischievousspritesare
powerless.TheAraucanianswillhardlyevertellastrangertheirnamesbecausetheyfearthathewould
therebyacquiresomesupernaturalpoweroverthemselves.Askedhisnamebyastranger,whoisignorant
oftheirsuperstitions,anAraucanianwillanswer,Ihavenone.WhenanOjebwayisaskedhisname,he
willlookatsomebystanderandaskhimtoanswer.Thisreluctancearisesfromanimpressionthey
receivewhenyoung,thatiftheyrepeattheirownnamesitwillpreventtheirgrowth,andtheywillbe
smallinstature.Onaccountofthisunwillingnesstotelltheirnames,manystrangershavefanciedthat
theyeitherhavenonamesorhaveforgottenthem.
Inthislastcasenoscrupleseemstobefeltaboutcommunicatingamansnametostrangers,andnoill
effectsappeartobedreadedasaconsequenceofdivulgingitharmisonlydonewhenanameisspoken
byitsowner.Whyisthis?andwhyinparticularshouldamanbethoughttostunthisgrowthbyuttering
hisownname?Wemayconjecturethattosavageswhoactandthinkthusapersonsnameonlyseemsto
beapartofhimselfwhenitisutteredwithhisownbreathutteredbythebreathofothersithasnovital
connexionwithhim,andnoharmcancometohimthroughit.Whereas,sotheseprimitivephilosophers
mayhaveargued,whenamanletshisownnamepasshislips,heispartingwithalivingpieceof
himself,andifhepersistsinsorecklessacoursehemustcertainlyendbydissipatinghisenergyand
shatteringhisconstitution.Manyabrokendowndebauchee,manyafeebleframewastedwithdisease,
mayhavebeenpointedoutbythesesimplemoraliststotheirawestruckdisciplesasafearfulexampleof
thefatethatmustsoonerorlaterovertaketheprofligatewhoindulgesimmoderatelyintheseductive
habitofmentioninghisownname.
Howeverwemayexplainit,thefactiscertainthatmanyasavageevincesthestrongestreluctanceto
pronouncehisownname,whileatthesametimehemakesnoobjectionatalltootherpeople
pronouncingit,andwilleveninvitethemtodosoforhiminordertosatisfythecuriosityofan
inquisitivestranger.ThusinsomepartsofMadagascaritistabooforapersontotellhisownname,buta
slaveorattendantwillanswerforhim.Thesamecuriousinconsistency,asitmayseemtous,isrecorded

ofsometribesofAmericanIndians.ThuswearetoldthatthenameofanAmericanIndianisasacred
thing,nottobedivulgedbytheownerhimselfwithoutdueconsideration.Onemayaskawarriorofany
tribetogivehisname,andthequestionwillbemetwitheitherapointblankrefusalorthemore
diplomaticevasionthathecannotunderstandwhatiswantedofhim.Themomentafriendapproaches,
thewarriorfirstinterrogatedwillwhisperwhatiswanted,andthefriendcantellthename,receivinga
reciprocationofthecourtesyfromtheother.Thisgeneralstatementapplies,forexample,totheIndian
tribesofBritishColumbia,astowhomitissaidthatoneoftheirstrangestprejudices,whichappearsto
pervadealltribesalike,isadisliketotellingtheirnamesthusyounevergetamansrightnamefrom
himselfbuttheywilltelleachothersnameswithouthesitation.InthewholeoftheEastIndian
Archipelagotheetiquetteisthesame.Asageneralrulenoonewillutterhisownname.Toenquire,
Whatisyourname?isaveryindelicatequestioninnativesociety.Wheninthecourseof
administrativeorjudicialbusinessanativeisaskedhisname,insteadofreplyinghewilllookathis
comradetoindicatethatheistoanswerforhim,orhewillsaystraightout,Askhim.Thesuperstition
iscurrentallovertheEastIndieswithoutexception,anditisfoundalsoamongtheMotuandMotumotu
tribes,thePapuansofFinschHaveninNorthNewGuinea,theNufoorsofDutchNewGuinea,andthe
MelanesiansoftheBismarckArchipelago.AmongmanytribesofSouthAfricamenandwomennever
mentiontheirnamesiftheycangetanyoneelsetodoitforthem,buttheydonotabsolutelyrefusewhen
itcannotbeavoided.
Sometimestheembargolaidonpersonalnamesisnotpermanentitisconditionaloncircumstances,and
whenthesechangeitceasestooperate.ThuswhentheNandimenareawayonaforay,nobodyathome
maypronouncethenamesoftheabsentwarriorstheymustbereferredtoasbirds.Shouldachildsofar
forgetitselfastomentiononeofthedistantonesbyname,themotherwouldrebukeit,saying,Dont
talkofthebirdswhoareintheheavens.AmongtheBangalaoftheUpperCongo,whileamanisfishing
andwhenhereturnswithhiscatch,hispropernameisinabeyanceandnobodymaymentionit.
Whateverthefishermansrealnamemaybe,heiscalledmwelewithoutdistinction.Thereasonisthatthe
riverisfullofspirits,who,iftheyheardthefishermansrealname,mightsoworkagainsthimthathe
wouldcatchlittleornothing.Evenwhenhehascaughthisfishandlandedwiththem,thebuyermuststill
notaddresshimbyhispropername,butmustonlycallhimmweleforeventhen,ifthespiritswereto
hearhispropername,theywouldeitherbearitinmindandservehimoutanotherday,ortheymightso
marthefishhehadcaughtthathewouldgetverylittleforthem.Hencethefishermancanextractheavy
damagesfromanybodywhomentionshisname,orcancompelthethoughtlessspeakertorelievehimof
thefishatagoodpricesoastorestorehisluck.WhentheSulkaofNewBritainareneartheterritoryof
theirenemiestheGaktei,theytakecarenottomentionthembytheirpropername,believingthatwere
theytodoso,theirfoeswouldattackandslaythem.Henceinthesecircumstancestheyspeakofthe
Gakteiasolapsiek,thatis,therottentreetrunks,andtheyimaginethatbycallingthemthattheymake
thelimbsoftheirdreadedenemiesponderousandclumsylikelogs.Thisexampleillustratesthe
extremelymaterialisticviewwhichthesesavagestakeofthenatureofwordstheysupposethatthemere
utteranceofanexpressionsignifyingclumsinesswillhomoeopathicallyaffectwithclumsinessthelimbs
oftheirdistantfoemen.AnotherillustrationofthiscuriousmisconceptionisfurnishedbyaCaffre
superstitionthatthecharacterofayoungthiefcanbereformedbyshoutinghisnameoveraboilingkettle
ofmedicatedwater,thenclappingalidonthekettleandleavingthenametosteepinthewaterfor
severaldays.Itisnotintheleastnecessarythatthethiefshouldbeawareoftheusethatisbeingmadeof
hisnamebehindhisbackthemoralreformationwillbeeffectedwithouthisknowledge.
Whenitisdeemednecessarythatamansrealnameshouldbekeptsecret,itisoftencustomary,aswe
haveseen,tocallhimbyasurnameornickname.Asdistinguishedfromtherealorprimarynames,these
secondarynamesareapparentlyheldtobenopartofthemanhimself,sothattheymaybefreelyused
anddivulgedtoeverybodywithoutendangeringhissafetythereby.Sometimesinordertoavoidtheuse
ofhisownnameamanwillbecalledafterhischild.ThusweareinformedthattheGippslandblacks
objectedstronglytoletanyoneoutsidethetribeknowtheirnames,lesttheirenemies,learningthem,

shouldmakethemvehiclesofincantation,andsocharmtheirlivesaway.Aschildrenwerenotthoughtto
haveenemies,theyusedtospeakofamanasthefather,uncle,orcousinofSoandso,namingachild
butonalloccasionsabstainedfrommentioningthenameofagrownupperson.TheAlfoorsofPosoin
Celebeswillnotpronouncetheirownnames.Amongthem,accordingly,ifyouwishtoascertaina
personsname,yououghtnottoaskthemanhimself,butshouldenquireofothers.Butifthisis
impossible,forexample,whenthereisnooneelsenear,youshouldaskhimhischildsname,andthen
addresshimastheFatherofSoandso.Nay,theseAlfoorsareshyofutteringthenamesevenof
childrensowhenaboyorgirlhasanepheworniece,heorsheisaddressedasUncleofSoandso,or
AuntofSoandso.InpureMalaysociety,wearetold,amanisneveraskedhisname,andthecustom
ofnamingparentsaftertheirchildrenisadoptedonlyasameansofavoidingtheuseoftheparentsown
names.Thewriterwhomakesthisstatementaddsinconfirmationofitthatchildlesspersonsarenamed
aftertheiryoungerbrothers.AmongtheLandDyakschildrenastheygrowuparecalled,accordingto
theirsex,thefatherormotherofachildoftheirfathersormothersyoungerbrotherorsister,thatis,
theyarecalledthefatherormotherofwhatweshouldcalltheirfirstcousin.TheCaffresusedtothinkit
discourteoustocallabridebyherownname,sotheywouldcallhertheMotherofSoandso,even
whenshewasonlybetrothed,farlessawifeandamother.AmongtheKukisandZemisorKachaNagas
ofAssamparentsdroptheirnamesafterthebirthofachildandarenamedFatherandMotherofSoand
so.Childlesscouplesgobythenameofthechildlessfather,thechildlessmother,thefatherofno
child,themotherofnochild.Thewidespreadcustomofnamingafatherafterhischildhassometimes
beensupposedtospringfromadesireonthefathersparttoasserthispaternity,apparentlyasameansof
obtainingthoserightsoverhischildrenwhichhadpreviously,underasystemofmotherkin,been
possessedbythemother.Butthisexplanationdoesnotaccountfortheparallelcustomofnamingthe
motherafterherchild,whichseemscommonlytocoexistwiththepracticeofnamingthefatherafterthe
child.Stillless,ifpossible,doesitapplytothecustomsofcallingchildlesscouplesthefatherandmother
ofchildrenwhichdonotexist,ofnamingpeopleaftertheiryoungerbrothers,andofdesignatingchildren
astheunclesandauntsofSoandso,orasthefathersandmothersoftheirfirstcousins.Butallthese
practicesareexplainedinasimpleandnaturalwayifwesupposethattheyoriginateinareluctanceto
uttertherealnamesofpersonsaddressedordirectlyreferredto.Thatreluctanceisprobablybasedpartly
onafearofattractingthenoticeofevilspirits,partlyonadreadofrevealingthenametosorcerers,who
wouldtherebyobtainahandleforinjuringtheownerofthename.
2.NamesofRelationstabooed
ITmightnaturallybeexpectedthatthereservesocommonlymaintainedwithregardtopersonalnames
wouldbedroppedoratleastrelaxedamongrelationsandfriends.Butthereverseofthisisoftenthecase.
Itispreciselythepersonsmostintimatelyconnectedbybloodandespeciallybymarriagetowhomthe
ruleapplieswiththegreateststringency.Suchpeopleareoftenforbidden,notonlytopronounceeach
othersnames,buteventoutterordinarywordswhichresembleorhaveasinglesyllableincommonwith
thesenames.Thepersonswhoarethusmutuallydebarredfrommentioningeachothersnamesare
especiallyhusbandsandwives,amanandhiswifesparents,andawomanandherhusbandsfather.For
example,amongtheCaffresawomanmaynotpubliclypronouncethebirthnameofherhusbandorof
anyofhisbrothers,normaysheusetheinterdictedwordinitsordinarysense.Ifherhusband,for
instance,becalleduMpaka,fromimpaka,asmallfelineanimal,shemustspeakofthatbeastbysome
othername.Further,aCaffrewifeisforbiddentopronounceevenmentallythenamesofherfatherin
lawandofallherhusbandsmalerelationsintheascendinglineandwhenevertheemphaticsyllableof
anyoftheirnamesoccursinanotherword,shemustavoiditbysubstitutingeitheranentirelynewword,
or,atleast,anothersyllableinitsplace.Hencethiscustomhasgivenrisetoanalmostdistinctlanguage
amongthewomen,whichtheCaffrescallwomensspeech.Theinterpretationofthiswomens
speechisnaturallyverydifficult,fornodefiniterulescanbegivenfortheformationofthese
substitutedwords,norisitpossibletoformadictionaryofthem,theirnumberbeingsogreatsince

theremaybemanywomen,eveninthesametribe,whowouldbenomoreatlibertytousethesubstitutes
employedbysomeothers,thantheyaretousetheoriginalwordsthemselves.ACaffreman,onhisside,
maynotmentionthenameofhismotherinlaw,normayshepronouncehisbutheisfreetoutterwords
inwhichtheemphaticsyllableofhernameoccurs.AKirghizwomandaresnotpronouncethenamesof
theolderrelationsofherhusband,norevenusewordswhichresembletheminsound.Forexample,if
oneoftheserelationsiscalledShepherd,shemaynotspeakofsheep,butmustcallthemthebleating
onesifhisnameisLamb,shemustrefertolambsastheyoungbleatingones.InSouthernIndia
wivesbelievethattotelltheirhusbandsnameortopronounceiteveninadreamwouldbringhimtoan
untimelyend.AmongtheSeaDyaksamanmaynotpronouncethenameofhisfatherinlawormother
inlawwithoutincurringthewrathofthespirits.Andsincehereckonsashisfatherinlawandmotherin
lawnotonlythefatherandmotherofhisownwife,butalsothefathersandmothersofhisbrothers
wivesandsistershusbands,andlikewisethefathersandmothersofallhiscousins,thenumberof
tabooednamesmaybeveryconsiderableandtheopportunitiesoferrorcorrespondinglynumerous.To
makeconfusionworseconfounded,thenamesofpersonsareoftenthenamesofcommonthings,suchas
moon,bridge,barley,cobra,leopardsothatwhenanyofamansmanyfathersinlawandmothersin
lawarecalledbysuchnames,thesecommonwordsmaynotpasshislips.AmongtheAlfoorsof
Minahassa,inCelebes,thecustomiscarriedstillfurthersoastoforbidtheuseevenofwordswhich
merelyresemblethepersonalnamesinsound.Itisespeciallythenameofafatherinlawwhichisthus
laidunderaninterdict.Ifhe,forexample,iscalledKalala,hissoninlawmaynotspeakofahorsebyits
commonnamekawalohemustcallitaridingbeast(sasakajan).SoamongtheAlfoorsoftheisland
ofBuruitistabootomentionthenamesofparentsandparentsinlaw,oreventospeakofcommon
objectsbywordswhichresemblethesenamesinsound.Thus,ifyourmotherinlawiscalledDalu,
whichmeansbetel,youmaynotaskforbetelbyitsordinaryname,youmustaskforredmouthif
youwantbetelleaf,youmaynotsaybetelleaf(dalumun),youmustsaykaronfenna.Inthesame
islanditisalsotabootomentionthenameofanelderbrotherinhispresence.Transgressionsofthese
rulesarepunishedwithfines.InSundaitisthoughtthataparticularcropwouldbespoiltifamanwere
tomentionthenamesofhisfatherandmother.
AmongtheNufoorsofDutchNewGuineapersonswhoarerelatedtoeachotherbymarriageare
forbiddentomentioneachothersnames.Amongtheconnexionswhosenamesarethustabooedarewife,
motherinlaw,fatherinlaw,yourwifesunclesandauntsandalsohergrandunclesandgrandaunts,
andthewholeofyourwifesoryourhusbandsfamilyinthesamegenerationasyourself,exceptthat
menmaymentionthenamesoftheirbrothersinlaw,thoughwomenmaynot.Thetaboocomesinto
operationassoonasthebetrothalhastakenplaceandbeforethemarriagehasbeencelebrated.Families
thusconnectedbythebetrothaloftwooftheirmembersarenotonlyforbiddentopronounceeachothers
namestheymaynotevenlookateachother,andtherulegivesrisetothemostcomicalsceneswhen
theyhappentomeetunexpectedly.Andnotmerelythenamesthemselves,butanywordsthatsoundlike
themarescrupulouslyavoidedandotherwordsusedintheirplace.Ifitshouldchancethatapersonhas
inadvertentlyutteredaforbiddenname,hemustatoncethrowhimselfonthefloorandsay,Ihave
mentionedawrongname.IthrowitthroughthechinksofthefloorinorderthatImayeatwell.
InthewesternislandsofTorresStraitsamannevermentionedthepersonalnamesofhisfatherinlaw,
motherinlaw,brotherinlaw,andsisterinlawandawomanwassubjecttothesamerestrictions.A
brotherinlawmightbespokenofasthehusbandorbrotherofsomeonewhosenameitwaslawfulto
mentionandsimilarlyasisterinlawmightbecalledthewifeofSoandso.Ifamanbychanceusedthe
personalnameofhisbrotherinlaw,hewasashamedandhunghishead.Hisshamewasonlyrelieved
whenhehadmadeapresentascompensationtothemanwhosenamehehadtakeninvain.Thesame
compensationwasmadetoasisterinlaw,afatherinlaw,andamotherinlawfortheaccidental
mentionoftheirnames.AmongthenativeswhoinhabitthecoastoftheGazellePeninsulainNewBritain
tomentionthenameofabrotherinlawisthegrossestpossibleaffrontyoucanoffertohimitisacrime
punishablewithdeath.IntheBanksIslands,Melanesia,thetabooslaidonthenamesofpersons

connectedbymarriageareverystrict.Amanwillnotmentionthenameofhisfatherinlaw,muchless
thenameofhismotherinlaw,normayhenamehiswifesbrotherbuthemaynamehiswifessister
sheisnothingtohim.Awomanmaynotnameherfatherinlaw,noronanyaccounthersoninlaw.Two
peoplewhosechildrenhaveintermarriedarealsodebarredfrommentioningeachothersnames.Andnot
onlyareallthesepersonsforbiddentouttereachothersnamestheymaynotevenpronounceordinary
wordswhichchancetobeeitheridenticalwiththesenamesortohaveanysyllablesincommonwith
them.Thuswehearofanativeoftheseislandswhomightnotusethecommonwordsforpigandto
die,becausethesewordsoccurredinthepolysyllabicnameofhissoninlawandwearetoldofanother
unfortunatewhomightnotpronouncetheeverydaywordsforhandandhotonaccountofhiswifes
brothersname,andwhowasevendebarredfrommentioningthenumberone,becausethewordfor
oneformedpartofthenameofhiswifescousin.
Thereluctancetomentionthenamesorevensyllablesofthenamesofpersonsconnectedwiththe
speakerbymarriagecanhardlybeseparatedfromthereluctanceevincedbysomanypeopletouttertheir
ownnamesorthenamesofthedeadorofthedeadorofchiefsandkingsandifthereticenceastothese
latternamesspringsmainlyfromsuperstition,wemayinferthatthereticenceastotheformerhasno
betterfoundation.Thatthesavagesunwillingnesstomentionhisownnameisbased,atleastinpart,ona
superstitiousfearoftheillusethatmightbemadeofitbyhisfoes,whetherhumanorspiritual,has
alreadybeenshown.Itremainstoexaminethesimilarusageinregardtothenamesofthedeadandof
royalpersonages.
3.NamesoftheDeadtabooed
THECUSTOMofabstainingfromallmentionofthenamesofthedeadwasobservedinantiquitybythe
AlbaniansoftheCaucasus,andatthepresentdayitisinfullforceamongmanysavagetribes.Thuswe
aretoldthatoneofthecustomsmostrigidlyobservedandenforcedamongsttheAustralianaboriginesis
nevertomentionthenameofadeceasedperson,whethermaleorfemaletonamealoudonewhohas
departedthislifewouldbeagrossviolationoftheirmostsacredprejudices,andtheycarefullyabstain
fromit.Thechiefmotiveforthisabstinenceappearstobeafearofevokingtheghost,althoughthe
naturalunwillingnesstorevivepastsorrowsundoubtedlyoperatesalsotodrawtheveilofoblivionover
thenamesofthedead.OnceMr.Oldfieldsoterrifiedanativebyshoutingoutthenameofadeceased
person,thatthemanfairlytooktohisheelsanddidnotventuretoshowhimselfagainforseveraldays.
AttheirnextmeetinghebitterlyreproachedtherashwhitemanforhisindiscretionnorcouldI,adds
Mr.Oldfield,inducehimbyanymeanstouttertheawfulsoundofadeadmansname,forbysodoing
hewouldhaveplacedhimselfinthepowerofthemalignspirits.AmongtheaboriginesofVictoriathe
deadwereveryrarelyspokenof,andthenneverbytheirnamestheywerereferredtoinasubduedvoice
asthelostoneorthepoorfellowthatisnomore.Tospeakofthembynamewould,itwassupposed,
excitethemalignityofCouitgil,thespiritofthedeparted,whichhoversonearthforatimebeforeit
departsforevertowardsthesettingsun.OfthetribesontheLowerMurrayRiverwearetoldthatwhena
persondiestheycarefullyavoidmentioninghisnamebutifcompelledtodoso,theypronounceitina
verylowwhisper,sofaintthattheyimaginethespiritcannotheartheirvoice.Amongstthetribesof
CentralAustralianoonemayutterthenameofthedeceasedduringtheperiodofmourning,unlessitis
absolutelynecessarytodoso,andthenitisonlydoneinawhisperforfearofdisturbingandannoying
themansspiritwhichiswalkingaboutinghostlyform.Iftheghosthearshisnamementionedhe
concludesthathiskinsfolkarenotmourningforhimproperlyiftheirgriefweregenuinetheycouldnot
beartobandyhisnameabout.Touchedtothequickbytheirhardheartedindifferencetheindignant
ghostwillcomeandtroublethemindreams.
ThesamereluctancetoutterthenamesofthedeadappearstoprevailamongalltheIndiantribesof
AmericafromHudsonsBayTerritorytoPatagonia.AmongtheGoajirosofColombiatomentionthe

deadbeforehiskinsmenisadreadfuloffence,whichisoftenpunishedwithdeathforifithappensonthe
ranchoofthedeceased,inpresenceofhisnepheworuncle,theywillassuredlykilltheoffenderonthe
spotiftheycan.Butifheescapes,thepenaltyresolvesitselfintoaheavyfine,usuallyoftwoormore
oxen.
Asimilarreluctancetomentionthenamesofthedeadisreportedofpeoplessowidelyseparatedfrom
eachotherastheSamoyedsofSiberiaandtheTodasofSouthernIndiatheMongolsofTartaryandthe
TuaregsoftheSaharatheAinosofJapanandtheAkambaandNandiofEasternAfricatheTinguianes
ofthePhilippinesandtheinhabitantsoftheNicobarIslands,ofBorneo,ofMadagascar,andof
Tasmania.Inallcases,evenwhereitisnotexpresslystated,thefundamentalreasonforthisavoidanceis
probablythefearoftheghost.ThatthisistherealmotivewiththeTuaregswearepositivelyinformed.
Theydreadthereturnofthedeadmansspirit,anddoalltheycantoavoiditbyshiftingtheircampafter
adeath,ceasingforevertopronouncethenameofthedeparted,andeschewingeverythingthatmightbe
regardedasanevocationorrecallofhissoul.Hencetheydonot,liketheArabs,designateindividualsby
addingtotheirpersonalnamesthenamesoftheirfatherstheyneverspeakofSoandso,sonofSoand
sotheygivetoeverymananamewhichwillliveanddiewithhim.SoamongsomeoftheVictorian
tribesinAustraliapersonalnameswererarelyperpetuated,becausethenativesbelievedthatanyonewho
adoptedthenameofadeceasedpersonwouldnotlivelongprobablyhisghostlynamesakewas
supposedtocomeandfetchhimawaytothespiritland.
Thesamefearoftheghost,whichmovespeopletosuppresshisoldname,naturallyleadsallpersons
whobearasimilarnametoexchangeitforanother,lestitsutteranceshouldattracttheattentionofthe
ghost,whocannotreasonablybeexpectedtodiscriminatebetweenallthedifferentapplicationsofthe
samename.ThuswearetoldthatintheAdelaideandEncounterBaytribesofSouthAustraliathe
repugnancetomentioningthenamesofthosewhohavediedlatelyiscarriedsofar,thatpersonswho
bearthesamenameasthedeceasedabandonit,andeitheradopttemporarynamesorareknownbyany
othersthathappentobelongtothem.AsimilarcustomprevailsamongsomeoftheQueenslandtribes
buttheprohibitiontousethenamesofthedeadisnotpermanent,thoughitmaylastformanyyears.In
someAustraliantribesthechangeofnamethusbroughtaboutispermanenttheoldnameislaidasidefor
ever,andthemanisknownbyhisnewnamefortherestofhislife,oratleastuntilheisobligedto
changeitagainforalikereason.AmongtheNorthAmericanIndiansallpersons,whethermenor
women,whoborethenameofonewhohadjustdiedwereobligedtoabandonitandtoadoptother
names,whichwasformallydoneatthefirstceremonyofmourningforthedead.Insometribestothe
eastoftheRockyMountainsthischangeofnamelastedonlyduringtheseasonofmourning,butinother
tribesonthePacificCoastofNorthAmericaitseemstohavebeenpermanent.
Sometimesbyanextensionofthesamereasoningallthenearrelationsofthedeceasedchangetheir
names,whatevertheymayhappentobe,doubtlessfromafearthatthesoundofthefamiliarnamesmight
lurebackthevagrantspirittoitsoldhome.ThusinsomeVictoriantribestheordinarynamesofallthe
nextofkinweredisusedduringtheperiodofmourning,andcertaingeneralterms,prescribedbycustom,
weresubstitutedforthem.Tocallamournerbyhisownnamewasconsideredaninsulttothedeparted,
andoftenledtofightingandbloodshed.AmongIndiantribesofNorthwesternAmericanearrelationsof
thedeceasedoftenchangetheirnamesunderanimpressionthatspiritswillbeattractedbacktoearthif
theyhearfamiliarnamesoftenrepeated.AmongtheKiowaIndiansthenameofthedeadisnever
spokeninthepresenceoftherelatives,andonthedeathofanymemberofafamilyalltheotherstake
newnames.ThiscustomwasnotedbyRaleighscolonistsonRoanokeIslandmorethanthreecenturies
ago.AmongtheLenguaIndiansnotonlyisadeadmansnamenevermentioned,butallthesurvivors
changetheirnamesalso.TheysaythatDeathhasbeenamongthemandhascarriedoffalistofthe
living,andthathewillsooncomebackformorevictimshenceinordertodefeathisfellpurposethey
changetheirnames,believingthatonhisreturnDeath,thoughhehasgotthemallonhislist,willnotbe
abletoidentifythemundertheirnewnames,andwilldeparttopursuethesearchelsewhere.Nicobarese

mournerstakenewnamesinordertoescapetheunwelcomeattentionsoftheghostandforthesame
purposetheydisguisethemselvesbyshavingtheirheadssothattheghostisunabletorecognisethem.
Further,whenthenameofthedeceasedhappenstobethatofsomecommonobject,suchasananimal,or
plant,orfire,orwater,itissometimesconsiderednecessarytodropthatwordinordinaryspeechand
replaceitbyanother.Acustomofthissort,itisplain,mayeasilybeapotentagentofchangein
languageforwhereitprevailstoanyconsiderableextentmanywordsmustconstantlybecomeobsolete
andnewonesspringup.Andthistendencyhasbeenremarkedbyobserverswhohaverecordedthe
custominAustralia,America,andelsewhere.Forexample,withregardtotheAustralianaboriginesithas
beennotedthatthedialectschangewithalmosteverytribe.Sometribesnametheirchildrenafternatural
objectsandwhenthepersonsonameddies,thewordisneveragainmentionedanotherwordhas
thereforetobeinventedfortheobjectafterwhichthechildwascalled.Thewritergivesasaninstance
thecaseofamanwhosenameKarlasignifiedfirewhenKarladied,anewwordforfirehadtobe
introduced.Hence,addsthewriter,thelanguageisalwayschanging.Again,intheEncounterBay
tribeofSouthAustralia,ifamanofthenameofNgnke,whichmeanswater,weretodie,thewhole
tribewouldbeobligedtousesomeotherwordtoexpresswaterforaconsiderabletimeafterhisdecease.
Thewriterwhorecordsthiscustomsurmisesthatitmayexplainthepresenceofanumberofsynonyms
inthelanguageofthetribe.ThisconjectureisconfirmedbywhatweknowofsomeVictoriantribes
whosespeechcomprisedaregularsetofsynonymstobeusedinsteadofthecommontermsbyall
membersofatribeintimesofmourning.Forinstance,ifamancalledWaa(crow)departedthislife,
duringtheperiodofmourningforhimnobodymightcallacrowawaaeverybodyhadtospeakofthe
birdasanarrapart.WhenapersonwhorejoicedinthetitleofRingtailOpossum(weearn)hadgonethe
wayofallflesh,hissorrowingrelationsandthetribeatlargewereboundforatimetorefertoringtail
opossumsbythemoresonorousnameofmanuungkuurt.Ifthecommunitywereplungedingriefforthe
lossofarespectedfemalewhoborethehonourablenameofTurkeyBustard,thepropernameforturkey
bustards,whichwasbarrimbarrim,wentout,andtillittilliitshcamein.Andsomutatismutandiswith
thenamesofBlackCockatoo,GreyDuck,GiganticCrane,Kangaroo,Eagle,Dingo,andtherest.
AsimilarcustomusedtobeconstantlytransformingthelanguageoftheAbiponesofParaguay,amongst
whom,however,awordonceabolishedseemsnevertohavebeenrevived.Newwords,saysthe
missionaryDobrizhoffer,sprangupeveryyearlikemushroomsinanight,becauseallwordsthat
resembledthenamesofthedeadwereabolishedbyproclamationandotherscoinedintheirplace.The
mintofwordswasinthehandsoftheoldwomenofthetribe,andwhatevertermtheystampedwiththeir
approvalandputincirculationwasimmediatelyacceptedwithoutamurmurbyhighandlowalike,and
spreadlikewildfirethrougheverycampandsettlementofthetribe.Youwouldbeastonished,saysthe
samemissionary,toseehowmeeklythewholenationacquiescesinthedecisionofawitheredoldhag,
andhowcompletelytheoldfamiliarwordsfallinstantlyoutofuseandareneverrepeatedeitherthrough
forceofhabitorforgetfulness.InthesevenyearsthatDobrizhofferspentamongtheseIndiansthenative
wordforjaguarwaschangedthrice,andthewordsforcrocodile,thorn,andtheslaughterofcattle
underwentsimilarthoughlessvariedvicissitudes.Asaresultofthishabit,thevocabulariesofthe
missionariesteemedwitherasures,oldwordshavingconstantlytobestruckoutasobsoleteandnewones
insertedintheirplace.InmanytribesofBritishNewGuineathenamesofpersonsarealsothenamesof
commonthings.Thepeoplebelievethatifthenameofadeceasedpersonispronounced,hisspiritwill
return,andastheyhavenowishtoseeitbackamongthemthementionofhisnameistabooedandanew
wordiscreatedtotakeitsplace,wheneverthenamehappenstobeacommontermofthelanguage.
Consequentlymanywordsarepermanentlylostorrevivedwithmodifiedornewmeanings.Inthe
NicobarIslandsasimilarpracticehassimilarlyaffectedthespeechofthenatives.Amostsingular
custom,saysMr.deRoepstorff,prevailsamongthemwhichonewouldsupposemustmosteffectually
hinderthemakingofhistory,or,atanyrate,thetransmissionofhistoricalnarrative.Byastrictrule,
whichhasallthesanctionofNicobarsuperstition,nomansnamemaybementionedafterhisdeath!To
suchalengthisthiscarriedthatwhen,asveryfrequentlyhappens,themanrejoicedinthenameof

Fowl,Hat,Fire,Road,etc.,initsNicobareseequivalent,theuseofthesewordsiscarefully
eschewedforthefuture,notonlyasbeingthepersonaldesignationofthedeceased,butevenasthe
namesofthecommonthingstheyrepresentthewordsdieoutofthelanguage,andeithernewvocables
arecoinedtoexpressthethingintended,orasubstituteforthedisusedwordisfoundinotherNicobarese
dialectsorinsomeforeigntongue.Thisextraordinarycustomnotonlyaddsanelementofinstabilityto
thelanguage,butdestroysthecontinuityofpoliticallife,andrenderstherecordofpasteventsprecarious
andvague,ifnotimpossible.
Thatasuperstitionwhichsuppressesthenamesofthedeadmustcutattheveryrootofhistorical
traditionhasbeenremarkedbyotherworkersinthisfield.TheKlamathpeople,observesMr.A.S.
Gatschet,possessnohistorictraditionsgoingfurtherbackintimethanacentury,forthesimplereason
thattherewasastrictlawprohibitingthementionofthepersonoractsofadeceasedindividualbyusing
hisname.ThislawwasrigidlyobservedamongtheCaliforniansnolessthanamongtheOregonians,and
onitstransgressionthedeathpenaltycouldbeinflicted.Thisiscertainlyenoughtosuppressallhistorical
knowledgewithinapeople.Howcanhistorybewrittenwithoutnames?
Inmanytribes,however,thepowerofthissuperstitiontoblotoutthememoryofthepastistosome
extentweakenedandimpairedbyanaturaltendencyofthehumanmind.Time,whichwearsoutthe
deepestimpressions,inevitablydulls,ifitdoesnotwhollyefface,theprintleftonthesavagemindbythe
mysteryandhorrorofdeath.Soonerorlater,asthememoryofhislovedonesfadesslowlyaway,he
becomesmorewillingtospeakofthem,andthustheirrudenamesmaysometimesberescuedbythe
philosophicenquirerbeforetheyhavevanished,likeautumnleavesorwintersnows,intothevast
undistinguishedlimboofthepast.InsomeoftheVictoriantribestheprohibitiontomentionthenamesof
thedeadremainedinforceonlyduringtheperiodofmourninginthePortLincolntribeofSouth
Australiaitlastedmanyyears.AmongtheChinookIndiansofNorthAmericacustomforbidsthe
mentionofadeadmansname,atleasttillmanyyearshaveelapsedafterthebereavement.Amongthe
PuyallupIndianstheobservanceofthetabooisrelaxedafterseveralyears,whenthemournershave
forgottentheirgriefandifthedeceasedwasafamouswarrior,oneofhisdescendants,forinstancea
greatgrandson,maybenamedafterhim.Inthistribethetabooisnotmuchobservedatanytimeexcept
bytherelationsofthedead.SimilarlytheJesuitmissionaryLafitautellsusthatthenameofthedeparted
andthesimilarnamesofthesurvivorswere,sotosay,buriedwiththecorpseuntil,thepoignancyoftheir
griefbeingabated,itpleasedtherelationstoliftupthetreeandraisethedead.Byraisingthedeadthey
meantbestowingthenameofthedeparteduponsomeoneelse,whothusbecametoallintentsand
purposesareincarnationofthedeceased,sinceontheprinciplesofsavagephilosophythenameisavital
part,ifnotthesoul,oftheman.
AmongtheLapps,whenawomanwaswithchildandnearthetimeofherdelivery,adeceasedancestor
orrelationusedtoappeartoherinadreamandinformherwhatdeadpersonwastobebornagaininher
infant,andwhosenamethechildwasthereforetobear.Ifthewomanhadnosuchdream,itfelltothe
fatherortherelativestodeterminethenamebydivinationorbyconsultingawizard.AmongtheKhonds
abirthiscelebratedontheseventhdayaftertheeventbyafeastgiventothepriestandtothewhole
village.Todeterminethechildsnamethepriestdropsgrainsofriceintoacupofwater,namingwith
eachgrainadeceasedancestor.Fromthemovementsoftheseedinthewater,andfromobservations
madeonthepersonoftheinfant,hepronounceswhichofhisprogenitorshasreappearedinhim,andthe
childgenerally,atleastamongthenortherntribes,receivesthenameofthatancestor.Amongthe
Yorubas,soonafterachildhasbeenborn,apriestofIfa,thegodofdivination,appearsonthesceneto
ascertainwhatancestralsoulhasbeenrebornintheinfant.Assoonasthishasbeendecided,theparents
aretoldthatthechildmustconforminallrespectstothemanneroflifeoftheancestorwhonow
animateshimorher,andif,asoftenhappens,theyprofessignorance,thepriestsuppliesthenecessary
information.Thechildusuallyreceivesthenameoftheancestorwhohasbeenbornagaininhim.

4.NamesofKingsandotherSacredPersonstabooed
WHENweseethatinprimitivesocietythenamesofmerecommoners,whetheraliveordead,arematters
ofsuchanxiouscare,weneednotbesurprisedthatgreatprecautionsshouldbetakentoguardfromharm
thenamesofsacredkingsandpriests.ThusthenameofthekingofDahomeyisalwayskeptsecret,lest
theknowledgeofitshouldenablesomeevilmindedpersontodohimamischief.Theappellationsby
whichthedifferentkingsofDahomeyhavebeenknowntoEuropeansarenottheirtruenames,butmere
titles,orwhatthenativescallstrongnames.Thenativesseemtothinkthatnoharmcomesofsuch
titlesbeingknown,sincetheyarenot,likethebirthnames,vitallyconnectedwiththeirowners.Inthe
GallakingdomofGherathebirthnameofthesovereignmaynotbepronouncedbyasubjectunderpain
ofdeath,andcommonwordswhichresembleitinsoundarechangedforothers.AmongtheBahimaof
CentralAfrica,whenthekingdies,hisnameisabolishedfromthelanguage,andifhisnamewasthatof
ananimal,anewappellationmustbefoundforthecreatureatonce.Forexample,thekingisoftencalled
alionhenceatthedeathofakingnamedLionanewnameforlionsingeneralhastobecoined.InSiam
itusedtobedifficulttoascertainthekingsrealname,sinceitwascarefullykeptsecretfromfearof
sorceryanyonewhomentioneditwasclappedintogaol.Thekingmightonlybereferredtounder
certainhighsoundingtitles,suchastheaugust,theperfect,thesupreme,thegreatemperor,
descendantoftheangels,andsoon.InBurmaitwasaccountedanimpietyofthedeepestdyeto
mentionthenameofthereigningsovereignBurmesesubjects,evenwhentheywerefarfromtheir
country,couldnotbeprevailedupontodosoafterhisaccessiontothethronethekingwasknownbyhis
royaltitlesonly.
AmongtheZulusnomanwillmentionthenameofthechiefofhistribeorthenamesoftheprogenitors
ofthechief,sofarashecanrememberthemnorwillheuttercommonwordswhichcoincidewithor
merelyresembleinsoundtabooednames.InthetribeoftheDwandwestherewasachiefcalledLanga,
whichmeansthesunhencethenameofthesunwaschangedfromlangatogala,andsoremainstothis
day,thoughLangadiedmorethanahundredyearsago.Again,intheXnumayotribethewordmeaning
toherdcattlewaschangedfromalusaorayusatokagesa,becauseuMayusiwasthenameofthe
chief.Besidesthesetaboos,whichwereobservedbyeachtribeseparately,alltheZulutribesunitedin
tabooingthenameofthekingwhoreignedoverthewholenation.Hence,forexample,whenPandawas
kingofZululand,thewordforarootofatree,whichisimpando,waschangedtonxabo.Again,the
wordforliesorslanderwasalteredfromamacebotoamakwata,becauseamacebocontainsa
syllableofthenameofthefamousKingCetchwayo.Thesesubstitutionsarenot,however,carriedsofar
bythemenasbythewomen,whoomiteverysoundevenremotelyresemblingonethatoccursina
tabooedname.Atthekingskraal,indeed,itissometimesdifficulttounderstandthespeechoftheroyal
wives,astheytreatinthisfashionthenamesnotonlyofthekingandhisforefathers,butevenofhisand
theirbrothersbackforgenerations.Whentothesetribalandnationaltaboosweaddthosefamilytaboos
onthenamesofconnexionsbymarriagewhichhavebeenalreadydescribed,wecaneasilyunderstand
howitcomesaboutthatinZululandeverytribehaswordspeculiartoitself,andthatthewomenhavea
considerablevocabularyoftheirown.Members,too,ofonefamilymaybedebarredfromusingwords
employedbythoseofanother.Thewomenofonekraal,forinstance,maycallahyaenabyitsordinary
namethoseofthenextmayusethecommonsubstitutewhileinathirdthesubstitutemayalsobe
unlawfulandanothertermmayhavetobeinventedtosupplyitsplace.HencetheZululanguageatthe
presentdayalmostpresentstheappearanceofbeingadoubleoneindeed,formultitudesofthingsit
possessesthreeorfoursynonyms,whichthroughtheblendingoftribesareknownalloverZululand.
InMadagascarasimilarcustomeverywhereprevailsandhasresulted,asamongtheZulus,inproducing
certaindialecticdifferencesinthespeechofthevarioustribes.Therearenofamilynamesin
Madagascar,andalmosteverypersonalnameisdrawnfromthelanguageofdailylifeandsignifiessome
commonobjectoractionorquality,suchasabird,abeast,atree,aplant,acolour,andsoon.Now,

wheneveroneofthesecommonwordsformsthenameorpartofthenameofthechiefofthetribe,it
becomessacredandmaynolongerbeusedinitsordinarysignificationasthenameofatree,aninsect,or
whatnot.Henceanewnamefortheobjectmustbeinventedtoreplacetheonewhichhasbeendiscarded.
Itiseasytoconceivewhatconfusionanduncertaintymaythusbeintroducedintoalanguagewhenitis
spokenbymanylittlelocaltribeseachruledbyapettychiefwithhisownsacredname.Yetthereare
tribesandpeoplewhosubmittothistyrannyofwordsastheirfathersdidbeforethemfromtime
immemorial.Theinconvenientresultsofthecustomareespeciallymarkedonthewesterncoastofthe
island,where,onaccountofthelargenumberofindependentchieftains,thenamesofthings,places,and
rivershavesufferedsomanychangesthatconfusionoftenarises,forwhenoncecommonwordshave
beenbannedbythechiefsthenativeswillnotacknowledgetohaveeverknownthemintheiroldsense.
ButitisnotmerelythenamesoflivingkingsandchiefswhicharetabooedinMadagascarthenamesof
deadsovereignsareequallyunderaban,atleastinsomepartsoftheisland.ThusamongtheSakalavas,
whenakinghasdied,thenoblesandpeoplemeetincouncilroundthedeadbodyandsolemnlychoosea
newnamebywhichthedeceasedmonarchshallbehenceforthknown.Afterthenewnamehasbeen
adopted,theoldnamebywhichthekingwasknownduringhislifebecomessacredandmaynotbe
pronouncedunderpainofdeath.Further,wordsinthecommonlanguagewhichbearanyresemblanceto
theforbiddennamealsobecomesacredandhavetobereplacedbyothers.Personswhoutteredthese
forbiddenwordswerelookedonnotonlyasgrosslyrude,butevenasfelonstheyhadcommitteda
capitalcrime.However,thesechangesofvocabularyareconfinedtothedistrictoverwhichthedeceased
kingreignedintheneighbouringdistrictstheoldwordscontinuetobeemployedintheoldsense.
ThesanctityattributedtothepersonsofchiefsinPolynesianaturallyextendedalsototheirnames,which
ontheprimitiveviewarehardlyseparablefromthepersonalityoftheirowners.HenceinPolynesiawe
findthesamesystematicprohibitiontoutterthenamesofchiefsorofcommonwordsresemblingthem
whichwehavealreadymetwithinZululandandMadagascar.ThusinNewZealandthenameofachief
isheldsosacredthat,whenithappenstobeacommonword,itmaynotbeusedinthelanguage,and
anotherhastobefoundtoreplaceit.Forexample,achiefofthesouthwardofEastCapeborethename
ofMaripi,whichsignifiedaknife,henceanewword(nekra)forknifewasintroduced,andtheoldone
becameobsolete.Elsewherethewordforwater(wai)hadtobechanged,becauseitchancedtobethe
nameofthechief,andwouldhavebeendesecratedbybeingappliedtothevulgarfluidaswellastohis
sacredperson.ThistaboonaturallyproducedaplentifulcropofsynonymsintheMaorilanguage,and
travellersnewlyarrivedinthecountryweresometimespuzzledatfindingthesamethingscalledbyquite
differentnamesinneighbouringtribes.WhenakingcomestothethroneinTahiti,anywordsinthe
languagethatresemblehisnameinsoundmustbechangedforothers.Informertimes,ifanymanwere
sorashastodisregardthiscustomandtousetheforbiddenwords,notonlyhebutallhisrelationswere
immediatelyputtodeath.Butthechangesthusintroducedwereonlytemporaryonthedeathoftheking
thenewwordsfellintodisuse,andtheoriginaloneswererevived.
InancientGreecethenamesofthepriestsandotherhighofficialswhohadtodowiththeperformanceof
theEleusinianmysteriesmightnotbeutteredintheirlifetime.Topronouncethemwasalegaloffence
ThepedantinLuciantellshowhefellinwiththeseaugustpersonageshalingalongtothepolicecourta
ribaldfellowwhohaddaredtonamethem,thoughwellheknewthateversincetheirconsecrationitwas
unlawfultodoso,becausetheyhadbecomeanonymous,havinglosttheiroldnamesandacquirednew
andsacredtitles.FromtwoinscriptionsfoundatEleusisitappearsthatthenamesofthepriestswere
committedtothedepthsoftheseaprobablytheywereengravedontabletsofbronzeorlead,whichwere
thenthrownintodeepwaterintheGulfofSalamis.Theintentiondoubtlesswastokeepthenamesa
profoundsecretandhowcouldthatbedonemoresurelythanbysinkingtheminthesea?whathuman
visioncouldspythemglimmeringfardowninthedimdepthsofthegreenwater?Aclearerillustrationof
theconfusionbetweentheincorporealandthecorporeal,betweenthenameanditsmaterialembodiment,
couldhardlybefoundthaninthispracticeofcivilisedGreece.

5.NamesofGodstabooed
PRIMITIVEmancreateshisgodsinhisownimage.Xenophanesremarkedlongagothatthecomplexion
ofnegrogodswasblackandtheirnosesflatthatThraciangodswereruddyandblueeyedandthatif
horses,oxen,andlionsonlybelievedingodsandhadhandswherewithtoportraythem,theywould
doubtlessfashiontheirdeitiesintheformofhorses,andoxen,andlions.Hencejustasthefurtivesavage
concealshisrealnamebecausehefearsthatsorcerersmightmakeaneviluseofit,sohefanciesthathis
godsmustlikewisekeeptheirtruenamesecret,lestothergodsorevenmenshouldlearnthemystic
soundsandthusbeabletoconjurewiththem.Nowherewasthiscrudeconceptionofthesecrecyand
magicalvirtueofthedivinenamemorefirmlyheldormorefullydevelopedthaninancientEgypt,where
thesuperstitionsofadatelesspastwereembalmedintheheartsofthepeoplehardlylesseffectuallythan
thebodiesofcatsandcrocodilesandtherestofthedivinemenagerieintheirrockcuttombs.The
conceptioniswellillustratedbyastorywhichtellshowthesubtleIsiswormedhissecretnamefromRa,
thegreatEgyptiangodofthesun.Isis,sorunsthetale,wasawomanmightyinwords,andshewas
wearyoftheworldofmen,andyearnedaftertheworldofthegods.Andshemeditatedinherheart,
saying,CannotIbyvirtueofthegreatnameofRamakemyselfagoddessandreignlikehiminheaven
andearth?ForRahadmanynames,butthegreatnamewhichgavehimallpowerovergodsandmen
wasknowntononebuthimself.Nowthegodwasbythistimegrownoldheslobberedatthemouthand
hisspittlefellupontheground.SoIsisgatheredupthespittleandtheearthwithit,andkneadedthereofa
serpentandlaiditinthepathwherethegreatgodpassedeverydaytohisdoublekingdomafterhis
heartsdesire.Andwhenhecameforthaccordingtohiswont,attendedbyallhiscompanyofgods,the
sacredserpentstunghim,andthegodopenedhismouthandcried,andhiscrywentuptoheaven.And
thecompanyofgodscried,Whataileththee?andthegodsshouted,Loandbehold!Buthecouldnot
answerhisjawsrattled,hislimbsshook,thepoisonranthroughhisfleshastheNileflowethoverthe
land.Whenthegreatgodhadstilledhisheart,hecriedtohisfollowers,Cometome,Omychildren,
offspringofmybody.Iamaprince,thesonofaprince,thedivineseedofagod.Myfatherdevisedmy
namemyfatherandmymothergavememyname,anditremainedhiddeninmybodysincemybirth,
thatnomagicianmighthavemagicpoweroverme.IwentouttobeholdthatwhichIhavemade,I
walkedinthetwolandswhichIhavecreated,andlo!somethingstungme.Whatitwas,Iknownot.Was
itfire?wasitwater?Myheartisonfire,myfleshtrembleth,allmylimbsdoquake.Bringmethe
childrenofthegodswithhealingwordsandunderstandinglips,whosepowerreachethtoheaven.Then
cametohimthechildrenofthegods,andtheywereverysorrowful.AndIsiscamewithhercraft,whose
mouthisfullofthebreathoflife,whosespellschasepainaway,whosewordmakeththedeadtolive.
Shesaid,Whatisit,divineFather?whatisit?Theholygodopenedhismouth,hespakeandsaid,I
wentuponmyway,IwalkedaftermyheartsdesireinthetworegionswhichIhavemadetobeholdthat
whichIhavecreated,andlo!aserpentthatIsawnotstungme.Isitfire?isitwater?Iamcolderthan
water,Iamhotterthanfire,allmylimbssweat,Itremble,mineeyeisnotsteadfast,Ibeholdnotthesky,
themoisturebedewethmyfaceasinsummertime.ThenspakeIsis,Tellmethyname,divineFather,
forthemanshalllivewhoiscalledbyhisname.ThenansweredRa,Icreatedtheheavensandthe
earth,Iorderedthemountains,Imadethegreatandwidesea,Istretchedoutthetwohorizonslikea
curtain.Iamhewhoopenethhiseyesanditislight,andwhoshutteththemanditisdark.Athis
commandtheNileriseth,butthegodsknownothisname.IamKheperainthemorning,IamRaatnoon,
IamTumateve.Butthepoisonwasnottakenawayfromhimitpierceddeeper,andthegreatgod
couldnolongerwalk.ThensaidIsistohim,Thatwasnotthynamethatthouspakestuntome.Ohtellit
me,thatthepoisonmaydepartforheshalllivewhosenameisnamed.Nowthepoisonburnedlikefire,
itwashotterthantheflameoffire.Thegodsaid,IconsentthatIsisshallsearchintome,andthatmy
nameshallpassfrommybreastintohers.Thenthegodhidhimselffromthegods,andhisplaceinthe
shipofeternitywasempty.Thuswasthenameofthegreatgodtakenfromhim,andIsis,thewitch,
spake,Flowaway,poison,departfromRa.ItisI,evenI,whoovercomethepoisonandcastittothe
earthforthenameofthegreatgodhathbeentakenawayfromhim.LetRaliveandletthepoisondie.

ThusspakegreatIsis,thequeenofthegods,shewhoknowsRaandhistruename.
Fromthisstoryitappearsthattherealnameofthegod,withwhichhispowerwasinextricablyboundup,
wassupposedtobelodged,inanalmostphysicalsense,somewhereinhisbreast,fromwhichIsis
extracteditbyasortofsurgicaloperationandtransferreditwithallitssupernaturalpowerstoherself.In
EgyptattemptslikethatofIsistoappropriatethepowerofahighgodbypossessingherselfofhisname
werenotmerelegendstoldofthemythicalbeingsofaremotepasteveryEgyptianmagicianaspiredto
wieldlikepowersbysimilarmeans.Foritwasbelievedthathewhopossessedthetruenamepossessed
theverybeingofgodorman,andcouldforceevenadeitytoobeyhimasaslaveobeyshismaster.Thus
theartofthemagicianconsistedinobtainingfromthegodsarevelationoftheirsacrednames,andheleft
nostoneunturnedtoaccomplishhisend.Whenonceagodinamomentofweaknessorforgetfulnesshad
impartedtothewizardthewondrouslore,thedeityhadnochoicebuttosubmithumblytothemanor
paythepenaltyofhiscontumacy.
ThebeliefinthemagicvirtueofdivinenameswassharedbytheRomans.Whentheysatdownbeforea
city,thepriestsaddressedtheguardiandeityoftheplaceinasetformofprayerorincantation,inviting
himtoabandonthebeleagueredcityandcomeovertotheRomans,whowouldtreathimaswellasor
betterthanhehadeverbeentreatedinhisoldhome.HencethenameoftheguardiandeityofRomewas
keptaprofoundsecret,lesttheenemiesoftherepublicmightlurehimaway,evenastheRomans
themselveshadinducedmanygodstodesert,likerats,thefallingfortunesofcitiesthathadsheltered
theminhappierdays.Nay,therealname,notmerelyofitsguardiandeity,butofthecityitself,was
wraptinmysteryandmightneverbeuttered,noteveninthesacredrites.AcertainValeriusSoranus,
whodaredtodivulgethepricelesssecret,wasputtodeathorcametoabadend.Inlikemanner,itseems,
theancientAssyrianswereforbiddentomentionthemysticnamesoftheircitiesanddowntomodern
timestheCheremissoftheCaucasuskeepthenamesoftheircommunalvillagessecretfrommotivesof
superstition.
Ifthereaderhashadthepatiencetofollowthisexaminationofthesuperstitionsattachingtopersonal
names,hewillprobablyagreethatthemysteryinwhichthenamesofroyalpersonagesaresooften
shroudedisnoisolatedphenomenon,noarbitraryexpressionofcourtlyservilityandadulation,but
merelytheparticularapplicationofagenerallawofprimitivethought,whichincludeswithinitsscope
commonfolkandgodsaswellaskingsandpriests.

XXIII.OurDebttotheSavage
ITwouldbeeasytoextendthelistofroyalandpriestlytaboos,buttheinstancescollectedinthe
precedingpagesmaysufficeasspecimens.Toconcludethispartofoursubjectitonlyremainstostate
summarilythegeneralconclusionstowhichourenquirieshavethusfarconductedus.Wehaveseenthat
insavageorbarbaroussocietythereareoftenfoundmentowhomthesuperstitionoftheirfellows
ascribesacontrollinginfluenceoverthegeneralcourseofnature.Suchmenareaccordinglyadoredand
treatedasgods.Whetherthesehumandivinitiesalsoholdtemporalswayoverthelivesandfortunesof
theiradorers,orwhethertheirfunctionsarepurelyspiritualandsupernatural,inotherwords,whether
theyarekingsaswellasgodsoronlythelatter,isadistinctionwhichhardlyconcernsushere.Their
supposeddivinityistheessentialfactwithwhichwehavetodeal.Invirtueofittheyareapledgeand
guaranteetotheirworshippersofthecontinuanceandorderlysuccessionofthosephysicalphenomena
uponwhichmankinddependsforsubsistence.Naturally,therefore,thelifeandhealthofsuchagodman
aremattersofanxiousconcerntothepeoplewhosewelfareandevenexistenceareboundupwithhis
naturallyheisconstrainedbythemtoconformtosuchrulesasthewitofearlymanhasdevisedfor
avertingtheillstowhichfleshisheir,includingthelastill,death.Theserules,asanexaminationofthem
hasshown,arenothingbutthemaximswithwhich,ontheprimitiveview,everymanofcommon

prudencemustcomplyifhewouldlivelongintheland.Butwhileinthecaseofordinarymenthe
observanceoftherulesislefttothechoiceoftheindividual,inthecaseofthegodmanitisenforced
underpenaltyofdismissalfromhishighstation,orevenofdeath.Forhisworshippershavefartoogreat
astakeinhislifetoallowhimtoplayfastandloosewithit.Thereforeallthequaintsuperstitions,the
oldworldmaxims,thevenerablesawswhichtheingenuityofsavagephilosopherselaboratedlongago,
andwhicholdwomenatchimneycornersstillimpartastreasuresofgreatpricetotheirdescendants
gatheredroundthecottagefireonwintereveningsalltheseantiquefanciesclustered,allthesecobwebs
ofthebrainwerespunaboutthepathoftheoldking,thehumangod,who,immeshedinthemlikeafly
inthetoilsofaspider,couldhardlystiralimbforthethreadsofcustom,lightasairbutstrongaslinks
ofiron,thatcrossingandrecrossingeachotherinanendlessmazeboundhimfastwithinanetworkof
observancesfromwhichdeathordepositionalonecouldreleasehim.
Thustostudentsofthepastthelifeoftheoldkingsandprieststeemswithinstruction.Initwassummed
upallthatpassedforwisdomwhentheworldwasyoung.Itwastheperfectpatternafterwhichevery
manstrovetoshapehislifeafaultlessmodelconstructedwithrigorousaccuracyuponthelineslaid
downbyabarbarousphilosophy.Crudeandfalseasthatphilosophymayseemtous,itwouldbeunjust
todenyitthemeritoflogicalconsistency.Startingfromaconceptionofthevitalprincipleasatinybeing
orsoulexistingin,butdistinctandseparablefrom,thelivingbeing,itdeducesforthepracticalguidance
oflifeasystemofruleswhichingeneralhangswelltogetherandformsafairlycompleteand
harmoniouswhole.Theflawanditisafataloneofthesystemliesnotinitsreasoning,butinits
premisesinitsconceptionofthenatureoflife,notinanyirrelevancyoftheconclusionswhichitdraws
fromthatconception.Buttostigmatisethesepremisesasridiculousbecausewecaneasilydetecttheir
falseness,wouldbeungratefulaswellasunphilosophical.Westanduponthefoundationrearedbythe
generationsthathavegonebefore,andwecanbutdimlyrealisethepainfulandprolongedeffortswhich
ithascosthumanitytostruggleuptothepoint,noveryexaltedoneafterall,whichwehavereached.Our
gratitudeisduetothenamelessandforgottentoilers,whosepatientthoughtandactiveexertionshave
largelymadeuswhatweare.Theamountofnewknowledgewhichoneage,certainlywhichoneman,
canaddtothecommonstoreissmall,anditarguesstupidityordishonesty,besidesingratitude,toignore
theheapwhilevauntingthefewgrainswhichitmayhavebeenourprivilegetoaddtoit.Thereisindeed
littledangeratpresentofundervaluingthecontributionswhichmoderntimesandevenclassicalantiquity
havemadetothegeneraladvancementofourrace.Butwhenwepasstheselimits,thecaseisdifferent.
Contemptandridiculeorabhorrenceanddenunciationaretoooftentheonlyrecognitionvouchsafedto
thesavageandhisways.Yetofthebenefactorswhomweareboundthankfullytocommemorate,many,
perhapsmost,weresavages.Forwhenallissaidanddoneourresemblancestothesavagearestillfar
morenumerousthanourdifferencesfromhimandwhatwehaveincommonwithhim,anddeliberately
retainastrueanduseful,weowetooursavageforefatherswhoslowlyacquiredbyexperienceand
transmittedtousbyinheritancethoseseeminglyfundamentalideaswhichweareapttoregardasoriginal
andintuitive.Wearelikeheirstoafortunewhichhasbeenhandeddownforsomanyagesthatthe
memoryofthosewhobuiltitupislost,anditspossessorsforthetimebeingregarditashavingbeenan
originalandunalterablepossessionoftheirracesincethebeginningoftheworld.Butreflectionand
enquiryshouldsatisfyusthattoourpredecessorsweareindebtedformuchofwhatwethoughtmostour
own,andthattheirerrorswerenotwilfulextravagancesortheravingsofinsanity,butsimplyhypotheses,
justifiableassuchatthetimewhentheywerepropounded,butwhichafullerexperiencehasprovedtobe
inadequate.Itisonlybythesuccessivetestingofhypothesesandrejectionofthefalsethattruthisatlast
elicited.Afterall,whatwecalltruthisonlythehypothesiswhichisfoundtoworkbest.Thereforein
reviewingtheopinionsandpracticesofruderagesandracesweshalldowelltolookwithleniencyupon
theirerrorsasinevitableslipsmadeinthesearchfortruth,andtogivethemthebenefitofthatindulgence
whichweourselvesmayonedaystandinneedof:cumexcusationeitaqueveteresaudiendisunt.

XXIV.TheKillingoftheDivineKing

1.TheMortalityoftheGods
MANhascreatedgodsinhisownlikenessandbeinghimselfmortalhehasnaturallysupposedhis
creaturestobeinthesamesadpredicament.ThustheGreenlandersbelievedthatawindcouldkilltheir
mostpowerfulgod,andthathewouldcertainlydieifhetouchedadog.WhentheyheardoftheChristian
God,theykeptaskingifheneverdied,andbeinginformedthathedidnot,theyweremuchsurprised,
andsaidthathemustbeaverygreatgodindeed.InanswertotheenquiriesofColonelDodge,aNorth
AmericanIndianstatedthattheworldwasmadebytheGreatSpirit.BeingaskedwhichGreatSpirithe
meant,thegoodoneorthebadone,Oh,neitherofthem,repliedhe,theGreatSpiritthatmadethe
worldisdeadlongago.Hecouldnotpossiblyhavelivedaslongasthis.AtribeinthePhilippine
IslandstoldtheSpanishconquerorsthatthegraveoftheCreatorwasuponthetopofMountCabunian.
Heitsieibib,agodordivineherooftheHottentots,diedseveraltimesandcametolifeagain.Hisgraves
aregenerallytobemetwithinnarrowdefilesbetweenmountains.WhentheHottentotspassoneofthem,
theythrowastoneonitforgoodluck,sometimesmuttering,Giveusplentyofcattle.Thegraveof
Zeus,thegreatgodofGreece,wasshowntovisitorsinCreteaslateasaboutthebeginningofourera.
ThebodyofDionysuswasburiedatDelphibesidethegoldenstatueofApollo,andhistombborethe
inscription,HereliesDionysusdead,thesonofSemele.Accordingtooneaccount,Apollohimselfwas
buriedatDelphiforPythagorasissaidtohavecarvedaninscriptiononhistomb,settingforthhowthe
godhadbeenkilledbythepythonandburiedunderthetripod.
ThegreatgodsofEgyptthemselveswerenotexemptfromthecommonlot.Theytoogrewoldanddied.
Butwhenatalatertimethediscoveryoftheartofembalminggaveanewleaseoflifetothesoulsofthe
deadbypreservingtheirbodiesforanindefinitetimefromcorruption,thedeitieswerepermittedtoshare
thebenefitofaninventionwhichheldouttogodsaswellastomenareasonablehopeofimmortality.
Everyprovincethenhadthetombandmummyofitsdeadgod.ThemummyofOsiriswastobeseenat
MendesThinisboastedofthemummyofAnhouriandHeliopolisrejoicedinthepossessionofthatof
Toumou.ThehighgodsofBabylonalso,thoughtheyappearedtotheirworshippersonlyindreamsand
visions,wereconceivedtobehumanintheirbodilyshape,humanintheirpassions,andhumanintheir
fateforlikementheywerebornintotheworld,andlikementheylovedandfoughtanddied.
2.KingskilledwhentheirStrengthfails
IFTHEHIGHgods,whodwellremotefromthefretandfeverofthisearthlylife,areyetbelievedtodie
atlast,itisnottobeexpectedthatagodwholodgesinafrailtabernacleoffleshshouldescapethesame
fate,thoughwehearofAfricankingswhohaveimaginedthemselvesimmortalbyvirtueoftheir
sorceries.Nowprimitivepeoples,aswehaveseen,sometimesbelievethattheirsafetyandeventhatof
theworldisboundupwiththelifeofoneofthesegodmenorhumanincarnationsofthedivinity.
Naturally,therefore,theytaketheutmostcareofhislife,outofaregardfortheirown.Butnoamountof
careandprecautionwillpreventthemangodfromgrowingoldandfeebleandatlastdying.His
worshippershavetolaytheiraccountwiththissadnecessityandtomeetitasbesttheycan.Thedanger
isaformidableoneforifthecourseofnatureisdependentonthemangodslife,whatcatastrophesmay
notbeexpectedfromthegradualenfeeblementofhispowersandtheirfinalextinctionindeath?Thereis
onlyonewayofavertingthesedangers.Themangodmustbekilledassoonasheshowssymptomsthat
hispowersarebeginningtofail,andhissoulmustbetransferredtoavigoroussuccessorbeforeithas
beenseriouslyimpairedbythethreateneddecay.Theadvantagesofthusputtingthemangodtodeath
insteadofallowinghimtodieofoldageanddiseaseare,tothesavage,obviousenough.Foriftheman
goddieswhatwecallanaturaldeath,itmeans,accordingtothesavage,thathissoulhaseither
voluntarilydepartedfromhisbodyandrefusestoreturn,ormorecommonlythatithasbeenextracted,or
atleastdetainedinitswanderings,byademonorsorcerer.Inanyofthesecasesthesoulofthemangod
islosttohisworshippers,andwithittheirprosperityisgoneandtheirveryexistenceendangered.Evenif

theycouldarrangetocatchthesoulofthedyinggodasitlefthislipsorhisnostrilsandsotransferittoa
successor,thiswouldnoteffecttheirpurposefor,dyingofdisease,hissoulwouldnecessarilyleavehis
bodyinthelaststageofweaknessandexhaustion,andsoenfeebleditwouldcontinuetodragouta
languid,inertexistenceinanybodytowhichitmightbetransferred.Whereasbyslayinghimhis
worshipperscould,inthefirstplace,makesureofcatchinghissoulasitescapedandtransferringittoa
suitablesuccessorand,inthesecondplace,byputtinghimtodeathbeforehisnaturalforcewasabated,
theywouldsecurethattheworldshouldnotfallintodecaywiththedecayofthemangod.Every
purpose,therefore,wasanswered,andalldangersavertedbythuskillingthemangodandtransferring
hissoul,whileyetatitsprime,toavigoroussuccessor.
ThemystickingsofFireandWaterinCambodiaarenotallowedtodieanaturaldeath.Hencewhenone
ofthemisseriouslyillandtheeldersthinkthathecannotrecover,theystabhimtodeath.Thepeopleof
Congobelieved,aswehaveseen,thatiftheirpontifftheChitomweretodieanaturaldeath,theworld
wouldperish,andtheearth,whichhealonesustainedbyhispowerandmerit,wouldimmediatelybe
annihilated.Accordinglywhenhefellillandseemedlikelytodie,themanwhowasdestinedtobehis
successorenteredthepontiffshousewitharopeoraclubandstrangledorclubbedhimtodeath.The
EthiopiankingsofMeroewereworshippedasgodsbutwheneverthepriestschose,theysenta
messengertotheking,orderinghimtodie,andalleginganoracleofthegodsastheirauthorityforthe
command.ThiscommandthekingsalwaysobeyeddowntothereignofErgamenes,acontemporaryof
PtolemyII.,KingofEgypt.HavingreceivedaGreekeducationwhichemancipatedhimfromthe
superstitionsofhiscountrymen,Ergamenesventuredtodisregardthecommandofthepriests,and,
enteringtheGoldenTemplewithabodyofsoldiers,puttheprieststothesword.
CustomsofthesamesortappeartohaveprevailedinthispartofAfricadowntomoderntimes.Insome
tribesofFazoqlthekinghadtoadministerjusticedailyunderacertaintree.Iffromsicknessoranyother
causehewasunabletodischargethisdutyforthreewholedays,hewashangedonthetreeinanoose,
whichcontainedtworazorssoarrangedthatwhenthenoosewasdrawntightbytheweightofthekings
bodytheycuthisthroat.
Acustomofputtingtheirdivinekingstodeathatthefirstsymptomsofinfirmityoroldageprevailed
untillately,ifindeeditisevennowextinctandnotmerelydormant,amongtheShillukoftheWhiteNile,
andinrecentyearsithasbeencarefullyinvestigatedbyDr.C.G.Seligman.Thereverencewhichthe
Shillukpaytotheirkingappearstoarisechieflyfromtheconvictionthatheisareincarnationofthespirit
ofNyakang,thesemidivineherowhofoundedthedynastyandsettledthetribeintheirpresentterritory.
ItisafundamentalarticleoftheShillukcreedthatthespiritofthedivineorsemidivineNyakangis
incarnateinthereigningking,whoisaccordinglyhimselfinvestedtosomeextentwiththecharacterofa
divinity.ButwhiletheShillukholdtheirkingsinhigh,indeedreligiousreverenceandtakeevery
precautionagainsttheiraccidentaldeath,neverthelesstheycherishtheconvictionthatthekingmustnot
beallowedtobecomeillorsenile,lestwithhisdiminishingvigourthecattleshouldsickenandfailto
beartheirincrease,thecropsshouldrotinthefields,andman,strickenwithdisease,shoulddieinever
increasingnumbers.TopreventthesecalamitiesitusedtobetheregularcustomwiththeShilluktoput
thekingtodeathwheneverheshowedsignsofillhealthorfailingstrength.Oneofthefatalsymptomsof
decaywastakentobeanincapacitytosatisfythesexualpassionsofhiswives,ofwhomhehasvery
many,distributedinalargenumberofhousesatFashoda.Whenthisominousweaknessmanifested
itself,thewivesreportedittothechiefs,whoarepopularlysaidtohaveintimatedtothekinghisdoom
byspreadingawhiteclothoverhisfaceandkneesashelayslumberingintheheatofthesultry
afternoon.Executionsoonfollowedthesentenceofdeath.Ahutwasspeciallybuiltfortheoccasion:the
kingwasledintoitandlaydownwithhisheadrestingonthelapofanubilevirgin:thedoorofthehut
wasthenwalledupandthecouplewereleftwithoutfood,water,orfiretodieofhungerandsuffocation.
Thiswastheoldcustom,butitwasabolishedsomefivegenerationsagoonaccountoftheexcessive
sufferingsofoneofthekingswhoperishedinthisway.Itissaidthatthechiefsannouncehisfatetothe

king,andthatafterwardsheisstrangledinahutwhichhasbeenspeciallybuiltfortheoccasion.
FromDr.SeligmansenquiriesitappearsthatnotonlywastheShillukkingliabletobekilledwithdue
ceremonyatthefirstsymptomsofincipientdecay,butevenwhilehewasyetintheprimeofhealthand
strengthhemightbeattackedatanytimebyarivalandhavetodefendhiscrowninacombattothe
death.AccordingtothecommonShilluktraditionanysonofakinghadtherightthustofightthekingin
possessionand,ifhesucceededinkillinghim,toreigninhisstead.Aseverykinghadalargeharemand
manysons,thenumberofpossiblecandidatesforthethroneatanytimemaywellhavebeennot
inconsiderable,andthereigningmonarchmusthavecarriedhislifeinhishand.Buttheattackonhim
couldonlytakeplacewithanyprospectofsuccessatnightforduringthedaythekingsurrounded
himselfwithhisfriendsandbodyguards,andanaspiranttothethronecouldhardlyhopetocuthisway
throughthemandstrikehome.Itwasotherwiseatnight.Forthentheguardsweredismissedandtheking
wasaloneinhisenclosurewithhisfavouritewives,andtherewasnomanneartodefendhimexcepta
fewherdsmen,whosehutsstoodalittlewayoff.Thehoursofdarknesswerethereforetheseasonofperil
fortheking.Itissaidthatheusedtopasstheminconstantwatchfulness,prowlingroundhishutsfully
armed,peeringintotheblackestshadows,orhimselfstandingsilentandalert,likeasentinelonduty,in
somedarkcorner.Whenatlasthisrivalappeared,thefightwouldtakeplaceingrimsilence,brokenonly
bytheclashofspearsandshields,foritwasapointofhonourwiththekingnottocalltheherdsmento
hisassistance.
LikeNyakanghimself,theirfounder,eachoftheShillukkingsafterdeathisworshippedatashrine,
whichiserectedoverhisgrave,andthegraveofakingisalwaysinthevillagewherehewasborn.The
tombshrineofakingresemblestheshrineofNyakang,consistingofafewhutsenclosedbyafenceone
ofthehutsisbuiltoverthekingsgrave,theothersareoccupiedbytheguardiansoftheshrine.Indeed
theshrinesofNyakangandtheshrinesofthekingsarescarcelytobedistinguishedfromeachother,and
thereligiousritualsobservedatallofthemareidenticalinformandvaryonlyinmattersofdetail,the
variationsbeingdueapparentlytothefargreatersanctityattributedtotheshrinesofNyakang.Thegrave
shrinesofthekingsaretendedbycertainoldmenorwomen,whocorrespondtotheguardiansofthe
shrinesofNyakang.Theyareusuallywidowsoroldmenservantsofthedeceasedking,andwhenthey
dietheyaresucceededintheirofficebytheirdescendants.Moreover,cattlearededicatedtothegrave
shrinesofthekingsandsacrificesareofferedatthemjustasattheshrinesofNyakang.
IngeneraltheprincipalelementinthereligionoftheShillukwouldseemtobetheworshipwhichthey
paytotheirsacredordivinekings,whetherdeadoralive.Thesearebelievedtobeanimatedbyasingle
divinespirit,whichhasbeentransmittedfromthesemimythical,butprobablyinsubstancehistorical,
founderofthedynastythroughallhissuccessorstothepresentday.Hence,regardingtheirkingsas
incarnatedivinitiesonwhomthewelfareofmen,ofcattle,andofthecornimplicitlydepends,theShilluk
naturallypaythemthegreatestrespectandtakeeverycareofthemandhoweverstrangeitmayseemto
us,theircustomofputtingthedivinekingtodeathassoonasheshowssignsofillhealthorfailing
strengthspringsdirectlyfromtheirprofoundvenerationforhimandfromtheiranxietytopreservehim,
orratherthedivinespiritbywhichheisanimated,inthemostperfectstateofefficiency:nay,wemaygo
furtherandsaythattheirpracticeofregicideisthebestprooftheycangiveofthehighregardinwhich
theyholdtheirkings.Fortheybelieve,aswehaveseen,thatthekingslifeorspiritissosympathetically
boundupwiththeprosperityofthewholecountry,thatifhefellillorgrewsenilethecattlewouldsicken
andceasetomultiply,thecropswouldrotinthefields,andmenwouldperishofwidespreaddisease.
Hence,intheiropinion,theonlywayofavertingthesecalamitiesistoputthekingtodeathwhileheis
stillhaleandhearty,inorderthatthedivinespiritwhichhehasinheritedfromhispredecessorsmaybe
transmittedinturnbyhimtohissuccessorwhileitisstillinfullvigourandhasnotyetbeenimpairedby
theweaknessofdiseaseandoldage.Inthisconnexiontheparticularsymptomwhichiscommonlysaid
tosealthekingsdeathwarrantishighlysignificantwhenhecannolongersatisfythepassionsofhis
numerouswives,inotherwords,whenhehasceased,whetherpartiallyorwholly,tobeabletoreproduce

hiskind,itistimeforhimtodieandtomakeroomforamorevigoroussuccessor.Takenalongwiththe
otherreasonswhichareallegedforputtingthekingtodeath,thisonesuggeststhatthefertilityofmen,of
cattle,andofthecropsisbelievedtodependsympatheticallyonthegenerativepoweroftheking,sothat
thecompletefailureofthatpowerinhimwouldinvolveacorrespondingfailureinmen,animals,and
plants,andwouldtherebyentailatnodistantdatetheentireextinctionofalllife,whetherhuman,animal,
orvegetable.Nowonder,thatwithsuchadangerbeforetheireyestheShillukshouldbemostcarefulnot
toletthekingdiewhatweshouldcallanaturaldeathofsicknessoroldage.Itischaracteristicoftheir
attitudetowardsthedeathofthekingsthattheyrefrainfromspeakingofitasdeath:theydonotsaythat
akinghasdiedbutsimplythathehasgoneawaylikehisdivineancestorsNyakangandDag,thetwo
firstkingsofthedynasty,bothofwhomarereportednottohavediedbuttohavedisappeared.The
similarlegendsofthemysteriousdisappearanceofearlykingsinotherlands,forexampleatRomeandin
Uganda,maywellpointtoasimilarcustomofputtingthemtodeathforthepurposeofpreservingtheir
life.
OnthewholethetheoryandpracticeofthedivinekingsoftheShillukcorrespondverynearlytothe
theoryandpracticeofthepriestsofNemi,theKingsoftheWood,ifmyviewofthelatteriscorrect.In
bothweseeaseriesofdivinekingsonwhoselifethefertilityofmen,ofcattle,andofvegetationis
believedtodepend,andwhoareputtodeath,whetherinsinglecombatorotherwise,inorderthattheir
divinespiritmaybetransmittedtotheirsuccessorsinfullvigour,uncontaminatedbytheweaknessand
decayofsicknessoroldage,becauseanysuchdegenerationonthepartofthekingwould,intheopinion
ofhisworshippers,entailacorrespondingdegenerationonmanking,oncattle,andonthecrops.Some
pointsinthisexplanationofthecustomofputtingdivinekingstodeath,particularlythemethodof
transmittingtheirdivinesoulstotheirsuccessors,willbedealtwithmorefullyinthesequel.Meantime
wepasstootherexamplesofthegeneralpractice.
TheDinkaareacongeriesofindependenttribesinthevalleyoftheWhiteNile.Theyareessentiallya
pastoralpeople,passionatelydevotedtothecareoftheirnumerousherdsofoxen,thoughtheyalsokeep
sheepandgoats,andthewomencultivatesmallquantitiesofmilletandsesame.Fortheircropsand
aboveallfortheirpasturestheydependontheregularityoftherains:inseasonsofprolongeddrought
theyaresaidtobereducedtogreatextremities.Hencetherainmakerisaveryimportantpersonage
amongthemtothisdayindeedthemeninauthoritywhomtravellersdubchiefsorsheikhsareinfactthe
actualorpotentialrainmakersofthetribeorcommunity.Eachofthemisbelievedtobeanimatedbythe
spiritofagreatrainmaker,whichhascomedowntohimthroughasuccessionofrainmakersandin
virtueofthisinspirationasuccessfulrainmakerenjoysverygreatpowerandisconsultedonall
importantmatters.Yetinspite,orratherinvirtue,ofthehighhonourinwhichheisheld,noDinkarain
makerisallowedtodieanaturaldeathofsicknessoroldagefortheDinkabelievethatifsuchan
untowardeventweretohappen,thetribewouldsufferfromdiseaseandfamine,andtheherdswouldnot
yieldtheirincrease.Sowhenarainmakerfeelsthatheisgrowingoldandinfirm,hetellshischildren
thathewishestodie.AmongtheAgarDinkaalargegraveisdugandtherainmakerliesdowninit,
surroundedbyhisfriendsandrelatives.Fromtimetotimehespeakstothepeople,recallingthepast
historyofthetribe,remindingthemhowhehasruledandadvisedthem,andinstructingthemhowthey
aretoactinthefuture.Then,whenhehasconcludedhisadmonition,hebidsthemcoverhimup.Sothe
earthisthrowndownonhimasheliesinthegrave,andhesoondiesofsuffocation.Such,withminor
variations,appearstobetheregularendofthehonourablecareerofarainmakerinalltheDinkatribes.
TheKhorAdarDinkatoldDr.Seligmanthatwhentheyhavedugthegravefortheirrainmakerthey
stranglehiminhishouse.ThefatherandpaternaluncleofoneofDr.Seligmansinformantshadboth
beenrainmakersandbothhadbeenkilledinthemostregularandorthodoxfashion.Evenifarainmaker
isquiteyounghewillbeputtodeathshouldheseemlikelytoperishofdisease.Further,every
precautionistakentopreventarainmakerfromdyinganaccidentaldeath,forsuchanend,thoughnot
nearlysoseriousamatterasdeathfromillnessoroldage,wouldbesuretoentailsicknessonthetribe.
Assoonasarainmakeriskilled,hisvaluablespiritissupposedtopasstoasuitablesuccessor,whethera

sonorothernearbloodrelation.
IntheCentralAfricankingdomofBunyorodowntorecentyearscustomrequiredthatassoonastheking
fellseriouslyillorbegantobreakupfromage,heshoulddiebyhisownhandfor,accordingtoanold
prophecy,thethronewouldpassawayfromthedynastyifeverthekingweretodieanaturaldeath.He
killedhimselfbydrainingapoisonedcup.Ifhefalteredorweretooilltoaskforthecup,itwashis
wifesdutytoadministerthepoison.WhenthekingofKibanga,ontheUpperCongo,seemsnearhis
end,thesorcerersputaroperoundhisneck,whichtheydrawgraduallytightertillhedies.Ifthekingof
Gingirohappenstobewoundedinwar,heisputtodeathbyhiscomrades,or,iftheyfailtokillhim,by
hiskinsfolk,howeverhardhemaybegformercy.Theysaytheydoitthathemaynotdiebythehandsof
hisenemies.TheJukosareaheathentribeoftheBenueRiver,agreattributaryoftheNiger.Intheir
countrythetownofGatriisruledbyakingwhoiselectedbythebigmenofthetownasfollows.When
intheopinionofthebigmenthekinghasreignedlongenough,theygiveoutthatthekingissicka
formulaunderstoodbyalltomeanthattheyaregoingtokillhim,thoughtheintentionisneverputmore
plainly.Theythendecidewhoistobethenextking.Howlongheistoreignissettledbytheinfluential
menatameetingthequestionisputandansweredbyeachmanthrowingonthegroundalittlepieceof
stickforeachyearhethinksthenewkingshouldrule.Thekingisthentold,andagreatfeastprepared,at
whichthekinggetsdrunkonguineacornbeer.Afterthatheisspeared,andthemanwhowaschosen
becomesking.ThuseachJukokingknowsthathecannothaveverymanymoreyearstolive,andthathe
iscertainofhispredecessorsfate.This,however,doesnotseemtofrightencandidates.Thesame
customofkingkillingissaidtoprevailatQuondeandWukariaswellasatGatri.InthethreeHausa
kingdomsofGobir,Katsina,andDaura,inNorthernNigeria,assoonasakingshowedsignsoffailing
healthorgrowinginfirmity,anofficialwhoborethetitleofKilleroftheElephantappearedandthrottled
him.
TheMatiamvoisagreatkingoremperorintheinteriorofAngola.Oneoftheinferiorkingsofthe
country,bynameChalla,gavetoaPortugueseexpeditionthefollowingaccountofthemannerinwhich
theMatiamvocomesbyhisend.Ithasbeencustomary,hesaid,forourMatiamvostodieeitherin
warorbyaviolentdeath,andthepresentMatiamvomustmeetthislastfate,as,inconsequenceofhis
greatexactions,hehaslivedlongenough.Whenwecometothisunderstanding,anddecidethathe
shouldbekilled,weinvitehimtomakewarwithourenemies,onwhichoccasionweallaccompanyhim
andhisfamilytothewar,whenwelosesomeofourpeople.Ifheescapesunhurt,wereturntothewar
againandfightforthreeorfourdays.Wethensuddenlyabandonhimandhisfamilytotheirfate,leaving
himintheenemyshands.Seeinghimselfthusdeserted,hecauseshisthronetobeerected,and,sitting
down,callshisfamilyaroundhim.Hethenordershismothertoapproachshekneelsathisfeethefirst
cutsoffherhead,thendecapitateshissonsinsuccession,nexthiswivesandrelatives,and,lastofall,his
mostbelovedwife,calledAnacullo.Thisslaughterbeingaccomplished,theMatiamvo,dressedinallhis
pomp,awaitshisowndeath,whichimmediatelyfollows,byanofficersentbythepowerfulneighbouring
chiefs,CaniquinhaandCanica.Thisofficerfirstcutsoffhislegsandarmsatthejoints,andlastlyhecuts
offhisheadafterwhichtheheadoftheofficerisstruckoff.Allthepotentatesretirefromthe
encampment,inordernottowitnesshisdeath.Itismydutytoremainandwitnesshisdeath,andtomark
theplacewheretheheadandarmshavebeendepositedbythetwogreatchiefs,theenemiesofthe
Matiamvo.Theyalsotakepossessionofallthepropertybelongingtothedeceasedmonarchandhis
family,whichtheyconveytotheirownresidence.Ithenprovideforthefuneralofthemutilatedremains
ofthelateMatiamvo,afterwhichIretiretohiscapitalandproclaimthenewgovernment.Ithenreturnto
wherethehead,legs,andarmshavebeendeposited,and,forfortyslaves,Iransomthem,togetherwith
themerchandiseandotherpropertybelongingtothedeceased,whichIgiveuptothenewMatiamvo,
whohasbeenproclaimed.ThisiswhathashappenedtomanyMatiamvos,andwhatmusthappentothe
presentone.
ItappearstohavebeenaZulucustomtoputthekingtodeathassoonashebegantohavewrinklesor

greyhairs.Atleastthisseemsimpliedinthefollowingpassagewrittenbyonewhoresidedforsometime
atthecourtofthenotoriousZulutyrantChaka,intheearlypartofthenineteenthcentury:The
extraordinaryviolenceofthekingsragewithmewasmainlyoccasionedbythatabsurdnostrum,thehair
oil,withthenotionofwhichMr.Farewellhadimpressedhimasbeingaspecificforremovingall
indicationsofage.Fromthefirstmomentofhishavingheardthatsuchapreparationwasattainable,he
evincedasolicitudetoprocureit,andoneveryoccasionneverforgottoremindusofhisanxiety
respectingitmoreespeciallyonourdepartureonthemissionhisinjunctionswereparticularlydirected
tothisobject.ItwillbeseenthatitisoneofthebarbarouscustomsoftheZoolasintheirchoiceor
electionoftheirkingsthathemustneitherhavewrinklesnorgreyhairs,astheyarebothdistinguishing
marksofdisqualificationforbecomingamonarchofawarlikepeople.Itisalsoequallyindispensable
thattheirkingshouldneverexhibitthoseproofsofhavingbecomeunfitandincompetenttoreignitis
thereforeimportantthattheyshouldconcealtheseindicationssolongastheypossiblycan.Chakahad
becomegreatlyapprehensiveoftheapproachofgreyhairswhichwouldatoncebethesignalforhimto
preparetomakehisexitfromthissublunaryworld,itbeingalwaysfollowedbythedeathofthe
monarch.Thewritertowhomweareindebtedforthisinstructiveanecdoteofthehairoilomitsto
specifythemodeinwhichagreyhairedandwrinkledZuluchiefusedtomakehisexitfromthis
sublunaryworldbutonanalogywemayconjecturethathewaskilled.
Thecustomofputtingkingstodeathassoonastheysufferedfromanypersonaldefectprevailedtwo
centuriesagointheCaffrekingdomofSofala.WehaveseenthatthesekingsofSofalawereregardedas
godsbytheirpeople,beingentreatedtogiverainorsunshine,accordingaseachmightbewanted.
Neverthelessaslightbodilyblemish,suchasthelossofatooth,wasconsideredasufficientcausefor
puttingoneofthesegodmentodeath,aswelearnfromthefollowingpassageofanoldPortuguese
historian:Itwasformerlythecustomofthekingsofthislandtocommitsuicidebytakingpoisonwhen
anydisasterornaturalphysicaldefectfelluponthem,suchasimpotence,infectiousdisease,thelossof
theirfrontteeth,bywhichtheyweredisfigured,oranyotherdeformityoraffliction.Toputanendto
suchdefectstheykilledthemselves,sayingthatthekingshouldbefreefromanyblemish,andifnot,it
wasbetterforhishonourthatheshoulddieandseekanotherlifewherehewouldbemadewhole,for
thereeverythingwasperfect.ButtheQuiteve(king)whoreignedwhenIwasinthosepartswouldnot
imitatehispredecessorsinthis,beingdiscreetanddreadedashewasforhavinglostafronttoothhe
causedittobeproclaimedthroughoutthekingdomthatallshouldbeawarethathehadlostatoothand
shouldrecognisehimwhentheysawhimwithoutit,andifhispredecessorskilledthemselvesforsuch
thingstheywereveryfoolish,andhewouldnotdosoonthecontrary,hewouldbeverysorrywhenthe
timecameforhimtodieanaturaldeath,forhislifewasverynecessarytopreservehiskingdomand
defenditfromhisenemiesandherecommendedhissuccessorstofollowhisexample.
ThekingofSofalawhodaredtosurvivethelossofhisfronttoothwasthusaboldreformerlike
Ergamenes,kingofEthiopia.WemayconjecturethatthegroundforputtingtheEthiopiankingstodeath
was,asinthecaseoftheZuluandSofalakings,theappearanceontheirpersonofanybodilydefector
signofdecayandthattheoraclewhichthepriestsallegedastheauthorityfortheroyalexecutionwasto
theeffectthatgreatcalamitieswouldresultfromthereignofakingwhohadanyblemishonhisbody
justasanoraclewarnedSpartaagainstalamereign,thatis,thereignofalameking.Itissome
confirmationofthisconjecturethatthekingsofEthiopiawerechosenfortheirsize,strength,andbeauty
longbeforethecustomofkillingthemwasabolished.TothisdaytheSultanofWadaimusthaveno
obviousbodilydefect,andthekingofAngoycannotbecrownedifhehasasingleblemish,suchasa
brokenorafiledtoothorthescarofanoldwound.AccordingtotheBookofAcaillandmanyother
authoritiesnokingwhowasafflictedwithapersonalblemishmightreignoverIrelandatTara.Hence,
whenthegreatKingCormacMacArtlostoneeyebyanaccident,heatonceabdicated.
ManydaysjourneytothenortheastofAbomey,theoldcapitalofDahomey,liesthekingdomofEyeo.
TheEyeosaregovernedbyaking,nolessabsolutethanthekingofDahomey,yetsubjecttoa

regulationofstate,atoncehumiliatingandextraordinary.Whenthepeoplehaveconceivedanopinionof
hisillgovernment,whichissometimesinsidiouslyinfusedintothembytheartificeofhisdiscontented
ministers,theysendadeputationtohimwithapresentofparrotseggs,asamarkofitsauthenticity,to
representtohimthattheburdenofgovernmentmusthavesofarfatiguedhimthattheyconsideritfull
timeforhimtoreposefromhiscaresandindulgehimselfwithalittlesleep.Hethankshissubjectsfor
theirattentiontohisease,retirestohisownapartmentasiftosleep,andtheregivesdirectionstohis
womentostranglehim.Thisisimmediatelyexecuted,andhissonquietlyascendsthethroneuponthe
usualtermsofholdingthereinsofgovernmentnolongerthanwhilsthemeritstheapprobationofthe
people.Abouttheyear1774,akingofEyeo,whomhisministersattemptedtoremoveinthecustomary
manner,positivelyrefusedtoaccepttheprofferedparrotseggsattheirhands,tellingthemthathehadno
mindtotakeanap,butonthecontrarywasresolvedtowatchforthebenefitofhissubjects.The
ministers,surprisedandindignantathisrecalcitrancy,raisedarebellion,butweredefeatedwithgreat
slaughter,andthusbyhisspiritedconductthekingfreedhimselffromthetyrannyofhiscouncillorsand
establishedanewprecedentfortheguidanceofhissuccessors.However,theoldcustomseemstohave
revivedandpersisteduntillateinthenineteenthcentury,foraCatholicmissionary,writingin1884,
speaksofthepracticeasifitwerestillinvogue.Anothermissionary,writingin1881,thusdescribesthe
usageoftheEgbasandtheYorubasofWestAfrica:Amongthecustomsofthecountryoneofthemost
curiousisunquestionablythatofjudging,andpunishingtheking.Shouldhehaveearnedthehatredofhis
peoplebyexceedinghisrights,oneofhiscouncillors,onwhomtheheavydutyislaid,requiresofthe
princethatheshallgotosleep,whichmeanssimplytakepoisonanddie.Ifhiscouragefailshimat
thesuprememoment,afriendrendershimthislastservice,andquietly,withoutbetrayingthesecret,they
preparethepeopleforthenewsofthekingsdeath.InYorubathethingismanagedalittledifferently.
WhenasonisborntothekingofOyo,theymakeamodeloftheinfantsrightfootinclayandkeepitin
thehouseoftheelders(ogboni).Ifthekingfailstoobservethecustomsofthecountry,amessenger,
withoutspeakingaword,showshimhischildsfoot.Thekingknowswhatthatmeans.Hetakespoison
andgoestosleep.TheoldPrussiansacknowledgedastheirsupremelordarulerwhogovernedthemin
thenameofthegods,andwasknownasGodsMouth.Whenhefelthimselfweakandill,ifhewished
toleaveagoodnamebehindhim,hehadagreatheapmadeofthornbushesandstraw,onwhichhe
mountedanddeliveredalongsermontothepeople,exhortingthemtoservethegodsandpromisingto
gotothegodsandspeakforthepeople.Thenhetooksomeoftheperpetualfirewhichburnedinfrontof
theholyoaktree,andlightingthepilewithitburnedhimselftodeath.
3.KingskilledattheEndofaFixedTerm
INTHECASEShithertodescribed,thedivinekingorpriestissufferedbyhispeopletoretainoffice
untilsomeoutwarddefect,somevisiblesymptomoffailinghealthoradvancingage,warnsthemthathe
isnolongerequaltothedischargeofhisdivinedutiesbutnotuntilsuchsymptomshavemadetheir
appearanceisheputtodeath.Somepeoples,however,appeartohavethoughtitunsafetowaitforeven
theslightestsymptomofdecayandhavepreferredtokillthekingwhilehewasstillinthefullvigourof
life.Accordingly,theyhavefixedatermbeyondwhichhemightnotreign,andatthecloseofwhichhe
mustdie,thetermfixeduponbeingshortenoughtoexcludetheprobabilityofhisdegenerating
physicallyintheinterval.InsomepartsofSouthernIndiatheperiodfixedwastwelveyears.Thus,
accordingtoanoldtraveller,intheprovinceofQuilacare,thereisaGentilehouseofprayer,inwhich
thereisanidolwhichtheyholdingreataccount,andeverytwelveyearstheycelebrateagreatfeasttoit,
whitheralltheGentilesgoastoajubilee.Thistemplepossessesmanylandsandmuchrevenue:itisa
verygreataffair.Thisprovincehasakingoverit,whohasnotmorethantwelveyearstoreignfrom
jubileetojubilee.Hismanneroflivingisinthiswise,thatistosay:whenthetwelveyearsare
completed,onthedayofthisfeastthereassembletogetherinnumerablepeople,andmuchmoneyisspent
ingivingfoodtoBramans.Thekinghasawoodenscaffoldingmade,spreadoverwithsilkenhangings:
andonthatdayhegoestobatheatatankwithgreatceremoniesandsoundofmusic,afterthathecomes

totheidolandpraystoit,andmountsontothescaffolding,andtherebeforeallthepeoplehetakessome
verysharpknives,andbeginstocutoffhisnose,andthenhisears,andhislips,andallhismembers,and
asmuchfleshoffhimselfashecanandhethrowsitawayveryhurriedlyuntilsomuchofhisbloodis
spilledthathebeginstofaint,andthenhecutshisthroathimself.Andheperformsthissacrificetothe
idol,andwhoeverdesirestoreignanothertwelveyearsandundertakethismartyrdomforloveofthe
idol,hastobepresentlookingonatthis:andfromthatplacetheyraisehimupasking.
ThekingofCalicut,ontheMalabarcoast,bearsthetitleofSamorinorSamory.Hepretendstobeofa
higherrankthantheBrahmans,andtobeinferioronlytotheinvisiblegodsapretentionthatwas
acknowledgedbyhissubjects,butwhichisheldasabsurdandabominablebytheBrahmans,bywhom
heisonlytreatedasaSudra.FormerlytheSamorinhadtocuthisthroatinpublicattheendofatwelve
yearsreign.Buttowardstheendoftheseventeenthcenturytherulehadbeenmodifiedasfollows:
Manystrangecustomswereobservedinthiscountryinformertimes,andsomeveryoddonesarestill
continued.ItwasanancientcustomfortheSamorintoreignbuttwelveyears,andnolonger.Ifhedied
beforehistermwasexpired,itsavedhimatroublesomeceremonyofcuttinghisownthroat,onapublick
scaffolderectedforthepurpose.Hefirstmadeafeastforallhisnobilityandgentry,whoarevery
numerous.Afterthefeasthesalutedhisguests,andwentonthescaffold,andverydecentlycuthisown
throatintheviewoftheassembly,andhisbodywas,alittlewhileafter,burnedwithgreatpompand
ceremony,andthegrandeeselectedanewSamorin.Whetherthatcustomwasareligiousoracivil
ceremony,Iknownot,butitisnowlaidaside.AndanewcustomisfollowedbythemodernSamorins,
thatjubileeisproclaimedthroughouthisdominions,attheendoftwelveyears,andatentispitchedfor
himinaspaciousplain,andagreatfeastiscelebratedfortenortwelvedays,withmirthandjollity,guns
firingnightandday,soattheendofthefeastanyfourofthegueststhathaveamindtogainacrownby
adesperateaction,infightingtheirwaythrough30or40,000ofhisguards,andkilltheSamorininhis
tent,hethatkillshimsucceedshiminhisempire.Inanno1695,oneofthosejubileeshappened,andthe
tentpitchednearPennany,aseaportofhis,aboutfifteenleaguestothesouthwardofCalicut.Therewere
butthreementhatwouldventureonthatdesperateaction,whofellin,withswordandtarget,amongthe
guard,and,aftertheyhadkilledandwoundedmany,werethemselveskilled.Oneofthedesperadoshada
nephewoffifteenorsixteenyearsofage,thatkeptclosebyhisuncleintheattackontheguards,and,
whenhesawhimfall,theyouthgotthroughtheguardsintothetent,andmadeastrokeathisMajestys
head,andhadcertainlydespatchedhimifalargebrasslampwhichwasburningoverhisheadhadnot
marredtheblowbut,beforehecouldmakeanother,hewaskilledbytheguardsand,Ibelieve,thesame
Samorinreignsyet.Ichancedtocomethattimealongthecoastandheardthegunsfortwoorthreedays
andnightssuccessively.
TheEnglishtraveller,whoseaccountIhavequoted,didnothimselfwitnessthefestivalhedescribes,
thoughheheardthesoundofthefiringinthedistance.Fortunately,exactrecordsofthesefestivalsandof
thenumberofmenwhoperishedatthemhavebeenpreservedinthearchivesoftheroyalfamilyat
Calicut.InthelatterpartofthenineteenthcenturytheywereexaminedbyMr.W.Logan,withthe
personalassistanceofthereigningking,andfromhisworkitispossibletogainanaccurateconception
bothofthetragedyandofthescenewhereitwasperiodicallyenacteddownto1743,whentheceremony
tookplaceforthelasttime.
ThefestivalatwhichthekingofCalicutstakedhiscrownandhislifeontheissueofbattlewasknownas
theGreatSacrifice.Itfelleverytwelfthyear,whentheplanetJupiterwasinretrogrademotioninthe
signoftheCrab,anditlastedtwentyeightdays,culminatingatthetimeoftheeighthlunarasterismin
themonthofMakaram.AsthedateofthefestivalwasdeterminedbythepositionofJupiterinthesky,
andtheintervalbetweentwofestivalswastwelveyears,whichisroughlyJupitersperiodofrevolution
roundthesun,wemayconjecturethatthesplendidplanetwassupposedtobeinaspecialsensethe
kingsstarandtorulehisdestiny,theperiodofitsrevolutioninheavencorrespondingtotheperiodof
hisreignonearth.Howeverthatmaybe,theceremonywasobservedwithgreatpompattheTirunavayi

temple,onthenorthbankofthePonnaniRiver.Thespotisclosetothepresentrailwayline.Asthetrain
rushesby,youcanjustcatchaglimpseofthetemple,almosthiddenbehindaclumpoftreesontheriver
bank.Fromthewesterngatewayofthetempleaperfectlystraightroad,hardlyraisedabovethelevelof
thesurroundingricefieldsandshadedbyafineavenue,runsforhalfamiletoahighridgewitha
precipitousbank,onwhichtheoutlinesofthreeorfourterracescanstillbetraced.Onthetopmostof
theseterracesthekingtookhisstandontheeventfulday.Theviewwhichitcommandsisafineone.
Acrosstheflatexpanseofthericefields,withthebroadplacidriverwindingthroughthem,theeye
rangeseastwardtohightablelands,theirlowerslopesemboweredinwoods,whileafaroffloomsthe
greatchainofthewesternGhauts,andinthefurthestdistancetheNeilgherriesorBlueMountains,hardly
distinguishablefromtheazureoftheskyabove.
Butitwasnottothedistantprospectthatthekingseyesnaturallyturnedatthiscrisisofhisfate.His
attentionwasarrestedbyaspectaclenearerathand.Foralltheplainbelowwasalivewithtroops,their
bannerswavinggailyinthesun,thewhitetentsoftheirmanycampsstandingsharplyoutagainstthe
greenandgoldofthericefields.Fortythousandfightingmenormoreweregatheredtheretodefendthe
king.Butiftheplainswarmedwithsoldiers,theroadthatcutsacrossitfromthetempletothekings
standwasclearofthem.Notasoulwasstirringonit.Eachsideofthewaywasbarredbypalisades,and
fromthepalisadesoneitherhandalonghedgeofspears,heldbystrongarms,projectedintotheempty
road,theirbladesmeetinginthemiddleandformingaglitteringarchofsteel.Allwasnowready.The
kingwavedhissword.Atthesamemomentagreatchainofmassygold,enrichedwithbosses,was
placedonanelephantathisside.Thatwasthesignal.Ontheinstantastirmightbeseenhalfamileaway
atthegateofthetemple.Agroupofswordsmen,deckedwithflowersandsmearedwithashes,has
steppedoutfromthecrowd.Theyhavejustpartakenoftheirlastmealonearth,andtheynowreceivethe
lastblessingsandfarewellsoftheirfriends.Amomentmoreandtheyarecomingdownthelaneof
spears,hewingandstabbingrightandleftatthespearmen,windingandturningandwrithingamongthe
bladesasiftheyhadnobonesintheirbodies.Itisallinvain.Oneaftertheothertheyfall,somenearer
theking,somefartheroff,contenttodie,notfortheshadowofacrown,butforthemeresakeof
approvingtheirdauntlessvalourandswordsmanshiptotheworld.Onthelastdaysofthefestivalthe
samemagnificentdisplayofgallantry,thesameuselesssacrificeoflifewasrepeatedagainandagain.
Yetperhapsnosacrificeiswhollyuselesswhichprovesthattherearemenwhopreferhonourtolife.
ItisasingularcustominBengal,saysanoldnativehistorianofIndia,thatthereislittleofhereditary
descentinsuccessiontothesovereignty.Whoeverkillstheking,andsucceedsinplacinghimselfon
thatthrone,isimmediatelyacknowledgedaskingalltheamirs,wazirs,soldiers,andpeasantsinstantly
obeyandsubmittohim,andconsiderhimasbeingasmuchtheirsovereignastheydidtheirformer
prince,andobeyhisordersimplicitly.ThepeopleofBengalsay,Wearefaithfultothethronewhoever
fillsthethroneweareobedientandtruetoit.Acustomofthesamesortformerlyprevailedinthelittle
kingdomofPassier,onthenortherncoastofSumatra.TheoldPortuguesehistorianDeBarros,who
informsusofit,remarkswithsurprisethatnowisemanwouldwishtobekingofPassier,sincethe
monarchwasnotallowedbyhissubjectstolivelong.Fromtimetotimeasortoffuryseizedthepeople,
andtheymarchedthroughthestreetsofthecitychantingwithloudvoicesthefatalwords,Theking
mustdie!Whenthekingheardthatsongofdeathheknewthathishourhadcome.Themanwhostruck
thefatalblowwasoftheroyallineage,andassoonashehaddonethedeedofbloodandseatedhimself
onthethronehewasregardedasthelegitimateking,providedthathecontrivedtomaintainhisseat
peaceablyforasingleday.This,however,theregicidedidnotalwayssucceedindoing.WhenFerno
PeresdAndrade,onavoyagetoChina,putinatPassierforacargoofspices,twokingsweremassacred,
andthatinthemostpeaceableandorderlymanner,withoutthesmallestsignoftumultorseditioninthe
city,whereeverythingwentoninitsusualcourse,asifthemurderorexecutionofakingwereamatter
ofeverydayoccurrence.Indeed,ononeoccasionthreekingswereraisedtothedangerouselevationand
followedeachotherinthedustyroadofdeathinasingleday.Thepeopledefendedthecustom,which
theyesteemedverylaudableandevenofdivineinstitution,bysayingthatGodwouldneverallowsohigh

andmightyabeingasaking,whoreignedashisvicegerentonearth,toperishbyviolenceunlessforhis
sinshethoroughlydeservedit.FarawayfromthetropicalislandofSumatraaruleofthesamesort
appearstohaveobtainedamongtheoldSlavs.WhenthecaptivesGunnandJarmerikcontrivedtoslay
thekingandqueenoftheSlavsandmadetheirescape,theywerepursuedbythebarbarians,whoshouted
afterthemthatiftheywouldonlycomebacktheywouldreigninsteadofthemurderedmonarch,sinceby
apublicstatuteoftheancientsthesuccessiontothethronefelltothekingsassassin.Buttheflying
regicidesturnedadeafeartopromiseswhichtheyregardedasmerebaitstolurethembackto
destructiontheycontinuedtheirflight,andtheshoutsandclamourofthebarbariansgraduallydiedaway
inthedistance.
Whenkingswereboundtosufferdeath,whetherattheirownhandsoratthehandsofothers,onthe
expirationofafixedtermofyears,itwasnaturalthattheyshouldseektodelegatethepainfulduty,along
withsomeoftheprivilegesofsovereignty,toasubstitutewhoshouldsuffervicariouslyintheirstead.
ThisexpedientappearstohavebeenresortedtobysomeoftheprincesofMalabar.Thusweareinformed
byanativeauthorityonthatcountrythatinsomeplacesallpowersbothexecutiveandjudicialwere
delegatedforafixedperiodtonativesbythesovereign.ThisinstitutionwasstyledThalavettiparothiam
orauthorityobtainedbydecapitation.Itwasanofficetenableforfiveyearsduringwhichitsbearer
wasinvestedwithsupremedespoticpowerswithinhisjurisdiction.Ontheexpiryofthefiveyearsthe
mansheadwascutoffandthrownupintheairamongstalargeconcourseofvillagers,eachofwhom
viedwiththeotherintryingtocatchitinitscoursedown.Hewhosucceededwasnominatedtothepost
forthenextfiveyears.
Whenoncekings,whohadhithertobeenboundtodieaviolentdeathattheendofatermofyears,
conceivedthehappythoughtofdyingbydeputyinthepersonsofothers,theywouldverynaturallyputit
inpracticeandaccordinglyweneednotwonderatfindingsopopularanexpedient,ortracesofit,in
manylands.ScandinaviantraditionscontainsomehintsthatofoldtheSwedishkingsreignedonlyfor
periodsofnineyears,afterwhichtheywereputtodeathorhadtofindasubstitutetodieintheirstead.
ThusAunorOn,kingofSweden,issaidtohavesacrificedtoOdinforlengthofdaysandtohavebeen
answeredbythegodthatheshouldlivesolongashesacrificedoneofhissonseveryninthyear.He
sacrificednineoftheminthismanner,andwouldhavesacrificedthetenthandlast,buttheSwedes
wouldnotallowhim.SohediedandwasburiedinamoundatUpsala.Anotherindicationofasimilar
tenureofthecrownoccursinacuriouslegendofthedepositionandbanishmentofOdin.Offendedathis
misdeeds,theothergodsoutlawedandexiledhim,butsetupinhisplaceasubstitute,Ollerbyname,a
cunningwizard,towhomtheyaccordedthesymbolsbothofroyaltyandofgodhead.Thedeputyborethe
nameofOdin,andreignedfornearlytenyears,whenhewasdrivenfromthethrone,whiletherealOdin
cametohisownagain.HisdiscomfitedrivalretiredtoSwedenandwasafterwardsslaininanattemptto
repairhisshatteredfortunes.Asgodsareoftenmerelymenwholoomlargethroughthemistsof
tradition,wemayconjecturethatthisNorselegendpreservesaconfusedreminiscenceofancient
Swedishkingswhoreignedfornineortenyearstogether,thenabdicated,delegatingtoothersthe
privilegeofdyingfortheircountry.ThegreatfestivalwhichwasheldatUpsalaeverynineyearsmay
havebeentheoccasiononwhichthekingorhisdeputywasputtodeath.Weknowthathumansacrifices
formedpartoftherites.
TherearesomegroundsforbelievingthatthereignofmanyancientGreekkingswaslimitedtoeight
years,oratleastthatattheendofeveryperiodofeightyearsanewconsecration,afreshoutpouringof
thedivinegrace,wasregardedasnecessaryinordertoenablethemtodischargetheircivilandreligious
duties.ThusitwasaruleoftheSpartanconstitutionthateveryeighthyeartheephorsshouldchoosea
clearandmoonlessnightandsittingdownobservetheskyinsilence.Ifduringtheirvigiltheysawa
meteororshootingstar,theyinferredthatthekinghadsinnedagainstthedeity,andtheysuspendedhim
fromhisfunctionsuntiltheDelphicorOlympicoracleshouldreinstatehiminthem.Thiscustom,which
hasalltheairofgreatantiquity,wasnotsufferedtoremainadeadlettereveninthelastperiodofthe

Spartanmonarchyforinthethirdcenturybeforeoureraaking,whohadrenderedhimselfobnoxiousto
thereformingparty,wasactuallydeposedonvarioustrumpedupcharges,amongwhichtheallegation
thattheominoussignhadbeenseenintheskytookaprominentplace.
IfthetenureoftheregalofficewasformerlylimitedamongtheSpartanstoeightyears,wemaynaturally
ask,whywasthatpreciseperiodselectedasthemeasureofakingsreign?Thereasonisprobablytobe
foundinthoseastronomicalconsiderationswhichdeterminedtheearlyGreekcalendar.Thedifficultyof
reconcilinglunarwithsolartimeisoneofthestandingpuzzleswhichhastaxedtheingenuityofmen
whoareemergingfrombarbarism.Nowanoctennialcycleistheshortestperiodattheendofwhichsun
andmoonreallymarktimetogetherafteroverlapping,sotosay,throughoutthewholeoftheinterval.
Thus,forexample,itisonlyonceineveryeightyearsthatthefullmooncoincideswiththelongestor
shortestdayandasthiscoincidencecanbeobservedwiththeaidofasimpledial,theobservationis
naturallyoneofthefirsttofurnishabaseforacalendarwhichshallbringlunarandsolartimesinto
tolerable,thoughnotexact,harmony.Butinearlydaystheproperadjustmentofthecalendarisamatter
ofreligiousconcern,sinceonitdependsaknowledgeoftherightseasonsforpropitiatingthedeities
whosefavourisindispensabletothewelfareofthecommunity.Nowonder,therefore,thattheking,as
thechiefpriestofthestate,orashimselfagod,shouldbeliabletodepositionordeathattheendofan
astronomicalperiod.Whenthegreatluminarieshadruntheircourseonhigh,andwereabouttorenew
theheavenlyrace,itmightwellbethoughtthatthekingshouldrenewhisdivineenergies,orprovethem
unabated,underpainofmakingroomforamorevigoroussuccessor.InSouthernIndia,aswehaveseen,
thekingsreignandlifeterminatedwiththerevolutionoftheplanetJupiterroundthesun.InGreece,on
theotherhand,thekingsfateseemstohavehunginthebalanceattheendofeveryeightyears,readyto
flyupandkickthebeamassoonastheoppositescalewasloadedwithafallingstar.
Whateveritsoriginmayhavebeen,thecycleofeightyearsappearstohavecoincidedwiththenormal
lengthofthekingsreigninotherpartsofGreecebesidesSparta.ThusMinos,kingofCnossusinCrete,
whosegreatpalacehasbeenunearthedinrecentyears,issaidtohaveheldofficeforperiodsofeight
yearstogether.AttheendofeachperiodheretiredforaseasontotheoracularcaveonMountIda,and
therecommunedwithhisdivinefatherZeus,givinghimanaccountofhiskingshipintheyearsthatwere
past,andreceivingfromhiminstructionsforhisguidanceinthosewhichweretocome.Thetradition
plainlyimpliesthatattheendofeveryeightyearsthekingssacredpowersneededtoberenewedby
intercoursewiththegodhead,andthatwithoutsucharenewalhewouldhaveforfeitedhisrighttothe
throne.
Withoutbeingundulyrashwemaysurmisethatthetributeofsevenyouthsandsevenmaidenswhomthe
AthenianswereboundtosendtoMinoseveryeightyearshadsomeconnexionwiththerenewalofthe
kingspowerforanotheroctennialcycle.Traditionsvariedastothefatewhichawaitedtheladsand
damselsontheirarrivalinCretebutthecommonviewappearstohavebeenthattheywereshutupinthe
labyrinth,theretobedevouredbytheMinotaur,oratleasttobeimprisonedforlife.Perhapstheywere
sacrificedbybeingroastedaliveinabronzeimageofabull,orofabullheadedman,inordertorenew
thestrengthofthekingandofthesun,whomhepersonated.Thisatalleventsissuggestedbythelegend
ofTalos,abronzemanwhoclutchedpeopletohisbreastandleapedwiththemintothefire,sothatthey
wereroastedalive.HeissaidtohavebeengivenbyZeustoEuropa,orbyHephaestustoMinos,toguard
theislandofCrete,whichhepatrolledthricedaily.Accordingtooneaccounthewasabull,accordingto
anotherhewasthesun.ProbablyhewasidenticalwiththeMinotaur,andstrippedofhismythical
featureswasnothingbutabronzeimageofthesunrepresentedasamanwithabullshead.Inorderto
renewthesolarfires,humanvictimsmayhavebeensacrificedtotheidolbybeingroastedinitshollow
bodyorplacedonitsslopinghandsandallowedtorollintoapitoffire.Itwasinthelatterfashionthat
theCarthaginianssacrificedtheiroffspringtoMoloch.Thechildrenwerelaidonthehandsofacalf
headedimageofbronze,fromwhichtheyslidintoafieryoven,whilethepeopledancedtothemusicof
flutesandtimbrelstodrowntheshrieksoftheburningvictims.TheresemblancewhichtheCretan

traditionsbeartotheCarthaginianpracticesuggeststhattheworshipassociatedwiththenamesofMinos
andtheMinotaurmayhavebeenpowerfullyinfluencedbythatofaSemiticBaal.Inthetraditionof
Phalaris,tyrantofAgrigentum,andhisbrazenbullwemayhaveanechoofsimilarritesinSicily,where
theCarthaginianpowerstruckdeeproots.
IntheprovinceofLagos,theIjebutribeoftheYorubaraceisdividedintotwobranches,whichare
knownrespectivelyastheIjebuOdeandtheIjebuRemon.TheOdebranchofthetribeisruledbyachief
whobearsthetitleofAwujaleandissurroundedbyagreatdealofmystery.Downtorecenttimeshis
facemightnotbeseenevenbyhisownsubjects,andifcircumstancesobligedhimtocommunicatewith
themhedidsothroughascreenwhichhidhimfromview.TheotherorRemonbranchoftheIjebutribe
isgovernedbyachief,whoranksbelowtheAwujale.Mr.JohnParkinsonwasinformedthatinformer
timesthissubordinatechiefusedtobekilledwithceremonyafteraruleofthreeyears.Asthecountryis
nowunderBritishprotectionthecustomofputtingthechieftodeathattheendofathreeyearsreignhas
longbeenabolished,andMr.Parkinsonwasunabletoascertainanyparticularsonthesubject.
AtBabylon,withinhistoricaltimes,thetenureofthekinglyofficewasinpracticelifelong,yetintheory
itwouldseemtohavebeenmerelyannual.ForeveryyearatthefestivalofZagmukthekinghadto
renewhispowerbyseizingthehandsoftheimageofMardukinhisgreattempleofEsagilatBabylon.
EvenwhenBabylonpassedunderthepowerofAssyria,themonarchsofthatcountrywereexpectedto
legalisetheirclaimtothethroneeveryyearbycomingtoBabylonandperformingtheancientceremony
attheNewYearfestival,andsomeofthemfoundtheobligationsoburdensomethatratherthan
dischargeittheyrenouncedthetitleofkingaltogetherandcontentedthemselveswiththehumbleroneof
Governor.Further,itwouldappearthatinremotetimes,thoughnotwithinthehistoricalperiod,thekings
ofBabylonortheirbarbarouspredecessorsforfeitednotmerelytheircrownbuttheirlifeattheendofa
yearstenureofoffice.Atleastthisistheconclusiontowhichthefollowingevidenceseemstopoint.
AccordingtothehistorianBerosus,whoasaBabylonianpriestspokewithampleknowledge,therewas
annuallycelebratedinBabylonafestivalcalledtheSacaea.Itbeganonthesixteenthdayofthemonth
Lous,andlastedforfivedays,duringwhichmastersandservantschangedplaces,theservantsgiving
ordersandthemastersobeyingthem.Aprisonercondemnedtodeathwasdressedinthekingsrobes,
seatedonthekingsthrone,allowedtoissuewhatevercommandshepleased,toeat,drink,andenjoy
himself,andtoliewiththekingsconcubines.Butattheendofthefivedayshewasstrippedofhisroyal
robes,scourged,andhangedorimpaled.DuringhisbrieftermofofficeheborethetitleofZoganes.This
custommightperhapshavebeenexplainedasmerelyagrimjestperpetratedinaseasonofjollityatthe
expenseofanunhappycriminal.Butonecircumstancetheleavegiventothemockkingtoenjoythe
kingsconcubinesisdecisiveagainstthisinterpretation.Consideringthejealousseclusionofan
orientaldespotsharemwemaybequitecertainthatpermissiontoinvadeitwouldneverhavebeen
grantedbythedespot,leastofalltoacondemnedcriminal,exceptfortheverygravestcause.Thiscause
couldhardlybeotherthanthatthecondemnedmanwasabouttodieinthekingsstead,andthattomake
thesubstitutionperfectitwasnecessaryheshouldenjoythefullrightsofroyaltyduringhisbriefreign.
Thereisnothingsurprisinginthissubstitution.Therulethatthekingmustbeputtodeatheitheronthe
appearanceofanysymptomofbodilydecayorattheendofafixedperiodiscertainlyonewhich,sooner
orlater,thekingswouldseektoabolishormodify.WehaveseenthatinEthiopia,Sofala,andEyeothe
rulewasboldlysetasidebyenlightenedmonarchsandthatinCalicuttheoldcustomofkillingtheking
attheendoftwelveyearswaschangedintoapermissiongrantedtoanyoneattheendofthetwelve
yearsperiodtoattacktheking,and,intheeventofkillinghim,toreigninhissteadthough,astheking
tookcareatthesetimestobesurroundedbyhisguards,thepermissionwaslittlemorethanaform.
AnotherwayofmodifyingthesternoldruleisseenintheBabyloniancustomjustdescribed.Whenthe
timedrewnearforthekingtobeputtodeath(inBabylonthisappearstohavebeenattheendofasingle
yearsreign)heabdicatedforafewdays,duringwhichatemporarykingreignedandsufferedinhis
stead.Atfirstthetemporarykingmayhavebeenaninnocentperson,possiblyamemberofthekings
ownfamilybutwiththegrowthofcivilisationthesacrificeofaninnocentpersonwouldberevoltingto

thepublicsentiment,andaccordinglyacondemnedcriminalwouldbeinvestedwiththebriefandfatal
sovereignty.Inthesequelweshallfindotherexamplesofadyingcriminalrepresentingadyinggod.For
wemustnotforgetthat,asthecaseoftheShillukkingsclearlyshows,thekingisslaininhischaracterof
agodorademigod,hisdeathandresurrection,astheonlymeansofperpetuatingthedivinelife
unimpaired,beingdeemednecessaryforthesalvationofhispeopleandtheworld.
Avestigeofapracticeofputtingthekingtodeathattheendofayearsreignappearstohavesurvivedin
thefestivalcalledMacahity,whichusedtobecelebratedinHawaiiduringthelastmonthoftheyear.
AboutahundredyearsagoaRussianvoyagerdescribedthecustomasfollows:ThetabooMacahityis
notunliketoourfestivalofChristmas.Itcontinuesawholemonth,duringwhichthepeopleamuse
themselveswithdances,plays,andshamfightsofeverykind.Thekingmustopenthisfestivalwherever
heis.Onthisoccasionhismajestydresseshimselfinhisrichestcloakandhelmet,andispaddledina
canoealongtheshore,followedsometimesbymanyofhissubjects.Heembarksearly,andmustfinish
hisexcursionatsunrise.Thestrongestandmostexpertofthewarriorsischosentoreceivehimonhis
landing.Thiswarriorwatchesthecanoealongthebeachandassoonasthekinglands,andhasthrown
offhiscloak,hedartshisspearathim,fromadistanceofaboutthirtypaces,andthekingmusteither
catchthespearinhishand,orsufferfromit:thereisnojestinginthebusiness.Havingcaughtit,he
carriesitunderhisarm,withthesharpenddownwards,intothetempleorheavoo.Onhisentrance,the
assembledmultitudebegintheirshamfights,andimmediatelytheairisobscuredbycloudsofspears,
madefortheoccasionwithbluntedends.Hamamea[theking]hasbeenfrequentlyadvisedtoabolishthis
ridiculousceremony,inwhichheriskshislifeeveryyearbuttonoeffect.Hisansweralwaysis,thathe
isasabletocatchaspearasanyoneontheislandistothrowitathim.DuringtheMacahity,all
punishmentsareremittedthroughoutthecountryandnopersoncanleavetheplaceinwhichhe
commencestheseholidays,lettheaffairbeeversoimportant.
Thatakingshouldregularlyhavebeenputtodeathatthecloseofayearsreignwillhardlyappear
improbablewhenwelearnthattothisdaythereisstillakingdominwhichthereignandthelifeofthe
sovereignarelimitedtoasingleday.InNgoio,aprovinceoftheancientkingdomofCongo,therule
obtainsthatthechiefwhoassumesthecapofsovereigntyisalwayskilledonthenightafterhis
coronation.TherightofsuccessionlieswiththechiefoftheMusurongobutweneednotwonderthathe
doesnotexerciseit,andthatthethronestandsvacant.Noonelikestolosehislifeforafewhoursglory
ontheNgoiothrone.

XXV.TemporaryKings
INSOMEplacesthemodifiedformoftheoldcustomofregicidewhichappearstohaveprevailedat
Babylonhasbeenfurthersofteneddown.Thekingstillabdicatesannuallyforashorttimeandhisplace
isfilledbyamoreorlessnominalsovereignbutatthecloseofhisshortreignthelatterisnolonger
killed,thoughsometimesamockexecutionstillsurvivesasamemorialofthetimewhenhewasactually
puttodeath.Totakeexamples.InthemonthofMac(February)thekingofCambodiaannually
abdicatedforthreedays.Duringthistimeheperformednoactofauthority,hedidnottouchtheseals,he
didnotevenreceivetherevenueswhichfelldue.InhissteadtherereignedatemporarykingcalledSdach
Mac,thatis,KingFebruary.Theofficeoftemporarykingwashereditaryinafamilydistantly
connectedwiththeroyalhouse,thesonssucceedingthefathersandtheyoungerbrotherstheelder
brothersjustasinthesuccessiontotherealsovereignty.Onafavourabledayfixedbytheastrologersthe
temporarykingwasconductedbythemandarinsintriumphalprocession.Herodeoneoftheroyal
elephants,seatedintheroyalpalanquin,andescortedbysoldierswho,dressedinappropriatecostumes,
representedtheneighbouringpeoplesofSiam,Annam,Laos,andsoon.Inplaceofthegoldencrownhe
woreapeakedwhitecap,andhisregalia,insteadofbeingofgoldencrustedwithdiamonds,wereof
roughwood.Afterpayinghomagetotherealking,fromwhomhereceivedthesovereigntyforthree

days,togetherwithalltherevenuesaccruingduringthattime(thoughthislastcustomhasbeenomitted
forsometime),hemovedinprocessionroundthepalaceandthroughthestreetsofthecapital.Onthe
thirdday,aftertheusualprocession,thetemporarykinggaveordersthattheelephantsshouldtrample
underfootthemountainofrice,whichwasascaffoldofbamboosurroundedbysheavesofrice.The
peoplegathereduptherice,eachmantakinghomealittlewithhimtosecureagoodharvest.Someofit
wasalsotakentotheking,whohaditcookedandpresentedtothemonks.
InSiamonthesixthdayofthemooninthesixthmonth(theendofApril)atemporarykingisappointed,
whoforthreedaysenjoystheroyalprerogatives,therealkingremainingshutupinhispalace.This
temporarykingsendshisnumeroussatellitesinalldirectionstoseizeandconfiscatewhatevertheycan
findinthebazaarandopenshopseventheshipsandjunkswhicharriveinharbourduringthethreedays
areforfeitedtohimandmustberedeemed.Hegoestoafieldinthemiddleofthecity,whithertheybring
agildedploughdrawnbygailydeckedoxen.Aftertheploughhasbeenanointedandtheoxenrubbed
withincense,themockkingtracesninefurrowswiththeplough,followedbyageddamesofthepalace
scatteringthefirstseedoftheseason.Assoonastheninefurrowsaredrawn,thecrowdofspectators
rushesinandscramblesfortheseedwhichhasjustbeensown,believingthat,mixedwiththeseedrice,it
willensureaplentifulcrop.Thentheoxenareunyoked,andrice,maize,sesame,sago,bananas,sugar
cane,melons,andsoon,aresetbeforethemwhatevertheyeatfirstwill,itisthought,bedearintheyear
following,thoughsomepeopleinterprettheomenintheoppositesense.Duringthistimethetemporary
kingstandsleaningagainstatreewithhisrightfootrestingonhisleftknee.Fromstandingthusonone
footheispopularlyknownasKingHopbuthisofficialtitleisPhayaPhollathepLordoftheHeavenly
Hosts.HeisasortofMinisterofAgriculturealldisputesaboutfields,rice,andsoforth,arereferredto
him.Thereismoreoveranotherceremonyinwhichhepersonatestheking.Ittakesplaceinthesecond
month(whichfallsinthecoldseason)andlaststhreedays.Heisconductedinprocessiontoanopen
placeoppositetheTempleoftheBrahmans,wherethereareanumberofpolesdressedlikeMaypoles,
uponwhichtheBrahmansswing.Allthewhilethattheyswinganddance,theLordoftheHeavenly
Hostshastostandononefootuponaseatwhichismadeofbricksplasteredover,coveredwithawhite
cloth,andhungwithtapestry.Heissupportedbyawoodenframewithagiltcanopy,andtwoBrahmans
standoneoneachsideofhim.ThedancingBrahmanscarrybuffalohornswithwhichtheydrawwater
fromalargecoppercaldronandsprinkleitonthespectatorsthisissupposedtobringgoodluck,causing
thepeopletodwellinpeaceandquiet,healthandprosperity.ThetimeduringwhichtheLordofthe
HeavenlyHostshastostandononefootisaboutthreehours.Thisisthoughttoprovethedispositions
oftheDevattasandspirits.Ifheletshisfootdownheisliabletoforfeithispropertyandhavehis
familyenslavedbytheking,asitisbelievedtobeabadomen,portendingdestructiontothestate,and
instabilitytothethrone.Butifhestandfirmheisbelievedtohavegainedavictoryoverevilspirits,and
hehasmoreovertheprivilege,ostensiblyatleast,ofseizinganyshipwhichmayentertheharbourduring
thesethreedays,andtakingitscontents,andalsoofenteringanyopenshopinthetownandcarrying
awaywhathechooses.
SuchwerethedutiesandprivilegesoftheSiameseKingHopdowntoaboutthemiddleofthenineteenth
centuryorlater.Underthereignofthelateenlightenedmonarchthisquaintpersonagewastosome
extentbothshornofthegloriesandrelievedoftheburdenofhisoffice.Hestillwatches,asofold,the
Brahmansrushingthroughtheairinaswingsuspendedbetweentwotallmasts,eachsomeninetyfeet
highbutheisallowedtositinsteadofstand,and,althoughpublicopinionstillexpectshimtokeephis
rightfootonhisleftkneeduringthewholeoftheceremony,hewouldincurnolegalpenaltywerehe,to
thegreatchagrinofthepeople,toputhiswearyfoottotheground.Othersigns,too,telloftheinvasion
oftheEastbytheideasandcivilisationoftheWest.Thethoroughfaresthatleadtothesceneofthe
performanceareblockedwithcarriages:lamppostsandtelegraphposts,towhicheagerspectatorscling
likemonkeys,riseabovethedensecrowdand,whileatatterdemalionbandoftheoldstyle,ingaudy
garbofvermilionandyellow,bangsandtootlesawayondrumsandtrumpetsofanantiquepattern,the
processionofbarefootedsoldiersinbrilliantuniformsstepsbrisklyalongtothelivelystrainsofamodern

militarybandplayingMarchingthroughGeorgia.
Onthefirstdayofthesixthmonth,whichwasregardedasthebeginningoftheyear,thekingandpeople
ofSamarcandusedtoputonnewclothesandcuttheirhairandbeards.Thentheyrepairedtoaforestnear
thecapitalwheretheyshotarrowsonhorsebackforsevendays.Onthelastdaythetargetwasagold
coin,andhewhohitithadtherighttobekingforoneday.InUpperEgyptonthefirstdayofthesolar
yearbyCopticreckoning,thatis,onthetenthofSeptember,whentheNilehasgenerallyreachedits
highestpoint,theregulargovernmentissuspendedforthreedaysandeverytownchoosesitsownruler.
Thistemporarylordwearsasortoftallfoolscapandalongflaxenbeard,andisenvelopedinastrange
mantle.Withawandofofficeinhishandandattendedbymendisguisedasscribes,executioners,andso
forth,heproceedstotheGovernorshouse.Thelatterallowshimselftobedeposedandthemockking,
mountingthethrone,holdsatribunal,tothedecisionsofwhicheventhegovernorandhisofficialsmust
bow.Afterthreedaysthemockkingiscondemnedtodeaththeenvelopeorshellinwhichhewas
encasediscommittedtotheflames,andfromitsashestheFellahcreepsforth.Thecustomperhapspoints
toanoldpracticeofburningarealkingingrimearnest.InUgandathebrothersofthekingusedtobe
burned,becauseitwasnotlawfultoshedtheroyalblood.
TheMohammedanstudentsofFez,inMorocco,areallowedtoappointasultanoftheirown,whoreigns
forafewweeks,andisknownasSultanttulba,theSultanoftheScribes.Thisbriefauthorityisputup
forauctionandknockeddowntothehighestbidder.Itbringssomesubstantialprivilegeswithit,forthe
holderisfreedfromtaxesthenceforward,andhehastherightofaskingafavourfromtherealsultan.
Thatfavourisseldomrefuseditusuallyconsistsinthereleaseofaprisoner.Moreover,theagentsofthe
studentsultanlevyfinesontheshopkeepersandhouseholders,againstwhomtheytrumpupvarious
humorouscharges.Thetemporarysultanissurroundedwiththepompofarealcourt,andparadesthe
streetsinstatewithmusicandshouting,whilearoyalumbrellaisheldoverhishead.Withthesocalled
finesandfreewillofferings,towhichtherealsultanaddsaliberalsupplyofprovisions,thestudents
haveenoughtofurnishforthamagnificentbanquetandaltogethertheyenjoythemselvesthoroughly,
indulginginallkindsofgamesandamusements.Forthefirstsevendaysthemocksultanremainsinthe
collegethenhegoesaboutamileoutofthetownandencampsonthebankoftheriver,attendedbythe
studentsandnotafewofthecitizens.Ontheseventhdayofhisstayoutsidethetownheisvisitedbythe
realsultan,whograntshimhisrequestandgiveshimsevenmoredaystoreign,sothatthereignofthe
SultanoftheScribesnominallylaststhreeweeks.Butwhensixdaysofthelastweekhavepassedthe
mocksultanrunsbacktothetownbynight.Thistemporarysultanshipalwaysfallsinspring,aboutthe
beginningofApril.Itsoriginissaidtohavebeenasfollows.WhenMulaiRasheedII.wasfightingfor
thethronein1664or1665,acertainJewusurpedtheroyalauthorityatTaza.Buttherebellionwassoon
suppressedthroughtheloyaltyanddevotionofthestudents.Toeffecttheirpurposetheyresortedtoan
ingeniousstratagem.Fortyofthemcausedthemselvestobepackedinchestswhichweresentasa
presenttotheusurper.Inthedeadofnight,whiletheunsuspectingJewwasslumberingpeacefully
amongthepackingcases,thelidswerestealthilyraised,thebravefortycreptforth,slewtheusurper,and
tookpossessionofthecityinthenameoftherealsultan,who,tomarkhisgratitudeforthehelpthus
renderedhimintimeofneed,conferredonthestudentstherightofannuallyappointingasultanoftheir
own.Thenarrativehasalltheairofafictiondevisedtoexplainanoldcustom,ofwhichtherealmeaning
andoriginhadbeenforgotten.
AcustomofannuallyappointingamockkingforasingledaywasobservedatLostwithielinCornwall
downtothesixteenthcentury.OnlittleEasterSundaythefreeholdersofthetownandmanor
assembledtogether,eitherinpersonorbytheirdeputies,andoneamongthem,asitfelltohislotbyturn,
gailyattiredandgallantlymounted,withacrownonhishead,asceptreinhishand,andaswordborne
beforehim,rodethroughtheprincipalstreettothechurch,dutifullyattendedbyalltherestonhorseback.
Theclergymaninhisbestrobesreceivedhimatthechurchyardstileandconductedhimtoheardivine
service.Onleavingthechurchherepaired,withthesamepomp,toahouseprovidedforhisreception.

Hereafeastawaitedhimandhissuite,andbeingsetattheheadofthetablehewasservedonbended
knees,withalltheritesduetotheestateofaprince.Theceremonyendedwiththedinner,andeveryman
returnedhome.
Sometimesthetemporarykingoccupiesthethrone,notannually,butonceforallatthebeginningofeach
reign.ThusinthekingdomofJambiinSumatraitisthecustomthatatthebeginningofanewreigna
manofthepeopleshouldoccupythethroneandexercisetheroyalprerogativesforasingleday.The
originofthecustomisexplainedbyatraditionthattherewereoncefiveroyalbrothers,thefourelderof
whomalldeclinedthethroneonthegroundofvariousbodilydefects,leavingittotheiryoungestbrother.
Buttheeldestoccupiedthethroneforoneday,andreservedforhisdescendantsasimilarprivilegeatthe
beginningofeveryreign.Thustheofficeoftemporarykingishereditaryinafamilyakintotheroyal
house.InBilaspuritseemstobethecustom,afterthedeathofaRajah,foraBrahmantoeatriceoutof
thedeadRajahshand,andthentooccupythethroneforayear.AttheendoftheyeartheBrahman
receivespresentsandisdismissedfromtheterritory,beingforbiddenapparentlytoreturn.Theidea
seemstobethatthespiritoftheRjentersintotheBrhmanwhoeatsthekhir(riceandmilk)outof
hishandwhenheisdead,astheBrahmanisapparentlycarefullywatchedduringthewholeyear,andnot
allowedtogoaway.Thesameorasimilarcustomisbelievedtoobtainamongthehillstatesabout
Kangra.ThecustomofbanishingtheBrahmanwhorepresentsthekingmaybeasubstituteforputting
himtodeath.AttheinstallationofaprinceofCarinthiaapeasant,inwhosefamilytheofficewas
hereditary,ascendedamarblestonewhichstoodsurroundedbymeadowsinaspaciousvalleyonhis
rightstoodablackmothercow,onhisleftaleanuglymare.Arusticcrowdgatheredabouthim.Then
thefutureprince,dressedasapeasantandcarryingashepherdsstaff,drewnear,attendedbycourtiers
andmagistrates.Onperceivinghimthepeasantcalledout,WhoisthiswhomIseecomingsoproudly
along?Thepeopleanswered,Theprinceoftheland.Thepeasantwasthenprevailedontosurrender
themarbleseattotheprinceonconditionofreceivingsixtypence,thecowandmare,andexemption
fromtaxes.Butbeforeyieldinghisplacehegavetheprincealightblowonthecheek.
Somepointsaboutthesetemporarykingsdeservetobespeciallynoticedbeforewepasstothenext
branchoftheevidence.Inthefirstplace,theCambodianandSiameseexamplesshowclearlythatitis
especiallythedivineormagicalfunctionsofthekingwhicharetransferredtohistemporarysubstitute.
ThisappearsfromthebeliefthatbykeepinguphisfootthetemporarykingofSiamgainedavictoryover
theevilspirits,whereasbylettingitdownheimperilledtheexistenceofthestate.Again,theCambodian
ceremonyoftramplingdownthemountainofrice,andtheSiameseceremonyofopeningthe
ploughingandsowing,arecharmstoproduceaplentifulharvest,asappearsfromthebeliefthatthose
whocarryhomesomeofthetrampledrice,oroftheseedsown,willtherebysecureagoodcrop.
Moreover,whentheSiameserepresentativeofthekingisguidingtheplough,thepeoplewatchhim
anxiously,nottoseewhetherhedrivesastraightfurrow,buttomarktheexactpointonhislegtowhich
theskirtofhissilkenrobereachesforonthatissupposedtohangthestateoftheweatherandthecrops
duringtheensuingseason.IftheLordoftheHeavenlyHostshitchesuphisgarmentabovehisknee,the
weatherwillbewetandheavyrainswillspoiltheharvest.Ifheletsittrailtohisankle,adroughtwillbe
theconsequence.Butfineweatherandheavycropswillfollowifthehemofhisrobehangsexactlyhalf
waydownthecalfofhisleg.Socloselyisthecourseofnature,andwithitthewealorwoeofthepeople,
dependentontheminutestactorgestureofthekingsrepresentative.Butthetaskofmakingthecrops
grow,thusdeputedtothetemporarykings,isoneofthemagicalfunctionsregularlysupposedtobe
dischargedbykingsinprimitivesociety.Therulethatthemockkingmuststandononefootupona
raisedseatinthericefieldwasperhapsoriginallymeantasacharmtomakethecropgrowhighatleast
thiswastheobjectofasimilarceremonyobservedbytheoldPrussians.Thetallestgirl,standingonone
footuponaseat,withherlapfullofcakes,acupofbrandyinherrighthandandapieceofelmbarkor
lindenbarkinherleft,prayedtothegodWaizganthosthattheflaxmightgrowashighasshewas
standing.Then,afterdrainingthecup,shehaditrefilled,andpouredthebrandyonthegroundasan
offeringtoWaizganthos,andthrewdownthecakesforhisattendantsprites.Ifsheremainedsteadyon

onefootthroughouttheceremony,itwasanomenthattheflaxcropwouldbegoodbutifsheletherfoot
down,itwasfearedthatthecropmightfail.Thesamesignificanceperhapsattachestotheswingingof
theBrahmans,whichtheLordoftheHeavenlyHostshadformerlytowitnessstandingononefoot.On
theprinciplesofhomoeopathicorimitativemagicitmightbethoughtthatthehigherthepriestsswing
thehigherwillgrowtherice.Fortheceremonyisdescribedasaharvestfestival,andswingingis
practisedbytheLettsofRussiawiththeavowedintentionofinfluencingthegrowthofthecrops.Inthe
springandearlysummer,betweenEasterandSt.JohnsDay(thesummersolstice),everyLettishpeasant
issaidtodevotehisleisurehourstoswingingdiligentlyforthehigherherisesintheairthehigherwill
hisflaxgrowthatseason.
Intheforegoingcasesthetemporarykingisappointedannuallyinaccordancewitharegularcustom.But
inothercasestheappointmentismadeonlytomeetaspecialemergency,suchastorelievetherealking
fromsomeactualorthreatenedevilbydivertingittoasubstitute,whotakeshisplaceonthethronefora
shorttime.ThehistoryofPersiafurnishesinstancesofsuchoccasionalsubstitutesfortheShah.Thus
ShahAbbastheGreat,beingwarnedbyhisastrologersintheyear1591thataseriousdangerimpended
overhim,attemptedtoaverttheomenbyabdicatingthethroneandappointingacertainunbeliever
namedYusoofee,probablyaChristian,toreigninhisstead.Thesubstitutewasaccordinglycrowned,and
forthreedays,ifwemaytrustthePersianhistorians,heenjoyednotonlythenameandthestatebutthe
poweroftheking.Attheendofhisbriefreignhewasputtodeath:thedecreeofthestarswasfulfilled
bythissacrificeandAbbas,whoreascendedhisthroneinamostpropitioushour,waspromisedbyhis
astrologersalongandgloriousreign.

XXVI.SacrificeoftheKingsSon
APOINTtonoticeaboutthetemporarykingsdescribedintheforegoingchapteristhatintwoplaces
(CambodiaandJambi)theycomeofastockwhichisbelievedtobeakintotheroyalfamily.Iftheview
heretakenoftheoriginofthesetemporarykingshipsiscorrect,wecaneasilyunderstandwhythekings
substituteshouldsometimesbeofthesameraceastheking.Whenthekingfirstsucceededingettingthe
lifeofanotheracceptedasasacrificeinsteadofhisown,hewouldhavetoshowthatthedeathofthat
otherwouldservethepurposequiteaswellashisownwouldhavedone.Nowitwasasagodor
demigodthatthekinghadtodiethereforethesubstitutewhodiedforhimhadtobeinvested,atleastfor
theoccasion,withthedivineattributesoftheking.This,aswehavejustseen,wascertainlythecasewith
thetemporarykingsofSiamandCambodiatheywereinvestedwiththesupernaturalfunctions,whichin
anearlierstageofsocietywerethespecialattributesoftheking.Butnoonecouldsowellrepresentthe
kinginhisdivinecharacterashisson,whomightbesupposedtosharethedivineafflatusofhisfather.
Noone,therefore,couldsoappropriatelydieforthekingand,throughhim,forthewholepeople,asthe
kingsson.
Wehaveseenthataccordingtotradition,AunorOn,KingofSweden,sacrificednineofhissonstoOdin
atUpsalainorderthathisownlifemightbespared.Afterhehadsacrificedhissecondsonhereceived
fromthegodananswerthatheshouldlivesolongashegavehimoneofhissonseveryninthyear.When
hehadsacrificedhisseventhson,hestilllived,butwassofeeblethathecouldnotwalkbuthadtobe
carriedinachair.Thenheoffereduphiseighthson,andlivednineyearsmore,lyinginhisbed.After
thathesacrificedhisninthson,andlivedanothernineyears,butsothathedrankoutofahornlikea
weanedchild.HenowwishedtosacrificehisonlyremainingsontoOdin,buttheSwedeswouldnot
allowhim.SohediedandwasburiedinamoundatUpsala.
InancientGreecethereseemstohavebeenatleastonekinglyhouseofgreatantiquityofwhichthe
eldestsonswerealwaysliabletobesacrificedinroomoftheirroyalsires.WhenXerxeswasmarching
throughThessalyattheheadofhismightyhosttoattacktheSpartansatThermopylae,hecametothe

townofAlus.HerehewasshownthesanctuaryofLaphystianZeus,aboutwhichhisguidestoldhima
strangetale.Itransomewhatasfollows.Onceuponatimethekingofthecountry,bynameAthamas,
marriedawifeNephele,andhadbyherasoncalledPhrixusandadaughternamedHelle.Afterwardshe
tooktohimselfasecondwifecalledIno,bywhomhehadtwosons,LearchusandMelicertes.Buthis
secondwifewasjealousofherstepchildren,PhrixusandHelle,andplottedtheirdeath.Shewentabout
verycunninglytocompassherbadend.Firstofallshepersuadedthewomenofthecountrytoroastthe
seedcornsecretlybeforeitwascommittedtotheground.Sonextyearnocropscameupandthepeople
diedoffamine.ThenthekingsentmessengerstotheoracleatDelphitoenquirethecauseofthedearth.
Butthewickedstepmotherbribedthemessengertogiveoutastheanswerofthegodthatthedearth
wouldneverceasetillthechildrenofAthamasbyhisfirstwifehadbeensacrificedtoZeus.When
Athamasheardthat,hesentforthechildren,whowerewiththesheep.Butaramwithafleeceofgold
openedhislips,andspeakingwiththevoiceofamanwarnedthechildrenoftheirdanger.Sothey
mountedtheramandfledwithhimoverlandandsea.Astheyflewoverthesea,thegirlslippedfromthe
animalsback,andfallingintowaterwasdrowned.ButherbrotherPhrixuswasbroughtsafetotheland
ofColchis,wherereignedachildofthesun.Phrixusmarriedthekingsdaughter,andsheborehimason
Cytisorus.AndtherehesacrificedtheramwiththegoldenfleecetoZeustheGodofFlightbutsome
willhaveitthathesacrificedtheanimaltoLaphystianZeus.Thegoldenfleeceitselfhegavetohis
wifesfather,whonailedittoanoaktree,guardedbyasleeplessdragoninasacredgroveofAres.
MeanwhileathomeanoraclehadcommandedthatKingAthamashimselfshouldbesacrificedasan
expiatoryofferingforthewholecountry.Sothepeopledeckedhimwithgarlandslikeavictimandled
himtothealtar,wheretheywerejustabouttosacrificehimwhenhewasrescuedeitherbyhisgrandson
Cytisorus,whoarrivedinthenickoftimefromColchis,orbyHercules,whobroughttidingsthatthe
kingssonPhrixuswasyetalive.ThusAthamaswassaved,butafterwardhewentmad,andmistaking
hissonLearchusforawildbeast,shothimdead.Nextheattemptedthelifeofhisremainingson
Melicertes,butthechildwasrescuedbyhismotherIno,whoranandthrewherselfandhimfromahigh
rockintothesea.Motherandsonwerechangedintomarinedivinities,andthesonreceivedspecial
homageintheisleofTenedos,wherebabesweresacrificedtohim.Thusbereftofwifeandchildrenthe
unhappyAthamasquittedhiscountry,andonenquiringoftheoraclewhereheshoulddwellwastoldto
takeuphisabodewhereverheshouldbeentertainedbywildbeasts.Hefellinwithapackofwolves
devouringsheep,andwhentheysawhimtheyfledandlefthimthebleedingremnantsoftheirprey.In
thiswaytheoraclewasfulfilled.ButbecauseKingAthamashadnotbeensacrificedasasinofferingfor
thewholecountry,itwasdivinelydecreedthattheeldestmalescionofhisfamilyineachgeneration
shouldbesacrificedwithoutfail,ifeverhesetfootinthetownhall,wheretheofferingsweremadeto
LaphystianZeusbyoneofthehouseofAthamas.Manyofthefamily,Xerxeswasinformed,hadfledto
foreignlandstoescapethisdoombutsomeofthemhadreturnedlongafterwards,andbeingcaughtby
thesentinelsintheactofenteringthetownhallwerewreathedasvictims,ledforthinprocession,and
sacrificed.Theseinstancesappeartohavebeennotorious,ifnotfrequentforthewriterofadialogue
attributedtoPlato,afterspeakingoftheimmolationofhumanvictimsbytheCarthaginians,addsthat
suchpracticeswerenotunknownamongtheGreeks,andhereferswithhorrortothesacrificesofferedon
MountLycaeusandbythedescendantsofAthamas.
Thesuspicionthatthisbarbarouscustombynomeansfellintodisuseeveninlaterdaysisstrengthened
byacaseofhumansacrificewhichoccurredinPlutarchstimeatOrchomenus,averyancientcityof
Boeotia,distantonlyafewmilesacrosstheplainfromthehistoriansbirthplace.Heredweltafamilyof
whichthemenwentbythenameofPsoloeisorSooty,andthewomenbythenameofOleaeor
Destructive.EveryyearatthefestivaloftheAgrioniathepriestofDionysuspursuedthesewomen
withadrawnsword,andifheovertookoneofthemhehadtherighttoslayher.InPlutarchslifetimethe
rightwasactuallyexercisedbyapriestZoilus.Thefamilythusliabletofurnishatleastonehumanvictim
everyyearwasofroyaldescent,fortheytracedtheirlineagetoMinyas,thefamousoldkingof
Orchomenus,themonarchoffabulouswealth,whosestatelytreasury,asitiscalled,stillstandsinruins
atthepointwherethelongrockyhillofOrchomenusmeltsintothevastlevelexpanseoftheCopaic

plain.Traditionranthatthekingsthreedaughterslongdespisedtheotherwomenofthecountryfor
yieldingtotheBacchicfrenzy,andsatathomeinthekingshousescornfullyplyingthedistaffandthe
loom,whiletherest,wreathedwithflowers,theirdishevelledlocksstreamingtothewind,roamedin
ecstasythebarrenmountainsthatriseaboveOrchomenus,makingthesolitudeofthehillstoechotothe
wildmusicofcymbalsandtambourines.Butintimethedivinefuryinfectedeventheroyaldamselsin
theirquietchambertheywereseizedwithafiercelongingtopartakeofhumanflesh,andcastlots
amongthemselveswhichshouldgiveupherchildtofurnishacannibalfeast.ThelotfellonLeucippe,
andshesurrenderedhersonHippasus,whowastornlimbfromlimbbythethree.Fromthesemisguided
womensprangtheOleaeandthePsoloeis,ofwhomthemenweresaidtobesocalledbecausetheywore
sadcolouredraimentintokenoftheirmourningandgrief.
NowthispracticeoftakinghumanvictimsfromafamilyofroyaldescentatOrchomenusisallthemore
significantbecauseAthamashimselfissaidtohavereignedinthelandofOrchomenusevenbeforethe
timeofMinyas,andbecauseoveragainstthecitythererisesMountLaphystius,onwhich,asatAlusin
Thessaly,therewasasanctuaryofLaphystianZeus,where,accordingtotradition,Athamaspurposedto
sacrificehistwochildrenPhrixusandHelle.Onthewhole,comparingthetraditionsaboutAthamaswith
thecustomthatobtainedwithregardtohisdescendantsinhistoricaltimes,wemayfairlyinferthatin
ThessalyandprobablyinBoeotiatherereignedofoldadynastyofwhichthekingswereliabletobe
sacrificedforthegoodofthecountrytothegodcalledLaphystianZeus,butthattheycontrivedtoshift
thefatalresponsibilitytotheiroffspring,ofwhomtheeldestsonwasregularlydestinedtothealtar.As
timewenton,thecruelcustomwassofarmitigatedthataramwasacceptedasavicarioussacrificein
roomoftheroyalvictim,providedalwaysthattheprinceabstainedfromsettingfootinthetownhall
wherethesacrificeswereofferedtoLaphystianZeusbyoneofhiskinsmen.Butifhewererashenough
toentertheplaceofdoom,tothrusthimselfwilfully,asitwere,onthenoticeofthegodwhohadgood
naturedlywinkedatthesubstitutionofaram,theancientobligationwhichhadbeensufferedtoliein
abeyancerecoveredallitsforce,andtherewasnohelpforitbuthemustdie.Thetraditionwhich
associatedthesacrificeofthekingorhischildrenwithagreatdearthpointsclearlytothebelief,so
commonamongprimitivefolk,thatthekingisresponsiblefortheweatherandthecrops,andthathemay
justlypaywithhislifefortheinclemencyoftheoneorthefailureoftheother.Athamasandhisline,in
short,appeartohaveuniteddivineormagicalwithroyalfunctionsandthisviewisstronglysupported
bytheclaimstodivinitywhichSalmoneus,thebrotherofAthamas,issaidtohavesetup.Wehaveseen
thatthispresumptuousmortalprofessedtobenootherthanZeushimself,andtowieldthethunderand
lightning,ofwhichhemadeatrumperyimitationbythehelpoftinklingkettlesandblazingtorches.If
wemayjudgefromanalogy,hismockthunderandlightningwerenomerescenicexhibitiondesignedto
deceiveandimpressthebeholderstheywereenchantmentspractisedbytheroyalmagicianforthe
purposeofbringingaboutthecelestialphenomenawhichtheyfeeblymimicked.
AmongtheSemitesofWesternAsiatheking,inatimeofnationaldanger,sometimesgavehisownson
todieasasacrificeforthepeople.ThusPhiloofByblus,inhisworkontheJews,says:Itwasan
ancientcustominacrisisofgreatdangerthattherulerofacityornationshouldgivehisbelovedsonto
dieforthewholepeople,asaransomofferedtotheavengingdemonsandthechildrenthusofferedwere
slainwithmysticrites.SoCronus,whomthePhoenicianscallIsrael,beingkingofthelandandhaving
anonlybegottensoncalledJeoud(forinthePhoeniciantongueJeoudsignifiesonlybegotten),dressed
himinroyalrobesandsacrificedhimuponanaltarinatimeofwar,whenthecountrywasingreat
dangerfromtheenemy.WhenthekingofMoabwasbesiegedbytheIsraelitesandhardbeset,hetook
hiseldestson,whoshouldhavereignedinhisstead,andofferedhimforaburntofferingonthewall.

XXVII.SuccessiontotheSoul
TOTHEVIEWthatinearlytimes,andamongbarbarousraces,kingshavefrequentlybeenputtodeath

attheendofashortreign,itmaybeobjectedthatsuchacustomwouldtendtotheextinctionoftheroyal
family.Theobjectionmaybemetbyobserving,first,thatthekingshipisoftennotconfinedtoone
family,butmaybesharedinturnbyseveralsecond,thattheofficeisfrequentlynothereditary,butis
opentomenofanyfamily,eventoforeigners,whomayfulfiltherequisiteconditions,suchasmarrying
aprincessorvanquishingthekinginbattleand,third,thatevenifthecustomdidtendtotheextinction
ofadynasty,thatisnotaconsiderationwhichwouldpreventitsobservanceamongpeoplelessprovident
ofthefutureandlessheedfulofhumanlifethanourselves.Manyraces,likemanyindividuals,have
indulgedinpracticeswhichmustintheenddestroythem.ThePolynesiansseemregularlytohavekilled
twothirdsoftheirchildren.InsomepartsofEastAfricatheproportionofinfantsmassacredatbirthis
saidtobethesame.Onlychildrenbornincertainpresentationsareallowedtolive.TheJagas,a
conqueringtribeinAngola,arereportedtohaveputtodeathalltheirchildren,withoutexception,in
orderthatthewomenmightnotbecumberedwithbabiesonthemarch.Theyrecruitedtheirnumbersby
adoptingboysandgirlsofthirteenorfourteenyearsofage,whoseparentstheyhadkilledandeaten.
AmongtheMbayaIndiansofSouthAmericathewomenusedtomurderalltheirchildrenexceptthelast,
ortheonetheybelievedtobethelast.Ifoneofthemhadanotherchildafterwards,shekilledit.Weneed
notwonderthatthispracticeentirelydestroyedabranchoftheMbayanation,whohadbeenformany
yearsthemostformidableenemiesoftheSpaniards.AmongtheLenguaIndiansoftheGranChaco,the
missionariesdiscoveredwhattheydescribeasacarefullyplannedsystemofracialsuicide,bythe
practiceofinfanticidebyabortion,andothermethods.Norisinfanticidetheonlymodeinwhicha
savagetribecommitssuicide.Alavishuseofthepoisonordealmaybeequallyeffective.Sometimeago
asmalltribenamedUwetcamedownfromthehillcountry,andsettledontheleftbranchoftheCalabar
RiverinWestAfrica.Whenthemissionariesfirstvisitedtheplace,theyfoundthepopulation
considerable,distributedintothreevillages.Sincethentheconstantuseofthepoisonordealhasalmost
extinguishedthetribe.Ononeoccasionthewholepopulationtookpoisontoprovetheirinnocence.
Abouthalfperishedonthespot,andtheremnant,wearetold,stillcontinuingtheirsuperstitiouspractice,
mustsoonbecomeextinct.Withsuchexamplesbeforeusweneednothesitatetobelievethatmanytribes
havefeltnoscrupleordelicacyinobservingacustomwhichtendstowipeoutasinglefamily.To
attributesuchscruplestothemistocommitthecommon,theperpetuallyrepeatedmistakeofjudgingthe
savagebythestandardofEuropeancivilisation.Ifanyofmyreaderssetoutwiththenotionthatallraces
ofmenthinkandactmuchinthesamewayaseducatedEnglishmen,theevidenceofsuperstitiousbelief
andcustomcollectedinthisworkshouldsufficetodisabusehimofsoerroneousaprepossession.
Theexplanationheregivenofthecustomofkillingdivinepersonsassumes,oratleastisreadily
combinedwith,theideathatthesouloftheslaindivinityistransmittedtohissuccessor.Ofthis
transmissionIhavenodirectproofexceptinthecaseoftheShilluk,amongwhomthepracticeofkilling
thedivinekingprevailsinatypicalform,andwithwhomitisafundamentalarticleoffaiththatthesoul
ofthedivinefounderofthedynastyisimmanentineveryoneofhisslainsuccessors.Butifthisisthe
onlyactualexampleofsuchabeliefwhichIcanadduce,analogyseemstorenderitprobablethata
similarsuccessiontothesouloftheslaingodhasbeensupposedtotakeplaceinotherinstances,though
directevidenceofitiswanting.Forithasbeenalreadyshownthatthesouloftheincarnatedeityisoften
supposedtotransmigrateatdeathintoanotherincarnationandifthistakesplacewhenthedeathisa
naturalone,thereseemsnoreasonwhyitshouldnottakeplacewhenthedeathhasbeenbroughtabout
byviolence.Certainlytheideathatthesoulofadyingpersonmaybetransmittedtohissuccessoris
perfectlyfamiliartoprimitivepeoples.InNiastheeldestsonusuallysucceedshisfatherinthe
chieftainship.Butiffromanybodilyormentaldefecttheeldestsonisdisqualifiedforruling,thefather
determinesinhislifetimewhichofhissonsshallsucceedhim.Inorder,however,toestablishhisrightof
succession,itisnecessarythatthesonuponwhomhisfatherschoicefallsshallcatchinhismouthorin
abagthelastbreath,andwithitthesoul,ofthedyingchief.Forwhoevercatcheshislastbreathischief
equallywiththeappointedsuccessor.Hencetheotherbrothers,andsometimesalsostrangers,crowd
roundthedyingmantocatchhissoulasitpasses.ThehousesinNiasareraisedabovethegroundon
posts,andithashappenedthatwhenthedyingmanlaywithhisfaceonthefloor,oneofthecandidates

hasboredaholeinthefloorandsuckedinthechiefslastbreaththroughabambootube.Whenthechief
hasnoson,hissouliscaughtinabag,whichisfastenedtoanimagemadetorepresentthedeceasedthe
soulisthenbelievedtopassintotheimage.
Sometimesitwouldappearthatthespirituallinkbetweenakingandthesoulsofhispredecessorsis
formedbythepossessionofsomepartoftheirpersons.InsouthernCelebestheregaliaoftenconsistof
corporealportionsofdeceasedrajahs,whicharetreasuredassacredrelicsandconfertherighttothe
throne.SimilarlyamongtheSakalavasofsouthernMadagascaravertebraoftheneck,anail,andalock
ofhairofadeceasedkingareplacedinacrocodilestoothandcarefullykeptalongwiththesimilarrelics
ofhispredecessorsinahousesetapartforthepurpose.Thepossessionoftheserelicsconstitutesthe
righttothethrone.Alegitimateheirwhoshouldbedeprivedofthemwouldloseallhisauthorityoverthe
people,andonthecontraryausurperwhoshouldmakehimselfmasteroftherelicswouldbe
acknowledgedkingwithoutdispute.WhentheAlakeorkingofAbeokutainWestAfricadies,the
principalmendecapitatehisbody,andplacingtheheadinalargeearthenvesseldeliverittothenew
sovereignitbecomeshisfetishandheisboundtopayithonours.Sometimes,inorderapparentlythat
thenewsovereignmayinheritmoresurelythemagicalandothervirtuesoftheroyalline,heisrequired
toeatapieceofhisdeadpredecessor.ThusatAbeokutanotonlywastheheadofthelatekingpresented
tohissuccessor,butthetonguewascutoutandgivenhimtoeat.Hence,whenthenativeswishtosignify
thatthesovereignreigns,theysay,Hehaseatentheking.Acustomofthesamesortisstillpractisedat
Ibadan,alargetownintheinteriorofLagos,WestAfrica.Whenthekingdieshisheadiscutoffandsent
tohisnominalsuzerain,theAlafinofOyo,theparamountkingofYorubalandbuthisheartiseatenby
hissuccessor.Thisceremonywasperformednotverymanyyearsagoattheaccessionofanewkingof
Ibadan.
Takingthewholeoftheprecedingevidenceintoaccount,wemayfairlysupposethatwhenthedivine
kingorpriestisputtodeathhisspiritisbelievedtopassintohissuccessor.Inpointoffact,amongthe
ShillukoftheWhiteNile,whoregularlykilltheirdivinekings,everykingonhisaccessionhasto
performaceremonywhichappearsdesignedtoconveytohimthesamesacredandworshipfulspirit
whichanimatedallhispredecessors,oneaftertheother,onthethrone.

XXVIII.TheKillingoftheTreeSpirit
1.TheWhitsuntideMummers
ITremainstoaskwhatlightthecustomofkillingthedivinekingorpriestshedsuponthespecialsubject
toourenquiry.InanearlierpartofthisworkwesawreasontosupposethattheKingoftheWoodat
Nemiwasregardedasanincarnationofatreespiritorofthespiritofvegetation,andthatassuchhe
wouldbeendowed,inthebeliefofhisworshippers,withamagicalpowerofmakingthetreestobear
fruit,thecropstogrow,andsoon.Hislifemustthereforehavebeenheldverypreciousbyhis
worshippers,andwasprobablyhedgedinbyasystemofelaborateprecautionsortabooslikethoseby
which,insomanyplaces,thelifeofthemangodhasbeenguardedagainstthemalignantinfluenceof
demonsandsorcerers.Butwehaveseenthattheveryvalueattachedtothelifeofthemangod
necessitateshisviolentdeathastheonlymeansofpreservingitfromtheinevitabledecayofage.The
samereasoningwouldapplytotheKingoftheWoodhe,too,hadtobekilledinorderthatthedivine
spirit,incarnateinhim,mightbetransferredinitsintegritytohissuccessor.Therulethatheheldoffice
tillastrongershouldslayhimmightbesupposedtosecureboththepreservationofhisdivinelifeinfull
vigouranditstransferencetoasuitablesuccessorassoonasthatvigourbegantobeimpaired.Forso
longashecouldmaintainhispositionbythestronghand,itmightbeinferredthathisnaturalforcewas
notabatedwhereashisdefeatanddeathatthehandsofanotherprovedthathisstrengthwasbeginningto
failandthatitwastimehisdivinelifeshouldbelodgedinalessdilapidatedtabernacle.Thisexplanation

oftherulethattheKingoftheWoodhadtobeslainbyhissuccessoratleastrendersthatruleperfectly
intelligible.ItisstronglysupportedbythetheoryandpracticeoftheShilluk,whoputtheirdivinekingto
deathatthefirstsignsoffailinghealth,lesthisdecrepitudeshouldentailacorrespondingfailureofvital
energyonthecorn,thecattle,andmen.Moreover,itiscountenancedbytheanalogyoftheChitom,
uponwhoselifetheexistenceoftheworldwassupposedtohang,andwhowasthereforeslainbyhis
successorassoonasheshowedsignsofbreakingup.Again,thetermsonwhichinlatertimestheKing
ofCalicutheldofficeareidenticalwiththoseattachedtotheofficeofKingoftheWood,exceptthat
whereastheformermightbeassailedbyacandidateatanytime,theKingofCalicutmightonlybe
attackedonceeverytwelveyears.ButastheleavegrantedtotheKingofCalicuttoreignsolongashe
coulddefendhimselfagainstallcomerswasamitigationoftheoldrulewhichsetafixedtermtohislife,
sowemayconjecturethatthesimilarpermissiongrantedtotheKingoftheWoodwasamitigationofan
oldercustomofputtinghimtodeathattheendofadefiniteperiod.Inbothcasesthenewrulegavetothe
godmanatleastachanceforhislife,whichundertheoldrulewasdeniedhimandpeopleprobably
reconciledthemselvestothechangebyreflectingthatsolongasthegodmancouldmaintainhimselfby
theswordagainstallassaults,therewasnoreasontoapprehendthatthefataldecayhadsetin.
TheconjecturethattheKingoftheWoodwasformerlyputtodeathattheexpiryofafixedterm,without
beingallowedachanceforhislife,willbeconfirmedifevidencecanbeadducedofacustomof
periodicallykillinghiscounterparts,thehumanrepresentativesofthetreespirit,inNorthernEurope.
Nowinpointoffactsuchacustomhasleftunmistakabletracesofitselfintheruralfestivalsofthe
peasantry.Totakeexamples.
AtNiederpring,inLowerBavaria,theWhitsuntiderepresentativeofthetreespiritthePfingstlashe
wascalledwascladfromtoptotoeinleavesandflowers.Onhisheadheworeahighpointedcap,the
endsofwhichrestedonhisshoulders,onlytwoholesbeingleftinitforhiseyes.Thecapwascovered
withwaterflowersandsurmountedwithanosegayofpeonies.Thesleevesofhiscoatwerealsomadeof
waterplants,andtherestofhisbodywasenvelopedinalderandhazelleaves.Oneachsideofhim
marchedaboyholdinguponeofthePfingstlsarms.Thesetwoboyscarrieddrawnswords,andsodid
mostoftheotherswhoformedtheprocession.Theystoppedateveryhousewheretheyhopedtoreceive
apresentandthepeople,inhiding,sousedtheleafcladboywithwater.Allrejoicedwhenhewaswell
drenched.Finallyhewadedintothebrookuptohismiddlewhereupononeoftheboys,standingonthe
bridge,pretendedtocutoffhishead.AtWurmlingen,inSwabia,ascoreofyoungfellowsdress
themselvesonWhitMondayinwhiteshirtsandwhitetrousers,withredscarvesroundtheirwaistsand
swordshangingfromthescarves.Theyrideonhorsebackintothewood,ledbytwotrumpetersblowing
theirtrumpets.Inthewoodtheycutdownleafyoakbranches,inwhichtheyenvelopfromheadtofoot
himwhowasthelastoftheirnumbertorideoutofthevillage.Hislegs,however,areencasedseparately,
sothathemaybeabletomounthishorseagain.Further,theygivehimalongartificialneck,withan
artificialheadandafalsefaceonthetopofit.ThenaMaytreeiscut,generallyanaspenorbeechabout
tenfeethighandbeingdeckedwithcolouredhandkerchiefsandribbonsitisentrustedtoaspecial
Maybearer.Thecavalcadethenreturnswithmusicandsongtothevillage.Amongstthepersonages
whofigureintheprocessionareaMoorishkingwithasootyfaceandacrownonhishead,aDr.Iron
Beard,acorporal,andanexecutioner.Theyhaltonthevillagegreen,andeachofthecharactersmakesa
speechinrhyme.Theexecutionerannouncesthattheleafcladmanhasbeencondemnedtodeath,and
cutsoffhisfalsehead.ThentheridersracetotheMaytree,whichhasbeensetupalittlewayoff.The
firstmanwhosucceedsinwrenchingitfromthegroundashegallopspastkeepsitwithallits
decorations.Theceremonyisobservedeverysecondorthirdyear.
InSaxonyandThringenthereisaWhitsuntideceremonycalledchasingtheWildManoutofthe
bush,orfetchingtheWildManoutofthewood.Ayoungfellowisenvelopedinleavesormossand
calledtheWildMan.Hehidesinthewoodandtheotherladsofthevillagegoouttoseekhim.Theyfind

him,leadhimcaptiveoutofthewood,andfireathimwithblankmuskets.Hefallslikedeadtothe
ground,butaladdressedasadoctorbleedshim,andhecomestolifeagain.Atthistheyrejoice,and,
bindinghimfastonawaggon,takehimtothevillage,wheretheytellallthepeoplehowtheyhave
caughttheWildMan.Ateveryhousetheyreceiveagift.IntheErzgebirgethefollowingcustomwas
annuallyobservedatShrovetideaboutthebeginningoftheseventeenthcentury.Twomendisguisedas
WildMen,theoneinbrushwoodandmoss,theotherinstraw,wereledaboutthestreets,andatlast
takentothemarketplace,wheretheywerechasedupanddown,shotandstabbed.Beforefallingthey
reeledaboutwithstrangegesturesandspirtedbloodonthepeoplefrombladderswhichtheycarried.
Whentheyweredown,thehuntsmenplacedthemonboardsandcarriedthemtothealehouse,the
minersmarchingbesidethemandwindingblastsontheirminingtoolsasiftheyhadtakenanoblehead
ofgame.AverysimilarShrovetidecustomisstillobservednearSchluckenauinBohemia.Aman
dressedupasaWildManischasedthroughseveralstreetstillhecomestoanarrowlaneacrosswhicha
cordisstretched.Hestumblesoverthecordand,fallingtotheground,isovertakenandcaughtbyhis
pursuers.TheexecutionerrunsupandstabswithhisswordabladderfilledwithbloodwhichtheWild
ManwearsroundhisbodysotheWildMandies,whileastreamofbloodreddenstheground.Nextday
astrawman,madeuptolookliketheWildMan,isplacedonalitter,and,accompaniedbyagreat
crowd,istakentoapoolintowhichitisthrownbytheexecutioner.Theceremonyiscalledburyingthe
Carnival.
InSemic(Bohemia)thecustomofbeheadingtheKingisobservedonWhitMonday.Atroopofyoung
peopledisguisethemselveseachisgirtwithagirdleofbarkandcarriesawoodenswordandatrumpet
ofwillowbark.TheKingwearsarobeoftreebarkadornedwithflowers,onhisheadisacrownofbark
deckedwithflowersandbranches,hisfeetarewoundaboutwithferns,amaskhideshisface,andfora
sceptrehehasahawthornswitchinhishand.Aladleadshimthroughthevillagebyaropefastenedto
hisfoot,whiletherestdanceabout,blowtheirtrumpets,andwhistle.IneveryfarmhousetheKingis
chasedroundtheroom,andoneofthetroop,amidmuchnoiseandoutcry,strikeswithhisswordablow
ontheKingsrobeofbarktillitringsagain.Thenagratuityisdemanded.Theceremonyofdecapitation,
whichisheresomewhatslurredover,iscarriedoutwithagreatersemblanceofrealityinotherpartsof
Bohemia.ThusinsomevillagesoftheKniggrtzdistrictonWhitMondaythegirlsassembleunder
onelimetreeandtheyoungmenunderanother,alldressedintheirbestandtrickedoutwithribbons.The
youngmentwineagarlandfortheQueen,andthegirlsanotherfortheKing.Whentheyhavechosenthe
KingandQueentheyallgoinprocessiontwoandtwo,tothealehouse,fromthebalconyofwhichthe
crierproclaimsthenamesoftheKingandQueen.Botharetheninvestedwiththeinsigniaoftheiroffice
andarecrownedwiththegarlands,whilethemusicplaysup.Thensomeonegetsonabenchandaccuses
theKingofvariousoffences,suchasilltreatingthecattle.TheKingappealstowitnessesandatrial
ensues,atthecloseofwhichthejudge,whocarriesawhitewandashisbadgeofoffice,pronouncesa
verdictofGuilty,orNotguilty.IftheverdictisGuilty,thejudgebreakshiswand,theKingkneels
onawhitecloth,allheadsarebared,andasoldiersetsthreeorfourhats,oneabovetheother,onhis
Majestyshead.ThejudgethenpronouncesthewordGuiltythriceinaloudvoice,andordersthecrier
tobeheadtheKing.ThecrierobeysbystrikingofftheKingshatswiththewoodensword.
Butperhaps,forourpurpose,themostinstructiveofthesemimicexecutionsisthefollowingBohemian
one.InsomeplacesofthePilsendistrict(Bohemia)onWhitMondaytheKingisdressedinbark,
ornamentedwithflowersandribbonshewearsacrownofgiltpaperandridesahorse,whichisalso
deckedwithflowers.Attendedbyajudge,anexecutioner,andothercharacters,andfollowedbyatrain
ofsoldiers,allmounted,heridestothevillagesquare,whereahutorarbourofgreenboughshasbeen
erectedundertheMaytrees,whicharefirs,freshlycut,peeledtothetop,anddressedwithflowersand
ribbons.Afterthedamesandmaidensofthevillagehavebeencriticisedandafrogbeheaded,the
cavalcaderidestoaplacepreviouslydeterminedupon,inastraight,broadstreet.Heretheydrawupin
twolinesandtheKingtakestoflight.Heisgivenashortstartandridesoffatfullspeed,pursuedbythe
wholetroop.IftheyfailtocatchhimheremainsKingforanotheryear,andhiscompanionsmustpayhis

scoreatthealehouseintheevening.Butiftheyovertakeandcatchhimheisscourgedwithhazelrodsor
beatenwiththewoodenswordsandcompelledtodismount.Thentheexecutionerasks,ShallIbehead
thisKing?Theanswerisgiven,Beheadhimtheexecutionerbrandisheshisaxe,andwiththewords,
One,two,three,lettheKingheadlessbe!hestrikesofftheKingscrown.Amidtheloudcriesofthe
bystanderstheKingsinkstothegroundthenheislaidonabierandcarriedtothenearestfarmhouse.
Inmostofthepersonageswhoarethusslaininmimicryitisimpossiblenottorecogniserepresentatives
ofthetreespiritorspiritofvegetation,asheissupposedtomanifesthimselfinspring.Thebark,leaves,
andflowersinwhichtheactorsaredressed,andtheseasonoftheyearatwhichtheyappear,showthat
theybelongtothesameclassastheGrassKing,KingoftheMay,JackintheGreen,andother
representativesofthevernalspiritofvegetationwhichweexaminedinanearlierpartofthiswork.Asif
toremoveanypossibledoubtonthishead,wefindthatintwocasestheseslainmenarebroughtinto
directconnexionwithMaytrees,whicharetheimpersonal,astheMayKing,GrassKing,andsoforth,
arethepersonalrepresentativesofthetreespirit.ThedrenchingofthePfingstlwithwaterandhiswading
uptothemiddleintothebrookare,therefore,nodoubtraincharmslikethosewhichhavebeenalready
described.
Butifthesepersonagesrepresent,astheycertainlydo,thespiritofvegetationinspring,thequestion
arises,Whykillthem?Whatistheobjectofslayingthespiritofvegetationatanytimeandaboveallin
spring,whenhisservicesaremostwanted?Theonlyprobableanswertothisquestionseemstobegiven
intheexplanationalreadyproposedofthecustomofkillingthedivinekingorpriest.Thedivinelife,
incarnateinamaterialandmortalbody,isliabletobetaintedandcorruptedbytheweaknessofthefrail
mediuminwhichitisforatimeenshrinedandifitistobesavedfromtheincreasingenfeeblement
whichitmustnecessarilysharewithitshumanincarnationasheadvancesinyears,itmustbedetached
fromhimbefore,oratleastassoonas,heexhibitssignsofdecay,inordertobetransferredtoavigorous
successor.Thisisdonebykillingtheoldrepresentativeofthegodandconveyingthedivinespiritfrom
himtoanewincarnation.Thekillingofthegod,thatis,ofhishumanincarnation,isthereforemerelya
necessarysteptohisrevivalorresurrectioninabetterform.Farfrombeinganextinctionofthedivine
spirit,itisonlythebeginningofapurerandstrongermanifestationofit.Ifthisexplanationholdsgoodof
thecustomofkillingdivinekingsandpriestsingeneral,itisstillmoreobviouslyapplicabletothe
customofannuallykillingtherepresentativeofthetreespiritorspiritofvegetationinspring.Forthe
decayofplantlifeinwinterisreadilyinterpretedbyprimitivemanasanenfeeblementofthespiritof
vegetationthespirithas,hethinks,grownoldandweakandmustthereforeberenovatedbybeingslain
andbroughttolifeinayoungerandfresherform.Thusthekillingoftherepresentativeofthetreespirit
inspringisregardedasameanstopromoteandquickenthegrowthofvegetation.Forthekillingofthe
treespiritisassociatedalways(wemustsuppose)implicitly,andsometimesexplicitlyalso,witha
revivalorresurrectionofhiminamoreyouthfulandvigorousform.SointheSaxonandThringen
custom,aftertheWildManhasbeenshotheisbroughttolifeagainbyadoctorandintheWurmlingen
ceremonytherefiguresaDr.IronBeard,whoprobablyonceplayedasimilarpartcertainlyinanother
springceremony,whichwillbedescribedpresently,Dr.IronBeardpretendstorestoreadeadmanto
life.Butofthisrevivalorresurrectionofthegodweshallhavemoretosayanon.
ThepointsofsimilaritybetweentheseNorthEuropeanpersonagesandthesubjectofourenquirythe
KingoftheWoodorpriestofNemiaresufficientlystriking.Inthesenorthernmaskersweseekings,
whosedressofbarkandleavesalongwiththehutofgreenboughsandthefirtrees,underwhichthey
holdtheircourt,proclaimthemunmistakablyas,liketheirItaliancounterpart,KingsoftheWood.Like
himtheydieaviolentdeath,butlikehimtheymayescapefromitforatimebytheirbodilystrengthand
agilityforinseveralofthesenortherncustomstheflightandpursuitofthekingisaprominentpartof
theceremony,andinonecaseatleastifthekingcanoutrunhispursuersheretainshislifeandhisoffice
foranotheryear.Inthislastcasethekinginfactholdsofficeonconditionofrunningforhislifeoncea
year,justastheKingofCalicutinlatertimesheldofficeonconditionofdefendinghislifeagainstall

comersonceeverytwelveyears,andjustasthepriestofNemiheldofficeonconditionofdefending
himselfagainstanyassaultatanytime.Ineveryoneoftheseinstancesthelifeofthegodmanis
prolongedonconditionofhisshowing,inaseverephysicalcontestoffightorflight,thathisbodily
strengthisnotdecayed,andthat,therefore,theviolentdeath,whichsoonerorlaterisinevitable,mayfor
thepresentbepostponed.Withregardtoflightitisnoticeablethatflightfiguredconspicuouslybothin
thelegendandinthepracticeoftheKingoftheWood.Hehadtobearunawayslaveinmemoryofthe
flightofOrestes,thetraditionalfounderoftheworshiphencetheKingsoftheWoodaredescribedbyan
ancientwriterasbothstrongofhandandfleetoffoot.PerhapsifweknewtheritualoftheArician
grovefullywemightfindthatthekingwasallowedachanceforhislifebyflight,likehisBohemian
brother.IhavealreadyconjecturedthattheannualflightofthepriestlykingatRome(regifugium)wasat
firstaflightofthesamekindinotherwords,thathewasoriginallyoneofthosedivinekingswhoare
eitherputtodeathafterafixedperiodorallowedtoprovebythestronghandorthefleetfootthattheir
divinityisvigorousandunimpaired.OnemorepointofresemblancemaybenotedbetweentheItalian
KingoftheWoodandhisnortherncounterparts.InSaxonyandThringentherepresentativeofthe
treespirit,afterbeingkilled,isbroughttolifeagainbyadoctor.Thisisexactlywhatlegendaffirmedto
havehappenedtothefirstKingoftheWoodatNemi,HippolytusorVirbius,whoafterhehadbeen
killedbyhishorseswasrestoredtolifebythephysicianAesculapius.Suchalegendtallieswellwiththe
theorythattheslayingoftheKingoftheWoodwasonlyasteptohisrevivalorresurrectioninhis
successor.
2.BuryingtheCarnival
THUSfarIhaveofferedanexplanationoftherulewhichrequiredthatthepriestofNemishouldbeslain
byhissuccessor.Theexplanationclaimstobenomorethanprobableourscantyknowledgeofthe
customandofitshistoryforbidsittobemore.Butitsprobabilitywillbeaugmentedinproportiontothe
extenttowhichthemotivesandmodesofthoughtwhichitassumescanbeprovedtohaveoperatedin
primitivesociety.Hithertothegodwithwhosedeathandresurrectionwehavebeenchieflyconcerned
hasbeenthetreegod.ButifIcanshowthatthecustomofkillingthegodandthebeliefinhis
resurrectionoriginated,oratleastexisted,inthehuntingandpastoralstageofsociety,whentheslaingod
wasananimal,andthatitsurvivedintotheagriculturalstage,whentheslaingodwasthecornora
humanbeingrepresentingthecorn,theprobabilityofmyexplanationwillhavebeenconsiderably
increased.ThisIshallattempttodointhesequel,andinthecourseofthediscussionIhopetoclearup
someobscuritieswhichstillremain,andtoanswersomeobjectionswhichmayhavesuggested
themselvestothereader.
WestartfromthepointatwhichweleftoffthespringcustomsofEuropeanpeasantry.Besidesthe
ceremoniesalreadydescribedtherearetwokindredsetsofobservancesinwhichthesimulateddeathofa
divineorsupernaturalbeingisaconspicuousfeature.Inoneofthemthebeingwhosedeathis
dramaticallyrepresentedisapersonificationoftheCarnivalintheotheritisDeathhimself.Theformer
ceremonyfallsnaturallyattheendoftheCarnival,eitheronthelastdayofthatmerryseason,namely
ShroveTuesday,oronthefirstdayofLent,namelyAshWednesday.Thedateoftheotherceremony
theCarryingorDrivingoutofDeath,asitiscommonlycalledisnotsouniformlyfixed.Generallyitis
thefourthSundayinLent,whichhencegoesbythenameofDeadSundaybutinsomeplacesthe
celebrationfallsaweekearlier,inothers,asamongtheCzechsofBohemia,aweeklater,whileincertain
GermanvillagesofMoraviaitisheldonthefirstSundayafterEaster.Perhaps,ashasbeensuggested,the
datemayoriginallyhavebeenvariable,dependingontheappearanceofthefirstswalloworsomeother
heraldofthespring.SomewritersregardtheceremonyasSlavonicinitsorigin.Grimmthoughtitwasa
festivaloftheNewYearwiththeoldSlavs,whobegantheiryearinMarch.Weshallfirsttakeexamples,
ofthemimicdeathoftheCarnival,whichalwaysfallsbeforetheotherinthecalendar.

AtFrosinone,inLatium,abouthalfwaybetweenRomeandNaples,thedullmonotonyoflifeina
provincialItaliantownisagreeablybrokenonthelastdayoftheCarnivalbytheancientfestivalknown
astheRadica.Aboutfouroclockintheafternoonthetownband,playinglivelytunesandfollowedbya
greatcrowd,proceedstothePiazzadelPlebiscito,whereistheSubPrefectureaswellastherestofthe
Governmentbuildings.Here,inthemiddleofthesquare,theeyesoftheexpectantmultitudearegreeted
bythesightofanimmensecardeckedwithmanycolouredfestoonsanddrawnbyfourhorses.Mounted
onthecarisahugechair,onwhichsitsenthronedthemajesticfigureoftheCarnival,amanofstucco
aboutninefeethighwitharubicundandsmilingcountenance.Enormousboots,atinhelmetlikethose
whichgracetheheadsofofficersoftheItalianmarine,andacoatofmanycoloursembellishedwith
strangedevices,adorntheoutwardmanofthisstatelypersonage.Hislefthandrestsonthearmofthe
chair,whilewithhisrighthegracefullysalutesthecrowd,beingmovedtothisactofcivilitybyastring
whichispulledbyamanwhomodestlyshrinksfrompublicityunderthemercyseat.Andnowthe
crowd,surgingexcitedlyroundthecar,givesventtoitsfeelingsinwildcriesofjoy,gentleandsimple
beingmixeduptogetherandalldancingfuriouslytheSaltarello.Aspecialfeatureofthefestivalisthat
everyonemustcarryinhishandwhatiscalledaradica(root),bywhichismeantahugeleafofthe
aloeorrathertheagave.Anyonewhoventuredintothecrowdwithoutsuchaleafwouldbe
unceremoniouslyhustledoutofit,unlessindeedheboreasasubstitutealargecabbageattheendofa
longstickorabunchofgrasscuriouslyplaited.Whenthemultitude,afterashortturn,hasescortedthe
slowmovingcartothegateoftheSubPrefecture,theyhalt,andthecar,joltingovertheunevenground,
rumblesintothecourtyard.Ahushnowfallsonthecrowd,theirsubduedvoicessounding,accordingto
thedescriptionofonewhohasheardthem,likethemurmurofatroubledsea.Alleyesareturned
anxiouslytothedoorfromwhichtheSubPrefecthimselfandtheotherrepresentativesofthemajestyof
thelawareexpectedtoissueandpaytheirhomagetotheheroofthehour.Afewmomentsofsuspense
andthenastormofcheersandhandclappingsalutestheappearanceofthedignitaries,astheyfileout
and,descendingthestaircase,taketheirplaceintheprocession.ThehymnoftheCarnivalisnow
thunderedout,afterwhich,amidadeafeningroar,aloeleavesandcabbagesarewhirledaloftand
descendimpartiallyontheheadsofthejustandtheunjust,wholendfreshzesttotheproceedingsby
engaginginafreefight.Whenthesepreliminarieshavebeenconcludedtothesatisfactionofall
concerned,theprocessiongetsunderweigh.Therearisbroughtupbyacartladenwithbarrelsofwine
andpolicemen,thelatterengagedinthecongenialtaskofservingoutwinetoallwhoaskforit,whilea
mostinternecinestruggle,accompaniedbyacopiousdischargeofyells,blows,andblasphemy,goeson
amongthesurgingcrowdatthecartstailintheiranxietynottomissthegloriousopportunityof
intoxicatingthemselvesatthepublicexpense.Finally,aftertheprocessionhasparadedtheprincipal
streetsinthismajesticmanner,theeffigyofCarnivalistakentothemiddleofapublicsquare,strippedof
hisfinery,laidonapileofwood,andburntamidthecriesofthemultitude,whothunderingoutonce
morethesongoftheCarnivalflingtheirsocalledrootsonthepyreandgivethemselvesupwithout
restrainttothepleasuresofthedance.
IntheAbruzziapasteboardfigureoftheCarnivaliscarriedbyfourgravediggerswithpipesintheir
mouthsandbottlesofwineslungattheirshoulderbelts.InfrontwalksthewifeoftheCarnival,dressed
inmourninganddissolvedintears.Fromtimetotimethecompanyhalts,andwhilethewifeaddresses
thesympathisingpublic,thegravediggersrefreshtheinnermanwithapullatthebottle.Intheopen
squarethemimiccorpseislaidonapyre,andtotherollofdrums,theshrillscreamsofthewomen,and
thegruffercriesofthemenalightissettoit.Whilethefigureburns,chestnutsarethrownaboutamong
thecrowd.SometimestheCarnivalisrepresentedbyastrawmanatthetopofapolewhichisborne
throughthetownbyatroopofmummersinthecourseoftheafternoon.Wheneveningcomeson,fourof
themummersholdoutaquiltorsheetbythecorners,andthefigureoftheCarnivalismadetotumble
intoit.Theprocessionisthenresumed,theperformersweepingcrocodiletearsandemphasisingthe
poignancyoftheirgriefbythehelpofsaucepansanddinnerbells.Sometimes,again,intheAbruzzithe
deadCarnivalispersonifiedbyalivingmanwholiesinacoffin,attendedbyanotherwhoactsthepriest
anddispensesholywateringreatprofusionfromabathingtub.

AtLerida,inCatalonia,thefuneraloftheCarnivalwaswitnessedbyanEnglishtravellerin1877.Onthe
lastSundayoftheCarnivalagrandprocessionofinfantry,cavalry,andmaskersofmanysorts,someon
horsebackandsomeincarriages,escortedthegrandcarofHisGracePauPi,astheeffigywascalled,in
triumphthroughtheprincipalstreets.Forthreedaystherevelryranhigh,andthenatmidnightonthelast
dayoftheCarnivalthesameprocessionagainwoundthroughthestreets,butunderadifferentaspectand
foradifferentend.Thetriumphalcarwasexchangedforahearse,inwhichreposedtheeffigyofhisdead
Grace:atroopofmaskers,whointhefirstprocessionhadplayedthepartofStudentsofFollywithmany
amerryquipandjest,now,robedaspriestsandbishops,pacedslowlyalongholdingalofthugelighted
tapersandsingingadirge.Allthemummersworecrape,andallthehorsemencarriedblazingflambeaux.
Downthehighstreet,betweenthelofty,manystoreyedandbalconiedhouses,whereeverywindow,
everybalcony,everyhousetopwascrammedwithadensemassofspectators,alldressedandmaskedin
fantasticgorgeousness,theprocessiontookitsmelancholyway.Overthesceneflashedandplayedthe
shiftingcrosslightsandshadowsfromthemovingtorches:redandblueBengallightsflaredupanddied
outagainandabovethetramplingofthehorsesandthemeasuredtreadofthemarchingmultituderose
thevoicesofthepriestschantingtherequiem,whilethemilitarybandsstruckinwiththesolemnrollof
themuffleddrums.Onreachingtheprincipalsquaretheprocessionhalted,aburlesquefuneraloration
waspronouncedoverthedefunctPauPi,andthelightswereextinguished.Immediatelythedevilandhis
angelsdartedfromthecrowd,seizedthebodyandfledawaywithit,hotlypursuedbythewhole
multitude,yelling,screaming,andcheering.Naturallythefiendswereovertakenanddispersedandthe
shamcorpse,rescuedfromtheirclutches,waslaidinagravethathadbeenmadereadyforitsreception.
ThustheCarnivalof1877atLeridadiedandwasburied.
AceremonyofthesamesortisobservedinProvenceonAshWednesday.AneffigycalledCaramantran,
whimsicallyattired,isdrawninachariotorborneonalitter,accompaniedbythepopulaceingrotesque
costumes,whocarrygourdsfullofwineanddrainthemwithallthemarks,realoraffected,of
intoxication.Attheheadoftheprocessionaresomemendisguisedasjudgesandbarristers,andatall
gauntpersonagewhomasqueradesasLentbehindthemfollowyoungpeoplemountedonmiserable
hacksandattiredasmournerswhopretendtobewailthefatethatisinstoreforCaramantran.Inthe
principalsquaretheprocessionhalts,thetribunalisconstituted,andCaramantranplacedatthebar.After
aformaltrialheissentencedtodeathamidthegroansofthemob:thebarristerwhodefendedhim
embraceshisclientforthelasttime:theofficersofjusticedotheirduty:thecondemnedissetwithhis
backtoawallandhurriedintoeternityunderashowerofstones.Theseaorariverreceiveshismangled
remains.ThroughoutnearlythewholeoftheArdennesitwasandstilliscustomaryonAshWednesday
toburnaneffigywhichissupposedtorepresenttheCarnival,whileappropriateversesaresunground
abouttheblazingfigure.Veryoftenanattemptismadetofashiontheeffigyinthelikenessofthe
husbandwhoisreputedtobeleastfaithfultohiswifeofanyinthevillage.Asmightperhapshavebeen
anticipated,thedistinctionofbeingselectedforportraitureunderthesepainfulcircumstanceshasaslight
tendencytobreeddomesticjars,especiallywhentheportraitisburntinfrontofthehouseofthegay
deceiverwhomitrepresents,whileapowerfulchorusofcaterwauls,groans,andothermelodioussounds
bearspublictestimonytotheopinionwhichhisfriendsandneighboursentertainofhisprivatevirtues.In
somevillagesoftheArdennesayoungmanoffleshandblood,dressedupinhayandstraw,usedtoact
thepartofShroveTuesday(MardiGras),asthepersonificationoftheCarnivalisoftencalledinFrance
afterthelastdayoftheperiodwhichhepersonates.Hewasbroughtbeforeamocktribunal,andbeing
condemnedtodeathwasplacedwithhisbacktoawall,likeasoldieratamilitaryexecution,andfiredat
withblankcartridges.AtVrigneauxBoisoneoftheseharmlessbuffoons,namedThierry,was
accidentallykilledbyawadthathadbeenleftinamusketofthefiringparty.WhenpoorShrove
Tuesdaydroppedunderthefire,theapplausewasloudandlong,hediditsonaturallybutwhenhedid
notgetupagain,theyrantohimandfoundhimacorpse.Sincethentherehavebeennomoreofthese
mockexecutionsintheArdennes.
InNormandyontheeveningofAshWednesdayitusedtobethecustomtoholdacelebrationcalledthe

BurialofShroveTuesday.Asqualideffigyscantilyclothedinrags,abatteredoldhatcrusheddownon
hisdirtyface,hisgreatroundpaunchstuffedwithstraw,representedthedisreputableoldrakewho,after
alongcourseofdissipation,wasnowabouttosufferforhissins.Hoistedontheshouldersofasturdy
fellow,whopretendedtostaggerundertheburden,thispopularpersonificationoftheCarnival
promenadedthestreetsforthelasttimeinamannerthereverseoftriumphal.Precededbyadrummerand
accompaniedbyajeeringrabble,amongwhomtheurchinsandallthetagragandbobtailofthetown
musteredingreatforce,thefigurewascarriedaboutbytheflickeringlightoftorchestothediscordant
dinofshovelsandtongs,potsandpans,hornsandkettles,mingledwithhootings,groans,andhisses.
Fromtimetotimetheprocessionhalted,andachampionofmoralityaccusedthebrokendownoldsinner
ofalltheexcesseshehadcommittedandforwhichhewasnowabouttobeburnedalive.Theculprit,
havingnothingtourgeinhisowndefence,wasthrownonaheapofstraw,atorchwasputtoit,anda
greatblazeshotup,tothedelightofthechildrenwhofriskedrounditscreamingoutsomeoldpopular
versesaboutthedeathoftheCarnival.Sometimestheeffigywasrolleddowntheslopeofahillbefore
beingburnt.AtSaintLtheraggedeffigyofShroveTuesdaywasfollowedbyhiswidow,abigburly
loutdressedasawomanwithacrapeveil,whoemittedsoundsoflamentationandwoeinastentorian
voice.Afterbeingcarriedaboutthestreetsonalitterattendedbyacrowdofmaskers,thefigurewas
thrownintotheRiverVire.ThefinalscenehasbeengraphicallydescribedbyMadameOctaveFeuilletas
shewitnesseditinherchildhoodsomesixtyyearsago.Myparentsinvitedfriendstosee,fromthetop
ofthetowerofJeanneCouillard,thefuneralprocessionpassing.Itwastherethat,quaffinglemonade
theonlyrefreshmentallowedbecauseofthefastwewitnessedatnightfallaspectacleofwhichIshall
alwayspreservealivelyrecollection.AtourfeetflowedtheVireunderitsoldstonebridge.Onthe
middleofthebridgelaythefigureofShroveTuesdayonalitterofleaves,surroundedbyscoresof
maskersdancing,singing,andcarryingtorches.Someofthemintheirmotleycostumesranalongthe
parapetlikefiends.Therest,wornoutwiththeirrevels,satonthepostsanddozed.Soonthedancing
stopped,andsomeofthetroop,seizingatorch,setfiretotheeffigy,afterwhichtheyflungitintothe
riverwithredoubledshoutsandclamour.Themanofstraw,soakedwithresin,floatedawayburning
downthestreamoftheVire,lightingupwithitsfuneralfiresthewoodsonthebankandthebattlements
oftheoldcastleinwhichLouisXI.andFrancisI.hadslept.Whenthelastglimmeroftheblazing
phantomhadvanished,likeafallingstar,attheendofthevalley,everyonewithdrew,crowdand
maskersalike,andwequittedtherampartswithourguests.
IntheneighbourhoodofTbingenonShroveTuesdayastrawman,calledtheShrovetideBear,ismade
upheisdressedinapairofoldtrousers,andafreshblackpuddingortwosquirtsfilledwithbloodare
insertedinhisneck.Afteraformalcondemnationheisbeheaded,laidinacoffin,andonAsh
Wednesdayisburiedinthechurchyard.ThisiscalledBuryingtheCarnival.Amongstsomeofthe
SaxonsofTransylvaniatheCarnivalishanged.ThusatBralleronAshWednesdayorShroveTuesday
twowhiteandtwochestnuthorsesdrawasledgeonwhichisplacedastrawmanswathedinawhite
clothbesidehimisacartwheelwhichiskeptturninground.Twoladsdisguisedasoldmenfollowthe
sledgelamenting.Therestofthevillagelads,mountedonhorsebackanddeckedwithribbons,
accompanytheprocession,whichisheadedbytwogirlscrownedwithevergreenanddrawninawaggon
orsledge.Atrialisheldunderatree,atwhichladsdisguisedassoldierspronouncesentenceofdeath.
Thetwooldmentrytorescuethestrawmanandtoflywithhim,buttonopurposeheiscaughtbythe
twogirlsandhandedovertotheexecutioner,whohangshimonatree.Invaintheoldmentrytoclimb
upthetreeandtakehimdowntheyalwaystumbledown,andatlastindespairtheythrowthemselveson
thegroundandweepandhowlforthehangedman.Anofficialthenmakesaspeechinwhichhedeclares
thattheCarnivalwascondemnedtodeathbecausehehaddonethemharm,bywearingouttheirshoes
andmakingthemtiredandsleepy.AttheBurialofCarnivalinLechrain,amandressedasawomanin
blackclothesiscarriedonalitterorbierbyfourmenheislamentedoverbymendisguisedaswomenin
blackclothes,thenthrowndownbeforethevillagedungheap,drenchedwithwater,buriedinthedung
heap,andcoveredwithstraw.OntheeveningofShroveTuesdaytheEsthoniansmakeastrawfigure

calledmetsikorwoodspiritoneyearitisdressedwithamanscoatandhat,nextyearwithahoodand
apetticoat.Thisfigureisstuckonalongpole,carriedacrosstheboundaryofthevillagewithloudcries
ofjoy,andfastenedtothetopofatreeinthewood.Theceremonyisbelievedtobeaprotectionagainst
allkindsofmisfortune.
SometimesattheseShrovetideorLentenceremoniestheresurrectionofthepretendeddeadpersonis
enacted.Thus,insomepartsofSwabiaonShroveTuesdayDr.IronBeardprofessestobleedasickman,
whothereuponfallsasdeadtothegroundbutthedoctoratlastrestoreshimtolifebyblowingairinto
himthroughatube.IntheHarzMountains,whenCarnivalisover,amanislaidonabakingtroughand
carriedwithdirgestothegravebutinthegraveaglassofbrandyisburiedinsteadoftheman.Aspeech
isdeliveredandthenthepeoplereturntothevillagegreenormeetingplace,wheretheysmokethelong
claypipeswhicharedistributedatfunerals.OnthemorningofShroveTuesdayinthefollowingyearthe
brandyisdugupandthefestivalbeginsbyeveryonetastingthespiritwhich,asthephrasegoes,has
cometolifeagain.
3.CarryingoutDeath
THECEREMONYofCarryingoutDeathpresentsmuchthesamefeaturesasBuryingtheCarnival
exceptthatthecarryingoutofDeathisgenerallyfollowedbyaceremony,oratleastaccompaniedbya
profession,ofbringinginSummer,Spring,orLife.ThusinMiddleFranken,aprovinceofBavaria,on
thefourthSundayinLent,thevillageurchinsusedtomakeastraweffigyofDeath,whichtheycarried
aboutwithburlesquepompthroughthestreets,andafterwardsburnedwithloudcriesbeyondthebounds.
TheFrankishcustomisthusdescribedbyawriterofthesixteenthcentury:AtMidLent,theseason
whenthechurchbidsusrejoice,theyoungpeopleofmynativecountrymakeastrawimageofDeath,
andfasteningittoapolecarryitwithshoutstotheneighbouringvillages.Bysometheyarekindly
received,andafterbeingrefreshedwithmilk,peas,anddriedpears,theusualfoodofthatseason,are
senthomeagain.Others,however,treatthemwithanythingbuthospitalityfor,lookingonthemas
harbingersofmisfortune,towitofdeath,theydrivethemfromtheirboundarieswithweaponsand
insults.InthevillagesnearErlangen,whenthefourthSundayinLentcamearound,thepeasantgirls
usedtodressthemselvesinalltheirfinerywithflowersintheirhair.Thusattiredtheyrepairedtothe
neighbouringtown,carryingpuppetswhichwereadornedwithleavesandcoveredwithwhitecloths.
Thesetheytookfromhousetohouseinpairs,stoppingateverydoorwheretheyexpectedtoreceive
something,andsingingafewlinesinwhichtheyannouncedthatitwasMidLentandthattheywere
abouttothrowDeathintothewater.Whentheyhadcollectedsometriflinggratuitiestheywenttothe
riverRegnitzandflungthepuppetsrepresentingDeathintothestream.Thiswasdonetoensureafruitful
andprosperousyearfurther,itwasconsideredasafeguardagainstpestilenceandsuddendeath.At
Nuremberggirlsofseventoeighteenyearsofagegothroughthestreetsbearingalittleopencoffin,in
whichisadollhiddenunderashroud.Otherscarryabeechbranch,withanapplefastenedtoitfora
head,inanopenbox.Theysing,WecarryDeathintothewater,itiswell,orWecarryDeathintothe
water,carryhiminandoutagain.InsomepartsofBavariadownto1780itwasbelievedthatafatal
epidemicwouldensueifthecustomofCarryingoutDeathwerenotobserved.
InsomevillagesofThringen,onthefourthSundayofLent,thechildrenusedtocarryapuppetof
birchentwigsthroughthevillage,andthenthrewitintoapool,whiletheysang,WecarrytheoldDeath
outbehindtheherdmansoldhousewehavegotSummer,andKrodens(?)powerisdestroyed.At
DebschwitzorDobschwitz,nearGera,theceremonyofDrivingoutDeathisorwasannuallyobserved
onthefirstofMarch.Theyoungpeoplemakeupafigureofstraworthelikematerials,dressitinold
clothes,whichtheyhavebeggedfromhousesinthevillage,andcarryitoutandthrowitintotheriver.
Onreturningtothevillagetheybreakthegoodnewstothepeople,andreceiveeggsandothervictualsas
areward.Theceremonyisorwassupposedtopurifythevillageandtoprotecttheinhabitantsfrom

sicknessandplague.InothervillagesofThringen,inwhichthepopulationwasoriginallySlavonic,the
carryingoutofthepuppetisaccompaniedwiththesingingofasong,whichbegins,Nowwecarry
DeathoutofthevillageandSpringintothevillage.Attheendoftheseventeenthandbeginningofthe
eighteenthcenturythecustomwasobservedinThringenasfollows.Theboysandgirlsmadeaneffigy
ofstraworthelikematerials,buttheshapeofthefigurevariedfromyeartoyear.Inoneyearitwould
representanoldman,inthenextanoldwoman,inthethirdayoungman,andinthefourthamaiden,and
thedressofthefigurevariedwiththecharacteritpersonated.Thereusedtobeasharpcontestasto
wheretheeffigywastobemade,forthepeoplethoughtthatthehousefromwhichitwascarriedforth
wouldnotbevisitedwithdeaththatyear.Havingbeenmade,thepuppetwasfastenedtoapoleand
carriedbyagirlifitrepresentedanoldman,butbyaboyifitrepresentedanoldwoman.Thusitwas
borneinprocession,theyoungpeopleholdingsticksintheirhandsandsingingthattheyweredrivingout
Death.Whentheycametowatertheythrewtheeffigyintoitandranhastilyback,fearingthatitmight
jumpontheirshouldersandwringtheirnecks.Theyalsotookcarenottotouchit,lestitshoulddrythem
up.Ontheirreturntheybeatthecattlewiththesticks,believingthatthiswouldmaketheanimalsfator
fruitful.AfterwardstheyvisitedthehouseorhousesfromwhichtheyhadcarriedtheimageofDeath
wheretheyreceivedadoleofhalfboiledpeas.ThecustomofCarryingoutDeathwaspractisedalsoin
Saxony.AtLeipsicthebastardsandpublicwomenusedtomakeastraweffigyofDeatheveryyearat
MidLent.Thistheycarriedthroughallthestreetswithsongsandshowedittotheyoungmarried
women.FinallytheythrewitintotheriverParthe.Bythisceremonytheyprofessedtomaketheyoung
wivesfruitful,topurifythecity,andtoprotecttheinhabitantsforthatyearfromplagueandother
epidemics.
CeremoniesofthesamesortareobservedatMidLentinSilesia.Thusinmanyplacesthegrowngirls
withthehelpoftheyoungmendressupastrawfigurewithwomensclothesandcarryitoutofthe
villagetowardsthesettingsun.Attheboundarytheystripitofitsclothes,tearitinpieces,andscatterthe
fragmentsaboutthefields.ThisiscalledBuryingDeath.Astheycarrytheimageout,theysingthat
theyareabouttoburyDeathunderanoak,thathemaydepartfromthepeople.Sometimesthesongruns
thattheyarebearingDeathoverhillanddaletoreturnnomore.InthePolishneighbourhoodofGross
StrehlitzthepuppetiscalledGoik.Itiscarriedonhorsebackandthrownintothenearestwater.The
peoplethinkthattheceremonyprotectsthemfromsicknessofeverysortinthecomingyear.Inthe
districtsofWohlauandGuhrautheimageofDeathusedtobethrownovertheboundaryofthenext
village.Butastheneighboursfearedtoreceivetheillomenedfigure,theywereonthelookouttorepel
it,andhardknockswereoftenexchangedbetweenthetwoparties.InsomePolishpartsofUpperSilesia
theeffigy,representinganoldwoman,goesbythenameofMarzana,thegoddessofdeath.Itismadein
thehousewherethelastdeathoccurred,andiscarriedonapoletotheboundaryofthevillage,whereitis
thrownintoapondorburnt.AtPolkwitzthecustomofCarryingoutDeathfellintoabeyancebutan
outbreakoffatalsicknesswhichfollowedtheintermissionoftheceremonyinducedthepeopletoresume
it.
InBohemiathechildrengooutwithastrawman,representingDeath,totheendofthevillage,where
theyburnit,singing
NowcarryweDeathoutofthevillage,
ThenewSummerintothevillage,
Welcome,dearSummer,
Greenlittlecorn.
AtTaborinBohemiathefigureofDeathiscarriedoutofthetownandflungfromahighrockintothe
water,whiletheysing
Deathswimsonthewater,

Summerwillsoonbehere,
WecarriedDeathawayforyou
WebroughttheSummer.
Anddothou,OholyMarketa,
Giveusagoodyear
Forwheatandforrye.
InotherpartsofBohemiatheycarryDeathtotheendofthevillage,singing
WecarryDeathoutofthevillage,
AndtheNewYearintothevillage.
DearSpring,webidyouwelcome,
Greengrass,webidyouwelcome.
Behindthevillagetheyerectapyre,onwhichtheyburnthestrawfigure,revilingandscoffingatitthe
while.Thentheyreturn,singing
WehavecarriedawayDeath,
AndbroughtLifeback.
Hehastakenuphisquartersinthevillage,
Thereforesingjoyoussongs.
InsomeGermanvillagesofMoravia,asinJassnitzandSeitendorf,theyoungfolkassembleonthethird
SundayinLentandfashionastrawman,whoisgenerallyadornedwithafurcapandapairofold
leathernhose,ifsucharetobehad.Theeffigyisthenhoistedonapoleandcarriedbytheladsandlasses
outintotheopenfields.Onthewaytheysingasong,inwhichitissaidthattheyarecarryingDeath
awayandbringingdearSummerintothehouse,andwithSummertheMayandtheflowers.Onreaching
anappointedplacetheydanceinacircleroundtheeffigywithloudshoutsandscreams,thensuddenly
rushatitandtearittopieceswiththeirhands.Lastly,thepiecesarethrowntogetherinaheap,thepoleis
broken,andfireissettothewhole.Whileitburnsthetroopdancesmerrilyroundit,rejoicingatthe
victorywonbySpringandwhenthefirehasnearlydiedouttheygotothehouseholderstobegfora
presentofeggswherewithtoholdafeast,takingcaretogiveasareasonfortherequestthattheyhave
carriedDeathoutandaway.
TheprecedingevidenceshowsthattheeffigyofDeathisoftenregardedwithfearandtreatedwithmarks
ofhatredandabhorrence.Thustheanxietyofthevillagerstotransferthefigurefromtheirowntotheir
neighboursland,andthereluctanceofthelattertoreceivetheominousguest,areproofenoughofthe
dreadwhichitinspires.Further,inLusatiaandSilesiathepuppetissometimesmadetolookinatthe
windowofahouse,anditisbelievedthatsomeoneinthehousewilldiewithintheyearunlesshislifeis
redeemedbythepaymentofmoney.Again,afterthrowingtheeffigyaway,thebearerssometimesrun
homelestDeathshouldfollowthem,andifoneofthemfallsinrunning,itisbelievedthathewilldie
withintheyear.AtChrudim,inBohemia,thefigureofDeathismadeoutofacross,withaheadand
maskstuckatthetop,andashirtstretchedoutonit.OnthefifthSundayinLenttheboystakethiseffigy
tothenearestbrookorpool,andstandinginalinethrowitintothewater.Thentheyallplungeinafterit
butassoonasitiscaughtnoonemoremayenterthewater.Theboywhodidnotenterthewateror
entereditlastwilldiewithintheyear,andheisobligedtocarrytheDeathbacktothevillage.Theeffigy
isthenburned.Ontheotherhand,itisbelievedthatnoonewilldiewithintheyearinthehouseoutof
whichthefigureofDeathhasbeencarriedandthevillageoutofwhichDeathhasbeendrivenis
sometimessupposedtobeprotectedagainstsicknessandplague.InsomevillagesofAustrianSilesiaon
theSaturdaybeforeDeadSundayaneffigyismadeofoldclothes,hay,andstraw,forthepurposeof
drivingDeathoutofthevillage.OnSundaythepeople,armedwithsticksandstraps,assemblebeforethe

housewherethefigureislodged.Fourladsthendrawtheeffigybycordsthroughthevillageamid
exultantshouts,whilealltheothersbeatitwiththeirsticksandstraps.Onreachingafieldwhichbelongs
toaneighbouringvillagetheylaydownthefigure,cudgelitsoundly,andscatterthefragmentsoverthe
field.ThepeoplebelievethatthevillagefromwhichDeathhasbeenthuscarriedoutwillbesafefrom
anyinfectiousdiseaseforthewholeyear.
4.BringinginSummer
INTHEPRECEDINGceremoniesthereturnofSpring,Summer,orLife,asasequeltotheexpulsionof
Death,isonlyimpliedoratmostannounced.Inthefollowingceremoniesitisplainlyenacted.Thusin
somepartsofBohemiatheeffigyofDeathisdrownedbybeingthrownintothewateratsunsetthenthe
girlsgooutintothewoodandcutdownayoungtreewithagreencrown,hangadolldressedasawoman
onit,deckthewholewithgreen,red,andwhiteribbons,andmarchinprocessionwiththeirLto
(Summer)intothevillage,collectinggiftsandsinging
Deathswimsinthewater,
Springcomestovisitus,
Witheggsthatarered,
Withyellowpancakes.
WecarriedDeathoutofthevillage,
WearecarryingSummerintothevillage.
InmanySilesianvillagesthefigureofDeath,afterbeingtreatedwithrespect,isstriptofitsclothesand
flungwithcursesintothewater,ortorntopiecesinafield.Thentheyoungfolkrepairtoawood,cut
downasmallfirtree,peelthetrunk,anddeckitwithfestoonsofevergreens,paperroses,paintedegg
shells,motleybitsofcloth,andsoforth.ThetreethusadornediscalledSummerorMay.Boyscarryit
fromhousetohousesingingappropriatesongsandbeggingforpresents.Amongtheirsongsisthe
following:
WehavecarriedDeathout,
WearebringingthedearSummerback,
TheSummerandtheMay
Andalltheflowersgay.
Sometimestheyalsobringbackfromthewoodaprettilyadornedfigure,whichgoesbythenameof
Summer,May,ortheBrideinthePolishdistrictsitiscalledDziewanna,thegoddessofspring.
AtEisenachonthefourthSundayinLentyoungpeopleusedtofastenastrawman,representingDeath,
toawheel,whichtheytrundledtothetopofahill.Thensettingfiretothefiguretheyalloweditandthe
wheeltorolldowntheslope.Nextdaytheycutatallfirtree,trickeditoutwithribbons,andsetitupin
theplain.Thementhenclimbedthetreetofetchdowntheribbons.InUpperLusatiathefigureofDeath,
madeofstrawandrags,isdressedinaveilfurnishedbythelastbrideandashirtprovidedbythehouse
inwhichthelastdeathtookplace.Thusarrayedthefigureisstuckontheendofalongpoleandcarried
atfullspeedbythetallestandstrongestgirl,whiletherestpelttheeffigywithsticksandstones.
Whoeverhitsitwillbesuretolivethroughtheyear.InthiswayDeathiscarriedoutofthevillageand
thrownintothewaterorovertheboundaryofthenextvillage.Ontheirwayhomeeachonebreaksa
greenbranchandcarriesitgailywithhimtillhereachesthevillage,whenhethrowsitaway.Sometimes
theyoungpeopleofthenextvillage,uponwhoselandthefigurehasbeenthrown,runafterthemandhurl
itback,notwishingtohaveDeathamongthem.Hencethetwopartiesoccasionallycometoblows.
InthesecasesDeathisrepresentedbythepuppetwhichisthrownaway,SummerorLifebythebranches

ortreeswhicharebroughtback.Butsometimesanewpotencyoflifeseemstobeattributedtotheimage
ofDeathitself,andbyakindofresurrectionitbecomestheinstrumentofthegeneralrevival.Thusin
somepartsofLusatiawomenaloneareconcernedincarryingoutDeath,andsuffernomaletomeddle
withit.Attiredinmourning,whichtheywearthewholeday,theymakeapuppetofstraw,clotheitina
whiteshirt,andgiveitabroominonehandandascytheintheother.Singingsongsandpursuedby
urchinsthrowingstones,theycarrythepuppettothevillageboundary,wheretheytearitinpieces.Then
theycutdownafinetree,hangtheshirtonit,andcarryithomesinging.OntheFeastofAscensionthe
SaxonsofBraller,avillageofTransylvania,notfarfromHermannstadt,observetheceremonyof
CarryingoutDeathinthefollowingmanner.Aftermorningservicealltheschoolgirlsrepairtothe
houseofoneoftheirnumber,andtheredressuptheDeath.Thisisdonebytyingathreshedoutsheafof
cornintoaroughsemblanceofaheadandbody,whilethearmsaresimulatedbyabroomstickthrust
throughithorizontally.Thefigureisdressedintheholidayattireofayoungpeasantwoman,withared
hood,silverbrooches,andaprofusionofribbonsatthearmsandbreast.Thegirlsbustleattheirwork,
forsoonthebellswillberingingtovespers,andtheDeathmustbereadyintimetobeplacedattheopen
window,thatallthepeoplemayseeitontheirwaytochurch.Whenvespersareover,thelongedfor
momenthascomeforthefirstprocessionwiththeDeathtobeginitisaprivilegethatbelongstothe
schoolgirlsalone.Twooftheoldergirlsseizethefigurebythearmsandwalkinfront:alltherestfollow
twoandtwo.Boysmaytakenopartintheprocession,buttheytroopafteritgazingwithopenmouthed
admirationatthebeautifulDeath.Sotheprocessiongoesthroughallthestreetsofthevillage,thegirls
singingtheoldhymnthatbegins
GottmeinVater,deineLiebe
ReichtsoweitderHimmelist,
toatunethatdiffersfromtheordinaryone.Whentheprocessionhaswounditswaythrougheverystreet,
thegirlsgotoanotherhouse,andhavingshutthedooragainsttheeagerpryingcrowdofboyswho
followattheirheels,theystriptheDeathandpassthenakedtrussofstrawoutofthewindowtotheboys,
whopounceonit,runoutofthevillagewithitwithoutsinging,andflingthedilapidatedeffigyintothe
neighbouringbrook.Thisdone,thesecondsceneofthelittledramabegins.Whiletheboyswerecarrying
awaytheDeathoutofthevillage,thegirlsremainedinthehouse,andoneofthemisnowdressedinall
thefinerywhichhadbeenwornbytheeffigy.Thusarrayedsheisledinprocessionthroughallthestreets
tothesingingofthesamehymnasbefore.Whentheprocessionisovertheyallbetakethemselvestothe
houseofthegirlwhoplayedtheleadingpart.Hereafeastawaitsthemfromwhichalsotheboysare
excluded.Itisapopularbeliefthatthechildrenmaysafelybegintoeatgooseberriesandotherfruitafter
thedayonwhichDeathhasthusbeencarriedoutforDeath,whichuptothattimelurkedespeciallyin
gooseberries,isnowdestroyed.Further,theymaynowbathewithimpunityoutofdoors.Verysimilaris
theceremonywhich,downtorecentyears,wasobservedinsomeoftheGermanvillagesofMoravia.
BoysandgirlsmetontheafternoonofthefirstSundayafterEaster,andtogetherfashionedapuppetof
strawtorepresentDeath.Deckedwithbrightcolouredribbonsandcloths,andfastenedtothetopofa
longpole,theeffigywasthenbornewithsingingandclamourtothenearestheight,whereitwasstriptof
itsgayattireandthrownorrolleddowntheslope.Oneofthegirlswasnextdressedinthegaudstaken
fromtheeffigyofDeath,andwithheratitsheadtheprocessionmovedbacktothevillage.Insome
villagesthepracticeistoburytheeffigyintheplacethathasthemostevilreputationofallthecountry
side:othersthrowitintorunningwater.
IntheLusatianceremonydescribedabove,thetreewhichisbroughthomeafterthedestructionofthe
figureofDeathisplainlyequivalenttothetreesorbrancheswhich,intheprecedingcustoms,were
broughtbackasrepresentativesofSummerorLife,afterDeathhadbeenthrownawayordestroyed.But
thetransferenceoftheshirtwornbytheeffigyofDeathtothetreeclearlyindicatesthatthetreeisakind
ofrevivification,inanewform,ofthedestroyedeffigy.ThiscomesoutalsointheTransylvanianand
Moraviancustoms:thedressingofagirlintheclotheswornbytheDeath,andtheleadingheraboutthe

villagetothesamesongwhichhadbeensungwhentheDeathwasbeingcarriedabout,showthatsheis
intendedtobeakindofresuscitationofthebeingwhoseeffigyhasjustbeendestroyed.Theseexamples
thereforesuggestthattheDeathwhosedemolitionisrepresentedintheseceremoniescannotberegarded
asthepurelydestructiveagentwhichweunderstandbyDeath.Ifthetreewhichisbroughtbackasan
embodimentoftherevivingvegetationofspringisclothedintheshirtwornbytheDeathwhichhasjust
beendestroyed,theobjectcertainlycannotbetocheckandcounteracttherevivalofvegetation:itcan
onlybetofosterandpromoteit.ThereforethebeingwhichhasjustbeendestroyedthesocalledDeath
mustbesupposedtobeendowedwithavivifyingandquickeninginfluence,whichitcancommunicate
tothevegetableandeventheanimalworld.ThisascriptionofalifegivingvirtuetothefigureofDeathis
putbeyondadoubtbythecustom,observedinsomeplaces,oftakingpiecesofthestraweffigyofDeath
andplacingtheminthefieldstomakethecropsgrow,orinthemangertomakethecattlethrive.Thusin
Spachendorf,avillageofAustrianSilesia,thefigureofDeath,madeofstraw,brushwood,andrags,is
carriedwithwildsongstoanopenplaceoutsidethevillageandthereburned,andwhileitisburninga
generalstruggletakesplaceforthepieces,whicharepulledoutoftheflameswithbarehands.Eachone
whosecuresafragmentoftheeffigytiesittoabranchofthelargesttreeinhisgarden,orburiesitinhis
field,inthebeliefthatthiscausesthecropstogrowbetter.IntheTroppaudistrictofAustrianSilesiathe
strawfigurewhichtheboysmakeonthefourthSundayinLentisdressedbythegirlsinwomansclothes
andhungwithribbons,necklace,andgarlands.Attachedtoalongpoleitiscarriedoutofthevillage,
followedbyatroopofyoungpeopleofbothsexes,whoalternatelyfrolic,lament,andsingsongs.
Arrivedatitsdestinationafieldoutsidethevillagethefigureisstrippedofitsclothesandornaments
thenthecrowdrushesatitandtearsittobits,scufflingforthefragments.Everyonetriestogetawispof
thestrawofwhichtheeffigywasmade,becausesuchawisp,placedinthemanger,isbelievedtomake
thecattlethrive.Orthestrawisputinthehensnest,itbeingsupposedthatthispreventsthehensfrom
carryingawaytheireggs,andmakesthembroodmuchbetter.Thesameattributionofafertilisingpower
tothefigureofDeathappearsinthebeliefthatifthebearersofthefigure,afterthrowingitaway,beat
cattlewiththeirsticks,thiswillrenderthebeastsfatorprolific.Perhapsthestickshadbeenpreviously
usedtobeattheDeath,andsohadacquiredthefertilisingpowerascribedtotheeffigy.Wehaveseen,
too,thatatLeipsicastraweffigyofDeathwasshowntoyoungwivestomakethemfruitful.
ItseemshardlypossibletoseparatefromtheMaytreesthetreesorbrancheswhicharebroughtintothe
villageafterthedestructionoftheDeath.Thebearerswhobringtheminprofesstobebringinginthe
Summer,thereforethetreesobviouslyrepresenttheSummerindeedinSilesiatheyarecommonlycalled
theSummerortheMay,andthedollwhichissometimesattachedtotheSummertreeisaduplicate
representativeoftheSummer,justastheMayissometimesrepresentedatthesametimebyaMaytree
andaMayLady.Further,theSummertreesareadornedlikeMaytreeswithribbonsandsoonlike
Maytrees,whenlarge,theyareplantedinthegroundandclimbedupandlikeMaytrees,whensmall,
theyarecarriedfromdoortodoorbyboysorgirlssingingsongsandcollectingmoney.Andasifto
demonstratetheidentityofthetwosetsofcustomsthebearersoftheSummertreesometimesannounce
thattheyarebringingintheSummerandtheMay.Thecustoms,therefore,ofbringingintheMayand
bringingintheSummerareessentiallythesameandtheSummertreeismerelyanotherformofthe
Maytree,theonlydistinction(besidesthatofname)beinginthetimeatwhichtheyarerespectively
broughtinforwhiletheMaytreeisusuallyfetchedinonthefirstofMayoratWhitsuntide,the
SummertreeisfetchedinonthefourthSundayinLent.Therefore,iftheMaytreeisanembodimentof
thetreespiritorspiritofvegetation,theSummertreemustlikewisebeanembodimentofthetreespirit
orspiritofvegetation.ButwehaveseenthattheSummertreeisinsomecasesarevivificationofthe
effigyofDeath.Itfollows,therefore,thatinthesecasestheeffigycalledDeathmustbeanembodiment
ofthetreespiritorspiritofvegetation.Thisinferenceisconfirmed,first,bythevivifyingandfertilising
influencewhichthefragmentsoftheeffigyofDeatharebelievedtoexercisebothonvegetableandon
animallifeforthisinfluence,aswesawinanearlierpartofthiswork,issupposedtobeaspecial
attributeofthetreespirit.Itisconfirmed,secondly,byobservingthattheeffigyofDeathissometimes
deckedwithleavesormadeoftwigs,branches,hemp,orathreshedoutsheafofcornandthat

sometimesitishungonalittletreeandsocarriedaboutbygirlscollectingmoney,justasisdonewith
theMaytreeandtheMayLady,andwiththeSummertreeandthedollattachedtoit.Inshortweare
driventoregardtheexpulsionofDeathandthebringinginofSummeras,insomecasesatleast,merely
anotherformofthatdeathandrevivalofthespiritofvegetationinspringwhichwesawenactedinthe
killingandresurrectionoftheWildMan.TheburialandresurrectionoftheCarnivalisprobablyanother
wayofexpressingthesameidea.TheintermentoftherepresentativeoftheCarnivalunderadungheap
isnatural,ifheissupposedtopossessaquickeningandfertilisinginfluencelikethatascribedtothe
effigyofDeath.TheEsthonians,indeed,whocarrythestrawfigureoutofthevillageintheusualwayon
ShroveTuesday,donotcallittheCarnival,buttheWoodspirit(Metsik),andtheyclearlyindicatethe
identityoftheeffigywiththewoodspiritbyfixingittothetopofatreeinthewood,whereitremains
forayear,andisbesoughtalmostdailywithprayersandofferingstoprotecttheherdsforlikeatrue
woodspirittheMetsikisapatronofcattle.SometimestheMetsikismadeofsheavesofcorn.
ThuswemayfairlyconjecturethatthenamesCarnival,Death,andSummerarecomparativelylateand
inadequateexpressionsforthebeingspersonifiedorembodiedinthecustomswithwhichwehavebeen
dealing.Theveryabstractnessofthenamesbespeaksamodernoriginforthepersonificationoftimes
andseasonsliketheCarnivalandSummer,orofanabstractnotionlikedeath,isnotprimitive.Butthe
ceremoniesthemselvesbearthestampofadatelessantiquitythereforewecanhardlyhelpsupposing
thatintheirorigintheideaswhichtheyembodiedwereofamoresimpleandconcreteorder.Thenotion
ofatree,perhapsofaparticularkindoftree(forsomesavageshavenowordfortreeingeneral),oreven
ofanindividualtree,issufficientlyconcretetosupplyabasisfromwhichbyagradualprocessof
generalisationthewiderideaofaspiritofvegetationmightbereached.Butthisgeneralideaof
vegetationwouldreadilybeconfoundedwiththeseasoninwhichitmanifestsitselfhencethe
substitutionofSpring,Summer,orMayforthetreespiritorspiritofvegetationwouldbeeasyand
natural.Again,theconcretenotionofthedyingtreeordyingvegetationwouldbyasimilarprocessof
generalisationglideintoanotionofdeathingeneralsothatthepracticeofcarryingoutthedyingor
deadvegetationinspring,asapreliminarytoitsrevival,wouldintimewidenoutintoanattemptto
banishDeathingeneralfromthevillageordistrict.TheviewthatinthesespringceremoniesDeath
meantoriginallythedyingordeadvegetationofwinterhasthehighsupportofW.Mannhardtandhe
confirmsitbytheanalogyofthenameDeathasappliedtothespiritoftheripecorn.Commonlythe
spiritoftheripecornisconceived,notasdead,butasold,andhenceitgoesbythenameoftheOldMan
ortheOldWoman.Butinsomeplacesthelastsheafcutatharvest,whichisgenerallybelievedtobethe
seatofthecornspirit,iscalledtheDeadOne:childrenarewarnedagainstenteringthecornfields
becauseDeathsitsinthecornand,inagameplayedbySaxonchildreninTransylvaniaatthemaize
harvest,Deathisrepresentedbyachildcompletelycoveredwithmaizeleaves.
5.BattleofSummerandWinter
SOMETIMESinthepopularcustomsofthepeasantrythecontrastbetweenthedormantpowersof
vegetationinwinterandtheirawakeningvitalityinspringtakestheformofadramaticcontestbetween
actorswhoplaythepartsrespectivelyofWinterandSummer.ThusinthetownsofSwedenonMayDay
twotroopsofyoungmenonhorsebackusedtomeetasifformortalcombat.Oneofthemwasledbya
representativeofWintercladinfurs,whothrewsnowballsandiceinordertoprolongthecoldweather.
TheothertroopwascommandedbyarepresentativeofSummercoveredwithfreshleavesandflowers.
IntheshamfightwhichfollowedthepartyofSummercameoffvictorious,andtheceremonyendedwith
afeast.Again,intheregionofthemiddleRhine,arepresentativeofSummercladinivycombatsa
representativeofWintercladinstrawormossandfinallygainsavictoryoverhim.Thevanquishedfoeis
throwntothegroundandstrippedofhiscasingofstraw,whichistorntopiecesandscatteredabout,
whiletheyouthfulcomradesofthetwochampionssingasongtocommemoratethedefeatofWinterby
Summer.Afterwardstheycarryaboutasummergarlandorbranchandcollectgiftsofeggsandbacon

fromhousetohouse.SometimesthechampionwhoactsthepartofSummerisdressedinleavesand
flowersandwearsachapletofflowersonhishead.InthePalatinatethismimicconflicttakesplaceon
thefourthSundayinLent.AlloverBavariathesamedramausedtobeactedonthesameday,anditwas
stillkeptupinsomeplacesdowntothemiddleofthenineteenthcenturyorlater.WhileSummer
appearedcladallingreen,deckedwithflutteringribbons,andcarryingabranchinblossomoralittletree
hungwithapplesandpears,Winterwasmuffledupincapandmantleoffurandboreinhishandasnow
shoveloraflail.Accompaniedbytheirrespectiveretinuesdressedincorrespondingattire,theywent
throughallthestreetsofthevillage,haltingbeforethehousesandsingingstavesofoldsongs,forwhich
theyreceivedpresentsofbread,eggs,andfruit.Finally,afterashortstruggle,Winterwasbeatenby
Summerandduckedinthevillagewellordrivenoutofthevillagewithshoutsandlaughterintothe
forest.
AtGoepfritzinLowerAustria,twomenpersonatingSummerandWinterusedtogofromhousetohouse
onShroveTuesday,andwereeverywherewelcomedbythechildrenwithgreatdelight.The
representativeofSummerwascladinwhiteandboreasicklehiscomrade,whoplayedthepartof
Winter,hadafurcaponhishead,hisarmsandlegswereswathedinstraw,andhecarriedaflail.In
everyhousetheysangversesalternately.AtDrmlinginBrunswick,downtothepresenttime,the
contestbetweenSummerandWinterisactedeveryyearatWhitsuntidebyatroopofboysandatroopof
girls.Theboysrushsinging,shouting,andringingbellsfromhousetohousetodriveWinterawayafter
themcomethegirlssingingsoftlyandledbyaMayBride,allinbrightdressesanddeckedwithflowers
andgarlandstorepresentthegenialadventofspring.FormerlythepartofWinterwasplayedbyastraw
manwhichtheboyscarriedwiththemnowitisactedbyarealmanindisguise.
AmongtheCentralEsquimauxofNorthAmericathecontestbetweenrepresentativesofsummerand
winter,whichinEuropehaslongdegeneratedintoameredramaticperformance,isstillkeptupasa
magicalceremonyofwhichtheavowedintentionistoinfluencetheweather.Inautumn,whenstorms
announcetheapproachofthedismalArcticwinter,theEsquimauxdividethemselvesintotwoparties
calledrespectivelytheptarmigansandtheducks,theptarmiganscomprisingallpersonsborninwinter,
andtheducksallpersonsborninsummer.Alongropeofsealskinisthenstretchedout,andeachparty
layingholdofoneendofitseeksbytuggingwithmightandmaintodragtheotherpartyovertoitsside.
Iftheptarmigansgettheworstofit,thensummerhaswonthegameandfineweathermaybeexpectedto
prevailthroughthewinter.
6.DeathandResurrectionofKostrubonko
IRUSSIAfuneralceremonieslikethoseofBuryingtheCarnivalandCarryingoutDeathare
celebratedunderthenames,notofDeathortheCarnival,butofcertainmythicfigures,Kostrubonko,
Kostroma,Kupalo,Lada,andYarilo.TheseRussianceremoniesareobservedbothinspringandat
midsummer.ThusinLittleRussiaitusedtobethecustomatEastertidetocelebratethefuneralofa
beingcalledKostrubonko,thedeityofthespring.Acirclewasformedofsingerswhomovedslowly
aroundagirlwholayonthegroundasifdead,andastheywenttheysang:
Dead,deadisourKostrubonko!
Dead,deadisourdearone!
untilthegirlsuddenlysprangup,onwhichthechorusjoyfullyexclaimed:
Cometolife,cometolifehasourKostrubonko!
Cometolife,cometolifehasourdearone!
OntheEveofSt.John(MidsummerEve)afigureofKupaloismadeofstrawandisdressedin

womansclothes,withanecklaceandafloralcrown.Thenatreeisfelled,and,afterbeingdeckedwith
ribbons,issetuponsomechosenspot.Nearthistree,towhichtheygivethenameofMarena[Winteror
Death],thestrawfigureisplaced,togetherwithatable,onwhichstandspiritsandviands.Afterwardsa
bonfireislit,andtheyoungmenandmaidensjumpoveritincouples,carryingthefigurewiththem.On
thenextdaytheystripthetreeandthefigureoftheirornaments,andthrowthembothintoastream.On
St.PetersDay,thetwentyninthofJune,oronthefollowingSunday,theFuneralofKostromaorof
LadaorofYariloiscelebratedinRussia.IntheGovernmentsofPenzaandSimbirskthefuneralusedto
berepresentedasfollows.AbonfirewaskindledonthetwentyeighthofJune,andonthenextdaythe
maidenschoseoneoftheirnumbertoplaythepartofKostroma.Hercompanionssalutedherwithdeep
obeisances,placedheronaboard,andcarriedhertothebankofastream.Theretheybathedherinthe
water,whiletheoldestgirlmadeabasketoflimetreebarkandbeatitlikeadrum.Thentheyreturnedto
thevillageandendedthedaywithprocessions,games,anddances.IntheMuromdistrictKostromawas
representedbyastrawfiguredressedinwomansclothesandflowers.Thiswaslaidinatroughand
carriedwithsongstothebankofalakeorriver.Herethecrowddividedintotwosides,ofwhichtheone
attackedandtheotherdefendedthefigure.Atlasttheassailantsgainedtheday,strippedthefigureofits
dressandornaments,toreitinpieces,trodthestrawofwhichitwasmadeunderfoot,andflungitinto
thestreamwhilethedefendersofthefigurehidtheirfacesintheirhandsandpretendedtobewailthe
deathofKostroma.InthedistrictofKostromatheburialofYarilowascelebratedonthetwentyninthor
thirtiethofJune.ThepeoplechoseanoldmanandgavehimasmallcoffincontainingaPriapuslike
figurerepresentingYarilo.Thishecarriedoutofthetown,followedbywomenchantingdirgesand
expressingbytheirgesturesgriefanddespair.Intheopenfieldsagravewasdug,andintoitthefigure
wasloweredamidweepingandwailing,afterwhichgamesanddanceswerebegun,callingtomindthe
funeralgamescelebratedinoldtimesbythepaganSlavonians.InLittleRussiathefigureofYarilowas
laidinacoffinandcarriedthroughthestreetsaftersunsetsurroundedbydrunkenwomen,whokept
repeatingmournfully,Heisdead!heisdead!Themenliftedandshookthefigureasiftheywere
tryingtorecallthedeadmantolife.Thentheysaidtothewomen,Women,weepnot.Iknowwhatis
sweeterthanhoney.Butthewomencontinuedtolamentandchant,astheydoatfunerals.Ofwhatwas
heguilty?Hewassogood.Hewillarisenomore.Ohowshallwepartfromthee?Whatislifewithout
thee?Arise,ifonlyforabriefhour.Butherisesnot,henot.AtlasttheYarilowasburiedinagrave.
7.DeathandRevivalofVegetation
THESERussiancustomsareplainlyofthesamenatureasthosewhichinAustriaandGermanyare
knownasCarryingoutDeath.Thereforeiftheinterpretationhereadoptedofthelatterisright,the
RussianKostrubonko,Yarilo,andtherestmustalsohavebeenoriginallyembodimentsofthespiritof
vegetation,andtheirdeathmusthavebeenregardedasanecessarypreliminarytotheirrevival.The
revivalasasequeltothedeathisenactedinthefirstoftheceremoniesdescribed,thedeathand
resurrectionofKostrubonko.ThereasonwhyinsomeoftheseRussianceremoniesthedeathofthespirit
ofvegetationiscelebratedatmidsummermaybethatthedeclineofsummerisdatedfromMidsummer
Day,afterwhichthedaysbegintoshorten,andthesunsetsoutonhisdownwardjourney:
Tothedarksomehollows
Wherethefrostsofwinterlie.
Suchaturningpointoftheyear,whenvegetationmightbethoughttosharetheincipientthoughstill
almostimperceptibledecayofsummer,mightverywellbechosenbyprimitivemanasafitmomentfor
resortingtothosemagicritesbywhichhehopestostaythedecline,oratleasttoensuretherevival,of
plantlife.
Butwhilethedeathofvegetationappearstohavebeenrepresentedinall,anditsrevivalinsome,ofthese

springandmidsummerceremonies,therearefeaturesinsomeofthemwhichcanhardlybeexplainedon
thishypothesisalone.Thesolemnfuneral,thelamentations,andthemourningattire,whichoften
characterisetheserites,areindeedappropriateatthedeathofthebeneficentspiritofvegetation.Butwhat
shallwesayofthegleewithwhichtheeffigyisoftencarriedout,ofthesticksandstoneswithwhichitis
assailed,andthetauntsandcurseswhicharehurledatit?Whatshallwesayofthedreadoftheeffigy
evincedbythehastewithwhichthebearersscamperhomeassoonastheyhavethrownitaway,andby
thebeliefthatsomeonemustsoondieinanyhouseintowhichithaslooked?Thisdreadmightperhaps
beexplainedbyabeliefthatthereisacertaininfectiousnessinthedeadspiritofvegetationwhich
rendersitsapproachdangerous.Butthisexplanation,besidesbeingratherstrained,doesnotcoverthe
rejoicingswhichoftenattendthecarryingoutofDeath.Wemustthereforerecognisetwodistinctand
seeminglyoppositefeaturesintheseceremonies:ontheonehand,sorrowforthedeath,andaffectionand
respectforthedeadontheotherhand,fearandhatredofthedead,andrejoicingsathisdeath.Howthe
formerofthesefeaturesistobeexplainedIhaveattemptedtoshow:howthelattercametobesoclosely
associatedwiththeformerisaquestionwhichIshalltrytoanswerinthesequel.
8.AnalogousRitesinIndia
INTHEKANAGRAdistrictofIndiathereisacustomobservedbyyounggirlsinspringwhichclosely
resemblessomeoftheEuropeanspringceremoniesjustdescribed.ItiscalledtheRalKamel,orfair
ofRal,theRalbeingasmallpaintedearthenimageofSivaorPrvat.Thecustomisinvogueall
overtheKanagradistrict,anditscelebration,whichisentirelyconfinedtoyounggirls,laststhroughmost
ofChet(MarchApril)uptotheSankrntofBaiskh(April).OnamorninginMarchalltheyoung
girlsofthevillagetakesmallbasketsofdbgrassandflowerstoanappointedplace,wheretheythrow
theminaheap.Roundthisheaptheystandinacircleandsing.Thisgoesoneverydayfortendays,till
theheapofgrassandflowershasreachedafairheight.Thentheycutinthejungletwobranches,each
withthreeprongsatoneend,andplacethem,prongsdownwards,overtheheapofflowers,soastomake
twotripodsorpyramids.Onthesingleuppermostpointsofthesebranchestheygetanimagemakerto
constructtwoclayimages,onetorepresentSiva,andtheotherPrvat.Thegirlsthendivide
themselvesintotwoparties,oneforSivaandoneforPrvat,andmarrytheimagesintheusualway,
leavingoutnopartoftheceremony.Afterthemarriagetheyhaveafeast,thecostofwhichisdefrayed
bycontributionssolicitedfromtheirparents.ThenatthenextSankrnt(Baiskh)theyallgotogether
totheriverside,throwtheimagesintoadeeppool,andweepovertheplace,asthoughtheywere
performingfuneralobsequies.Theboysoftheneighbourhoodoftenteasethembydivingafterthe
images,bringingthemup,andwavingthemaboutwhilethegirlsarecryingoverthem.Theobjectofthe
fairissaidtobetosecureagoodhusband.
ThatinthisIndianceremonythedeitiesSivaandPrvatareconceivedasspiritsofvegetationseems
tobeprovedbytheplacingoftheirimagesonbranchesoveraheapofgrassandflowers.Here,asoften
inEuropeanfolkcustom,thedivinitiesofvegetationarerepresentedinduplicate,byplantsandby
puppets.ThemarriageoftheseIndiandeitiesinspringcorrespondstotheEuropeanceremoniesinwhich
themarriageofthevernalspiritsofvegetationisrepresentedbytheKingandQueenofMay,theMay
Bride,BridegroomoftheMay,andsoforth.Thethrowingoftheimagesintothewater,andthe
mourningforthem,aretheequivalentsoftheEuropeancustomsofthrowingthedeadspiritofvegetation
underthenameofDeath,Yarilo,Kostroma,andtherest,intothewaterandlamentingoverit.Again,in
India,asofteninEurope,theriteisperformedexclusivelybyfemales.Thenotionthattheceremony
helpstoprocurehusbandsforthegirlscanbeexplainedbythequickeningandfertilisinginfluencewhich
thespiritofvegetationisbelievedtoexertuponthelifeofmanaswellasofplants.
9.TheMagicSpring

THEGENERALexplanationwhichwehavebeenledtoadoptoftheseandmanysimilarceremoniesis
thattheyare,orwereintheirorigin,magicalritesintendedtoensuretherevivalofnatureinspring.The
meansbywhichtheyweresupposedtoeffectthisendwereimitationandsympathy.Ledastraybyhis
ignoranceofthetruecausesofthings,primitivemanbelievedthatinordertoproducethegreat
phenomenaofnatureonwhichhislifedependedhehadonlytoimitatethem,andthatimmediatelybya
secretsympathyormysticinfluencethelittledramawhichheactedinforestgladeormountaindell,on
desertplainorwindsweptshore,wouldbetakenupandrepeatedbymightieractorsonavasterstage.
Hefanciedthatbymasqueradinginleavesandflowershehelpedthebareearthtoclotheherselfwith
verdure,andthatbyplayingthedeathandburialofwinterhedrovethatgloomyseasonaway,andmade
smooththepathforthefootstepsofreturningspring.Ifwefindithardtothrowourselveseveninfancy
intoamentalconditioninwhichsuchthingsseempossible,wecanmoreeasilypicturetoourselvesthe
anxietywhichthesavage,whenhefirstbegantolifthisthoughtsabovethesatisfactionofhismerely
animalwants,andtomeditateonthecausesofthings,mayhavefeltastothecontinuedoperationof
whatwenowcallthelawsofnature.Tous,familiaraswearewiththeconceptionoftheuniformityand
regularitywithwhichthegreatcosmicphenomenasucceedeachother,thereseemslittlegroundfor
apprehensionthatthecauseswhichproducetheseeffectswillceasetooperate,atleastwithinthenear
future.Butthisconfidenceinthestabilityofnatureisbredonlybytheexperiencewhichcomesofwide
observationandlongtraditionandthesavage,withhisnarrowsphereofobservationandhisshortlived
tradition,lackstheveryelementsofthatexperiencewhichalonecouldsethismindatrestinfaceofthe
everchangingandoftenmenacingaspectsofnature.Nowonder,therefore,thatheisthrownintoapanic
byaneclipse,andthinksthatthesunorthemoonwouldsurelyperish,ifhedidnotraiseaclamourand
shoothispunyshaftsintotheairtodefendtheluminariesfromthemonsterwhothreatenstodevour
them.Nowonderheisterrifiedwheninthedarknessofnightastreakofskyissuddenlyilluminedbythe
flashofameteor,orthewholeexpanseofthecelestialarchglowswiththefitfullightoftheNorthern
Streamers.Evenphenomenawhichrecuratfixedanduniformintervalsmaybeviewedbyhimwith
apprehension,beforehehascometorecognisetheorderlinessoftheirrecurrence.Thespeedorslowness
ofhisrecognitionofsuchperiodicorcyclicchangesinnaturewilldependlargelyonthelengthofthe
particularcycle.Thecycle,forexample,ofdayandnightiseverywhere,exceptinthepolarregions,so
shortandhencesofrequentthatmenprobablysoonceasedtodiscomposethemselvesseriouslyastothe
chanceofitsfailingtorecur,thoughtheancientEgyptians,aswehaveseen,dailywroughtenchantments
tobringbacktotheeastinthemorningthefieryorbwhichhadsunkateveninginthecrimsonwest.But
itwasfarotherwisewiththeannualcycleoftheseasons.Toanymanayearisaconsiderableperiod,
seeingthatthenumberofouryearsisbutfewatthebest.Totheprimitivesavage,withhisshortmemory
andimperfectmeansofmarkingtheflightoftime,ayearmaywellhavebeensolongthathefailedto
recogniseitasacycleatall,andwatchedthechangingaspectsofearthandheavenwithaperpetual
wonder,alternatelydelightedandalarmed,elatedandcastdown,accordingasthevicissitudesoflight
andheat,ofplantandanimallife,ministeredtohiscomfortorthreatenedhisexistence.Inautumnwhen
thewitheredleaveswerewhirledabouttheforestbythenippingblast,andhelookedupatthebare
boughs,couldhefeelsurethattheywouldeverbegreenagain?Asdaybydaythesunsanklowerand
lowerinthesky,couldhebecertainthattheluminarywouldeverretracehisheavenlyroad?Eventhe
waningmoon,whosepalesicklerosethinnerandthinnereverynightovertherimoftheeasternhorizon,
mayhaveexcitedinhismindafearlest,whenithadwhollyvanished,thereshouldbemoonsnomore.
Theseandathousandsuchmisgivingsmayhavethrongedthefancyandtroubledthepeaceoftheman
whofirstbegantoreflectonthemysteriesoftheworldhelivedin,andtotakethoughtforamoredistant
futurethanthemorrow.Itwasnatural,therefore,thatwithsuchthoughtsandfearsheshouldhavedone
allthatinhimlaytobringbackthefadedblossomtothebough,toswingthelowsunofwinteruptohis
oldplaceinthesummersky,andtorestoreitsorbedfulnesstothesilverlampofthewaningmoon.We
maysmileathisvainendeavoursifweplease,butitwasonlybymakingalongseriesofexperiments,of
whichsomewerealmostinevitablydoomedtofailure,thatmanlearnedfromexperiencethefutilityof
someofhisattemptedmethodsandthefruitfulnessofothers.Afterall,magicalceremoniesarenothing

butexperimentswhichhavefailedandwhichcontinuetoberepeatedmerelybecause,forreasonswhich
havealreadybeenindicated,theoperatorisunawareoftheirfailure.Withtheadvanceofknowledge
theseceremonieseitherceasetobeperformedaltogetherorarekeptupfromforceofhabitlongafterthe
intentionwithwhichtheywereinstitutedhasbeenforgotten.Thusfallenfromtheirhighestate,nolonger
regardedassolemnritesonthepunctualperformanceofwhichthewelfareandeventhelifeofthe
communitydepend,theysinkgraduallytothelevelofsimplepageants,mummeries,andpastimes,tillin
thefinalstageofdegenerationtheyarewhollyabandonedbyolderpeople,and,fromhavingoncebeen
themostseriousoccupationofthesage,becomeatlasttheidlesportofchildren.Itisinthisfinalstageof
decaythatmostoftheoldmagicalritesofourEuropeanforefatherslingeronatthepresentday,andeven
fromthistheirlastretreattheyarefastbeingsweptawaybytherisingtideofthosemultitudinousforces,
moral,intellectual,andsocial,whicharebearingmankindonwardtoanewandunknowngoal.Wemay
feelsomenaturalregretatthedisappearanceofquaintcustomsandpicturesqueceremonies,whichhave
preservedtoanageoftendeemeddullandprosaicsomethingoftheflavourandfreshnessoftheolden
time,somebreathofthespringtimeoftheworldyetourregretwillbelessenedwhenwerememberthat
theseprettypageants,thesenowinnocentdiversions,hadtheirorigininignoranceandsuperstitionthat
iftheyarearecordofhumanendeavour,theyarealsoamonumentoffruitlessingenuity,ofwasted
labour,andofblightedhopesandthatforalltheirgaytrappingstheirflowers,theirribbons,andtheir
musictheypartakefarmoreoftragedythanoffarce.
Theinterpretationwhich,followinginthefootstepsofW.Mannhardt,Ihaveattemptedtogiveofthese
ceremonieshasbeennotalittleconfirmedbythediscovery,madesincethisbookwasfirstwritten,that
thenativesofCentralAustraliaregularlypractisemagicalceremoniesforthepurposeofawakeningthe
dormantenergiesofnatureattheapproachofwhatmaybecalledtheAustralianspring.Nowhere
apparentlyarethealternationsoftheseasonsmoresuddenandthecontrastsbetweenthemmorestriking
thaninthedesertsofCentralAustralia,whereattheendofalongperiodofdroughtthesandyandstony
wilderness,overwhichthesilenceanddesolationofdeathappeartobrood,issuddenly,afterafewdays
oftorrentialrain,transformedintoalandscapesmilingwithverdureandpeopledwithteemingmultitudes
ofinsectsandlizards,offrogsandbirds.Themarvellouschangewhichpassesoverthefaceofnatureat
suchtimeshasbeencomparedevenbyEuropeanobserverstotheeffectofmagicnowonder,then,that
thesavageshouldregarditassuchinverydeed.Nowitisjustwhenthereispromiseoftheapproachofa
goodseasonthatthenativesofCentralAustraliaarewontespeciallytoperformthosemagical
ceremoniesofwhichtheavowedintentionistomultiplytheplantsandanimalstheyuseasfood.These
ceremonies,therefore,presentacloseanalogytothespringcustomsofourEuropeanpeasantrynotonly
inthetimeoftheircelebration,butalsointheiraimforwecanhardlydoubtthatininstitutingrites
designedtoassisttherevivalofplantlifeinspringourprimitiveforefathersweremoved,notbyany
sentimentalwishtosmellatearlyviolets,orplucktheratheprimrose,orwatchyellowdaffodilsdancing
inthebreeze,butbytheverypracticalconsideration,certainlynotformulatedinabstractterms,thatthe
lifeofmanisinextricablyboundupwiththatofplants,andthatiftheyweretoperishhecouldnot
survive.AndasthefaithoftheAustraliansavageintheefficacyofhismagicritesisconfirmedby
observingthattheirperformanceisinvariablyfollowed,soonerorlater,bythatincreaseofvegetableand
animallifewhichitistheirobjecttoproduce,so,wemaysuppose,itwaswithEuropeansavagesinthe
oldentime.Thesightofthefreshgreeninbrakeandthicket,ofvernalflowersblowingonmossybanks,
ofswallowsarrivingfromthesouth,andofthesunmountingdailyhigherinthesky,wouldbewelcomed
bythemassomanyvisiblesignsthattheirenchantmentswereindeedtakingeffect,andwouldinspire
themwithacheerfulconfidencethatallwaswellwithaworldwhichtheycouldthusmouldtosuittheir
wishes.Onlyinautumndays,assummerslowlyfaded,wouldtheirconfidenceagainbedashedbydoubts
andmisgivingsatsymptomsofdecay,whichtoldhowvainwerealltheireffortstostaveoffforeverthe
approachofwinterandofdeath.

XXIX.TheMythofAdonis

THESPECTACLEofthegreatchangeswhichannuallypassoverthefaceoftheearthhaspowerfully
impressedthemindsofmeninallages,andstirredthemtomeditateonthecausesoftransformationsso
vastandwonderful.Theircuriosityhasnotbeenpurelydisinterestedforeventhesavagecannotfailto
perceivehowintimatelyhisownlifeisboundupwiththelifeofnature,andhowthesameprocesses
whichfreezethestreamandstriptheearthofvegetationmenacehimwithextinction.Atacertainstage
ofdevelopmentmenseemtohaveimaginedthatthemeansofavertingthethreatenedcalamitywerein
theirownhands,andthattheycouldhastenorretardtheflightoftheseasonsbymagicart.Accordingly
theyperformedceremoniesandrecitedspellstomaketheraintofall,thesuntoshine,animalsto
multiply,andthefruitsoftheearthtogrow.Incourseoftimetheslowadvanceofknowledge,whichhas
dispelledsomanycherishedillusions,convincedatleastthemorethoughtfulportionofmankindthatthe
alternationsofsummerandwinter,ofspringandautumn,werenotmerelytheresultoftheirownmagical
rites,butthatsomedeepercause,somemightierpower,wasatworkbehindtheshiftingscenesofnature.
Theynowpicturedtothemselvesthegrowthanddecayofvegetation,thebirthanddeathofliving
creatures,aseffectsofthewaxingorwaningstrengthofdivinebeings,ofgodsandgoddesses,whowere
bornanddied,whomarriedandbegotchildren,onthepatternofhumanlife.
Thustheoldmagicaltheoryoftheseasonswasdisplaced,orrathersupplemented,byareligioustheory.
Foralthoughmennowattributedtheannualcycleofchangeprimarilytocorrespondingchangesintheir
deities,theystillthoughtthatbyperformingcertainmagicalritestheycouldaidthegodwhowasthe
principleoflife,inhisstrugglewiththeopposingprincipleofdeath.Theyimaginedthattheycould
recruithisfailingenergiesandevenraisehimfromthedead.Theceremonieswhichtheyobservedfor
thispurposewereinsubstanceadramaticrepresentationofthenaturalprocesseswhichtheywishedto
facilitateforitisafamiliartenetofmagicthatyoucanproduceanydesiredeffectbymerelyimitatingit.
Andastheynowexplainedthefluctuationsofgrowthanddecay,ofreproductionanddissolution,bythe
marriage,thedeath,andtherebirthorrevivalofthegods,theirreligiousorrathermagicaldramasturned
ingreatmeasureonthesethemes.Theysetforththefruitfulunionofthepowersoffertility,thesaddeath
ofoneatleastofthedivinepartners,andhisjoyfulresurrection.Thusareligioustheorywasblended
withamagicalpractice.Thecombinationisfamiliarinhistory.Indeed,fewreligionshaveever
succeededinwhollyextricatingthemselvesfromtheoldtrammelsofmagic.Theinconsistencyofacting
ontwooppositeprinciples,howeveritmayvexthesoulofthephilosopher,rarelytroublesthecommon
manindeedheisseldomevenawareofit.Hisaffairistoact,nottoanalysethemotivesofhisaction.If
mankindhadalwaysbeenlogicalandwise,historywouldnotbealongchronicleoffollyandcrime.
Ofthechangeswhichtheseasonsbringwiththem,themoststrikingwithinthetemperatezonearethose
whichaffectvegetation.Theinfluenceoftheseasonsonanimals,thoughgreat,isnotnearlysomanifest.
Henceitisnaturalthatinthemagicaldramasdesignedtodispelwinterandbringbackspringthe
emphasisshouldbelaidonvegetation,andthattreesandplantsshouldfigureinthemmoreprominently
thanbeastsandbirds.Yetthetwosidesoflife,thevegetableandtheanimal,werenotdissociatedinthe
mindsofthosewhoobservedtheceremonies.Indeedtheycommonlybelievedthatthetiebetweenthe
animalandthevegetableworldwasevencloserthanitreallyishencetheyoftencombinedthedramatic
representationofrevivingplantswitharealoradramaticunionofthesexesforthepurposeoffurthering
atthesametimeandbythesameactthemultiplicationoffruits,ofanimals,andofmen.Tothemthe
principleoflifeandfertility,whetheranimalorvegetable,wasoneandindivisible.Toliveandtocause
tolive,toeatfoodandtobegetchildren,theseweretheprimarywantsofmeninthepast,andtheywill
betheprimarywantsofmeninthefuturesolongastheworldlasts.Otherthingsmaybeaddedtoenrich
andbeautifyhumanlife,butunlessthesewantsarefirstsatisfied,humanityitselfmustceasetoexist.
Thesetwothings,therefore,foodandchildren,werewhatmenchieflysoughttoprocurebythe
performanceofmagicalritesfortheregulationoftheseasons.
Nowhere,apparently,havetheseritesbeenmorewidelyandsolemnlycelebratedthaninthelandswhich
bordertheEasternMediterranean.UnderthenamesofOsiris,Tammuz,Adonis,andAttis,thepeoplesof

EgyptandWesternAsiarepresentedtheyearlydecayandrevivaloflife,especiallyofvegetablelife,
whichtheypersonifiedasagodwhoannuallydiedandroseagainfromthedead.Innameanddetailthe
ritesvariedfromplacetoplace:insubstancetheywerethesame.Thesupposeddeathandresurrectionof
thisorientaldeity,agodofmanynamesbutofessentiallyonenature,isnowtobeexamined.Webegin
withTammuzorAdonis.
TheworshipofAdoniswaspractisedbytheSemiticpeoplesofBabyloniaandSyria,andtheGreeks
borroweditfromthemasearlyastheseventhcenturybeforeChrist.Thetruenameofthedeitywas
Tammuz:theappellationofAdonisismerelytheSemiticAdon,lord,atitleofhonourbywhichhis
worshippersaddressedhim.ButtheGreeksthroughamisunderstandingconvertedthetitleofhonourinto
apropername.InthereligiousliteratureofBabyloniaTammuzappearsastheyouthfulspouseorlover
ofIshtar,thegreatmothergoddess,theembodimentofthereproductiveenergiesofnature.The
referencestotheirconnexionwitheachotherinmythandritualarebothfragmentaryandobscure,but
wegatherfromthemthateveryyearTammuzwasbelievedtodie,passingawayfromthecheerfulearth
tothegloomysubterraneanworld,andthateveryyearhisdivinemistressjourneyedinquestofhimto
thelandfromwhichthereisnoreturning,tothehouseofdarkness,wheredustliesondoorandbolt.
Duringherabsencethepassionofloveceasedtooperate:menandbeastsalikeforgottoreproducetheir
kinds:alllifewasthreatenedwithextinction.Sointimatelyboundupwiththegoddesswerethesexual
functionsofthewholeanimalkingdomthatwithoutherpresencetheycouldnotbedischarged.A
messengerofthegreatgodEawasaccordinglydespatchedtorescuethegoddessonwhomsomuch
depended.Thesternqueenoftheinfernalregions,AllatuorEreshKigalbyname,reluctantlyallowed
IshtartobesprinkledwiththeWaterofLifeandtodepart,incompanyprobablywithherloverTammuz,
thatthetwomightreturntogethertotheupperworld,andthatwiththeirreturnallnaturemightrevive.
LamentsforthedepartedTammuzarecontainedinseveralBabylonianhymns,whichlikenhimtoplants
thatquicklyfade.Heis
Atamariskthatinthegardenhasdrunknowater,
Whosecrowninthefieldhasbroughtforthnoblossom.
Awillowthatrejoicednotbythewatercourse,
Awillowwhoserootsweretornup.
Aherbthatinthegardenhaddrunknowater.
Hisdeathappearstohavebeenannuallymourned,totheshrillmusicofflutes,bymenandwomenabout
midsummerinthemonthnamedafterhim,themonthofTammuz.Thedirgeswereseeminglychanted
overaneffigyofthedeadgod,whichwaswashedwithpurewater,anointedwithoil,andcladinared
robe,whilethefumesofincenseroseintotheair,asiftostirhisdormantsensesbytheirpungent
fragranceandwakehimfromthesleepofdeath.Inoneofthesedirges,inscribedLamentoftheFlutesfor
Tammuz,weseemstilltohearthevoicesofthesingerschantingthesadrefrainandtocatch,likefar
awaymusic,thewailingnotesoftheflutes:
Athisvanishingawaysheliftsupalament,
Ohmychild!athisvanishingawaysheliftsupalament
MyDamu!athisvanishingawaysheliftsupalament.
Myenchanterandpriest!athisvanishingawaysheliftsupalament,
Attheshiningcedar,rootedinaspaciousplace,
InEanna,aboveandbelow,sheliftsupalament.
Likethelamentthatahouseliftsupforitsmaster,liftssheupalament,
Likethelamentthatacityliftsupforitslord,liftssheupalament.
Herlamentisthelamentforaherbthatgrowsnotinthebed,
Herlamentisthelamentforthecornthatgrowsnotintheear.

Herchamberisapossessionthatbringsnotforthapossession,
Awearywoman,awearychild,forspent.
Herlamentisforagreatriver,wherenowillowsgrow,
Herlamentisforafield,wherecornandherbsgrownot.
Herlamentisforapool,wherefishesgrownot.
Herlamentisforathickestofreeds,wherenoreedsgrow.
Herlamentisforwoods,wheretamarisksgrownot.
Herlamentisforawildernesswherenocypresses(?)grow.
Herlamentisforthedepthofagardenoftrees,wherehoneyandwinegrownot.
Herlamentisformeadows,wherenoplantsgrow.
Herlamentisforapalace,wherelengthoflifegrowsnot.
ThetragicalstoryandthemelancholyritesofAdonisarebetterknowntousfromthedescriptionsof
GreekwritersthanfromthefragmentsofBabylonianliteratureorthebriefreferenceoftheprophet
Ezekiel,whosawthewomenofJerusalemweepingforTammuzatthenorthgateofthetemple.Mirrored
intheglassofGreekmythology,theorientaldeityappearsasacomelyyouthbelovedbyAphrodite.In
hisinfancythegoddesshidhiminachest,whichshegaveinchargetoPersephone,queenofthenether
world.ButwhenPersephoneopenedthechestandbeheldthebeautyofthebabe,sherefusedtogivehim
backtoAphrodite,thoughthegoddessoflovewentdownherselftohelltoransomherdearonefromthe
powerofthegrave.ThedisputebetweenthetwogoddessesofloveanddeathwassettledbyZeus,who
decreedthatAdonisshouldabidewithPersephoneintheunderworldforonepartoftheyear,andwith
Aphroditeintheupperworldforanotherpart.Atlastthefairyouthwaskilledinhuntingbyawildboar,
orbythejealousAres,whoturnedhimselfintothelikenessofaboarinordertocompassthedeathofhis
rival.BitterlydidAphroditelamentherlovedandlostAdonis.Inthisformofthemyth,thecontest
betweenAphroditeandPersephoneforthepossessionofAdonisclearlyreflectsthestrugglebetween
IshtarandAllatuinthelandofthedead,whilethedecisionofZeusthatAdonisistospendonepartof
theyearundergroundandanotherpartabovegroundismerelyaGreekversionoftheannual
disappearanceandreappearanceofTammuz.

XXX.AdonisinSyria
THEMYTHofAdoniswaslocalisedandhisritescelebratedwithmuchsolemnityattwoplacesin
WesternAsia.OneofthesewasByblusonthecoastofSyria,theotherwasPaphosinCyprus.Bothwere
greatseatsoftheworshipofAphrodite,orratherofherSemiticcounterpart,Astarteandofboth,ifwe
acceptthelegends,Cinyras,thefatherofAdonis,wasking.OfthetwocitiesBybluswasthemore
ancientindeeditclaimedtobetheoldestcityinPhoenicia,andtohavebeenfoundedintheearlyagesof
theworldbythegreatgodEl,whomGreeksandRomansidentifiedwithCronusandSaturnrespectively.
Howeverthatmayhavebeen,inhistoricaltimesitrankedasaholyplace,thereligiouscapitalofthe
country,theMeccaorJerusalemofthePhoenicians.Thecitystoodonaheightbesidethesea,and
containedagreatsanctuaryofAstarte,whereinthemidstofaspaciousopencourt,surroundedby
cloistersandapproachedfrombelowbystaircases,roseatallconeorobelisk,theholyimageofthe
goddess.InthissanctuarytheritesofAdoniswerecelebrated.Indeedthewholecitywassacredtohim,
andtheriverNahrIbrahim,whichfallsintotheseaalittletothesouthofByblus,boreinantiquitythe
nameofAdonis.ThiswasthekingdomofCinyras.Fromtheearliesttothelatesttimesthecityappearsto
havebeenruledbykings,assistedperhapsbyasenateorcouncilofelders.
ThelastkingofByblusboretheancientnameofCinyras,andwasbeheadedbyPompeytheGreatforhis
tyrannousexcesses.HislegendarynamesakeCinyrasissaidtohavefoundedasanctuaryofAphrodite,
thatis,ofAstarte,ataplaceonMountLebanon,distantadaysjourneyfromthecapital.Thespotwas
probablyAphaca,atthesourceoftheriverAdonis,halfwaybetweenByblusandBaalbecforatAphaca

therewasafamousgroveandsanctuaryofAstartewhichConstantinedestroyedonaccountofthe
flagitiouscharacteroftheworship.Thesiteofthetemplehasbeendiscoveredbymoderntravellersnear
themiserablevillagewhichstillbearsthenameofAfkaattheheadofthewild,romantic,woodedgorge
oftheAdonis.Thehamletstandsamonggrovesofnoblewalnuttreesonthebrinkofthelyn.Alittleway
offtheriverrushesfromacavernatthefootofamightyamphitheatreoftoweringcliffstoplungeina
seriesofcascadesintotheawfuldepthsoftheglen.Thedeeperitdescends,therankeranddensergrows
thevegetation,which,sproutingfromthecranniesandfissuresoftherocks,spreadsagreenveiloverthe
roaringormurmuringstreaminthetremendouschasmbelow.Thereissomethingdelicious,almost
intoxicating,inthefreshnessofthesetumblingwaters,inthesweetnessandpurityofthemountainair,in
thevividgreenofthevegetation.Thetemple,ofwhichsomemassivehewnblocksandafinecolumnof
Syenitegranitestillmarkthesite,occupiedaterracefacingthesourceoftheriverandcommandinga
magnificentprospect.Acrossthefoamandtheroarofthewaterfallsyoulookuptothecavernandaway
tothetopofthesublimeprecipicesabove.Soloftyisthecliffthatthegoatswhichcreepalongitsledges
tobrowseonthebushesappearlikeantstothespectatorhundredsoffeetbelow.Seawardtheviewis
especiallyimpressivewhenthesunfloodstheprofoundgorgewithgoldenlight,revealingallthe
fantasticbuttressesandroundedtowersofitsmountainrampart,andfallingsoftlyonthevariedgreenof
thewoodswhichclotheitsdepths.Itwasherethat,accordingtothelegend,AdonismetAphroditefor
thefirstorthelasttime,andherehismangledbodywasburied.Afairerscenecouldhardlybeimagined
forastoryoftragicloveanddeath.Yet,sequesteredasthevalleyisandmustalwayshavebeen,itisnot
whollydeserted.Aconventoravillagemaybeobservedhereandtherestandingoutagainsttheskyon
thetopofsomebeetlingcrag,orclingingtothefaceofanearlyperpendicularcliffhighabovethefoam
andthedinoftheriverandateveningthelightsthattwinklethroughthegloombetraythepresenceof
humanhabitationsonslopeswhichmightseeminaccessibletoman.Inantiquitythewholeofthelovely
valeappearstohavebeendedicatedtoAdonis,andtothisdayitishauntedbyhismemoryforthe
heightswhichshutitinarecrestedatvariouspointsbyruinedmonumentsofhisworship,someofthem
overhangingdreadfulabysses,downwhichitturnstheheaddizzytolookandseetheeagleswheeling
abouttheirnestsfarbelow.OnesuchmonumentexistsatGhineh.Thefaceofagreatrock,abovea
roughlyhewnrecess,isherecarvedwithfiguresofAdonisandAphrodite.Heisportrayedwithspearin
rest,awaitingtheattackofabear,whilesheisseatedinanattitudeofsorrow.Hergriefstrickenfigure
maywellbethemourningAphroditeoftheLebanondescribedbyMacrobius,andtherecessintherock
isperhapsherloverstomb.Everyyear,inthebeliefofhisworshippers,Adoniswaswoundedtodeath
onthemountains,andeveryyearthefaceofnatureitselfwasdyedwithhissacredblood.Soyearbyyear
theSyriandamselslamentedhisuntimelyfate,whiletheredanemone,hisflower,bloomedamongthe
cedarsofLebanon,andtheriverranredtothesea,fringingthewindingshoresoftheblue
Mediterranean,wheneverthewindsetinshore,withasinuousbandofcrimson.

XXXI.AdonisinCyprus
THEISLANDofCyprusliesbutonedayssailfromthecoastofSyria.Indeed,onfinesummerevenings
itsmountainsmaybedescriedloominglowanddarkagainsttheredfiresofsunset.Withitsrichmines
ofcopperanditsforestsoffirsandstatelycedars,theislandnaturallyattractedacommercialand
maritimepeoplelikethePhoenicianswhiletheabundanceofitscorn,itswine,anditsoilmusthave
rendereditintheireyesaLandofPromisebycomparisonwiththeniggardlynatureoftheirownrugged
coast,hemmedinbetweenthemountainsandthesea.AccordinglytheysettledinCyprusataveryearly
dateandremainedtherelongaftertheGreekshadalsoestablishedthemselvesonitsshoresforweknow
frominscriptionsandcoinsthatPhoeniciankingsreignedatCitium,theChittimoftheHebrews,downto
thetimeofAlexandertheGreat.NaturallytheSemiticcolonistsbroughttheirgodswiththemfromthe
motherland.TheyworshippedBaaloftheLebanon,whomaywellhavebeenAdonis,andatAmathus
onthesouthcoasttheyinstitutedtheritesofAdonisandAphrodite,orratherAstarte.Here,asatByblus,
theseritesresembledtheEgyptianworshipofOsirissocloselythatsomepeopleevenidentifiedthe

AdonisofAmathuswithOsiris.
ButthegreatseatoftheworshipofAphroditeandAdonisinCypruswasPaphosonthesouthwestern
sideoftheisland.AmongthepettykingdomsintowhichCypruswasdividedfromtheearliesttimesuntil
theendofthefourthcenturybeforeoureraPaphosmusthaverankedwiththebest.Itisalandofhills
andbillowyridges,diversifiedbyfieldsandvineyardsandintersectedbyrivers,whichinthecourseof
ageshavecarvedforthemselvesbedsofsuchtremendousdepththattravellingintheinteriorisdifficult
andtedious.TheloftyrangeofMountOlympus(themodernTroodos),cappedwithsnowthegreaterpart
oftheyear,screensPaphosfromthenortherlyandeasterlywindsandcutsitofffromtherestofthe
island.OntheslopesoftherangethelastpinewoodsofCypruslinger,shelteringhereandthere
monasteriesinscenerynotunworthyoftheApennines.TheoldcityofPaphosoccupiedthesummitofa
hillaboutamilefromtheseathenewercitysprangupattheharboursometenmilesoff.Thesanctuary
ofAphroditeatOldPaphos(themodernKuklia)wasoneofthemostcelebratedshrinesintheancient
world.AccordingtoHerodotus,itwasfoundedbyPhoeniciancolonistsfromAscalonbutitispossible
thatanativegoddessoffertilitywasworshippedonthespotbeforethearrivalofthePhoenicians,and
thatthenewcomersidentifiedherwiththeirownBaalathorAstarte,whomshemayhaveclosely
resembled.Iftwodeitieswerethusfusedinone,wemaysupposethattheywerebothvarietiesofthat
greatgoddessofmotherhoodandfertilitywhoseworshipappearstohavebeenspreadalloverWestern
Asiafromaveryearlytime.Thesuppositionisconfirmedaswellbythearchaicshapeofherimageasby
thelicentiouscharacterofherritesforboththatshapeandthoseritesweresharedbyherwithother
Asiaticdeities.Herimagewassimplyawhiteconeorpyramid.Inlikemanner,aconewastheemblem
ofAstarteatByblus,ofthenativegoddesswhomtheGreekscalledArtemisatPergainPamphylia,and
ofthesungodHeliogabalusatEmesainSyria.Conicalstones,whichapparentlyservedasidols,have
alsobeenfoundatGolgiinCyprus,andinthePhoeniciantemplesofMaltaandconesofsandstonecame
tolightattheshrineoftheMistressofTorquoiseamongthebarrenhillsandfrowningprecipicesof
Sinai.
InCyprusitappearsthatbeforemarriageallwomenwereformerlyobligedbycustomtoprostitute
themselvestostrangersatthesanctuaryofthegoddess,whethershewentbythenameofAphrodite,
Astarte,orwhatnot.SimilarcustomsprevailedinmanypartsofWesternAsia.Whateveritsmotive,the
practicewasclearlyregarded,notasanorgyoflust,butasasolemnreligiousdutyperformedinthe
serviceofthatgreatMotherGoddessofWesternAsiawhosenamevaried,whilehertyperemained
constant,fromplacetoplace.ThusatBabyloneverywoman,whetherrichorpoor,hadonceinherlifeto
submittotheembracesofastrangeratthetempleofMylitta,thatis,ofIshtarorAstarte,andtodedicate
tothegoddessthewagesearnedbythissanctifiedharlotry.Thesacredprecinctwascrowdedwith
womenwaitingtoobservethecustom.Someofthemhadtowaitthereforyears.AtHeliopolisor
BaalbecinSyria,famousfortheimposinggrandeurofitsruinedtemples,thecustomofthecountry
requiredthateverymaidenshouldprostituteherselftoastrangeratthetempleofAstarte,andmatronsas
wellasmaidstestifiedtheirdevotiontothegoddessinthesamemanner.TheemperorConstantine
abolishedthecustom,destroyedthetemple,andbuiltachurchinitsstead.InPhoeniciantempleswomen
prostitutedthemselvesforhireintheserviceofreligion,believingthatbythisconducttheypropitiated
thegoddessandwonherfavour.ItwasalawoftheAmorites,thatshewhowasabouttomarryshould
sitinfornicationsevendaysbythegate.AtByblusthepeopleshavedtheirheadsintheannual
mourningforAdonis.Womenwhorefusedtosacrificetheirhairhadtogivethemselvesuptostrangers
onacertaindayofthefestival,andthemoneywhichtheythusearnedwasdevotedtothegoddess.A
GreekinscriptionfoundatTrallesinLydiaprovesthatthepracticeofreligiousprostitutionsurvivedin
thatcountryaslateasthesecondcenturyofourera.Itrecordsofacertainwoman,AureliaAemiliaby
name,notonlythatsheherselfservedthegodinthecapacityofaharlotathisexpresscommand,butthat
hermotherandotherfemaleancestorshaddonethesamebeforeherandthepublicityoftherecord,
engravedonamarblecolumnwhichsupportedavotiveoffering,showsthatnostainattachedtosucha
lifeandsuchaparentage.InArmeniathenoblestfamiliesdedicatedtheirdaughterstotheserviceofthe

goddessAnaitisinhertempleofAcilisena,wherethedamselsactedasprostitutesforalongtimebefore
theyweregiveninmarriage.Nobodyscrupledtotakeoneofthesegirlstowifewhenherperiodof
servicewasover.Again,thegoddessMawasservedbyamultitudeofsacredharlotsatComanain
Pontus,andcrowdsofmenandwomenflockedtohersanctuaryfromtheneighbouringcitiesandcountry
toattendthebiennialfestivalsortopaytheirvowstothegoddess.
Ifwesurveythewholeoftheevidenceonthissubject,someofwhichhasstilltobelaidbeforethe
reader,wemayconcludethatagreatMotherGoddess,thepersonificationofallthereproductiveenergies
ofnature,wasworshippedunderdifferentnamesbutwithasubstantialsimilarityofmythandritualby
manypeoplesofWesternAsiathatassociatedwithherwasalover,orratherseriesoflovers,divineyet
mortal,withwhomshematedyearbyyear,theircommercebeingdeemedessentialtothepropagationof
animalsandplants,eachintheirseveralkindandfurther,thatthefabulousunionofthedivinepairwas
simulatedand,asitwere,multipliedonearthbythereal,thoughtemporary,unionofthehumansexesat
thesanctuaryofthegoddessforthesakeoftherebyensuringthefruitfulnessofthegroundandthe
increaseofmanandbeast.
AtPaphosthecustomofreligiousprostitutionissaidtohavebeeninstitutedbyKingCinyras,andto
havebeenpractisedbyhisdaughters,thesistersofAdonis,who,havingincurredthewrathofAphrodite,
matedwithstrangersandendedtheirdaysinEgypt.InthisformofthetraditionthewrathofAphroditeis
probablyafeatureaddedbyalaterauthority,whocouldonlyregardconductwhichshockedhisown
moralsenseasapunishmentinflictedbythegoddessinsteadofasasacrificeregularlyenjoinedbyher
onallherdevotees.AtalleventsthestoryindicatesthattheprincessesofPaphoshadtoconformtothe
customaswellaswomenofhumblebirth.
AmongthestorieswhichweretoldofCinyras,theancestorofthepriestlykingsofPaphosandthefather
ofAdonis,therearesomethatdeserveourattention.Inthefirstplace,heissaidtohavebegottenhisson
AdonisinincestuousintercoursewithhisdaughterMyrrhaatafestivalofthecorngoddess,atwhich
womenrobedinwhitewerewonttooffercornwreathsasfirstfruitsoftheharvestandtoobservestrict
chastityforninedays.Similarcasesofincestwithadaughterarereportedofmanyancientkings.It
seemsunlikelythatsuchreportsarewithoutfoundation,andperhapsequallyimprobablethattheyrefer
tomerefortuitousoutburstsofunnaturallust.Wemaysuspectthattheyarebasedonapracticeactually
observedforadefinitereasonincertainspecialcircumstances.Nowincountrieswheretheroyalblood
wastracedthroughwomenonly,andwhereconsequentlythekingheldofficemerelyinvirtueofhis
marriagewithanhereditaryprincess,whowastherealsovereign,itappearstohaveoftenhappenedthat
aprincemarriedhisownsister,theprincessroyal,inordertoobtainwithherhandthecrownwhich
otherwisewouldhavegonetoanotherman,perhapstoastranger.Maynotthesameruleofdescenthave
furnishedamotiveforincestwithadaughter?Foritseemsanaturalcorollaryfromsucharulethatthe
kingwasboundtovacatethethroneonthedeathofhiswife,thequeen,sinceheoccupieditonlyby
virtueofhismarriagewithher.Whenthatmarriageterminated,hisrighttothethroneterminatedwithit
andpassedatoncetohisdaughtershusband.Henceifthekingdesiredtoreignafterhiswifesdeath,the
onlywayinwhichhecouldlegitimatelycontinuetodosowasbymarryinghisdaughter,andthus
prolongingthroughherthetitlewhichhadformerlybeenhisthroughhermother.
CinyrasissaidtohavebeenfamedforhisexquisitebeautyandtohavebeenwooedbyAphroditeherself.
Thusitwouldappear,asscholarshavealreadyobserved,thatCinyraswasinasenseaduplicateofhis
handsomesonAdonis,towhomtheinflammablegoddessalsolostherheart.Further,thesestoriesofthe
loveofAphroditefortwomembersoftheroyalhouseofPaphoscanhardlybedissociatedfromthe
correspondinglegendtoldofPygmalion,aPhoeniciankingofCyprus,whoissaidtohavefalleninlove
withanimageofAphroditeandtakenittohisbed.WhenweconsiderthatPygmalionwasthefatherin
lawofCinyras,thatthesonofCinyraswasAdonis,andthatallthree,insuccessivegenerations,aresaid
tohavebeenconcernedinaloveintriguewithAphrodite,wecanhardlyhelpconcludingthattheearly

PhoeniciankingsofPaphos,ortheirsons,regularlyclaimedtobenotmerelythepriestsofthegoddess
butalsoherlovers,inotherwords,thatintheirofficialcapacitytheypersonatedAdonis.Atallevents
AdonisissaidtohavereignedinCyprus,anditappearstobecertainthatthetitleofAdoniswas
regularlybornebythesonsofallthePhoeniciankingsoftheisland.Itistruethatthetitlestrictly
signifiednomorethanlordyetthelegendswhichconnecttheseCyprianprinceswiththegoddessof
lovemakeitprobablethattheyclaimedthedivinenatureaswellasthehumandignityofAdonis.The
storyofPygmalionpointstoaceremonyofasacredmarriageinwhichthekingweddedtheimageof
Aphrodite,orratherofAstarte.Ifthatwasso,thetalewasinasensetrue,notofasinglemanonly,butof
awholeseriesofmen,anditwouldbeallthemorelikelytobetoldofPygmalion,ifthatwasacommon
nameofSemitickingsingeneral,andofCypriankingsinparticular.Pygmalion,atallevents,isknown
asthenameofthekingofTyrefromwhomhissisterDidofledandakingofCitiumandIdaliumin
Cyprus,whoreignedinthetimeofAlexandertheGreat,wasalsocalledPygmalion,orrather
Pumiyathon,thePhoeniciannamewhichtheGreekscorruptedintoPygmalion.Further,itdeservestobe
notedthatthenamesPygmalionandAstarteoccurtogetherinaPunicinscriptiononagoldmedallion
whichwasfoundinagraveatCarthagethecharactersoftheinscriptionareoftheearliesttype.Asthe
customofreligiousprostitutionatPaphosissaidtohavebeenfoundedbykingCinyrasandobservedby
hisdaughters,wemaysurmisethatthekingsofPaphosplayedthepartofthedivinebridegroominaless
innocentritethantheformofmarriagewithastatueinfact,thatatcertainfestivalseachofthemhadto
matewithoneormoreofthesacredharlotsofthetemple,whoplayedAstartetohisAdonis.Ifthatwas
so,thereismoretruththanhascommonlybeensupposedinthereproachcastbytheChristianfathers
thattheAphroditeworshippedbyCinyraswasacommonwhore.Thefruitoftheirunionwouldrankas
sonsanddaughtersofthedeity,andwouldintimebecometheparentsofgodsandgoddesses,liketheir
fathersandmothersbeforethem.InthismannerPaphos,andperhapsallsanctuariesofthegreatAsiatic
goddesswheresacredprostitutionwaspractised,mightbewellstockedwithhumandeities,theoffspring
ofthedivinekingbyhiswives,concubines,andtempleharlots.Anyoneofthesemightprobably
succeedhisfatheronthethroneorbesacrificedinhissteadwheneverstressofwarorothergrave
juncturescalled,astheysometimesdid,forthedeathofaroyalvictim.Suchatax,leviedoccasionallyon
thekingsnumerousprogenyforthegoodofthecountry,wouldneitherextinguishthedivinestocknor
breakthefathersheart,whodividedhispaternalaffectionamongsomany.Atallevents,if,asthere
seemsreasontobelieve,Semitickingswereoftenregardedatthesametimeashereditarydeities,itis
easytounderstandthefrequencyofSemiticpersonalnameswhichimplythatthebearersofthemwere
thesonsordaughters,thebrothersorsisters,thefathersormothersofagod,andweneednotresortto
theshiftsemployedbysomescholarstoevadetheplainsenseofthewords.Thisinterpretationis
confirmedbyaparallelEgyptianusageforinEgypt,wherethekingswereworshippedasdivine,the
queenwascalledthewifeofthegodorthemotherofthegod,andthetitlefatherofthegodwas
bornenotonlybythekingsrealfatherbutalsobyhisfatherinlaw.Similarly,perhaps,amongthe
Semitesanymanwhosenthisdaughtertoswelltheroyalharemmayhavebeenallowedtocallhimself
thefatherofthegod.
Ifwemayjudgebyhisname,theSemitickingwhoborethenameofCinyraswas,likeKingDavid,a
harperforthenameofCinyrasisclearlyconnectedwiththeGreekcinyra,alyre,whichinitsturn
comesfromtheSemitickinnor,alyre,theverywordappliedtotheinstrumentonwhichDavidplayed
beforeSaul.WeshallprobablynoterrinassumingthatatPaphosasatJerusalemthemusicofthelyreor
harpwasnotamerepastimedesignedtowhileawayanidlehour,butformedpartoftheserviceof
religion,themovinginfluenceofitsmelodiesbeingperhapssetdown,liketheeffectofwine,tothe
directinspirationofadeity.CertainlyatJerusalemtheregularclergyofthetempleprophesiedtothe
musicofharps,ofpsalteries,andofcymbalsanditappearsthattheirregularclergyalso,aswemaycall
theprophets,dependedonsomesuchstimulusforinducingtheecstaticstatewhichtheytookfor
immediateconversewiththedivinity.Thuswereadofabandofprophetscomingdownfromahigh
placewithapsaltery,atimbrel,apipe,andaharpbeforethem,andprophesyingastheywent.Again,
whentheunitedforcesofJudahandEphraimweretraversingthewildernessofMoabinpursuitofthe

enemy,theycouldfindnowaterforthreedays,andwereliketodieofthirst,theyandthebeastsof
burden.InthisemergencytheprophetElisha,whowaswiththearmy,calledforaminstrelandbadehim
play.Undertheinfluenceofthemusicheorderedthesoldierstodigtrenchesinthesandybedofthe
waterlesswaddythroughwhichlaythelineofmarch.Theydidso,andnextmorningthetrencheswere
fullofthewaterthathaddraineddownintothemundergroundfromthedesolate,forbiddingmountains
oneitherhand.Theprophetssuccessinstrikingwaterinthewildernessresemblesthereportedsuccess
ofmoderndowsers,thoughhismodeofprocedurewasdifferent.Incidentallyherenderedanotherservice
tohiscountrymen.FortheskulkingMoabitesfromtheirlairsamongtherockssawtheredsunofthe
desertreflectedinthewater,andtakingitfortheblood,orperhapsratherforanomenoftheblood,of
theirenemies,theypluckeduphearttoattackthecampandweredefeatedwithgreatslaughter.
Again,justasthecloudofmelancholywhichfromtimetotimedarkenedthemoodymindofSaulwas
viewedasanevilspiritfromtheLordvexinghim,soontheotherhandthesolemnstrainsoftheharp,
whichsoothedandcomposedhistroubledthoughts,maywellhaveseemedtothehagriddenkingthe
veryvoiceofGodorofhisgoodangelwhisperingpeace.Eveninourowndayagreatreligiouswriter,
himselfdeeplysensitivetothewitcheryofmusic,hassaidthatmusicalnotes,withalltheirpowertofire
thebloodandmelttheheart,cannotbemereemptysoundsandnothingmoreno,theyhaveescaped
fromsomehighersphere,theyareoutpouringsofeternalharmony,thevoiceofangels,theMagnificatof
saints.Itisthusthattherudeimaginingsofprimitivemanaretransfiguredandhisfeeblelispingsechoed
witharollingreverberationinthemusicalproseofNewman.Indeedtheinfluenceofmusiconthe
developmentofreligionisasubjectwhichwouldrepayasympatheticstudy.Forwecannotdoubtthat
this,themostintimateandaffectingofallthearts,hasdonemuchtocreateaswellastoexpressthe
religiousemotions,thusmodifyingmoreorlessdeeplythefabricofbelieftowhichatfirstsightitseems
onlytominister.Themusicianhasdonehispartaswellastheprophetandthethinkerinthemakingof
religion.Everyfaithhasitsappropriatemusic,andthedifferencebetweenthecreedsmightalmostbe
expressedinmusicalnotation.Theinterval,forexample,whichdividesthewildrevelsofCybelefrom
thestatelyritualoftheCatholicChurchismeasuredbythegulfwhichseversthedissonantclashof
cymbalsandtambourinesfromthegraveharmoniesofPalestrinaandHandel.Adifferentspiritbreathes
inthedifferenceofthemusic.

XXXII.TheRitualofAdonis
ATTHEFESTIVALSofAdonis,whichwereheldinWesternAsiaandinGreeklands,thedeathofthe
godwasannuallymourned,withabitterwailing,chieflybywomenimagesofhim,dressedtoresemble
corpses,werecarriedoutastoburialandthenthrownintotheseaorintospringsandinsomeplaceshis
revivalwascelebratedonthefollowingday.Butatdifferentplacestheceremoniesvariedsomewhatin
themannerandapparentlyalsointheseasonoftheircelebration.AtAlexandriaimagesofAphroditeand
Adonisweredisplayedontwocouchesbesidethemweresetripefruitsofallkinds,cakes,plants
growinginflowerpots,andgreenbowerstwinedwithanise.Themarriageoftheloverswascelebrated
oneday,andonthemorrowwomenattiredasmourners,withstreaminghairandbaredbreasts,borethe
imageofthedeadAdonistotheseashoreandcommittedittothewaves.Yettheysorrowednotwithout
hope,fortheysangthatthelostonewouldcomebackagain.ThedateatwhichthisAlexandrian
ceremonywasobservedisnotexpresslystatedbutfromthementionoftheripefruitsithasbeen
inferredthatittookplaceinlatesummer.InthegreatPhoeniciansanctuaryofAstarteatByblusthedeath
ofAdoniswasannuallymourned,totheshrillwailingnotesoftheflute,withweeping,lamentation,and
beatingofthebreastbutnextdayhewasbelievedtocometolifeagainandascenduptoheaveninthe
presenceofhisworshippers.Thedisconsolatebelievers,leftbehindonearth,shavedtheirheadsasthe
EgyptiansdidonthedeathofthedivinebullApiswomenwhocouldnotbringthemselvestosacrifice
theirbeautifultresseshadtogivethemselvesuptostrangersonacertaindayofthefestival,andto
dedicatetoAstartethewagesoftheirshame.

ThisPhoenicianfestivalappearstohavebeenavernalone,foritsdatewasdeterminedbythe
discolorationoftheriverAdonis,andthishasbeenobservedbymoderntravellerstooccurinspring.At
thatseasontheredearthwasheddownfromthemountainsbytheraintingesthewateroftheriver,and
eventhesea,foragreatwaywithabloodredhue,andthecrimsonstainwasbelievedtobethebloodof
Adonis,annuallywoundedtodeathbytheboaronMountLebanon.Again,thescarletanemoneissaidto
havesprungfromthebloodofAdonis,ortohavebeenstainedbyitandastheanemonebloomsinSyria
aboutEaster,thismaybethoughttoshowthatthefestivalofAdonis,oratleastoneofhisfestivals,was
heldinspring.ThenameoftheflowerisprobablyderivedfromNaaman(darling),whichseemsto
havebeenanepithetofAdonis.TheArabsstillcalltheanemonewoundsoftheNaaman.Theredrose
alsowassaidtooweitshuetothesamesadoccasionforAphrodite,hasteningtoherwoundedlover,
trodonabushofwhiterosesthecruelthornstorehertenderflesh,andhersacredblooddyedthewhite
rosesforeverred.Itwouldbeidle,perhaps,tolaymuchweightonevidencedrawnfromthecalendarof
flowers,andinparticulartopressanargumentsofragileasthebloomoftherose.Yetsofarasitcounts
atall,thetalewhichlinksthedamaskrosewiththedeathofAdonispointstoasummerratherthantoa
springcelebrationofhispassion.InAttica,certainly,thefestivalfellattheheightofsummer.Forthe
fleetwhichAthensfittedoutagainstSyracuse,andbythedestructionofwhichherpowerwas
permanentlycrippled,sailedatmidsummer,andbyanominouscoincidencethesombreritesofAdonis
werebeingcelebratedattheverytime.Asthetroopsmarcheddowntotheharbourtoembark,thestreets
throughwhichtheypassedwerelinedwithcoffinsandcorpselikeeffigies,andtheairwasrentwiththe
noiseofwomenwailingforthedeadAdonis.Thecircumstancecastagloomoverthesailingofthemost
splendidarmamentthatAthenseversenttosea.Manyagesafterwards,whentheEmperorJulianmade
hisfirstentryintoAntioch,hefoundinlikemannerthegay,theluxuriouscapitaloftheEastplungedin
mimicgrieffortheannualdeathofAdonisandifhehadanypresentimentofcomingevil,thevoicesof
lamentationwhichstruckuponhisearmusthaveseemedtosoundhisknell.
TheresemblanceoftheseceremoniestotheIndianandEuropeanceremonieswhichIhavedescribed
elsewhereisobvious.Inparticular,apartfromthesomewhatdoubtfuldateofitscelebration,the
AlexandrianceremonyisalmostidenticalwiththeIndian.Inbothofthemthemarriageoftwodivine
beings,whoseaffinitywithvegetationseemsindicatedbythefreshplantswithwhichtheyare
surrounded,iscelebratedineffigy,andtheeffigiesareafterwardsmournedoverandthrownintothe
water.Fromthesimilarityofthesecustomstoeachotherandtothespringandmidsummercustomsof
modernEuropeweshouldnaturallyexpectthattheyalladmitofacommonexplanation.Hence,ifthe
explanationwhichIhaveadoptedofthelatteriscorrect,theceremonyofthedeathandresurrectionof
Adonismustalsohavebeenadramaticrepresentationofthedecayandrevivalofplantlife.The
inferencethusbasedontheresemblanceofthecustomsisconfirmedbythefollowingfeaturesinthe
legendandritualofAdonis.Hisaffinitywithvegetationcomesoutatonceinthecommonstoryofhis
birth.Hewassaidtohavebeenbornfromamyrrhtree,thebarkofwhichbursting,afteratenmonths
gestation,allowedthelovelyinfanttocomeforth.Accordingtosome,aboarrentthebarkwithhistusk
andsoopenedapassageforthebabe.Afaintrationalisticcolourwasgiventothelegendbysayingthat
hismotherwasawomannamedMyrrh,whohadbeenturnedintoamyrrhtreesoonaftershehad
conceivedthechild.TheuseofmyrrhasincenseatthefestivalofAdonismayhavegivenrisetothe
fable.WehaveseenthatincensewasburntatthecorrespondingBabylonianrites,justasitwasburntby
theidolatrousHebrewsinhonouroftheQueenofHeaven,whowasnootherthanAstarte.Again,the
storythatAdonisspenthalf,oraccordingtoothersathird,oftheyearinthelowerworldandtherestofit
intheupperworld,isexplainedmostsimplyandnaturallybysupposingthatherepresentedvegetation,
especiallythecorn,whichliesburiedintheearthhalftheyearandreappearsabovegroundtheotherhalf.
Certainlyoftheannualphenomenaofnaturethereisnonewhichsuggestssoobviouslytheideaofdeath
andresurrectionasthedisappearanceandreappearanceofvegetationinautumnandspring.Adonishas
beentakenforthesunbutthereisnothinginthesunsannualcoursewithinthetemperateandtropical
zonestosuggestthatheisdeadforhalforathirdoftheyearandalivefortheotherhalfortwothirds.He
might,indeed,beconceivedasweakenedinwinter,butdeadhecouldnotbethoughttobehisdaily

reappearancecontradictsthesupposition.WithintheArcticCircle,wherethesunannuallydisappearsfor
acontinuousperiodwhichvariesfromtwentyfourhourstosixmonthsaccordingtothelatitude,his
yearlydeathandresurrectionwouldcertainlybeanobviousideabutnooneexcepttheunfortunate
astronomerBaillyhasmaintainedthattheAdonisworshipcamefromtheArcticregions.Ontheother
hand,theannualdeathandrevivalofvegetationisaconceptionwhichreadilypresentsitselftomenin
everystageofsavageryandcivilisationandthevastnessofthescaleonwhichthiseverrecurringdecay
andregenerationtakesplace,togetherwithmansintimatedependenceonitforsubsistence,combineto
renderitthemostimpressiveannualoccurrenceinnature,atleastwithinthetemperatezones.Itisno
wonderthataphenomenonsoimportant,sostriking,andsouniversalshould,bysuggestingsimilar
ideas,havegivenrisetosimilarritesinmanylands.Wemay,therefore,acceptasprobablean
explanationoftheAdonisworshipwhichaccordssowellwiththefactsofnatureandwiththeanalogyof
similarritesinotherlands.Moreover,theexplanationiscountenancedbyaconsiderablebodyofopinion
amongsttheancientsthemselves,whoagainandagaininterpretedthedyingandrevivinggodasthe
reapedandsproutinggrain.
ThecharacterofTammuzorAdonisasacornspiritcomesoutplainlyinanaccountofhisfestivalgiven
byanArabicwriterofthetenthcentury.Indescribingtheritesandsacrificesobservedatthedifferent
seasonsoftheyearbytheheathenSyriansofHarran,hesays:Tammuz(July).Inthemiddleofthis
monthisthefestivalofelBgt,thatis,oftheweepingwomen,andthisistheTuzfestival,which
iscelebratedinhonourofthegodTuz.Thewomenbewailhim,becausehislordslewhimsocruelly,
groundhisbonesinamill,andthenscatteredthemtothewind.Thewomen(duringthisfestival)eat
nothingwhichhasbeengroundinamill,butlimittheirdiettosteepedwheat,sweetvetches,dates,
raisins,andthelike.Tuz,whoisnootherthanTammuz,isherelikeBurnssJohnBarleycorn:
Theywastedoerascorchingflame
Themarrowofhisbones
Butamillerusdhimworstofall
Forhecrushdhimbetweentwostones.
Thisconcentration,sotosay,ofthenatureofAdonisuponthecerealcropsischaracteristicofthestage
ofculturereachedbyhisworshippersinhistoricaltimes.Theyhadleftthenomadiclifeofthewandering
hunterandherdsmanfarbehindthemforagestheyhadbeensettledontheland,andhaddependedfor
theirsubsistencemainlyontheproductsoftillage.Theberriesandrootsofthewilderness,thegrassof
thepastures,whichhadbeenmattersofvitalimportancetotheirruderforefathers,werenowoflittle
momenttothem:moreandmoretheirthoughtsandenergieswereengrossedbythestapleoftheirlife,
thecornmoreandmoreaccordinglythepropitiationofthedeitiesoffertilityingeneralandofthecorn
spiritinparticulartendedtobecomethecentralfeatureoftheirreligion.Theaimtheysetbefore
themselvesincelebratingtheriteswasthoroughlypractical.Itwasnovaguepoeticalsentimentwhich
promptedthemtohailwithjoytherebirthofvegetationandtomournitsdecline.Hunger,feltorfeared,
wasthemainspringoftheworshipofAdonis.
IthasbeensuggestedbyFatherLagrangethatthemourningforAdoniswasessentiallyaharvestrite
designedtopropitiatethecorngod,whowastheneitherperishingunderthesicklesofthereapers,or
beingtroddentodeathunderthehoofsoftheoxenonthethreshingfloor.Whilethemenslewhim,the
womenweptcrocodiletearsathometoappeasehisnaturalindignationbyashowofgriefforhisdeath.
Thetheoryfitsinwellwiththedatesofthefestivals,whichfellinspringorsummerforspringand
summer,notautumn,aretheseasonsofthebarleyandwheatharvestsinthelandswhichworshipped
Adonis.Further,thehypothesisisconfirmedbythepracticeoftheEgyptianreapers,wholamented,
callinguponIsis,whentheycutthefirstcornanditisrecommendedbytheanalogouscustomsofmany
huntingtribes,whotestifygreatrespectfortheanimalswhichtheykillandeat.

ThusinterpretedthedeathofAdonisisnotthenaturaldecayofvegetationingeneralunderthesummer
heatorthewintercolditistheviolentdestructionofthecornbyman,whocutsitdownonthefield,
stampsittopiecesonthethreshingfloor,andgrindsittopowderinthemill.Thatthiswasindeedthe
principalaspectinwhichAdonispresentedhimselfinlatertimestotheagriculturalpeoplesofthe
Levant,maybeadmittedbutwhetherfromthebeginninghehadbeenthecornandnothingbutthecorn,
maybedoubted.Atanearlierperiodhemayhavebeentotheherdsman,aboveall,thetenderherbage
whichsproutsafterrain,offeringrichpasturetotheleanandhungrycattle.Earlierstillhemayhave
embodiedthespiritofthenutsandberrieswhichtheautumnwoodsyieldtothesavagehunterandhis
squaw.Andjustasthehusbandmanmustpropitiatethespiritofthecornwhichheconsumes,sothe
herdsmanmustappeasethespiritofthegrassandleaveswhichhiscattlemunch,andthehuntermust
soothethespiritoftherootswhichhedigs,andofthefruitswhichhegathersfromthebough.Inallcases
thepropitiationoftheinjuredandangry,spritewouldnaturallycompriseelaborateexcusesand
apologies,accompaniedbyloudlamentationsathisdeceasewhenever,throughsomedeplorableaccident
ornecessity,hehappenedtobemurderedaswellasrobbed.Onlywemustbearinmindthatthesavage
hunterandherdsmanofthoseearlydayshadprobablynotyetattainedtotheabstractideaofvegetation
ingeneralandthataccordingly,sofarasAdonisexistedforthematall,hemusthavebeentheAdonor
lordofeachindividualtreeandplantratherthanapersonificationofvegetablelifeasawhole.Thusthere
wouldbeasmanyAdonisesasthereweretreesandshrubs,andeachofthemmightexpecttoreceive
satisfactionforanydamagedonetohispersonorproperty.Andyearbyyear,whenthetreeswere
deciduous,everyAdoniswouldseemtobleedtodeathwiththeredleavesofautumnandtocometolife
againwiththefreshgreenofspring.
ThereissomereasontothinkthatinearlytimesAdoniswassometimespersonatedbyalivingmanwho
diedaviolentdeathinthecharacterofthegod.Further,thereisevidencewhichgoestoshowthatamong
theagriculturalpeoplesoftheEasternMediterranean,thecornspirit,bywhatevernamehewasknown,
wasoftenrepresented,yearbyyear,byhumanvictimsslainontheharvestfield.Ifthatwasso,itseems
likelythatthepropitiationofthecornspiritwouldtendtofusetosomeextentwiththeworshipofthe
dead.Forthespiritsofthesevictimsmightbethoughttoreturntolifeintheearswhichtheyhadfattened
withtheirblood,andtodieaseconddeathatthereapingofthecorn.Nowtheghostsofthosewhohave
perishedbyviolencearesurlyandapttowreaktheirvengeanceontheirslayerswheneveranopportunity
offers.Hencetheattempttoappeasethesoulsoftheslaughteredvictimswouldnaturallyblend,atleastin
thepopularconception,withtheattempttopacifytheslaincornspirit.Andasthedeadcamebackinthe
sproutingcorn,sotheymightbethoughttoreturninthespringflowers,wakedfromtheirlongsleepby
thesoftvernalairs.Theyhadbeenlaidtotheirrestunderthesod.Whatmorenaturalthantoimaginethat
thevioletsandthehyacinths,therosesandtheanemones,sprangfromtheirdust,wereempurpledor
incarnadinedbytheirblood,andcontainedsomeportionoftheirspirit?
Isometimesthinkthatneverblowssored
TheRoseaswheresomeburiedCaesarbled
ThateveryHyacinththeGardenwears
DroptinherLapfromsomeoncelovelyHead.
AndthisrevivingHerbwhosetenderGreen
FledgestheRiverLiponwhichwelean
Ah,leanuponitlightly,forwhoknows
FromwhatoncelovelyLipitspringsunseen?
InthesummerafterthebattleofLanden,themostsanguinarybattleoftheseventeenthcenturyin
Europe,theearth,saturatedwiththebloodoftwentythousandslain,brokeforthintomillionsofpoppies,
andthetravellerwhopassedthatvastsheetofscarletmightwellfancythattheearthhadindeedgivenup
herdead.AtAthensthegreatCommemorationoftheDeadfellinspringaboutthemiddleofMarch,

whentheearlyflowersareinbloom.Thenthedeadwerebelievedtorisefromtheirgravesandgoabout
thestreets,vainlyendeavouringtoenterthetemplesanddwellings,whichwerebarredagainstthese
perturbedspiritswithropes,buckthorn,andpitch.Thenameofthefestival,accordingtothemost
obviousandnaturalinterpretation,meanstheFestivalofFlowers,andthetitlewouldfitwellwiththe
substanceoftheceremoniesifatthatseasonthepoorghostswereindeedthoughttocreepfromthe
narrowhousewiththeopeningflowers.Theremaythereforebeameasureoftruthinthetheoryof
Renan,whosawintheAdonisworshipadreamyvoluptuouscultofdeath,conceivednotastheKingof
Terrors,butasaninsidiousenchanterwholureshisvictimstohimselfandlullsthemintoaneternal
sleep.TheinfinitecharmofnatureintheLebanon,hethought,lendsitselftoreligiousemotionsofthis
sensuous,visionarysort,hoveringvaguelybetweenpainandpleasure,betweenslumberandtears.It
woulddoubtlessbeamistaketoattributetoSyrianpeasantstheworshipofaconceptionsopurely
abstractasthatofdeathingeneral.Yetitmaybetruethatintheirsimplemindsthethoughtofthe
revivingspiritofvegetationwasblentwiththeveryconcretenotionoftheghostsofthedead,whocome
tolifeagaininspringdayswiththeearlyflowers,withthetendergreenofthecornandthemanytinted
blossomsofthetrees.Thustheirviewsofthedeathandresurrectionofnaturewouldbecolouredbytheir
viewsofthedeathandresurrectionofman,bytheirpersonalsorrowsandhopesandfears.Inlikemanner
wecannotdoubtthatRenanstheoryofAdoniswasitselfdeeplytingedbypassionatememories,
memoriesoftheslumberakintodeathwhichsealedhisowneyesontheslopesoftheLebanon,
memoriesofthesisterwhosleepsinthelandofAdonisneveragaintowakewiththeanemonesandthe
roses.

XXXIII.TheGardensofAdonis
PERHAPSthebestproofthatAdoniswasadeityofvegetation,andespeciallyofthecorn,isfurnished
bythegardensofAdonis,astheywerecalled.Thesewerebasketsorpotsfilledwithearth,inwhich
wheat,barley,lettuces,fennel,andvariouskindsofflowersweresownandtendedforeightdays,chiefly
orexclusivelybywomen.Fosteredbythesunsheat,theplantsshotuprapidly,buthavingnorootthey
witheredasrapidlyaway,andattheendofeightdayswerecarriedoutwiththeimagesofthedead
Adonis,andflungwiththemintotheseaorintosprings.
ThesegardensofAdonisaremostnaturallyinterpretedasrepresentativesofAdonisormanifestationsof
hispowertheyrepresentedhim,truetohisoriginalnature,invegetableform,whiletheimagesofhim,
withwhichtheywerecarriedoutandcastintothewater,portrayedhiminhislaterhumanshape.All
theseAdonisceremonies,ifIamright,wereoriginallyintendedascharmstopromotethegrowthor
revivalofvegetationandtheprinciplebywhichtheyweresupposedtoproducethiseffectwas
homoeopathicorimitativemagic.Forignorantpeoplesupposethatbymimickingtheeffectwhichthey
desiretoproducetheyactuallyhelptoproduceitthusbysprinklingwatertheymakerain,bylightinga
firetheymakesunshine,andsoon.Similarly,bymimickingthegrowthofcropstheyhopetoensurea
goodharvest.TherapidgrowthofthewheatandbarleyinthegardensofAdoniswasintendedtomake
thecornshootupandthethrowingofthegardensandoftheimagesintothewaterwasacharmtosecure
aduesupplyoffertilisingrain.Thesame,Itakeit,wastheobjectofthrowingtheeffigiesofDeathand
theCarnivalintowaterinthecorrespondingceremoniesofmodernEurope.Certainlythecustomof
drenchingwithwateraleafcladperson,whoundoubtedlypersonifiesvegetation,isstillresortedtoin
Europefortheexpresspurposeofproducingrain.Similarlythecustomofthrowingwateronthelastcorn
cutatharvest,oronthepersonwhobringsithome(acustomobservedinGermanyandFrance,andtill
latelyinEnglandandScotland),isinsomeplacespractisedwiththeavowedintenttoprocurerainforthe
nextyearscrops.ThusinWallachiaandamongsttheRoumaniansinTransylvania,whenagirlis
bringinghomeacrownmadeofthelastearsofcorncutatharvest,allwhomeetherhastentothrow
wateronher,andtwofarmservantsareplacedatthedoorforthepurposefortheybelievethatifthis
werenotdone,thecropsnextyearwouldperishfromdrought.AtthespringploughinginPrussia,when

theploughmenandsowersreturnedintheeveningfromtheirworkinthefields,thefarmerswifeandthe
servantsusedtosplashwateroverthem.Theploughmenandsowersretortedbyseizingeveryone,
throwingthemintothepond,andduckingthemunderthewater.Thefarmerswifemightclaim
exemptiononpaymentofaforfeit,buteveryoneelsehadtobeducked.Byobservingthiscustomthey
hopedtoensureaduesupplyofrainfortheseed.
TheopinionthatthegardensofAdonisareessentiallycharmstopromotethegrowthofvegetation,
especiallyofthecrops,andthattheybelongtothesameclassofcustomsasthosespringandmid
summerfolkcustomsofmodernEuropewhichIhavedescribedelsewhere,doesnotrestforitsevidence
merelyontheintrinsicprobabilityofthecase.FortunatelyweareabletoshowthatgardensofAdonis(if
wemayusetheexpressioninageneralsense)arestillplanted,first,byaprimitiveraceattheirsowing
season,and,second,byEuropeanpeasantsatmidsummer.AmongsttheOraonsandMundasofBengal,
whenthetimecomesforplantingoutthericewhichhasbeengrowninseedbeds,apartyofyoung
peopleofbothsexesgototheforestandcutayoungKarmatree,orthebranchofone.Bearingitin
triumphtheyreturndancing,singing,andbeatingdrums,andplantitinthemiddleofthevillage
dancingground.Asacrificeisofferedtothetreeandnextmorningtheyouthofbothsexes,linkedarm
inarm,danceinagreatcircleroundtheKarmatree,whichisdeckedwithstripsofcolouredclothand
shambraceletsandneckletsofplaitedstraw.Asapreparationforthefestival,thedaughtersofthe
headmanofthevillagecultivatebladesofbarleyinapeculiarway.Theseedissowninmoist,sandysoil,
mixedwithturmeric,andthebladessproutandunfoldofapaleyelloworprimrosecolour.Onthedayof
thefestivalthegirlstakeupthesebladesandcarrytheminbasketstothedancingground,where,
prostratingthemselvesreverentially,theyplacesomeoftheplantsbeforetheKarmatree.Finally,the
Karmatreeistakenawayandthrownintoastreamortank.Themeaningofplantingthesebarleyblades
andthenpresentingthemtotheKarmatreeishardlyopentoquestion.Treesaresupposedtoexercisea
quickeninginfluenceuponthegrowthofcrops,andamongsttheverypeopleinquestiontheMundasor
Mundaristhegrovedeitiesareheldresponsibleforthecrops.Therefore,whenattheseasonfor
plantingoutthericetheMundasbringinatreeandtreatitwithsomuchrespect,theirobjectcanonlybe
tofostertherebythegrowthofthericewhichisabouttobeplantedoutandthecustomofcausingbarley
bladestosproutrapidlyandthenpresentingthemtothetreemustbeintendedtosubservethesame
purpose,perhapsbyremindingthetreespiritofhisdutytowardsthecrops,andstimulatinghisactivity
bythisvisibleexampleofrapidvegetablegrowth.ThethrowingoftheKarmatreeintothewateristobe
interpretedasaraincharm.Whetherthebarleybladesarealsothrownintothewaterisnotsaidbutif
myinterpretationofthecustomisright,probablytheyareso.AdistinctionbetweenthisBengalcustom
andtheGreekritesofAdonisisthatintheformerthetreespiritappearsinhisoriginalformasatree
whereasintheAdonisworshipheappearsinhumanform,representedasadeadman,thoughhis
vegetablenatureisindicatedbythegardensofAdonis,whichare,sotosay,asecondarymanifestationof
hisoriginalpowerasatreespirit.
GardensofAdonisarecultivatedalsobytheHindoos,withtheintentionapparentlyofensuringthe
fertilitybothoftheearthandofmankind.ThusatOodeypoorinRajputanaafestivalisheldinhonourof
Gouri,orIsani,thegoddessofabundance.TheritesbeginwhenthesunentersthesignoftheRam,the
openingoftheHindooyear.AnimageofthegoddessGouriismadeofearth,andasmalleroneofher
husbandIswara,andthetwoareplacedtogether.Asmalltrenchisnextdug,barleyissowninit,andthe
groundwateredandheatedartificiallytillthegrainsprouts,whenthewomendanceroundithandin
hand,invokingtheblessingofGouriontheirhusbands.Afterthattheyoungcornistakenupand
distributedbythewomentothemen,whowearitintheirturbans.Intheseritesthedistributionofthe
barleyshootstothemen,andtheinvocationofablessingontheirhusbandsbythewives,pointclearlyto
thedesireofoffspringasonemotiveforobservingthecustom.Thesamemotiveprobablyexplainsthe
useofgardensofAdonisatthemarriageofBrahmansintheMadrasPresidency.Seedsoffiveornine
sortsaremixedandsowninearthenpots,whicharemadespeciallyforthepurposeandarefilledwith
earth.Brideandbridegroomwatertheseedsbothmorningandeveningforfourdaysandonthefifthday

theseedlingsarethrown,liketherealgardensofAdonis,intoatankorriver.
InSardiniathegardensofAdonisarestillplantedinconnexionwiththegreatmidsummerfestivalwhich
bearsthenameofSt.John.AttheendofMarchoronthefirstofAprilayoungmanofthevillage
presentshimselftoagirl,andaskshertobehiscomare(gossiporsweetheart),offeringtobeher
compare.Theinvitationisconsideredasanhonourbythegirlsfamily,andisgladlyaccepted.Atthe
endofMaythegirlmakesapotofthebarkofthecorktree,fillsitwithearth,andsowsahandfulof
wheatandbarleyinit.Thepotbeingplacedinthesunandoftenwatered,thecornsproutsrapidlyand
hasagoodheadbyMidsummerEve(St.JohnsEve,thetwentythirdofJune).Thepotisthencalled
ErmeorNenneri.OnSt.JohnsDaytheyoungmanandthegirl,dressedintheirbest,accompaniedbya
longretinueandprecededbychildrengambollingandfrolicking,moveinprocessiontoachurchoutside
thevillage.Heretheybreakthepotbythrowingitagainstthedoorofthechurch.Thentheysitdownina
ringonthegrassandeateggsandherbstothemusicofflutes.Wineismixedinacupandpassedround,
eachonedrinkingasitpasses.ThentheyjoinhandsandsingSweetheartsofSt.John(Comparee
comarediSanGiovanni)overandoveragain,theflutesplayingthewhile.Whentheytireofsinging
theystandupanddancegailyinaringtillevening.ThisisthegeneralSardiniancustom.Aspractisedat
Ozieriithassomespecialfeatures.InMaythepotsaremadeofcorkbarkandplantedwithcorn,as
alreadydescribed.ThenontheEveofSt.Johnthewindowsillsaredrapedwithrichcloths,onwhichthe
potsareplaced,adornedwithcrimsonandbluesilkandribbonsofvariouscolours.Oneachofthepots
theyusedformerlytoplaceastatuetteorclothdolldressedasawoman,oraPriapuslikefiguremadeof
pastebutthiscustom,rigorouslyforbiddenbytheChurch,hasfallenintodisuse.Thevillageswainsgo
aboutinatrooptolookatthepotsandtheirdecorationsandtowaitforthegirls,whoassembleonthe
publicsquaretocelebratethefestival.Hereagreatbonfireiskindled,roundwhichtheydanceandmake
merry.ThosewhowishtobeSweetheartsofSt.Johnactasfollows.Theyoungmanstandsononeside
ofthebonfireandthegirlontheother,andthey,inamanner,joinhandsbyeachgraspingoneendofa
longstick,whichtheypassthreetimesbackwardsandforwardsacrossthefire,thusthrustingtheirhands
thricerapidlyintotheflames.Thissealstheirrelationshiptoeachother.Dancingandmusicgoontilllate
atnight.ThecorrespondenceoftheseSardinianpotsofgraintothegardensofAdonisseemscomplete,
andtheimagesformerlyplacedinthemanswertotheimagesofAdoniswhichaccompaniedhisgardens.
CustomsofthesamesortareobservedatthesameseasoninSicily.Pairsofboysandgirlsbecome
gossipsofSt.JohnonSt.JohnsDaybydrawingeachahairfromhisorherheadandperformingvarious
ceremoniesoverthem.Thustheytiethehairstogetherandthrowthemupintheair,orexchangethem
overapotsherd,whichtheyafterwardsbreakintwo,preservingeachafragmentwithpiouscare.Thetie
formedinthelatterwayissupposedtolastforlife.InsomepartsofSicilythegossipsofSt.Johnpresent
eachotherwithplatesofsproutingcorn,lentils,andcanaryseed,whichhavebeenplantedfortydays
beforethefestival.Theonewhoreceivestheplatepullsastalkoftheyoungplants,bindsitwitha
ribbon,andpreservesitamonghisorhergreatesttreasures,restoringtheplattertothegiver.AtCatania
thegossipsexchangepotsofbasilandgreatcucumbersthegirlstendthebasil,andthethickeritgrows
themoreitisprized.
InthesemidsummercustomsofSardiniaandSicilyitispossiblethat,asMr.R.Wnschsupposes,St.
JohnhasreplacedAdonis.WehaveseenthattheritesofTammuzorAdoniswerecommonlycelebrated
aboutmidsummeraccordingtoJerome,theirdatewasJune.
InSicilygardensofAdonisarestillsowninspringaswellasinsummer,fromwhichwemayperhaps
inferthatSicilyaswellasSyriacelebratedofoldavernalfestivalofthedeadandrisengod.Atthe
approachofEaster,Sicilianwomensowwheat,lentils,andcanaryseedinplates,whichtheykeepinthe
darkandwatereverytwodays.Theplantssoonshootupthestalksaretiedtogetherwithredribbons,
andtheplatescontainingthemareplacedonthesepulchreswhich,withtheeffigiesofthedeadChrist,
aremadeupinCatholicandGreekchurchesonGoodFriday,justasthegardensofAdoniswereplaced

onthegraveofthedeadAdonis.ThepracticeisnotconfinedtoSicily,foritisobservedalsoatCosenza
inCalabria,andperhapsinotherplaces.Thewholecustomsepulchresaswellasplatesofsprouting
grainmaybenothingbutacontinuation,underadifferentname,oftheworshipofAdonis.
NoraretheseSicilianandCalabriancustomstheonlyEasterceremonieswhichresembletheritesof
Adonis.DuringthewholeofGoodFridayawaxeneffigyofthedeadChristisexposedtoviewinthe
middleoftheGreekchurchesandiscoveredwithferventkissesbythethrongingcrowd,whilethewhole
churchringswithmelancholy,monotonousdirges.Lateintheevening,whenithasgrownquitedark,
thiswaxenimageiscarriedbythepriestsintothestreetonabieradornedwithlemons,roses,jessamine,
andotherflowers,andtherebeginsagrandprocessionofthemultitude,whomoveinserriedranks,with
slowandsolemnstep,throughthewholetown.Everymancarrieshistaperandbreaksoutintodoleful
lamentation.Atallthehouseswhichtheprocessionpassesthereareseatedwomenwithcensersto
fumigatethemarchinghost.ThusthecommunitysolemnlyburiesitsChristasifhehadjustdied.Atlast
thewaxenimageisagaindepositedinthechurch,andthesamelugubriouschantsechoanew.These
lamentations,accompaniedbyastrictfast,continuetillmidnightonSaturday.Astheclockstrikes
twelve,thebishopappearsandannouncesthegladtidingsthatChristisrisen,towhichthecrowd
replies,Heisrisenindeed,andatoncethewholecityburstsintoanuproarofjoy,whichfindsventin
shrieksandshouts,intheendlessdischargeofcarronadesandmuskets,andtheexplosionoffireworks
ofeverysort.Intheverysamehourpeopleplungefromtheextremityofthefastintotheenjoymentof
theEasterlambandneatwine.
InlikemannertheCatholicChurchhasbeenaccustomedtobringbeforeitsfollowersinavisibleform
thedeathandresurrectionoftheRedeemer.Suchsacreddramasarewellfittedtoimpressthelively
imaginationandtostirthewarmfeelingsofasusceptiblesouthernrace,towhomthepompand
pageantryofCatholicismaremorecongenialthantothecoldertemperamentoftheTeutonicpeoples.
WhenwereflecthowoftentheChurchhasskilfullycontrivedtoplanttheseedsofthenewfaithonthe
oldstockofpaganism,wemaysurmisethattheEastercelebrationofthedeadandrisenChristwas
grafteduponasimilarcelebrationofthedeadandrisenAdonis,which,aswehaveseenreasonto
believe,wascelebratedinSyriaatthesameseason.Thetype,createdbyGreekartists,ofthesorrowful
goddesswithherdyingloverinherarms,resemblesandmayhavebeenthemodelofthePietof
Christianart,theVirginwiththedeadbodyofherdivineSoninherlap,ofwhichthemostcelebrated
exampleistheonebyMichaelAngeloinSt.Peters.Thatnoblegroup,inwhichthelivingsorrowofthe
mothercontrastssowonderfullywiththelanguorofdeathintheson,isoneofthefinestcompositionsin
marble.AncientGreekarthasbequeathedtousfewworkssobeautiful,andnonesopathetic.
InthisconnexionawellknownstatementofJeromemaynotbewithoutsignificance.Hetellsusthat
Bethlehem,thetraditionarybirthplaceoftheLord,wasshadedbyagroveofthatstillolderSyrianLord,
Adonis,andthatwheretheinfantJesushadwept,theloverofVenuswasbewailed.Thoughhedoesnot
expresslysayso,JeromeseemstohavethoughtthatthegroveofAdonishadbeenplantedbytheheathen
afterthebirthofChristforthepurposeofdefilingthesacredspot.Inthishemayhavebeenmistaken.If
Adoniswasindeed,asIhaveargued,thespiritofthecorn,amoresuitablenameforhisdwellingplace
couldhardlybefoundthanBethlehem,theHouseofBread,andhemaywellhavebeenworshipped
thereathisHouseofBreadlongagesbeforethebirthofHimwhosaid,Iamthebreadoflife.Evenon
thehypothesisthatAdonisfollowedratherthanprecededChristatBethlehem,thechoiceofhissad
figuretodiverttheallegianceofChristiansfromtheirLordcannotbutstrikeusaseminentlyappropriate
whenwerememberthesimilarityoftheriteswhichcommemoratedthedeathandresurrectionofthetwo.
OneoftheearliestseatsoftheworshipofthenewgodwasAntioch,andatAntioch,aswehaveseen,the
deathoftheoldgodwasannuallycelebratedwithgreatsolemnity.Acircumstancewhichattendedthe
entranceofJulianintothecityatthetimeoftheAdonisfestivalmayperhapsthrowsomelightonthe
dateofitscelebration.Whentheemperordrewneartothecityhewasreceivedwithpublicprayersasif

hehadbeenagod,andhemarvelledatthevoicesofagreatmultitudewhocriedthattheStarof
SalvationhaddawneduponthemintheEast.Thismaydoubtlesshavebeennomorethanafulsome
complimentpaidbyanobsequiousOrientalcrowdtotheRomanemperor.Butitisalsopossiblethatthe
risingofabrightstarregularlygavethesignalforthefestival,andthataschancewouldhaveitthestar
emergedabovetherimoftheeasternhorizonattheverymomentoftheemperorsapproach.The
coincidence,ifithappened,couldhardlyfailtostriketheimaginationofasuperstitiousandexcited
multitude,whomightthereuponhailthegreatmanasthedeitywhosecomingwasannouncedbythesign
intheheavens.Ortheemperormayhavemistakenforagreetingtohimselftheshoutswhichwere
addressedtothestar.NowAstarte,thedivinemistressofAdonis,wasidentifiedwiththeplanetVenus,
andherchangesfromamorningtoaneveningstarwerecarefullynotedbytheBabylonianastronomers,
whodrewomensfromheralternateappearanceanddisappearance.Hencewemayconjecturethatthe
festivalofAdoniswasregularlytimedtocoincidewiththeappearanceofVenusastheMorningor
EveningStar.ButthestarwhichthepeopleofAntiochsalutedatthefestivalwasseenintheEast
therefore,ifitwasindeedVenus,itcanonlyhavebeentheMorningStar.AtAphacainSyria,where
therewasafamoustempleofAstarte,thesignalforthecelebrationoftheriteswasapparentlygivenby
theflashingofameteor,whichonacertaindayfelllikeastarfromthetopofMountLebanonintothe
riverAdonis.ThemeteorwasthoughttobeAstarteherself,anditsflightthroughtheairmightnaturally
beinterpretedasthedescentoftheamorousgoddesstothearmsofherlover.AtAntiochandelsewhere
theappearanceoftheMorningStaronthedayofthefestivalmayinlikemannerhavebeenhailedasthe
comingofthegoddessoflovetowakeherdeadlemanfromhisearthybed.Ifthatwereso,wemay
surmisethatitwastheMorningStarwhichguidedthewisemenoftheEasttoBethlehem,thehallowed
spotwhichheard,inthelanguageofJerome,theweepingoftheinfantChristandthelamentforAdonis.

XXXIV.TheMythandRitualofAttis
ANOTHERofthosegodswhosesupposeddeathandresurrectionstrucksuchdeeprootsintothefaith
andritualofWesternAsiaisAttis.HewastoPhrygiawhatAdoniswastoSyria.LikeAdonis,heappears
tohavebeenagodofvegetation,andhisdeathandresurrectionwereannuallymournedandrejoiced
overatafestivalinspring.Thelegendsandritesofthetwogodsweresomuchalikethattheancients
themselvessometimesidentifiedthem.Attiswassaidtohavebeenafairyoungshepherdorherdsman
belovedbyCybele,theMotheroftheGods,agreatAsiaticgoddessoffertility,whohadherchiefhome
inPhrygia.SomeheldthatAttiswasherson.Hisbirth,likethatofmanyotherheroes,issaidtohave
beenmiraculous.Hismother,Nana,wasavirgin,whoconceivedbyputtingaripealmondora
pomegranateinherbosom.IndeedinthePhrygiancosmogonyanalmondfiguredasthefatherofall
things,perhapsbecauseitsdelicatelilacblossomisoneofthefirstheraldsofthespring,appearingonthe
bareboughsbeforetheleaveshaveopened.Suchtalesofvirginmothersarerelicsofanageofchildish
ignorancewhenmenhadnotyetrecognizedtheintercourseofthesexesasthetruecauseofoffspring.
TwodifferentaccountsofthedeathofAttiswerecurrent.Accordingtotheonehewaskilledbyaboar,
likeAdonis.Accordingtotheotherheunmannedhimselfunderapinetree,andbledtodeathonthespot.
ThelatterissaidtohavebeenthelocalstorytoldbythepeopleofPessinus,agreatseatoftheworshipof
Cybele,andthewholelegendofwhichthestoryformsapartisstampedwithacharacterofrudenessand
savagerythatspeaksstronglyforitsantiquity.Bothtalesmightclaimthesupportofcustom,orrather
bothwereprobablyinventedtoexplaincertaincustomsobservedbytheworshippers.Thestoryofthe
selfmutilationofAttisisclearlyanattempttoaccountfortheselfmutilationofhispriests,who
regularlycastratedthemselvesonenteringtheserviceofthegoddess.Thestoryofhisdeathbytheboar
mayhavebeentoldtoexplainwhyhisworshippers,especiallythepeopleofPessinus,abstainedfrom
eatingswine.InlikemannertheworshippersofAdonisabstainedfrompork,becauseaboarhadkilled
theirgod.AfterhisdeathAttisissaidtohavebeenchangedintoapinetree.
TheworshipofthePhrygianMotheroftheGodswasadoptedbytheRomansin204B.C.towardsthe

closeoftheirlongstrugglewithHannibal.Fortheirdroopingspiritshadbeenopportunelycheeredbya
prophecy,allegedtobedrawnfromthatconvenientfarragoofnonsense,theSibyllineBooks,thatthe
foreigninvaderwouldbedrivenfromItalyifthegreatOrientalgoddesswerebroughttoRome.
AccordinglyambassadorsweredespatchedtohersacredcityPessinusinPhrygia.Thesmallblackstone
whichembodiedthemightydivinitywasentrustedtothemandconveyedtoRome,whereitwasreceived
withgreatrespectandinstalledinthetempleofVictoryonthePalatineHill.ItwasthemiddleofApril
whenthegoddessarrived,andshewenttoworkatonce.Fortheharvestthatyearwassuchashadnot
beenseenformanyalongday,andintheverynextyearHannibalandhisveteransembarkedforAfrica.
AshelookedhislastonthecoastofItaly,fadingbehindhiminthedistance,hecouldnotforeseethat
Europe,whichhadrepelledthearms,wouldyetyieldtothegods,oftheOrient.Thevanguardofthe
conquerorshadalreadyencampedintheheartofItalybeforetherearguardofthebeatenarmyfell
sullenlybackfromitsshores.
Wemayconjecture,thoughwearenottold,thattheMotheroftheGodsbroughtwithhertheworshipof
heryouthfulloverorsontohernewhomeintheWest.CertainlytheRomanswerefamiliarwiththe
Galli,theemasculatedpriestsofAttis,beforethecloseoftheRepublic.Theseunsexedbeings,intheir
Orientalcostume,withlittleimagessuspendedontheirbreasts,appeartohavebeenafamiliarsightin
thestreetsofRome,whichtheytraversedinprocession,carryingtheimageofthegoddessandchanting
theirhymnstothemusicofcymbalsandtambourines,flutesandhorns,whilethepeople,impressedby
thefantasticshowandmovedbythewildstrains,flungalmstotheminabundance,andburiedtheimage
anditsbearersundershowersofroses.AfurtherstepwastakenbytheEmperorClaudiuswhenhe
incorporatedthePhrygianworshipofthesacredtree,andwithitprobablytheorgiasticritesofAttis,in
theestablishedreligionofRome.ThegreatspringfestivalofCybeleandAttisisbestknowntousinthe
forminwhichitwascelebratedatRomebutasweareinformedthattheRomanceremonieswerealso
Phrygian,wemayassumethattheydifferedhardly,ifatall,fromtheirAsiaticoriginal.Theorderofthe
festivalseemstohavebeenasfollows.
OnthetwentyseconddayofMarch,apinetreewascutinthewoodsandbroughtintothesanctuaryof
Cybele,whereitwastreatedasagreatdivinity.Thedutyofcarryingthesacredtreewasentrustedtoa
guildofTreebearers.Thetrunkwasswathedlikeacorpsewithwoollenbandsanddeckedwithwreaths
ofviolets,forvioletsweresaidtohavesprungfromthebloodofAttis,asrosesandanemonesfromthe
bloodofAdonisandtheeffigyofayoungman,doubtlessAttishimself,wastiedtothemiddleofthe
stem.Ontheseconddayofthefestival,thetwentythirdofMarch,thechiefceremonyseemstohave
beenablowingoftrumpets.Thethirdday,thetwentyfourthofMarch,wasknownastheDayofBlood:
theArchigallusorhighpriestdrewbloodfromhisarmsandpresenteditasanoffering.Norwashealone
inmakingthisbloodysacrifice.Stirredbythewildbarbaricmusicofclashingcymbals,rumblingdrums,
droninghorns,andscreamingflutes,theinferiorclergywhirledaboutinthedancewithwagglingheads
andstreaminghair,until,raptintoafrenzyofexcitementandinsensibletopain,theygashedtheirbodies
withpotsherdsorslashedthemwithknivesinordertobespatterthealtarandthesacredtreewiththeir
flowingblood.TheghastlyriteprobablyformedpartofthemourningforAttisandmayhavebeen
intendedtostrengthenhimfortheresurrection.TheAustralianaboriginescutthemselvesinlikemanner
overthegravesoftheirfriendsforthepurpose,perhaps,ofenablingthemtobebornagain.Further,we
mayconjecture,thoughwearenotexpresslytold,thatitwasonthesameDayofBloodandforthesame
purposethatthenovicessacrificedtheirvirility.Wroughtuptothehighestpitchofreligiousexcitement
theydashedtheseveredportionsofthemselvesagainsttheimageofthecruelgoddess.Thesebroken
instrumentsoffertilitywereafterwardsreverentlywraptupandburiedintheearthorinsubterranean
chamberssacredtoCybele,where,liketheofferingofblood,theymayhavebeendeemedinstrumental
inrecallingAttistolifeandhasteningthegeneralresurrectionofnature,whichwasthenburstinginto
leafandblossominthevernalsunshine.Someconfirmationofthisconjectureisfurnishedbythesavage
storythatthemotherofAttisconceivedbyputtinginherbosomapomegranatesprungfromthesevered
genitalsofamanmonsternamedAgdestis,asortofdoubleofAttis.

Ifthereisanytruthinthisconjecturalexplanationofthecustom,wecanreadilyunderstandwhyother
Asiaticgoddessesoffertilitywereservedinlikemannerbyeunuchpriests.Thesefemininedeities
requiredtoreceivefromtheirmaleministers,whopersonatedthedivinelovers,themeansofdischarging
theirbeneficentfunctions:theyhadthemselvestobeimpregnatedbythelifegivingenergybeforethey
couldtransmitittotheworld.GoddessesthusministeredtobyeunuchpriestswerethegreatArtemisof
EphesusandthegreatSyrianAstarteofHierapolis,whosesanctuary,frequentedbyswarmsofpilgrims
andenrichedbytheofferingsofAssyriaandBabylonia,ofArabiaandPhoenicia,wasperhapsinthe
daysofitsglorythemostpopularintheEast.NowtheunsexedpriestsofthisSyriangoddessresembled
thoseofCybelesocloselythatsomepeopletookthemtobethesame.Andthemodeinwhichthey
dedicatedthemselvestothereligiouslifewassimilar.ThegreatestfestivaloftheyearatHierapolisfellat
thebeginningofspring,whenmultitudesthrongedtothesanctuaryfromSyriaandtheregionsround
about.Whiletheflutesplayed,thedrumsbeat,andtheeunuchpriestsslashedthemselveswithknives,
thereligiousexcitementgraduallyspreadlikeawaveamongthecrowdofonlookers,andmanyaonedid
thatwhichhelittlethoughttodowhenhecameasaholidayspectatortothefestival.Formanafterman,
hisveinsthrobbingwiththemusic,hiseyesfascinatedbythesightofthestreamingblood,flunghis
garmentsfromhim,leapedforthwithashout,andseizingoneoftheswordswhichstoodreadyforthe
purpose,castratedhimselfonthespot.Thenheranthroughthecity,holdingthebloodypiecesinhis
hand,tillhethrewthemintooneofthehouseswhichhepassedinhismadcareer.Thehouseholdthus
honouredhadtofurnishhimwithasuitoffemaleattireandfemaleornaments,whichheworefortherest
ofhislife.Whenthetumultofemotionhadsubsided,andthemanhadcometohimselfagain,the
irrevocablesacrificemustoftenhavebeenfollowedbypassionatesorrowandlifelongregret.This
revulsionofnaturalhumanfeelingafterthefrenziesofafanaticalreligionispowerfullydepictedby
Catullusinacelebratedpoem.
TheparalleloftheseSyriandevoteesconfirmstheviewthatinthesimilarworshipofCybelethesacrifice
ofvirilitytookplaceontheDayofBloodatthevernalritesofthegoddess,whentheviolets,supposedto
springfromthereddropsofherwoundedlover,wereinbloomamongthepines.Indeedthestorythat
Attisunmannedhimselfunderapinetreewasclearlydevisedtoexplainwhyhispriestsdidthesame
besidethesacredvioletwreathedtreeathisfestival.Atallevents,wecanhardlydoubtthattheDayof
BloodwitnessedthemourningforAttisoveraneffigyofhimwhichwasafterwardsburied.Theimage
thuslaidinthesepulchrewasprobablythesamewhichhadhunguponthetree.Throughouttheperiodof
mourningtheworshippersfastedfrombread,nominallybecauseCybelehaddonesoinhergriefforthe
deathofAttis,butreallyperhapsforthesamereasonwhichinducedthewomenofHarrantoabstain
fromeatinganythinggroundinamillwhiletheyweptforTammuz.Topartakeofbreadorflouratsucha
seasonmighthavebeendeemedawantonprofanationofthebruisedandbrokenbodyofthegod.Orthe
fastmaypossiblyhavebeenapreparationforasacramentalmeal.
Butwhennighthadfallen,thesorrowoftheworshipperswasturnedtojoy.Forsuddenlyalightshonein
thedarkness:thetombwasopened:thegodhadrisenfromthedeadandasthepriesttouchedthelipsof
theweepingmournerswithbalm,hesoftlywhisperedintheirearsthegladtidingsofsalvation.The
resurrectionofthegodwashailedbyhisdisciplesasapromisethattheytoowouldissuetriumphant
fromthecorruptionofthegrave.Onthemorrow,thetwentyfifthdayofMarch,whichwasreckonedthe
vernalequinox,thedivineresurrectionwascelebratedwithawildoutburstofglee.AtRome,and
probablyelsewhere,thecelebrationtooktheformofacarnival.ItwastheFestivalofJoy(Hilaria).A
universallicenceprevailed.Everymanmightsayanddowhathepleased.Peoplewentaboutthestreets
indisguise.Nodignitywastoohighortoosacredforthehumblestcitizentoassumewithimpunity.In
thereignofCommodusabandofconspiratorsthoughttotakeadvantageofthemasqueradebydressing
intheuniformoftheImperialGuard,andso,minglingwiththecrowdofmerrymakers,togetwithin
stabbingdistanceoftheemperor.Buttheplotmiscarried.EventhesternAlexanderSeverususedtorelax
sofaronthejoyousdayastoadmitapheasanttohisfrugalboard.Thenextday,thetwentysixthof
March,wasgiventorepose,whichmusthavebeenmuchneededafterthevariedexcitementsand

fatiguesoftheprecedingdays.Finally,theRomanfestivalclosedonthetwentyseventhofMarchwitha
processiontothebrookAlmo.Thesilverimageofthegoddess,withitsfaceofjaggedblackstone,satin
awaggondrawnbyoxen.Precededbythenobleswalkingbarefoot,itmovedslowly,totheloudmusicof
pipesandtambourines,outbythePortaCapena,andsodowntothebanksoftheAlmo,whichflowsinto
theTiberjustbelowthewallsofRome.Therethehighpriest,robedinpurple,washedthewaggon,the
image,andtheothersacredobjectsinthewaterofthestream.Onreturningfromtheirbath,thewainand
theoxenwerestrewnwithfreshspringflowers.Allwasmirthandgaiety.Noonethoughtoftheblood
thathadflowedsolately.Eventheeunuchpriestsforgottheirwounds.
Such,then,appearstohavebeentheannualsolemnisationofthedeathandresurrectionofAttisinspring.
Butbesidesthesepublicrites,hisworshipisknowntohavecomprisedcertainsecretormystic
ceremonies,whichprobablyaimedatbringingtheworshipper,andespeciallythenovice,intocloser
communicationwithhisgod.Ourinformationastothenatureofthesemysteriesandthedateoftheir
celebrationisunfortunatelyveryscanty,buttheyseemtohaveincludedasacramentalmealanda
baptismofblood.Inthesacramentthenovicebecameapartakerofthemysteriesbyeatingoutofadrum
anddrinkingoutofacymbal,twoinstrumentsofmusicwhichfiguredprominentlyinthethrilling
orchestraofAttis.Thefastwhichaccompaniedthemourningforthedeadgodmayperhapshavebeen
designedtopreparethebodyofthecommunicantforthereceptionoftheblessedsacramentbypurgingit
ofallthatcoulddefilebycontactthesacredelements.Inthebaptismthedevotee,crownedwithgoldand
wreathedwithfillets,descendedintoapit,themouthofwhichwascoveredwithawoodengrating.A
bull,adornedwithgarlandsofflowers,itsforeheadglitteringwithgoldleaf,wasthendrivenontothe
gratingandtherestabbedtodeathwithaconsecratedspear.Itshotreekingbloodpouredintorrents
throughtheapertures,andwasreceivedwithdevouteagernessbytheworshipperoneverypartofhis
personandgarments,tillheemergedfromthepit,drenched,dripping,andscarletfromheadtofoot,to
receivethehomage,naytheadoration,ofhisfellowsasonewhohadbeenbornagaintoeternallifeand
hadwashedawayhissinsinthebloodofthebull.Forsometimeafterwardsthefictionofanewbirth
waskeptupbydietinghimonmilklikeanewbornbabe.Theregenerationoftheworshippertookplace
atthesametimeastheregenerationofhisgod,namelyatthevernalequinox.AtRomethenewbirthand
theremissionofsinsbythesheddingofbullsbloodappeartohavebeencarriedoutaboveallatthe
sanctuaryofthePhrygiangoddessontheVaticanHill,atornearthespotwherethegreatbasilicaofSt.
Petersnowstandsformanyinscriptionsrelatingtotheriteswerefoundwhenthechurchwasbeing
enlargedin1608or1609.FromtheVaticanasacentrethisbarbaroussystemofsuperstitionseemsto
havespreadtootherpartsoftheRomanempire.InscriptionsfoundinGaulandGermanyprovethat
provincialsanctuariesmodelledtheirritualonthatoftheVatican.Fromthesamesourcewelearnthatthe
testiclesaswellasthebloodofthebullplayedanimportantpartintheceremonies.Probablytheywere
regardedasapowerfulcharmtopromotefertilityandhastenthenewbirth.

XXXV.AttisasaGodofVegetation
THEORIGINALcharacterofAttisasatreespiritisbroughtoutplainlybythepartwhichthepinetree
playsinhislegend,hisritual,andhismonuments.Thestorythathewasahumanbeingtransformedinto
apinetreeisonlyoneofthosetransparentattemptsatrationalisingoldbeliefswhichmeetusso
frequentlyinmythology.Thebringinginofthepinetreefromthewoods,deckedwithvioletsand
woollenbands,islikebringingintheMaytreeorSummertreeinmodernfolkcustomandtheeffigy
whichwasattachedtothepinetreewasonlyaduplicaterepresentativeofthetreespiritAttis.After
beingfastenedtothetree,theeffigywaskeptforayearandthenburned.Thesamethingappearstohave
beensometimesdonewiththeMaypoleandinlikemannertheeffigyofthecornspirit,madeat
harvest,isoftenpreservedtillitisreplacedbyaneweffigyatnextyearsharvest.Theoriginalintention
ofsuchcustomswasnodoubttomaintainthespiritofvegetationinlifethroughouttheyear.Whythe
Phrygiansshouldhaveworshippedthepineaboveothertreeswecanonlyguess.Perhapsthesightofits

changeless,thoughsombre,greencrestingtheridgesofthehighhillsabovethefadingsplendourofthe
autumnwoodsinthevalleysmayhaveseemedtotheireyestomarkitoutastheseatofadivinerlife,of
somethingexemptfromthesadvicissitudesoftheseasons,constantandeternalastheskywhichstooped
tomeetit.Forthesamereason,perhaps,ivywassacredtoAttisatallevents,wereadthathiseunuch
priestsweretattooedwithapatternofivyleaves.Anotherreasonforthesanctityofthepinemayhave
beenitsusefulness.Theconesofthestonepinecontainediblenutlikeseeds,whichhavebeenusedas
foodsinceantiquity,andarestilleaten,forexample,bythepoorerclassesinRome.Moreover,awine
wasbrewedfromtheseseeds,andthismaypartlyaccountfortheorgiasticnatureoftheritesofCybele,
whichtheancientscomparedtothoseofDionysus.Further,pineconeswereregardedassymbolsor
ratherinstrumentsoffertility.HenceatthefestivaloftheThesmophoriatheywerethrown,alongwith
pigsandotheragentsoremblemsoffecundity,intothesacredvaultsofDemeterforthepurposeof
quickeningthegroundandthewombsofwomen.
Liketreespiritsingeneral,Attiswasapparentlythoughttowieldpoweroverthefruitsoftheearthor
eventobeidenticalwiththecorn.Oneofhisepithetswasveryfruitful:hewasaddressedasthe
reapedgreen(oryellow)earofcornandthestoryofhissufferings,death,andresurrectionwas
interpretedastheripegrainwoundedbythereaper,buriedinthegranary,andcomingtolifeagainwhen
itissownintheground.AstatueofhimintheLateranMuseumatRomeclearlyindicateshisrelationto
thefruitsoftheearth,andparticularlytothecornforitrepresentshimwithabunchofearsofcornand
fruitinhishand,andawreathofpinecones,pomegranates,andotherfruitsonhishead,whilefromthe
topofhisPhrygiancapearsofcornaresprouting.Onastoneurn,whichcontainedtheashesofan
ArchigallusorhighpriestofAttis,thesameideaisexpressedinaslightlydifferentway.Thetopofthe
urnisadornedwithearsofcorncarvedinrelief,anditissurmountedbythefigureofacock,whosetail
consistsofearsofcorn.Cybeleinlikemannerwasconceivedasagoddessoffertilitywhocouldmakeor
marthefruitsoftheearthforthepeopleofAugustodunum(Autun)inGaulusedtocartherimageabout
inawaggonforthegoodofthefieldsandvineyards,whiletheydancedandsangbeforeit,andwehave
seenthatinItalyanunusuallyfineharvestwasattributedtotherecentarrivaloftheGreatMother.The
bathingoftheimageofthegoddessinarivermaywellhavebeenaraincharmtoensureanabundant
supplyofmoistureforthecrops.

XXXVI.HumanRepresentativesofAttis
FROMINSCRIPTIONSitappearsthatbothatPessinusandRomethehighpriestofCybeleregularly
borethenameofAttis.Itisthereforeareasonableconjecturethatheplayedthepartofhisnamesake,the
legendaryAttis,attheannualfestival.WehaveseenthatontheDayofBloodhedrewbloodfromhis
arms,andthismayhavebeenanimitationoftheselfinflicteddeathofAttisunderthepinetree.Itisnot
inconsistentwiththissuppositionthatAttiswasalsorepresentedattheseceremoniesbyaneffigyfor
instancescanbeshowninwhichthedivinebeingisfirstrepresentedbyalivingpersonandafterwardsby
aneffigy,whichisthenburnedorotherwisedestroyed.Perhapswemaygoastepfartherandconjecture
thatthismimickillingofthepriest,accompaniedbyarealeffusionofhisblood,wasinPhrygia,asithas
beenelsewhere,asubstituteforahumansacrificewhichinearliertimeswasactuallyoffered.
Areminiscenceofthemannerinwhichtheseoldrepresentativesofthedeitywereputtodeathisperhaps
preservedinthefamousstoryofMarsyas.HewassaidtobeaPhrygiansatyrorSilenus,accordingto
othersashepherdorherdsman,whoplayedsweetlyontheflute.AfriendofCybele,heroamedthe
countrywiththedisconsolategoddesstosoothehergriefforthedeathofAttis.Thecompositionofthe
MothersAir,atuneplayedonthefluteinhonouroftheGreatMotherGoddess,wasattributedtohimby
thepeopleofCelaenaeinPhrygia.Vainofhisskill,hechallengedApollotoamusicalcontest,hetoplay
onthefluteandApolloonthelyre.Beingvanquished,Marsyaswastieduptoapinetreeandflayedor
cutlimbfromlimbeitherbythevictoriousApolloorbyaScythianslave.Hisskinwasshownat

Celaenaeinhistoricaltimes.IthungatthefootofthecitadelinacavefromwhichtheriverMarsyas
rushedwithanimpetuousandnoisytidetojointheMaeander.SotheAdonisburstsfullbornfromthe
precipicesoftheLebanonsotheblueriverofIbreezleapsinacrystaljetfromtheredrocksofthe
Taurussothestream,whichnowrumblesdeepunderground,usedtogleamforamomentonitspassage
fromdarknesstodarknessinthedimlightoftheCoryciancave.Inallthesecopiousfountains,withtheir
gladpromiseoffertilityandlife,menofoldsawthehandofGodandworshippedhimbesidetherushing
riverwiththemusicofitstumblingwatersintheirears.AtCelaenae,ifwecantrusttradition,thepiper
Marsyas,hanginginhiscave,hadasoulforharmonyevenindeathforitissaidthatatthesoundofhis
nativePhrygianmelodiestheskinofthedeadsatyrusedtothrill,butthatifthemusicianstruckupanair
inpraiseofApolloitremaineddeafandmotionless.
InthisPhrygiansatyr,shepherd,orherdsmanwhoenjoyedthefriendshipofCybele,practisedthemusic
socharacteristicofherrites,anddiedaviolentdeathonhersacredtree,thepine,maywenotdetecta
closeresemblancetoAttis,thefavouriteshepherdorherdsmanofthegoddess,whoishimselfdescribed
asapiper,issaidtohaveperishedunderapinetree,andwasannuallyrepresentedbyaneffigyhung,
likeMarsyas,uponapine?Wemayconjecturethatinolddaysthepriestwhoborethenameandplayed
thepartofAttisatthespringfestivalofCybelewasregularlyhangedorotherwiseslainuponthesacred
tree,andthatthisbarbarouscustomwasafterwardsmitigatedintotheforminwhichitisknowntousin
latertimes,whenthepriestmerelydrewbloodfromhisbodyunderthetreeandattachedaneffigy
insteadofhimselftoitstrunk.IntheholygroveatUpsalamenandanimalsweresacrificedbybeing
hangeduponthesacredtrees.ThehumanvictimsdedicatedtoOdinwereregularlyputtodeathby
hangingorbyacombinationofhangingandstabbing,themanbeingstrunguptoatreeoragallowsand
thenwoundedwithaspear.HenceOdinwascalledtheLordoftheGallowsortheGodoftheHanged,
andheisrepresentedsittingunderagallowstree.Indeedheissaidtohavebeensacrificedtohimselfin
theordinaryway,aswelearnfromtheweirdversesoftheHavamal,inwhichthegoddescribeshowhe
acquiredhisdivinepowerbylearningthemagicrunes:
IknowthatIhungonthewindytree
Forninewholenights,
Woundedwiththespear,dedicatedtoOdin,
Myselftomyself.
TheBagobosofMindanao,oneofthePhilippineIslands,usedannuallytosacrificehumanvictimsfor
thegoodofthecropsinasimilarway.EarlyinDecember,whentheconstellationOrionappearedat
sevenoclockintheevening,thepeopleknewthatthetimehadcometocleartheirfieldsforsowingand
tosacrificeaslave.Thesacrificewaspresentedtocertainpowerfulspiritsaspaymentforthegoodyear
whichthepeoplehadenjoyed,andtoensurethefavourofthespiritsforthecomingseason.Thevictim
wasledtoagreattreeintheforesttherehewastiedwithhisbacktothetreeandhisarmsstretchedhigh
abovehishead,intheattitudeinwhichancientartistsportrayedMarsyashangingonthefataltree.While
hethushungbythearms,hewasslainbyaspearthrustthroughhisbodyatthelevelofthearmpits.
Afterwardsthebodywascutcleanthroughthemiddleatthewaist,andtheupperpartwasapparently
allowedtodangleforalittlefromthetree,whiletheunderpartwallowedinbloodontheground.The
twoportionswerefinallycastintoashallowtrenchbesidethetree.Beforethiswasdone,anybodywho
wishedmightcutoffapieceoffleshoralockofhairfromthecorpseandcarryittothegraveofsome
relationwhosebodywasbeingconsumedbyaghoul.Attractedbythefreshcorpse,theghoulwould
leavethemoulderingoldbodyinpeace.Thesesacrificeshavebeenofferedbymennowliving.
InGreecethegreatgoddessArtemisherselfappearstohavebeenannuallyhangedineffigyinhersacred
groveofCondyleaamongtheArcadianhills,andthereaccordinglyshewentbythenameoftheHanged
One.IndeedatraceofasimilarritemayperhapsbedetectedevenatEphesus,themostfamousofher
sanctuaries,inthelegendofawomanwhohangedherselfandwasthereupondressedbythe

compassionategoddessinherowndivinegarbandcalledbythenameofHecate.Similarly,atMelitein
Phthia,astorywastoldofagirlnamedAspaliswhohangedherself,butwhoappearstohavebeen
merelyaformofArtemis.Forafterherdeathherbodycouldnotbefound,butanimageofherwas
discoveredstandingbesidetheimageofArtemis,andthepeoplebestowedonitthetitleofHecaergeor
Farshooter,oneoftheregularepithetsofthegoddess.Everyyearthevirginssacrificedayounggoatto
theimagebyhangingit,becauseAspaliswassaidtohavehangedherself.Thesacrificemayhavebeena
substituteforhanginganimageorahumanrepresentativeofArtemis.Again,inRhodesthefairHelen
wasworshippedunderthetitleofHelenoftheTree,becausethequeenoftheislandhadcausedher
handmaids,disguisedasFuries,tostringheruptoabough.ThattheAsiaticGreekssacrificedanimalsin
thisfashionisprovedbycoinsofIlium,whichrepresentanoxorcowhangingonatreeandstabbedwith
aknifebyaman,whositsamongthebranchesorontheanimalsback.AtHierapolisalsothevictims
werehungontreesbeforetheywereburnt.WiththeseGreekandScandinavianparallelsbeforeuswe
canhardlydismissaswhollyimprobabletheconjecturethatinPhrygiaamangodmayhavehungyear
byyearonthesacredbutfataltree.

XXXVII.OrientalReligionsintheWest
THEWORSHIPoftheGreatMotheroftheGodsandherloverorsonwasverypopularunderthe
RomanEmpire.Inscriptionsprovethatthetworeceiveddivinehonours,separatelyorconjointly,not
onlyinItaly,andespeciallyatRome,butalsointheprovinces,particularlyinAfrica,Spain,Portugal,
France,Germany,andBulgaria.TheirworshipsurvivedtheestablishmentofChristianitybyConstantine
forSymmachusrecordstherecurrenceofthefestivaloftheGreatMother,andinthedaysofAugustine
hereffeminatepriestsstillparadedthestreetsandsquaresofCarthagewithwhitenedfaces,scentedhair,
andmincinggait,while,likethemendicantfriarsoftheMiddleAges,theybeggedalmsfromthe
passersby.InGreece,ontheotherhand,thebloodyorgiesoftheAsiaticgoddessandherconsortappear
tohavefoundlittlefavour.Thebarbarousandcruelcharacteroftheworship,withitsfranticexcesses,
wasdoubtlessrepugnanttothegoodtasteandhumanityoftheGreeks,whoseemtohavepreferredthe
kindredbutgentlerritesofAdonis.YetthesamefeatureswhichshockedandrepelledtheGreeksmay
havepositivelyattractedthelessrefinedRomansandbarbariansoftheWest.Theecstaticfrenzies,which
weremistakenfordivineinspiration,themanglingofthebody,thetheoryofanewbirthandthe
remissionofsinsthroughthesheddingofblood,havealltheirorigininsavagery,andtheynaturally
appealedtopeoplesinwhomthesavageinstinctswerestillstrong.Theirtruecharacterwasindeedoften
disguisedunderadecentveilofallegoricalorphilosophicalinterpretation,whichprobablysufficedto
imposeupontheraptandenthusiasticworshippers,reconcilingeventhemorecultivatedofthemto
thingswhichotherwisemusthavefilledthemwithhorroranddisgust.
ThereligionoftheGreatMother,withitscuriousblendingofcrudesavagerywithspiritualaspirations,
wasonlyoneofamultitudeofsimilarOrientalfaithswhichinthelaterdaysofpaganismspreadoverthe
RomanEmpire,andbysaturatingtheEuropeanpeopleswithalienidealsoflifegraduallyundermined
thewholefabricofancientcivilisation.GreekandRomansocietywasbuiltontheconceptionofthe
subordinationoftheindividualtothecommunity,ofthecitizentothestateitsetthesafetyofthe
commonwealth,asthesupremeaimofconduct,abovethesafetyoftheindividualwhetherinthisworld
orintheworldtocome.Trainedfrominfancyinthisunselfishideal,thecitizensdevotedtheirlivesto
thepublicserviceandwerereadytolaythemdownforthecommongoodoriftheyshrankfromthe
supremesacrifice,itneveroccurredtothemthattheyactedotherwisethanbaselyinpreferringtheir
personalexistencetotheinterestsoftheircountry.AllthiswaschangedbythespreadofOriental
religionswhichinculcatedthecommunionofthesoulwithGodanditseternalsalvationastheonly
objectsworthlivingfor,objectsincomparisonwithwhichtheprosperityandeventheexistenceofthe
statesankintoinsignificance.Theinevitableresultofthisselfishandimmoraldoctrinewastowithdraw
thedevoteemoreandmorefromthepublicservice,toconcentratehisthoughtsonhisownspiritual

emotions,andtobreedinhimacontemptforthepresentlifewhichheregardedmerelyasaprobationfor
abetterandaneternal.Thesaintandtherecluse,disdainfulofearthandraptinecstaticcontemplationof
heaven,becameinpopularopinionthehighestidealofhumanity,displacingtheoldidealofthepatriot
andherowho,forgetfulofself,livesandisreadytodieforthegoodofhiscountry.Theearthlycity
seemedpoorandcontemptibletomenwhoseeyesbeheldtheCityofGodcominginthecloudsof
heaven.Thusthecentreofgravity,sotosay,wasshiftedfromthepresenttoafuturelife,andhowever
muchtheotherworldmayhavegained,therecanbelittledoubtthatthisonelostheavilybythechange.
Ageneraldisintegrationofthebodypoliticsetin.Thetiesofthestateandthefamilywereloosened:the
structureofsocietytendedtoresolveitselfintoitsindividualelementsandtherebytorelapseinto
barbarismforcivilisationisonlypossiblethroughtheactivecooperationofthecitizensandtheir
willingnesstosubordinatetheirprivateintereststothecommongood.Menrefusedtodefendtheir
countryandeventocontinuetheirkind.Intheiranxietytosavetheirownsoulsandthesoulsofothers,
theywerecontenttoleavethematerialworld,whichtheyidentifiedwiththeprincipleofevil,toperish
aroundthem.Thisobsessionlastedforathousandyears.TherevivalofRomanlaw,oftheAristotelian
philosophy,ofancientartandliteratureatthecloseoftheMiddleAges,markedthereturnofEuropeto
nativeidealsoflifeandconduct,tosaner,manlierviewsoftheworld.Thelonghaltinthemarchof
civilisationwasover.ThetideofOrientalinvasionhadturnedatlast.Itisebbingstill.
Amongthegodsofeasternoriginwhointhedeclineoftheancientworldcompetedagainsteachother
fortheallegianceoftheWestwastheoldPersiandeityMithra.Theimmensepopularityofhisworshipis
attestedbythemonumentsillustrativeofitwhichhavebeenfoundscatteredinprofusionalloverthe
RomanEmpire.InrespectbothofdoctrinesandofritesthecultofMithraappearstohavepresented
manypointsofresemblancenotonlytothereligionoftheMotheroftheGodsbutalsotoChristianity.
ThesimilaritystrucktheChristiandoctorsthemselvesandwasexplainedbythemasaworkofthedevil,
whosoughttoseducethesoulsofmenfromthetruefaithbyafalseandinsidiousimitationofit.Soto
theSpanishconquerorsofMexicoandPerumanyofthenativeheathenritesappearedtobediabolical
counterfeitsoftheChristiansacraments.Withmoreprobabilitythemodernstudentofcomparative
religiontracessuchresemblancestothesimilarandindependentworkingsofthemindofmaninhis
sincere,ifcrude,attemptstofathomthesecretoftheuniverse,andtoadjusthislittlelifetoitsawful
mysteries.Howeverthatmaybe,therecanbenodoubtthattheMithraicreligionprovedaformidable
rivaltoChristianity,combiningasitdidasolemnritualwithaspirationsaftermoralpurityandahopeof
immortality.Indeedtheissueoftheconflictbetweenthetwofaithsappearsforatimetohavehunginthe
balance.AninstructiverelicofthelongstruggleispreservedinourfestivalofChristmas,whichthe
Churchseemstohaveborroweddirectlyfromitsheathenrival.IntheJuliancalendarthetwentyfifthof
Decemberwasreckonedthewintersolstice,anditwasregardedastheNativityoftheSun,becausethe
daybeginstolengthenandthepowerofthesuntoincreasefromthatturningpointoftheyear.Theritual
ofthenativity,asitappearstohavebeencelebratedinSyriaandEgypt,wasremarkable.Thecelebrants
retiredintocertaininnershrines,fromwhichatmidnighttheyissuedwithaloudcry,TheVirginhas
broughtforth!Thelightiswaxing!TheEgyptiansevenrepresentedthenewbornsunbytheimageof
aninfantwhichonhisbirthday,thewintersolstice,theybroughtforthandexhibitedtohisworshippers.
NodoubttheVirginwhothusconceivedandboreasononthetwentyfifthofDecemberwasthegreat
OrientalgoddesswhomtheSemitescalledtheHeavenlyVirginorsimplytheHeavenlyGoddessin
SemiticlandsshewasaformofAstarte.NowMithrawasregularlyidentifiedbyhisworshipperswith
theSun,theUnconqueredSun,astheycalledhimhencehisnativityalsofellonthetwentyfifthof
December.TheGospelssaynothingastothedayofChristsbirth,andaccordinglytheearlyChurchdid
notcelebrateit.Intime,however,theChristiansofEgyptcametoregardthesixthofJanuaryasthedate
oftheNativity,andthecustomofcommemoratingthebirthoftheSaviouronthatdaygraduallyspread
untilbythefourthcenturyitwasuniversallyestablishedintheEast.Butattheendofthethirdorthe
beginningofthefourthcenturytheWesternChurch,whichhadneverrecognisedthesixthofJanuaryas
thedayoftheNativity,adoptedthetwentyfifthofDecemberasthetruedate,andintimeitsdecision
wasacceptedalsobytheEasternChurch.AtAntiochthechangewasnotintroducedtillabouttheyear

375A.D.
WhatconsiderationsledtheecclesiasticalauthoritiestoinstitutethefestivalofChristmas?Themotives
fortheinnovationarestatedwithgreatfranknessbyaSyrianwriter,himselfaChristian.Thereason,
hetellsus,whythefatherstransferredthecelebrationofthesixthofJanuarytothetwentyfifthof
Decemberwasthis.ItwasacustomoftheheathentocelebrateonthesametwentyfifthofDecemberthe
birthdayoftheSun,atwhichtheykindledlightsintokenoffestivity.Inthesesolemnitiesandfestivities
theChristiansalsotookpart.AccordinglywhenthedoctorsoftheChurchperceivedthattheChristians
hadaleaningtothisfestival,theytookcounselandresolvedthatthetrueNativityshouldbesolemnised
onthatdayandthefestivaloftheEpiphanyonthesixthofJanuary.Accordingly,alongwiththiscustom,
thepracticehasprevailedofkindlingfirestillthesixth.TheheathenoriginofChristmasisplainly
hintedat,ifnottacitlyadmitted,byAugustinewhenheexhortshisChristianbrethrennottocelebrate
thatsolemndayliketheheathenonaccountofthesun,butonaccountofhimwhomadethesun.Inlike
mannerLeotheGreatrebukedthepestilentbeliefthatChristmaswassolemnisedbecauseofthebirthof
thenewsun,asitwascalled,andnotbecauseofthenativityofChrist.
ThusitappearsthattheChristianChurchchosetocelebratethebirthdayofitsFounderonthetwenty
fifthofDecemberinordertotransferthedevotionoftheheathenfromtheSuntohimwhowascalledthe
SunofRighteousness.Ifthatwasso,therecanbenointrinsicimprobabilityintheconjecturethat
motivesofthesamesortmayhaveledtheecclesiasticalauthoritiestoassimilatetheEasterfestivalofthe
deathandresurrectionoftheirLordtothefestivalofthedeathandresurrectionofanotherAsiaticgod
whichfellatthesameseason.NowtheEasterritesstillobservedinGreece,Sicily,andSouthernItaly
bearinsomerespectsastrikingresemblancetotheritesofAdonis,andIhavesuggestedthattheChurch
mayhaveconsciouslyadaptedthenewfestivaltoitsheathenpredecessorforthesakeofwinningsoulsto
Christ.ButthisadaptationprobablytookplaceintheGreekspeakingratherthanintheLatinspeaking
partsoftheancientworldfortheworshipofAdonis,whileitflourishedamongtheGreeks,appearsto
havemadelittleimpressiononRomeandtheWest.CertainlyitneverformedpartoftheofficialRoman
religion.Theplacewhichitmighthavetakenintheaffectionsofthevulgarwasalreadyoccupiedbythe
similarbutmorebarbarousworshipofAttisandtheGreatMother.Nowthedeathandresurrectionof
AttiswereofficiallycelebratedatRomeonthetwentyfourthandtwentyfifthofMarch,thelatterbeing
regardedasthespringequinox,andthereforeasthemostappropriatedayfortherevivalofagodof
vegetationwhohadbeendeadorsleepingthroughoutthewinter.Butaccordingtoanancientand
widespreadtraditionChristsufferedonthetwentyfifthofMarch,andaccordinglysomeChristians
regularlycelebratedtheCrucifixiononthatdaywithoutanyregardtothestateofthemoon.Thiscustom
wascertainlyobservedinPhrygia,Cappadocia,andGaul,andthereseemtobegroundsforthinkingthat
atonetimeitwasfollowedalsoinRome.ThusthetraditionwhichplacedthedeathofChristonthe
twentyfifthofMarchwasancientanddeeplyrooted.Itisallthemoreremarkablebecauseastronomical
considerationsprovethatitcanhavehadnohistoricalfoundation.Theinferenceappearstobeinevitable
thatthepassionofChristmusthavebeenarbitrarilyreferredtothatdateinordertoharmonisewithan
olderfestivalofthespringequinox.ThisistheviewofthelearnedecclesiasticalhistorianMgr.
Duchesne,whopointsoutthatthedeathoftheSaviourwasthusmadetofallupontheverydayon
which,accordingtoawidespreadbelief,theworldhadbeencreated.ButtheresurrectionofAttis,who
combinedinhimselfthecharactersofthedivineFatherandthedivineSon,wasofficiallycelebratedat
Romeonthesameday.WhenwerememberthatthefestivalofSt.GeorgeinAprilhasreplacedthe
ancientpaganfestivalofthePariliathatthefestivalofSt.JohntheBaptistinJunehassucceededtoa
heathenmidsummerfestivalofwater:thatthefestivaloftheAssumptionoftheVirgininAugusthas
oustedthefestivalofDianathatthefeastofAllSoulsinNovemberisacontinuationofanoldheathen
feastofthedeadandthattheNativityofChristhimselfwasassignedtothewintersolsticeinDecember
becausethatdaywasdeemedtheNativityoftheSunwecanhardlybethoughtrashorunreasonablein
conjecturingthattheothercardinalfestivaloftheChristianchurchthesolemnisationofEastermay
havebeeninlikemanner,andfromlikemotivesofedification,adaptedtoasimilarcelebrationofthe

PhrygiangodAttisatthevernalequinox.
Atleastitisaremarkablecoincidence,ifitisnothingmore,thattheChristianandtheheathenfestivalsof
thedivinedeathandresurrectionshouldhavebeensolemnisedatthesameseasonandinthesameplaces.
FortheplaceswhichcelebratedthedeathofChristatthespringequinoxwerePhrygia,Gaul,and
apparentlyRome,thatis,theveryregionsinwhichtheworshipofAttiseitheroriginatedorstruck
deepestroot.Itisdifficulttoregardthecoincidenceaspurelyaccidental.Ifthevernalequinox,the
seasonatwhichinthetemperateregionsthewholefaceofnaturetestifiestoafreshoutburstofvital
energy,hadbeenviewedfromofoldasthetimewhentheworldwasannuallycreatedafreshinthe
resurrectionofagod,nothingcouldbemorenaturalthantoplacetheresurrectionofthenewdeityatthe
samecardinalpointoftheyear.OnlyitistobeobservedthatifthedeathofChristwasdatedonthe
twentyfifthofMarch,hisresurrection,accordingtoChristiantradition,musthavehappenedonthe
twentyseventhofMarch,whichisjusttwodayslaterthanthevernalequinoxoftheJuliancalendarand
theresurrectionofAttis.AsimilardisplacementoftwodaysintheadjustmentofChristiantoheathen
celebrationsoccursinthefestivalsofSt.GeorgeandtheAssumptionoftheVirgin.However,another
Christiantradition,followedbyLactantiusandperhapsbythepracticeoftheChurchinGaul,placedthe
deathofChristonthetwentythirdandhisresurrectiononthetwentyfifthofMarch.Ifthatwasso,his
resurrectioncoincidedexactlywiththeresurrectionofAttis.
InpointoffactitappearsfromthetestimonyofananonymousChristian,whowroteinthefourthcentury
ofourera,thatChristiansandpagansalikewerestruckbytheremarkablecoincidencebetweenthedeath
andresurrectionoftheirrespectivedeities,andthatthecoincidenceformedathemeofbittercontroversy
betweentheadherentsoftherivalreligions,thepaganscontendingthattheresurrectionofChristwasa
spuriousimitationoftheresurrectionofAttis,andtheChristiansassertingwithequalwarmththatthe
resurrectionofAttiswasadiabolicalcounterfeitoftheresurrectionofChrist.Intheseunseemly
bickeringstheheathentookwhattoasuperficialobservermightseemstronggroundbyarguingthattheir
godwastheolderandthereforepresumablytheoriginal,notthecounterfeit,sinceasageneralrulean
originalisolderthanitscopy.ThisfeebleargumenttheChristianseasilyrebutted.Theyadmitted,indeed,
thatinpointoftimeChristwasthejuniordeity,buttheytriumphantlydemonstratedhisrealseniorityby
fallingbackonthesubtletyofSatan,whoonsoimportantanoccasionhadsurpassedhimselfby
invertingtheusualorderofnature.
Takenaltogether,thecoincidencesoftheChristianwiththeheathenfestivalsaretoocloseandtoo
numeroustobeaccidental.TheymarkthecompromisewhichtheChurchinthehourofitstriumphwas
compelledtomakewithitsvanquishedyetstilldangerousrivals.TheinflexibleProtestantismofthe
primitivemissionaries,withtheirfierydenunciationsofheathendom,hadbeenexchangedforthesupple
policy,theeasytolerance,thecomprehensivecharityofshrewdecclesiastics,whoclearlyperceivedthat
ifChristianitywastoconquertheworlditcoulddosoonlybyrelaxingthetoorigidprinciplesofits
Founder,bywideningalittlethenarrowgatewhichleadstosalvation.Inthisrespectaninstructive
parallelmightbedrawnbetweenthehistoryofChristianityandthehistoryofBuddhism.Bothsystems
wereintheiroriginessentiallyethicalreformsbornofthegenerousardour,theloftyaspirations,the
tendercompassionoftheirnobleFounders,twoofthosebeautifulspiritswhoappearatrareintervalson
earthlikebeingscomefromabetterworldtosupportandguideourweakanderringnature.Both
preachedmoralvirtueasthemeansofaccomplishingwhattheyregardedasthesupremeobjectoflife,
theeternalsalvationoftheindividualsoul,thoughbyacuriousantithesistheonesoughtthatsalvationin
ablissfuleternity,theotherinafinalreleasefromsuffering,inannihilation.Buttheaustereidealsof
sanctitywhichtheyinculcatedweretoodeeplyopposednotonlytothefrailtiesbuttothenatural
instinctsofhumanityevertobecarriedoutinpracticebymorethanasmallnumberofdisciples,who
consistentlyrenouncedthetiesofthefamilyandthestateinordertoworkouttheirownsalvationinthe
stillseclusionofthecloister.Ifsuchfaithsweretobenominallyacceptedbywholenationsorevenby
theworld,itwasessentialthattheyshouldfirstbemodifiedortransformedsoastoaccordinsome

measurewiththeprejudices,thepassions,thesuperstitionsofthevulgar.Thisprocessofaccommodation
wascarriedoutinafteragesbyfollowerswho,madeoflessetherealstuffthantheirmasters,werefor
thatreasonthebetterfittedtomediatebetweenthemandthecommonherd.Thusastimewenton,the
tworeligions,inexactproportiontotheirgrowingpopularity,absorbedmoreandmoreofthosebaser
elementswhichtheyhadbeeninstitutedfortheverypurposeofsuppressing.Suchspiritualdecadences
areinevitable.Theworldcannotliveatthelevelofitsgreatmen.Yetitwouldbeunfairtothegenerality
ofourkindtoascribewhollytotheirintellectualandmoralweaknessthegradualdivergenceof
BuddhismandChristianityfromtheirprimitivepatterns.Foritshouldneverbeforgottenthatbytheir
glorificationofpovertyandcelibacyboththesereligionsstruckstraightattherootnotmerelyofcivil
societybutofhumanexistence.Theblowwasparriedbythewisdomorthefollyofthevastmajorityof
mankind,whorefusedtopurchaseachanceofsavingtheirsoulswiththecertaintyofextinguishingthe
species.

XXXVIII.TheMythofOsiris
INANCIENTEGYPTthegodwhosedeathandresurrectionwereannuallycelebratedwithalternate
sorrowandjoywasOsiris,themostpopularofallEgyptiandeitiesandtherearegoodgroundsfor
classinghiminoneofhisaspectswithAdonisandAttisasapersonificationofthegreatyearly
vicissitudesofnature,especiallyofthecorn.Buttheimmensevoguewhichheenjoyedformanyages
inducedhisdevotedworshipperstoheapuponhimtheattributesandpowersofmanyothergodssothat
itisnotalwayseasytostriphim,sotosay,ofhisborrowedplumesandtorestorethemtotheirproper
owners.
ThestoryofOsirisistoldinaconnectedformonlybyPlutarch,whosenarrativehasbeenconfirmedand
tosomeextentamplifiedinmoderntimesbytheevidenceofthemonuments.
OsiriswastheoffspringofanintriguebetweentheearthgodSeb(KeborGeb,asthenameissometimes
transliterated)andtheskygoddessNut.TheGreeksidentifiedhisparentswiththeirowndeitiesCronus
andRhea.WhenthesungodRaperceivedthathiswifeNuthadbeenunfaithfultohim,hedeclaredwith
acursethatsheshouldbedeliveredofthechildinnomonthandnoyear.Butthegoddesshadanother
lover,thegodThothorHermes,astheGreekscalledhim,andheplayingatdraughtswiththemoonwon
fromheraseventysecondpartofeveryday,andhavingcompoundedfivewholedaysoutoftheseparts
headdedthemtotheEgyptianyearofthreehundredandsixtydays.Thiswasthemythicaloriginofthe
fivesupplementarydayswhichtheEgyptiansannuallyinsertedattheendofeveryyearinorderto
establishaharmonybetweenlunarandsolartime.Onthesefivedays,regardedasoutsidetheyearof
twelvemonths,thecurseofthesungoddidnotrest,andaccordinglyOsiriswasbornonthefirstof
them.AthisnativityavoicerangoutproclaimingthattheLordofAllhadcomeintotheworld.Some
saythatacertainPamylesheardavoicefromthetempleatThebesbiddinghimannouncewithashout
thatagreatking,thebeneficentOsiris,wasborn.ButOsiriswasnottheonlychildofhismother.Onthe
secondofthesupplementarydaysshegavebirthtotheelderHorus,onthethirdtothegodSet,whomthe
GreekscalledTyphon,onthefourthtothegoddessIsis,andonthefifthtothegoddessNephthys.
AfterwardsSetmarriedhissisterNephthys,andOsirismarriedhissisterIsis.
Reigningasakingonearth,OsirisreclaimedtheEgyptiansfromsavagery,gavethemlaws,andtaught
themtoworshipthegods.BeforehistimetheEgyptianshadbeencannibals.ButIsis,thesisterandwife
ofOsiris,discoveredwheatandbarleygrowingwild,andOsirisintroducedthecultivationofthesegrains
amongsthispeople,whoforthwithabandonedcannibalismandtookkindlytoacorndiet.Moreover,
Osirisissaidtohavebeenthefirsttogatherfruitfromtrees,totrainthevinetopoles,andtotreadthe
grapes.Eagertocommunicatethesebeneficentdiscoveriestoallmankind,hecommittedthewhole
governmentofEgypttohiswifeIsis,andtravelledovertheworld,diffusingtheblessingsofcivilisation

andagriculturewhereverhewent.Incountrieswhereaharshclimateorniggardlysoilforbadethe
cultivationofthevine,hetaughttheinhabitantstoconsolethemselvesforthewantofwinebybrewing
beerfrombarley.Loadedwiththewealththathadbeenshowereduponhimbygratefulnations,he
returnedtoEgypt,andonaccountofthebenefitshehadconferredonmankindhewasunanimously
hailedandworshippedasadeity.ButhisbrotherSet(whomtheGreekscalledTyphon)withseventytwo
othersplottedagainsthim.Havingtakenthemeasureofhisgoodbrothersbodybystealth,thebad
brotherTyphonfashionedandhighlydecoratedacofferofthesamesize,andoncewhentheywereall
drinkingandmakingmerryhebroughtinthecofferandjestinglypromisedtogiveittotheonewhomit
shouldfitexactly.Well,theyalltriedoneaftertheother,butitfittednoneofthem.LastofallOsiris
steppedintoitandlaydown.Onthattheconspiratorsranandslammedtheliddownonhim,nailedit
fast,soldereditwithmoltenlead,andflungthecofferintotheNile.Thishappenedontheseventeenth
dayofthemonthAthyr,whenthesunisinthesignoftheScorpion,andintheeightandtwentiethyear
ofthereignorthelifeofOsiris.WhenIsisheardofitsheshearedoffalockofherhair,putona
mourningattire,andwandereddisconsolatelyupanddown,seekingthebody.
BytheadviceofthegodofwisdomshetookrefugeinthepapyrusswampsoftheDelta.Sevenscorpions
accompaniedherinherflight.Oneeveningwhenshewaswearyshecametothehouseofawoman,
who,alarmedatthesightofthescorpions,shutthedoorinherface.Thenoneofthescorpionscrept
underthedoorandstungthechildofthewomanthathedied.ButwhenIsisheardthemothers
lamentation,herheartwastouched,andshelaidherhandsonthechildandutteredherpowerfulspells
sothepoisonwasdrivenoutofthechildandhelived.AfterwardsIsisherselfgavebirthtoasoninthe
swamps.Shehadconceivedhimwhilesheflutteredintheformofahawkoverthecorpseofherdead
husband.TheinfantwastheyoungerHorus,whoinhisyouthborethenameofHarpocrates,thatis,the
childHorus.HimButo,thegoddessofthenorth,hidfromthewrathofhiswickeduncleSet.Yetshe
couldnotguardhimfromallmishapforonedaywhenIsiscametoherlittlesonshidingplaceshe
foundhimstretchedlifelessandrigidontheground:ascorpionhadstunghim.ThenIsisprayedtothe
sungodRaforhelp.Thegodhearkenedtoherandstaidhisbarkinthesky,andsentdownThothto
teachherthespellbywhichshemightrestorehersontolife.Sheutteredthewordsofpower,and
straightwaythepoisonflowedfromthebodyofHorus,airpassedintohim,andhelived.ThenThoth
ascendedupintotheskyandtookhisplaceoncemoreinthebarkofthesun,andthebrightpomppassed
onwardjubilant.
MeantimethecoffercontainingthebodyofOsirishadfloateddowntheriverandawayouttosea,tillat
lastitdriftedashoreatByblus,onthecoastofSyria.Hereafineericatreeshotupsuddenlyandenclosed
thechestinitstrunk.Thekingofthecountry,admiringthegrowthofthetree,haditcutdownandmade
intoapillarofhishousebuthedidnotknowthatthecofferwiththedeadOsiriswasinit.Wordofthis
cametoIsisandshejourneyedtoByblus,andsatdownbythewell,inhumbleguise,herfacewetwith
tears.Tononewouldshespeaktillthekingshandmaidenscame,andthemshegreetedkindly,and
braidedtheirhair,andbreathedonthemfromherowndivinebodyawondrousperfume.Butwhenthe
queenbeheldthebraidsofherhandmaidenshairandsmeltthesweetsmellthatemanatedfromthem,
shesentforthestrangerwomanandtookherintoherhouseandmadeherthenurseofherchild.ButIsis
gavethebabeherfingerinsteadofherbreasttosuck,andatnightshebegantoburnallthatwasmortal
ofhimaway,whilesheherselfinthelikenessofaswallowflutteredroundthepillarthatcontainedher
deadbrother,twitteringmournfully.Butthequeenspiedwhatshewasdoingandshriekedoutwhenshe
sawherchildinflames,andtherebyshehinderedhimfrombecomingimmortal.Thenthegoddess
revealedherselfandbeggedforthepillaroftheroof,andtheygaveither,andshecutthecofferoutofit,
andfelluponitandembraceditandlamentedsoloudthattheyoungerofthekingschildrendiedof
frightonthespot.Butthetrunkofthetreeshewrappedinfinelinen,andpouredointmentonit,andgave
ittothekingandqueen,andthewoodstandsinatempleofIsisandisworshippedbythepeopleof
Byblustothisday.AndIsisputthecofferinaboatandtooktheeldestofthekingschildrenwithherand
sailedaway.Assoonastheywerealone,sheopenedthechest,andlayingherfaceonthefaceofher

brothershekissedhimandwept.Butthechildcamebehindhersoftlyandsawwhatshewasabout,and
sheturnedandlookedathiminanger,andthechildcouldnotbearherlookanddiedbutsomesaythatit
wasnotso,butthathefellintotheseaandwasdrowned.ItishewhomtheEgyptianssingofattheir
banquetsunderthenameofManeros.
ButIsisputthecofferbyandwenttoseehersonHorusatthecityofButo,andTyphonfoundthecoffer
ashewashuntingaboaronenightbythelightofafullmoon.Andheknewthebody,andrentitinto
fourteenpieces,andscatteredthemabroad.ButIsissailedupanddownthemarshesinashallopmadeof
papyrus,lookingforthepiecesandthatiswhywhenpeoplesailinshallopsmadeofpapyrus,the
crocodilesdonothurtthem,fortheyfearorrespectthegoddess.Andthatisthereason,too,whythere
aremanygravesofOsirisinEgypt,forsheburiedeachlimbasshefoundit.Butotherswillhaveitthat
sheburiedanimageofhimineverycity,pretendingitwashisbody,inorderthatOsirismightbe
worshippedinmanyplaces,andthatifTyphonsearchedfortherealgravehemightnotbeabletofindit.
However,thegenitalmemberofOsirishadbeeneatenbythefishes,soIsismadeanimageofitinstead,
andtheimageisusedbytheEgyptiansattheirfestivalstothisday.Isis,writesthehistorianDiodorus
Siculus,recoveredallthepartsofthebodyexceptthegenitalsandbecauseshewishedthather
husbandsgraveshouldbeunknownandhonouredbyallwhodwellinthelandofEgypt,sheresortedto
thefollowingdevice.Shemouldedhumanimagesoutofwaxandspices,correspondingtothestatureof
Osiris,roundeachoneofthepartsofhisbody.Thenshecalledinthepriestsaccordingtotheirfamilies
andtookanoathofthemallthattheywouldrevealtonomanthetrustshewasabouttoreposeinthem.
Sotoeachofthemprivatelyshesaidthattothemalonesheentrustedtheburialofthebody,and
remindingthemofthebenefitstheyhadreceivedsheexhortedthemtoburythebodyintheirownland
andtohonourOsirisasagod.Shealsobesoughtthemtodedicateoneoftheanimalsoftheircountry,
whichevertheychose,andtohonouritinlifeastheyhadformerlyhonouredOsiris,andwhenitdiedto
grantitobsequieslikehis.Andbecauseshewouldencouragethepriestsintheirowninteresttobestow
theaforesaidhonours,shegavethemathirdpartofthelandtobeusedbythemintheserviceand
worshipofthegods.Accordinglyitissaidthatthepriests,mindfulofthebenefitsofOsiris,desirousof
gratifyingthequeen,andmovedbytheprospectofgain,carriedoutalltheinjunctionsofIsis.Wherefore
tothisdayeachofthepriestsimaginesthatOsirisisburiedinhiscountry,andtheyhonourthebeaststhat
wereconsecratedinthebeginning,andwhentheanimalsdiethepriestsrenewattheirburialthe
mourningforOsiris.Butthesacredbulls,theonecalledApisandtheotherMnevis,werededicatedto
Osiris,anditwasordainedthattheyshouldbeworshippedasgodsincommonbyalltheEgyptians,since
theseanimalsaboveallothershadhelpedthediscoverersofcorninsowingtheseedandprocuringthe
universalbenefitsofagriculture.
SuchisthemythorlegendofOsiris,astoldbyGreekwritersandekedoutbymoreorlessfragmentary
noticesorallusionsinnativeEgyptianliterature.AlonginscriptioninthetempleatDenderahhas
preservedalistofthegodsgraves,andothertextsmentionthepartsofhisbodywhichweretreasuredas
holyrelicsineachofthesanctuaries.ThushisheartwasatAthribis,hisbackboneatBusiris,hisneckat
Letopolis,andhisheadatMemphis.Asoftenhappensinsuchcases,someofhisdivinelimbswere
miraculouslymultiplied.Hishead,forexample,wasatAbydosaswellasatMemphis,andhislegs,
whichwereremarkablynumerous,wouldhavesufficedforseveralordinarymortals.Inthisrespect,
however,OsiriswasnothingtoSt.Denys,ofwhomnolessthansevenheads,allequallygenuine,are
extant.
AccordingtonativeEgyptianaccounts,whichsupplementthatofPlutarch,whenIsishadfoundthe
corpseofherhusbandOsiris,sheandhersisterNephthyssatdownbesideitandutteredalamentwhich
inafteragesbecamethetypeofallEgyptianlamentationsforthedead.Cometothyhouse,they
wailed.Cometothyhouse.OgodOn!cometothyhouse,thouwhohastnofoes.Ofairyouth,cometo
thyhouse,thatthoumayestseeme.Iamthysister,whomthoulovestthoushaltnotpartfromme.Ofair
boy,cometothyhouse.Iseetheenot,yetdothmyheartyearnaftertheeandmineeyesdesirethee.

Cometoherwholovesthee,wholovesthee,Unnefer,thoublessedone!Cometothysister,cometothy
wife,tothywife,thouwhoseheartstandsstill.Cometothyhousewife.Iamthysisterbythesame
mother,thoushaltnotbefarfromme.Godsandmenhaveturnedtheirfacestowardstheeandweepfor
theetogether.Icallaftertheeandweep,sothatmycryisheardtoheaven,butthouhearestnotmy
voiceyetamIthysister,whomthoudidstloveonearththoudidstlovenonebutme,mybrother!my
brother!ThislamentforthefairyouthcutoffinhisprimeremindsusofthelamentsforAdonis.The
titleofUnneferortheGoodBeingbestowedonhimmarksthebeneficencewhichtraditionuniversally
ascribedtoOsirisitwasatoncehiscommonesttitleandoneofhisnamesasking.
Thelamentationsofthetwosadsisterswerenotinvain.InpityforhersorrowthesungodRasentdown
fromheaventhejackalheadedgodAnubis,who,withtheaidofIsisandNephthys,ofThothandHorus,
piecedtogetherthebrokenbodyofthemurderedgod,swatheditinlinenbandages,andobservedallthe
otherriteswhichtheEgyptianswerewonttoperformoverthebodiesofthedeparted.ThenIsisfanned
thecoldclaywithherwings:Osirisrevived,andthenceforthreignedaskingoverthedeadintheother
world.ThereheborethetitlesofLordoftheUnderworld,LordofEternity,RuleroftheDead.There,
too,inthegreatHalloftheTwoTruths,assistedbyfortytwoassessors,onefromeachoftheprincipal
districtsofEgypt,hepresidedasjudgeatthetrialofthesoulsofthedeparted,whomadetheirsolemn
confessionbeforehim,and,theirhearthavingbeenweighedinthebalanceofjustice,receivedthereward
ofvirtueinalifeeternalortheappropriatepunishmentoftheirsins.
IntheresurrectionofOsiristheEgyptianssawthepledgeofalifeeverlastingforthemselvesbeyondthe
grave.Theybelievedthateverymanwouldliveeternallyintheotherworldifonlyhissurvivingfriends
didforhisbodywhatthegodshaddoneforthebodyofOsiris.Hencetheceremoniesobservedbythe
EgyptiansoverthehumandeadwereanexactcopyofthosewhichAnubis,Horus,andtheresthad
performedoverthedeadgod.Ateveryburialtherewasenactedarepresentationofthedivinemystery
whichhadbeenperformedofoldoverOsiris,whenhisson,hissisters,hisfriendsweregatheredround
hismangledremainsandsucceededbytheirspellsandmanipulationsinconvertinghisbrokenbodyinto
thefirstmummy,whichtheyafterwardsreanimatedandfurnishedwiththemeansofenteringonanew
individuallifebeyondthegrave.ThemummyofthedeceasedwasOsiristheprofessionalfemale
mournerswerehistwosistersIsisandNephthysAnubis,Horus,allthegodsoftheOsirianlegend
gatheredaboutthecorpse.InthiswayeverydeadEgyptianwasidentifiedwithOsirisandborehis
name.FromtheMiddleKingdomonwardsitwastheregularpracticetoaddressthedeceasedasOsiris
SoandSo,asifhewerethegodhimself,andtoaddthestandingepithettrueofspeech,becausetrue
speechwascharacteristicofOsiris.Thethousandsofinscribedandpicturedtombsthathavebeenopened
inthevalleyoftheNileprovethatthemysteryoftheresurrectionwasperformedforthebenefitofevery
deadEgyptianasOsirisdiedandroseagainfromthedead,soallmenhopedtoariselikehimfromdeath
tolifeeternal.
ThusaccordingtowhatseemstohavebeenthegeneralnativetraditionOsiriswasagoodandbeloved
kingofEgypt,whosufferedaviolentdeathbutrosefromthedeadandwashenceforthworshippedasa
deity.Inharmonywiththistraditionhewasregularlyrepresentedbysculptorsandpaintersinhumanand
regalformasadeadking,swathedinthewrappingsofamummy,butwearingonhisheadakingly
crownandgraspinginoneofhishands,whichwereleftfreefromthebandages,akinglysceptre.Two
citiesaboveallotherswereassociatedwithhismythormemory.OneofthemwasBusirisinLower
Egypt,whichclaimedtopossesshisbackbonetheotherwasAbydosinUpperEgypt,whichgloriedin
thepossessionofhishead.Encircledbythenimbusofthedeadyetlivinggod,Abydos,originallyan
obscureplace,becamefromtheendoftheOldKingdomtheholiestspotinEgypthistombtherewould
seemtohavebeentotheEgyptianswhattheChurchoftheHolySepulchreatJerusalemistoChristians.
Itwasthewishofeverypiousmanthathisdeadbodyshouldrestinhallowedearthnearthegraveofthe
glorifiedOsiris.Fewindeedwererichenoughtoenjoythisinestimableprivilegefor,apartfromthecost
ofatombinthesacredcity,themeretransportofmummiesfromgreatdistanceswasbothdifficultand

expensive.Yetsoeagerweremanytoabsorbindeaththeblessedinfluencewhichradiatedfromtheholy
sepulchrethattheycausedtheirsurvivingfriendstoconveytheirmortalremainstoAbydos,theretotarry
forashorttime,andthentobebroughtbackbyriverandinterredinthetombswhichhadbeenmade
readyforthemintheirnativeland.Othershadcenotaphsbuiltormemorialtabletserectedforthemselves
nearthetomboftheirdeadandrisenLord,thattheymightsharewithhimtheblissofajoyful
resurrection.

XXXIX.TheRitualofOsiris
1.ThePopularRites
AUSEFULcluetotheoriginalnatureofagodorgoddessisoftenfurnishedbytheseasonatwhichhis
orherfestivaliscelebrated.Thus,ifthefestivalfallsattheneworthefullmoon,thereisacertain
presumptionthatthedeitythushonouredeitheristhemoonoratleasthaslunaraffinities.Ifthefestival
isheldatthewinterorsummersolstice,wenaturallysurmisethatthegodisthesun,oratalleventsthat
hestandsinsomecloserelationtothatluminary.Again,ifthefestivalcoincideswiththetimeofsowing
orharvest,weareinclinedtoinferthatthedivinityisanembodimentoftheearthorofthecorn.These
presumptionsorinferences,takenbythemselves,arebynomeansconclusivebutiftheyhappentobe
confirmedbyotherindications,theevidencemayberegardedasfairlystrong.
Unfortunately,indealingwiththeEgyptiangodsweareinagreatmeasureprecludedfrommakinguse
ofthisclue.Thereasonisnotthatthedatesofthefestivalsarealwaysunknown,butthattheyshifted
fromyeartoyear,untilafteralongintervaltheyhadrevolvedthroughthewholecourseoftheseasons.
ThisgradualrevolutionofthefestalEgyptiancycleresultedfromtheemploymentofacalendaryear
whichneithercorrespondedexactlytothesolaryearnorwasperiodicallycorrectedbyintercalation.
IftheEgyptianfarmeroftheoldentimecouldgetnohelp,exceptattherarestintervals,fromtheofficial
orsacerdotalcalendar,hemusthavebeencompelledtoobserveforhimselfthosenaturalsignalswhich
markedthetimesforthevariousoperationsofhusbandry.Inallagesofwhichwepossessanyrecordsthe
Egyptianshavebeenanagriculturalpeople,dependentfortheirsubsistenceonthegrowthofthecorn.
Thecerealswhichtheycultivatedwerewheat,barley,andapparentlysorghum(Holcussorghum,
Linnaeus),thedooraofthemodernfellaheen.Thenasnowthewholecountry,withtheexceptionofa
fringeonthecoastoftheMediterranean,wasalmostrainless,andoweditsimmensefertilityentirelyto
theannualinundationoftheNile,which,regulatedbyanelaboratesystemofdamsandcanals,was
distributedoverthefields,renewingthesoilyearbyyearwithafreshdepositofmudwasheddownfrom
thegreatequatoriallakesandthemountainsofAbyssinia.Hencetheriseoftheriverhasalwaysbeen
watchedbytheinhabitantswiththeutmostanxietyforifiteitherfallsshortoforexceedsacertain
height,dearthandfaminearetheinevitableconsequences.ThewaterbeginstoriseearlyinJune,butitis
notuntilthelatterhalfofJulythatitswellstoamightytide.BytheendofSeptembertheinundationisat
itsgreatestheight.Thecountryisnowsubmerged,andpresentstheappearanceofaseaofturbidwater,
fromwhichthetownsandvillages,builtonhigherground,riselikeislands.Foraboutamonththeflood
remainsnearlystationary,thensinksmoreandmorerapidly,tillbyDecemberorJanuarytheriverhas
returnedtoitsordinarybed.Withtheapproachofsummerthelevelofthewatercontinuestofall.Inthe
earlydaysofJunetheNileisreducedtohalfitsordinarybreadthandEgypt,scorchedbythesun,blasted
bythewindthathasblownfromtheSaharaformanydays,seemsamerecontinuationofthedesert.The
treesarechokedwithathicklayerofgreydust.Afewmeagrepatchesofvegetables,wateredwith
difficulty,strugglepainfullyforexistenceintheimmediateneighbourhoodofthevillages.Some
appearanceofverdurelingersbesidethecanalsandinthehollowsfromwhichthemoisturehasnot
whollyevaporated.Theplainappearstopantinthepitilesssunshine,bare,dusty,ashcoloured,cracked
andseamedasfarastheeyecanseewithanetworkoffissures.FromthemiddleofApriltillthemiddle

ofJunethelandofEgyptisbuthalfalive,waitingforthenewNile.
ForcountlessagesthiscycleofnaturaleventshasdeterminedtheannuallaboursoftheEgyptian
husbandman.Thefirstworkoftheagriculturalyearisthecuttingofthedamswhichhavehitherto
preventedtheswollenriverfromfloodingthecanalsandthefields.Thisisdone,andthepentupwaters
releasedontheirbeneficentmission,inthefirsthalfofAugust.InNovember,whentheinundationhas
subsided,wheat,barley,andsorghumaresown.Thetimeofharvestvarieswiththedistrict,fallingabout
amonthlaterinthenorththaninthesouth.InUpperorSouthernEgyptbarleyisreapedatthebeginning
ofMarch,wheatatthebeginningofApril,andsorghumabouttheendofthatmonth.
ItisnaturaltosupposethatthevariouseventsoftheagriculturalyearwerecelebratedbytheEgyptian
farmerwithsomesimplereligiousritesdesignedtosecuretheblessingofthegodsuponhislabours.
Theserusticceremonieshewouldcontinuetoperformyearafteryearatthesameseason,whilethe
solemnfestivalsofthepriestscontinuedtoshift,withtheshiftingcalendar,fromsummerthroughspring
towinter,andsobackwardthroughautumntosummer.Theritesofthehusbandmanwerestablebecause
theyrestedondirectobservationofnature:theritesofthepriestwereunstablebecausetheywerebased
onafalsecalculation.Yetmanyofthepriestlyfestivalsmayhavebeennothingbuttheoldruralfestivals
disguisedinthecourseofagesbythepompofsacerdotalismandsevered,bytheerrorofthecalendar,
fromtheirrootsinthenaturalcycleoftheseasons.
TheseconjecturesareconfirmedbythelittleweknowbothofthepopularandoftheofficialEgyptian
religion.ThuswearetoldthattheEgyptiansheldafestivalofIsisatthetimewhentheNilebegantorise.
TheybelievedthatthegoddesswasthenmourningforthelostOsiris,andthatthetearswhichdropped
fromhereyesswelledtheimpetuoustideoftheriver.NowifOsiriswasinoneofhisaspectsagodofthe
corn,nothingcouldbemorenaturalthanthatheshouldbemournedatmidsummer.Forbythattimethe
harvestwaspast,thefieldswerebare,theriverranlow,lifeseemedtobesuspended,thecorngodwas
dead.Atsuchamomentpeoplewhosawthehandiworkofdivinebeingsinalltheoperationsofnature
mightwelltracetheswellingofthesacredstreamtothetearsshedbythegoddessatthedeathofthe
beneficentcorngodherhusband.
Andthesignoftherisingwatersonearthwasaccompaniedbyasigninheaven.Forintheearlydaysof
Egyptianhistory,somethreeorfourthousandyearsbeforethebeginningofourera,thesplendidstarof
Sirius,thebrightestofallthefixedstars,appearedatdawnintheeastjustbeforesunriseaboutthetime
ofthesummersolstice,whentheNilebeginstorise.TheEgyptianscalleditSothis,andregardeditasthe
starofIsis,justastheBabyloniansdeemedtheplanetVenusthestarofAstarte.Tobothpeoples
apparentlythebrilliantluminaryinthemorningskyseemedthegoddessoflifeandlovecometomourn
herdepartedloverorspouseandtowakehimfromthedead.HencetherisingofSiriusmarkedthe
beginningofthesacredEgyptianyear,andwasregularlycelebratedbyafestivalwhichdidnotshiftwith
theshiftingofficialyear.
Thecuttingofthedamsandtheadmissionofthewaterintothecanalsandfieldsisagreateventinthe
Egyptianyear.AtCairotheoperationgenerallytakesplacebetweenthesixthandthesixteenthof
August,andtilllatelywasattendedbyceremonieswhichdeservetobenoticed,becausetheywere
probablyhandeddownfromantiquity.Anancientcanal,knownbythenameoftheKhalj,formerly
passedthroughthenativetownofCairo.Nearitsentrancethecanalwascrossedbyadamofearth,very
broadatthebottomanddiminishinginbreadthupwards,whichusedtobeconstructedbeforeorsoon
aftertheNilebegantorise.Infrontofthedam,onthesideoftheriver,wasrearedatruncatedconeof
earthcalledthearoosehorbride,onthetopofwhichalittlemaizeormilletwasgenerallysown.This
bridewascommonlywasheddownbytherisingtideaweekorafortnightbeforethecuttingofthe
dam.Traditionrunsthattheoldcustomwastodeckayoungvirginingayapparelandthrowherintothe
riverasasacrificetoobtainaplentifulinundation.Whetherthatwassoornot,theintentionofthe

practiceappearstohavebeentomarrytheriver,conceivedasamalepower,tohisbridethecornland,
whichwassosoontobefertilisedbyhiswater.Theceremonywasthereforeacharmtoensurethe
growthofthecrops.Inmoderntimesmoneyusedtobethrownintothecanalonthisoccasion,andthe
populacedivedintothewaterafterit.Thispracticealsowouldseemtohavebeenancient,forSeneca
tellsusthatataplacecalledtheVeinsoftheNile,notfarfromPhilae,thepriestsusedtocastmoneyand
offeringsofgoldintotheriveratafestivalwhichapparentlytookplaceattherisingofthewater.
ThenextgreatoperationoftheagriculturalyearinEgyptisthesowingoftheseedinNovember,when
thewateroftheinundationhasretreatedfromthefields.WiththeEgyptians,aswithmanypeoplesof
antiquity,thecommittingoftheseedtotheearthassumedthecharacterofasolemnandmournfulrite.
OnthissubjectIwillletPlutarchspeakforhimself.What,heasks,arewetomakeofthegloomy,
joyless,andmournfulsacrifices,ifitiswrongeithertoomittheestablishedritesortoconfuseand
disturbourconceptionsofthegodsbyabsurdsuspicions?FortheGreeksalsoperformmanyriteswhich
resemblethoseoftheEgyptiansandareobservedaboutthesametime.Thusatthefestivalofthe
ThesmophoriainAthenswomensitonthegroundandfast.AndtheBoeotiansopenthevaultsofthe
SorrowfulOne,namingthatfestivalsorrowfulbecauseDemeterissorrowingforthedescentofthe
Maiden.ThemonthisthemonthofsowingaboutthesettingofthePleiades.TheEgyptianscallitAthyr,
theAtheniansPyanepsion,theBoeotiansthemonthofDemeter.Foritwasthattimeofyearwhen
theysawsomeofthefruitsvanishingandfailingfromthetrees,whiletheysowedothersgrudginglyand
withdifficulty,scrapingtheearthwiththeirhandsandhuddlingitupagain,ontheuncertainchancethat
whattheydepositedinthegroundwouldeverripenandcometomaturity.Thustheydidinmany
respectslikethosewhoburyandmourntheirdead.
TheEgyptianharvest,aswehaveseen,fallsnotinautumnbutinspring,inthemonthsofMarch,April,
andMay.Tothehusbandmanthetimeofharvest,atleastinagoodyear,mustnecessarilybeaseasonof
joy:inbringinghomehissheavesheisrequitedforhislongandanxiouslabours.YetiftheoldEgyptian
farmerfeltasecretjoyatreapingandgarneringthegrain,itwasessentialthatheshouldconcealthe
naturalemotionunderanairofprofounddejection.Forwashenotseveringthebodyofthecorngod
withhissickleandtramplingittopiecesunderthehoofsofhiscattleonthethreshingfloor?Accordingly
wearetoldthatitwasanancientcustomoftheEgyptiancornreaperstobeattheirbreastsandlament
overthefirstsheafcut,whileatthesametimetheycalleduponIsis.Theinvocationseemstohavetaken
theformofamelancholychant,towhichtheGreeksgavethenameofManeros.Similarplaintivestrains
werechantedbycornreapersinPhoeniciaandotherpartsofWesternAsia.Probablyallthesedoleful
dittieswerelamentationsforthecorngodkilledbythesicklesofthereapers.InEgypttheslaindeitywas
Osiris,andthenameManeros,appliedtothedirge,appearstobederivedfromcertainwordsmeaning
Cometothyhouse,whichoftenoccurinthelamentationsforthedeadgod.
Ceremoniesofthesamesorthavebeenobservedbyotherpeoples,probablyforthesamepurpose.Thus
wearetoldthatamongallvegetablescorn,bywhichisapparentlymeantmaize,holdsthefirstplacein
thehouseholdeconomyandtheceremonialobservanceoftheCherokeeIndians,whoinvokeitunderthe
nameoftheOldWomaninallusiontoamyththatitsprangfromthebloodofanoldwomankilledby
herdisobedientsons.Afterthelastworkingofthecropapriestandhisassistantwentintothefieldand
sangsongsofinvocationtothespiritofthecorn.Afterthataloudrustlingwouldbeheard,whichwas
thoughttobecausedbytheOldWomanbringingthecornintothefield.Acleantrailwasalwayskept
fromthefieldtothehouse,sothatthecornmightbeencouragedtostayathomeandnotgowandering
elsewhere.Anothercuriousceremony,ofwhicheventhememoryisnowalmostforgotten,was
enactedafterthefirstworkingofthecorn,whentheownerorprieststoodinsuccessionateachofthe
fourcornersofthefieldandweptandwailedloudly.Eventhepriestsarenowunabletogiveareasonfor
thisperformance,whichmayhavebeenalamentforthebloodydeathofSelu,theOldWomanofthe
Corn.IntheseCherokeepracticesthelamentationsandtheinvocationsoftheOldWomanoftheCorn
resembletheancientEgyptiancustomsoflamentingoverthefirstcorncutandcallinguponIsis,herself

probablyinoneofheraspectsanOldWomanoftheCorn.Further,theCherokeeprecautionofleavinga
clearpathfromthefieldtothehouseresemblestheEgyptianinvitationtoOsiris,Cometothyhouse.
SointheEastIndiestothisdaypeopleobserveelaborateceremoniesforthepurposeofbringingbackthe
SouloftheRicefromthefieldstothebarn.TheNandiofEastAfricaperformaceremonyinSeptember
whentheeleusinegrainisripening.Everywomanwhoownsaplantationgoesoutwithherdaughters
intothecornfieldsandmakesabonfireofthebranchesandleavesofcertaintrees.Afterthattheypluck
someoftheeleusine,andeachofthemputsonegraininhernecklace,chewsanotherandrubsitonher
forehead,throat,andbreast.Nojoyisshownbythewomenfolkonthisoccasion,andtheysorrowfully
cutabasketfulofthecornwhichtheytakehomewiththemandplaceinthelofttodry.
Theconceptionofthecornspiritasoldanddeadatharvestisveryclearlyembodiedinacustom
observedbytheArabsofMoab.Whentheharvestershavenearlyfinishedtheirtaskandonlyasmall
cornerofthefieldremainstobereaped,theownertakesahandfulofwheattiedupinasheaf.Aholeis
dugintheformofagrave,andtwostonesaresetupright,oneattheheadandtheotheratthefoot,justas
inanordinaryburial.Thenthesheafofwheatislaidatthebottomofthegrave,andthesheikh
pronouncesthesewords,Theoldmanisdead.Earthisafterwardsthrownintocoverthesheaf,witha
prayer,MayAllahbringusbackthewheatofthedead.
2.TheOfficialRites
SUCH,then,weretheprincipaleventsofthefarmerscalendarinancientEgypt,andsuchthesimple
religiousritesbywhichhecelebratedthem.ButwehavestilltoconsidertheOsirianfestivalsofthe
officialcalendar,sofarasthesearedescribedbyGreekwritersorrecordedonthemonuments.In
examiningthemitisnecessarytobearinmindthatonaccountofthemovableyearoftheoldEgyptian
calendarthetrueorastronomicaldatesoftheofficialfestivalsmusthavevariedfromyeartoyear,atleast
untiltheadoptionofthefixedAlexandrianyearin30B.C.Fromthattimeonward,apparently,thedates
ofthefestivalsweredeterminedbythenewcalendar,andsoceasedtorotatethroughoutthelengthofthe
solaryear.AtalleventsPlutarch,writingabouttheendofthefirstcentury,impliesthattheywerethen
fixed,notmovableforthoughhedoesnotmentiontheAlexandriancalendar,heclearlydatesthe
festivalsbyit.Moreover,thelongfestalcalendarofEsne,animportantdocumentoftheImperialage,is
obviouslybasedonthefixedAlexandrianyearforitassignsthemarkforNewYearsDaytotheday
whichcorrespondstothetwentyninthofAugust,whichwasthefirstdayoftheAlexandrianyear,andits
referencestotherisingoftheNile,thepositionofthesun,andtheoperationsofagricultureareallin
harmonywiththissupposition.Thuswemaytakeitasfairlycertainthatfrom30B.C.onwardsthe
Egyptianfestivalswerestationaryinthesolaryear.
HerodotustellsusthatthegraveofOsiriswasatSaisinLowerEgypt,andthattherewasalakethere
uponwhichthesufferingsofthegodweredisplayedasamysterybynight.Thiscommemorationofthe
divinepassionwasheldonceayear:thepeoplemournedandbeattheirbreastsatittotestifytheirsorrow
forthedeathofthegodandanimageofacow,madeofgiltwoodwithagoldensunbetweenitshorns,
wascarriedoutofthechamberinwhichitstoodtherestoftheyear.ThecownodoubtrepresentedIsis
herself,forcowsweresacredtoher,andshewasregularlydepictedwiththehornsofacowonherhead,
orevenasawomanwiththeheadofacow.Itisprobablethatthecarryingoutofhercowshapedimage
symbolisedthegoddesssearchingforthedeadbodyofOsirisforthiswasthenativeEgyptian
interpretationofasimilarceremonyobservedinPlutarchstimeaboutthewintersolstice,whenthegilt
cowwascarriedseventimesroundthetemple.Agreatfeatureofthefestivalwasthenocturnal
illumination.Peoplefastenedrowsofoillampstotheoutsideoftheirhouses,andthelampsburnedall
nightlong.ThecustomwasnotconfinedtoSais,butwasobservedthroughoutthewholeofEgypt.
Thisuniversalilluminationofthehousesononenightoftheyearsuggeststhatthefestivalmayhave

beenacommemorationnotmerelyofthedeadOsirisbutofthedeadingeneral,inotherwords,thatit
mayhavebeenanightofAllSouls.Foritisawidespreadbeliefthatthesoulsofthedeadrevisittheirold
homesononenightoftheyearandonthatsolemnoccasionpeopleprepareforthereceptionofthe
ghostsbylayingoutfoodforthemtoeat,andlightinglampstoguidethemontheirdarkroadfromandto
thegrave.Herodotus,whobrieflydescribesthefestival,omitstomentionitsdate,butwecandetermine
itwithsomeprobabilityfromothersources.ThusPlutarchtellsusthatOsiriswasmurderedonthe
seventeenthofthemonthAthyr,andthattheEgyptiansaccordinglyobservedmournfulritesforfourdays
fromtheseventeenthofAthyr.NowintheAlexandriancalendar,whichPlutarchused,thesefourdays
correspondedtothethirteenth,fourteenth,fifteenth,andsixteenthofNovember,andthisdateanswers
exactlytotheotherindicationsgivenbyPlutarch,whosaysthatatthetimeofthefestivaltheNilewas
sinking,thenorthwindsdyingaway,thenightslengthening,andtheleavesfallingfromthetrees.During
thesefourdaysagiltcowswathedinablackpallwasexhibitedasanimageofIsis.This,nodoubt,was
theimagementionedbyHerodotusinhisaccountofthefestival.Onthenineteenthdayofthemonththe
peoplewentdowntothesea,thepriestscarryingashrinewhichcontainedagoldencasket.Intothis
caskettheypouredfreshwater,andthereuponthespectatorsraisedashoutthatOsiriswasfound.After
thattheytooksomevegetablemould,moisteneditwithwater,mixeditwithpreciousspicesandincense,
andmouldedthepasteintoasmallmoonshapedimage,whichwasthenrobedandornamented.Thusit
appearsthatthepurposeoftheceremoniesdescribedbyPlutarchwastorepresentdramatically,first,the
searchforthedeadbodyofOsiris,and,second,itsjoyfuldiscovery,followedbytheresurrectionofthe
deadgodwhocametolifeagaininthenewimageofvegetablemouldandspices.Lactantiustellsushow
ontheseoccasionsthepriests,withtheirshavenbodies,beattheirbreastsandlamented,imitatingthe
sorrowfulsearchofIsisforherlostsonOsiris,andhowafterwardstheirsorrowwasturnedtojoywhen
thejackalheadedgodAnubis,orratheramummerinhisstead,producedasmallboy,theliving
representativeofthegodwhowaslostandwasfound.ThusLactantiusregardedOsirisasthesoninstead
ofthehusbandofIsis,andhemakesnomentionoftheimageofvegetablemould.Itisprobablethatthe
boywhofiguredinthesacreddramaplayedthepart,notofOsiris,butofhissonHorusbutasthedeath
andresurrectionofthegodwerecelebratedinmanycitiesofEgypt,itisalsopossiblethatinsomeplaces
thepartofthegodcometolifewasplayedbyalivingactorinsteadofbyanimage.AnotherChristian
writerdescribeshowtheEgyptians,withshornheads,annuallylamentedoveraburiedidolofOsiris,
smitingtheirbreasts,slashingtheirshoulders,rippingopentheiroldwounds,until,afterseveraldaysof
mourning,theyprofessedtofindthemangledremainsofthegod,atwhichtheyrejoiced.Howeverthe
detailsoftheceremonymayhavevariedindifferentplaces,thepretenceoffindingthegodsbody,and
probablyofrestoringittolife,wasagreateventinthefestalyearoftheEgyptians.Theshoutsofjoy
whichgreeteditaredescribedoralludedtobymanyancientwriters.
ThefuneralritesofOsiris,astheywereobservedathisgreatfestivalinthesixteenprovincesofEgypt,
aredescribedinalonginscriptionofthePtolemaicperiod,whichisengravedonthewallsofthegods
templeatDenderah,theTentyraoftheGreeks,atownofUpperEgyptsituatedonthewesternbankof
theNileaboutfortymilesnorthofThebes.Unfortunately,whiletheinformationthusfurnishedis
remarkablyfullandminuteonmanypoints,thearrangementadoptedintheinscriptionissoconfused
andtheexpressionoftensoobscurethataclearandconsistentaccountoftheceremoniesasawholecan
hardlybeextractedfromit.Moreover,welearnfromthedocumentthattheceremoniesvariedsomewhat
intheseveralcities,theritualofAbydos,forexample,differingfromthatofBusiris.Withoutattempting
totracealltheparticularitiesoflocalusageIshallbrieflyindicatewhatseemtohavebeentheleading
featuresofthefestival,sofarasthesecanbeascertainedwithtolerablecertainty.
Theriteslastedeighteendays,fromthetwelfthtothethirtiethofthemonthKhoiak,andsetforththe
natureofOsirisinhistripleaspectasdead,dismembered,andfinallyreconstitutedbytheunionofhis
scatteredlimbs.InthefirstoftheseaspectshewascalledChentAment(KhentiAmenti),inthesecond
OsirisSep,andinthethirdSokari(Seker).Smallimagesofthegodweremouldedofsandorvegetable
earthandcorn,towhichincensewassometimesaddedhisfacewaspaintedyellowandhischeekbones

green.Theseimageswerecastinamouldofpuregold,whichrepresentedthegodintheformofa
mummy,withthewhitecrownofEgyptonhishead.ThefestivalopenedonthetwelfthdayofKhoiak
withaceremonyofploughingandsowing.Twoblackcowswereyokedtotheplough,whichwasmade
oftamariskwood,whilethesharewasofblackcopper.Aboyscatteredtheseed.Oneendofthefield
wassownwithbarley,theotherwithspelt,andthemiddlewithflax.Duringtheoperationthechief
celebrantrecitedtheritualchapterofthesowingofthefields.AtBusirisonthetwentiethofKhoiak
sandandbarleywereputinthegodsgarden,whichappearstohavebeenasortoflargeflowerpot.
ThiswasdoneinthepresenceofthecowgoddessShenty,representedseeminglybytheimageofacow
madeofgiltsycamorewoodwithaheadlesshumanimageinitsinside.Thenfreshinundationwater
waspouredoutofagoldenvaseoverboththegoddessandthegarden,andthebarleywasallowedto
growastheemblemoftheresurrectionofthegodafterhisburialintheearth,forthegrowthofthe
gardenisthegrowthofthedivinesubstance.OnthetwentysecondofKhoiak,attheeighthhour,the
imagesofOsiris,attendedbythirtyfourimagesofdeities,performedamysteriousvoyageinthirtyfour
tinyboatsmadeofpapyrus,whichwereilluminatedbythreehundredandsixtyfivelights.Onthe
twentyfourthofKhoiak,aftersunset,theeffigyofOsirisinacoffinofmulberrywoodwaslaidinthe
grave,andattheninthhourofthenighttheeffigywhichhadbeenmadeanddepositedtheyearbefore
wasremovedandplaceduponboughsofsycamore.Lastly,onthethirtiethdayofKhoiaktheyrepairedto
theholysepulchre,asubterraneanchamberoverwhichappearstohavegrownaclumpofPerseatrees.
Enteringthevaultbythewesterndoor,theylaidthecoffinedeffigyofthedeadgodreverentlyonabed
ofsandinthechamber.Sotheylefthimtohisrest,anddepartedfromthesepulchrebytheeasterndoor.
ThusendedtheceremoniesinthemonthofKhoiak.
Intheforegoingaccountofthefestival,drawnfromthegreatinscriptionofDenderah,theburialofOsiris
figuresprominently,whilehisresurrectionisimpliedratherthanexpressed.Thisdefectofthedocument,
however,isamplycompensatedbyaremarkableseriesofbasreliefswhichaccompanyandillustratethe
inscription.Theseexhibitinaseriesofscenesthedeadgodlyingswathedasamummyonhisbier,then
graduallyraisinghimselfuphigherandhigher,untilatlasthehasentirelyquittedthebierandisseen
erectbetweentheguardianwingsofthefaithfulIsis,whostandsbehindhim,whileamalefigureholds
upbeforehiseyesthecruxansata,theEgyptiansymboloflife.Theresurrectionofthegodcouldhardly
beportrayedmoregraphically.Evenmoreinstructive,however,isanotherrepresentationofthesame
eventinachamberdedicatedtoOsirisinthegreattempleofIsisatPhilae.Hereweseethedeadbodyof
Osiriswithstalksofcornspringingfromit,whileapriestwatersthestalksfromapitcherwhichheholds
inhishand.Theaccompanyinginscriptionsetsforththatthisistheformofhimwhomonemaynot
name,Osirisofthemysteries,whospringsfromthereturningwaters.Takentogether,thepictureand
thewordsseemtoleavenodoubtthatOsiriswashereconceivedandrepresentedasapersonificationof
thecornwhichspringsfromthefieldsaftertheyhavebeenfertilisedbytheinundation.This,according
totheinscription,wasthekernelofthemysteries,theinnermostsecretrevealedtotheinitiated.Sointhe
ritesofDemeteratEleusisareapedearofcornwasexhibitedtotheworshippersasthecentralmysteryof
theirreligion.WecannowfullyunderstandwhyatthegreatfestivalofsowinginthemonthofKhoiak
thepriestsusedtoburyeffigiesofOsirismadeofearthandcorn.Whentheseeffigiesweretakenup
againattheendofayearorofashorterinterval,thecornwouldbefoundtohavesproutedfromthebody
ofOsiris,andthissproutingofthegrainwouldbehailedasanomen,orratherasthecause,ofthegrowth
ofthecrops.Thecorngodproducedthecornfromhimself:hegavehisownbodytofeedthepeople:he
diedthattheymightlive.
AndfromthedeathandresurrectionoftheirgreatgodtheEgyptiansdrewnotonlytheirsupportand
sustenanceinthislife,butalsotheirhopeofalifeeternalbeyondthegrave.Thishopeisindicatedinthe
clearestmannerbytheveryremarkableeffigiesofOsiriswhichhavecometolightinEgyptian
cemeteries.ThusintheValleyoftheKingsatThebestherewasfoundthetombofaroyalfanbearer
wholivedabout1500B.C.Amongtherichcontentsofthetombtherewasabieronwhichresteda
mattressofreedscoveredwiththreelayersoflinen.Ontheuppersideofthelinenwaspaintedalifesize

figureofOsirisandtheinteriorofthefigure,whichwaswaterproof,containedamixtureofvegetable
mould,barley,andastickyfluid.Thebarleyhadsproutedandsentoutshootstwoorthreeincheslong.
Again,inthecemeteryatCynopoliswerenumerousburialsofOsirisfigures.Theseweremadeofgrain
wrappedupinclothandroughlyshapedlikeanOsiris,andplacedinsideabrickeduprecessattheside
ofthetomb,sometimesinsmallpotterycoffins,sometimesinwoodencoffinsintheformofa
hawkmummy,sometimeswithoutanycoffinsatall.Thesecornstuffedfigureswerebandagedlike
mummieswithpatchesofgildinghereandthere,asifinimitationofthegoldenmouldinwhichthe
similarfiguresofOsiriswerecastatthefestivalofsowing.Again,effigiesofOsiris,withfacesofgreen
waxandtheirinteriorfullofgrain,werefoundburiednearthenecropolisofThebes.Finally,wearetold
byProfessorErmanthatbetweenthelegsofmummiestheresometimesliesafigureofOsirismadeof
slimeitisfilledwithgrainsofcorn,thesproutingofwhichisintendedtosignifytheresurrectionofthe
god.Wecannotdoubtthat,justastheburialofcornstuffedimagesofOsirisintheearthatthefestival
ofsowingwasdesignedtoquickentheseed,sotheburialofsimilarimagesinthegravewasmeantto
quickenthedead,inotherwords,toensuretheirspiritualimmortality.

XL.TheNatureofOsiris
1.OsirisaCorngod
THEFOREGOINGsurveyofthemythandritualofOsirismaysufficetoprovethatinoneofhisaspects
thegodwasapersonificationofthecorn,whichmaybesaidtodieandcometolifeagaineveryyear.
Throughallthepompandglamourwithwhichinlatertimesthepriestshadinvestedhisworship,the
conceptionofhimasthecorngodcomesclearlyoutinthefestivalofhisdeathandresurrection,which
wascelebratedinthemonthofKhoiakandatalaterperiodinthemonthofAthyr.Thatfestivalappears
tohavebeenessentiallyafestivalofsowing,whichproperlyfellatthetimewhenthehusbandman
actuallycommittedtheseedtotheearth.Onthatoccasionaneffigyofthecorngod,mouldedofearth
andcorn,wasburiedwithfuneralritesinthegroundinorderthat,dyingthere,hemightcometolife
againwiththenewcrops.Theceremonywas,infact,acharmtoensurethegrowthofthecornby
sympatheticmagic,andwemayconjecturethatassuchitwaspractisedinasimpleformbyevery
Egyptianfarmeronhisfieldslongbeforeitwasadoptedandtransfiguredbythepriestsinthestately
ritualofthetemple.Inthemodern,butdoubtlessancient,ArabcustomofburyingtheOldMan,
namely,asheafofwheat,intheharvestfieldandprayingthathemayreturnfromthedead,weseethe
germoutofwhichtheworshipofthecorngodOsiriswasprobablydeveloped.
Thedetailsofhismythfitinwellwiththisinterpretationofthegod.Hewassaidtobetheoffspringof
SkyandEarth.Whatmoreappropriateparentagecouldbeinventedforthecornwhichspringsfromthe
groundthathasbeenfertilisedbythewaterofheaven?ItistruethatthelandofEgyptoweditsfertility
directlytotheNileandnottoshowersbuttheinhabitantsmusthaveknownorguessedthatthegreat
riverinitsturnwasfedbytherainswhichfellinthefarinterior.Again,thelegendthatOsiriswasthe
firsttoteachmentheuseofcornwouldbemostnaturallytoldofthecorngodhimself.Further,thestory
thathismangledremainswerescatteredupanddownthelandandburiedindifferentplacesmaybea
mythicalwayofexpressingeitherthesowingorthewinnowingofthegrain.Thelatterinterpretationis
supportedbythetalethatIsisplacedtheseveredlimbsofOsirisonacornsieve.Ormoreprobablythe
legendmaybeareminiscenceofacustomofslayingahumanvictim,perhapsarepresentativeofthe
cornspirit,anddistributinghisfleshorscatteringhisashesoverthefieldstofertilisethem.Inmodern
EuropethefigureofDeathissometimestorninpieces,andthefragmentsarethenburiedintheground
tomakethecropsgrowwell,andinotherpartsoftheworldhumanvictimsaretreatedinthesameway.
WithregardtotheancientEgyptianswehaveitontheauthorityofManethothattheyusedtoburnred
hairedmenandscattertheirasheswithwinnowingfans,anditishighlysignificantthatthisbarbarous
sacrificewasofferedbythekingsatthegraveofOsiris.Wemayconjecturethatthevictimsrepresented

Osirishimself,whowasannuallyslain,dismembered,andburiedintheirpersonsthathemightquicken
theseedintheearth.
Possiblyinprehistorictimesthekingsthemselvesplayedthepartofthegodandwereslainand
dismemberedinthatcharacter.SetaswellasOsirisissaidtohavebeentorninpiecesafterareignof
eighteendays,whichwascommemoratedbyanannualfestivalofthesamelength.Accordingtoone
storyRomulus,thefirstkingofRome,wascutinpiecesbythesenators,whoburiedthefragmentsof
himinthegroundandthetraditionaldayofhisdeath,theseventhofJuly,wascelebratedwithcertain
curiousrites,whichwereapparentlyconnectedwiththeartificialfertilisationofthefig.Again,Greek
legendtoldhowPentheus,kingofThebes,andLycurgus,kingoftheThracianEdonians,opposedthe
vinegodDionysus,andhowtheimpiousmonarchswererentinpieces,theonebythefrenzied
Bacchanals,theotherbyhorses.TheGreektraditionsmaywellbedistortedreminiscencesofacustomof
sacrificinghumanbeings,andespeciallydivinekings,inthecharacterofDionysus,agodwhoresembled
Osirisinmanypointsandwassaidlikehimtohavebeentornlimbfromlimb.WearetoldthatinChios
menwererentinpiecesasasacrificetoDionysusandsincetheydiedthesamedeathastheirgod,itis
reasonabletosupposethattheypersonatedhim.ThestorythattheThracianOrpheuswassimilarlytorn
limbfromlimbbytheBacchanalsseemstoindicatethathetooperishedinthecharacterofthegod
whosedeathhedied.ItissignificantthattheThracianLycurgus,kingoftheEdonians,issaidtohave
beenputtodeathinorderthattheground,whichhadceasedtobefruitful,mightregainitsfertility.
Further,wereadofaNorwegianking,HalfdantheBlack,whosebodywascutupandburiedindifferent
partsofhiskingdomforthesakeofensuringthefruitfulnessoftheearth.Heissaidtohavebeen
drownedattheageoffortythroughthebreakingoftheiceinspring.Whatfollowedhisdeathisthus
relatedbytheoldNorsehistorianSnorriSturluson:Hehadbeenthemostprosperous(literally,blessed
withabundance)ofallkings.Sogreatlydidmenvaluehimthatwhenthenewscamethathewasdead
andhisbodyremovedtoHringarikiandintendedforburialthere,thechiefmenfromRaumarikiand
WestfoldandHeithmrkcameandallrequestedthattheymighttakehisbodywiththemandburyitin
theirvariousprovincestheythoughtthatitwouldbringabundancetothosewhoobtainedit.Eventually
itwassettledthatthebodywasdistributedinfourplaces.TheheadwaslaidinabarrowatSteinnin
Hringariki,andeachpartytookawaytheirownshareandburiedit.Allthesebarrowsarecalled
Halfdansbarrows.ItshouldberememberedthatthisHalfdanbelongedtothefamilyoftheYnglings,
whotracedtheirdescentfromFrey,thegreatScandinaviangodoffertility.
ThenativesofKiwai,anislandlyingoffthemouthoftheFlyRiverinBritishNewGuinea,tellofa
certainmagiciannamedSegera,whohadsagoforhistotem.WhenSegerawasoldandill,hetoldthe
peoplethathewouldsoondie,butthat,nevertheless,hewouldcausetheirgardenstothrive.
Accordingly,heinstructedthemthatwhenhewasdeadtheyshouldcuthimupandplacepiecesofhis
fleshintheirgardens,buthisheadwastobeburiedinhisowngarden.Ofhimitissaidthatheoutlived
theordinaryage,andthatnomanknewhisfather,butthathemadethesagogoodandnoonewashungry
anymore.OldmenwhowerealivesomeyearsagoaffirmedthattheyhadknownSegeraintheiryouth,
andthegeneralopinionoftheKiwaipeopleseemstobethatSegeradiednotmorethantwogenerations
ago.
Takenalltogether,theselegendspointtoawidespreadpracticeofdismemberingthebodyofakingor
magicianandburyingthepiecesindifferentpartsofthecountryinordertoensurethefertilityofthe
groundandprobablyalsothefecundityofmanandbeast.
ToreturntothehumanvictimswhoseashestheEgyptiansscatteredwithwinnowingfans,theredhairof
theseunfortunateswasprobablysignificant.ForinEgypttheoxenwhichweresacrificedhadalsotobe
redasingleblackorwhitehairfoundonthebeastwouldhavedisqualifieditforthesacrifice.If,asI
conjecture,thesehumansacrificeswereintendedtopromotethegrowthofthecropsandthe

winnowingoftheirashesseemstosupportthisviewredhairedvictimswereperhapsselectedasbest
fittedtopersonatethespiritoftheruddygrain.Forwhenagodisrepresentedbyalivingperson,itis
naturalthatthehumanrepresentativeshouldbechosenonthegroundofhissupposedresemblancetothe
divineoriginal.HencetheancientMexicans,conceivingthemaizeasapersonalbeingwhowentthrough
thewholecourseoflifebetweenseedtimeandharvest,sacrificednewbornbabeswhenthemaizewas
sown,olderchildrenwhenithadsprouted,andsoontillitwasfullyripe,whentheysacrificedoldmen.
AnameforOsiriswasthecroporharvestandtheancientssometimesexplainedhimasa
personificationofthecorn.
2.OsirisaTreespirit
BUTOsiriswasmorethanaspiritofthecornhewasalsoatreespirit,andthismayperhapshavebeen
hisprimitivecharacter,sincetheworshipoftreesisnaturallyolderinthehistoryofreligionthanthe
worshipofthecereals.ThecharacterofOsirisasatreespiritwasrepresentedverygraphicallyina
ceremonydescribedbyFirmicusMaternus.Apinetreehavingbeencutdown,thecentrewashollowed
out,andwiththewoodthusexcavatedanimageofOsiriswasmade,whichwasthenburiedlikeacorpse
inthehollowofthetree.Itishardtoimaginehowtheconceptionofatreeastenantedbyapersonal
beingcouldbemoreplainlyexpressed.TheimageofOsiristhusmadewaskeptforayearandthen
burned,exactlyaswasdonewiththeimageofAttiswhichwasattachedtothepinetree.Theceremony
ofcuttingthetree,asdescribedbyFirmicusMaternus,appearstobealludedtobyPlutarch.Itwas
probablytheritualcounterpartofthemythicaldiscoveryofthebodyofOsirisenclosedintheericatree.
InthehallofOsirisatDenderahthecoffincontainingthehawkheadedmummyofthegodisclearly
depictedasenclosedwithinatree,apparentlyaconifer,thetrunkandbranchesofwhichareseenabove
andbelowthecoffin.Thescenethuscorrespondscloselybothtothemythandtotheceremonydescribed
byFirmicusMaternus.
ItaccordswiththecharacterofOsirisasatreespiritthathisworshipperswereforbiddentoinjurefruit
trees,andwithhischaracterasagodofvegetationingeneralthattheywerenotallowedtostopupwells
ofwater,whicharesoimportantfortheirrigationofhotsouthernlands.Accordingtoonelegend,he
taughtmentotrainthevinetopoles,topruneitssuperfluousfoliage,andtoextractthejuiceofthegrape.
InthepapyrusofNebseni,writtenabout1550B.C.,Osirisisdepictedsittinginashrine,fromtheroofof
whichhangclustersofgrapesandinthepapyrusoftheroyalscribeNekhtweseethegodenthronedin
frontofapool,fromthebanksofwhichaluxuriantvine,withmanybunchesofgrapes,growstowards
thegreenfaceoftheseateddeity.Theivywassacredtohim,andwascalledhisplantbecauseitis
alwaysgreen.
3.OsirisaGodofFertility
ASAGODofvegetationOsiriswasnaturallyconceivedasagodofcreativeenergyingeneral,since
menatacertainstageofevolutionfailtodistinguishbetweenthereproductivepowersofanimalsandof
plants.Henceastrikingfeatureinhisworshipwasthecoarsebutexpressivesymbolismbywhichthis
aspectofhisnaturewaspresentedtotheeyenotmerelyoftheinitiatedbutofthemultitude.Athis
festivalwomenusedtogoaboutthevillagessingingsongsinhispraiseandcarryingobsceneimagesof
himwhichtheysetinmotionbymeansofstrings.Thecustomwasprobablyacharmtoensurethe
growthofthecrops.Asimilarimageofhim,deckedwithallthefruitsoftheearth,issaidtohavestood
inatemplebeforeafigureofIsis,andinthechambersdedicatedtohimatPhilaethedeadgodis
portrayedlyingonhisbierinanattitudewhichindicatesintheplainestwaythatevenindeathhis
generativevirtuewasnotextinctbutonlysuspended,readytoproveasourceoflifeandfertilitytothe
worldwhentheopportunityshouldoffer.HymnsaddressedtoOsiriscontainallusionstothisimportant
sideofhisnature.Inoneofthemitissaidthattheworldwaxesgreenintriumphthroughhimand

anotherdeclares,Thouartthefatherandmotherofmankind,theyliveonthybreath,theysubsistonthe
fleshofthybody.Wemayconjecturethatinthispaternalaspecthewassupposed,likeothergodsof
fertility,toblessmenandwomenwithoffspring,andthattheprocessionsathisfestivalwereintendedto
promotethisobjectaswellastoquickentheseedintheground.Itwouldbetomisjudgeancientreligion
todenounceaslewdandprofligatetheemblemsandtheceremonieswhichtheEgyptiansemployedfor
thepurposeofgivingeffecttothisconceptionofthedivinepower.Theendswhichtheyproposedto
themselvesintheseriteswerenaturalandlaudableonlythemeanstheyadoptedtocompassthemwere
mistaken.AsimilarfallacyinducedtheGreekstoadoptalikesymbolismintheirDionysiacfestivals,
andthesuperficialbutstrikingresemblancethusproducedbetweenthetworeligionshasperhapsmore
thananythingelsemisledenquirers,bothancientandmodern,intoidentifyingworshipswhich,though
certainlyakininnature,areperfectlydistinctandindependentinorigin.
4.OsirisaGodoftheDead
WEhaveseenthatinoneofhisaspectsOsiriswastherulerandjudgeofthedead.Toapeoplelikethe
Egyptians,whonotonlybelievedinalifebeyondthegravebutactuallyspentmuchoftheirtime,labour,
andmoneyinpreparingforit,thisofficeofthegodmusthaveappearedhardly,ifatall,lessimportant
thanhisfunctionofmakingtheearthtobringforthitsfruitsindueseason.Wemayassumethatinthe
faithofhisworshippersthetwoprovincesofthegodwereintimatelyconnected.Inlayingtheirdeadin
thegravetheycommittedthemtohiskeepingwhocouldraisethemfromthedusttolifeeternal,evenas
hecausedtheseedtospringfromtheground.OfthatfaiththecornstuffedeffigiesofOsirisfoundin
Egyptiantombsfurnishaneloquentandunequivocaltestimony.Theywereatonceanemblemandan
instrumentofresurrection.ThusfromthesproutingofthegraintheancientEgyptiansdrewanauguryof
humanimmortality.Theyarenottheonlypeoplewhohavebuiltthesameloftyhopesonthesame
slenderfoundation.
Agodwhothusfedhispeoplewithhisownbrokenbodyinthislife,andwhoheldouttothemapromise
ofablissfuleternityinabetterworldhereafter,naturallyreignedsupremeintheiraffections.Weneed
notwonder,therefore,thatinEgypttheworshipoftheothergodswasovershadowedbythatofOsiris,
andthatwhiletheywerereveredeachinhisowndistrict,heandhisdivinepartnerIsiswereadoredin
all.

XLI.Isis
THEORIGINALmeaningofthegoddessIsisisstillmoredifficulttodeterminethanthatofherbrother
andhusbandOsiris.Herattributesandepithetsweresonumerousthatinthehieroglyphicssheiscalled
themanynamed,thethousandnamed,andinGreekinscriptionsthemyriadnamed.Yetinher
complexnatureitisperhapsstillpossibletodetecttheoriginalnucleusroundwhichbyaslowprocessof
accretiontheotherelementsgathered.ForifherbrotherandhusbandOsiriswasinoneofhisaspectsthe
corngod,aswehaveseenreasontobelieve,shemustsurelyhavebeenthecorngoddess.Thereareat
leastsomegroundsforthinkingso.ForifwemaytrustDiodorusSiculus,whoseauthorityappearsto
havebeentheEgyptianhistorianManetho,thediscoveryofwheatandbarleywasattributedtoIsis,and
atherfestivalsstalksofthesegrainswerecarriedinprocessiontocommemoratetheboonshehad
conferredonmen.AfurtherdetailisaddedbyAugustine.HesaysthatIsismadethediscoveryofbarley
atthemomentwhenshewassacrificingtothecommonancestorsofherhusbandandherself,allof
whomhadbeenkings,andthatsheshowedthenewlydiscoveredearsofbarleytoOsirisandhis
councillorThothorMercury,asRomanwriterscalledhim.Thatiswhy,addsAugustine,theyidentify
IsiswithCeres.Further,atharvesttime,whentheEgyptianreapershadcutthefirststalks,theylaidthem
downandbeattheirbreasts,wailingandcallinguponIsis.Thecustomhasbeenalreadyexplainedasa
lamenforthecornspiritslainunderthesickle.AmongsttheepithetsbywhichIsisisdesignatedinthe

inscriptionsareCreatressofgreenthings,Greengoddess,whosegreencolourislikeuntothe
greennessoftheearth,LadyofBread,LadyofBeer,LadyofAbundance.AccordingtoBrugsch
sheisnotonlythecreatressofthefreshverdureofvegetationwhichcoverstheearth,butisactuallythe
greencornfielditself,whichispersonifiedasagoddess.ThisisconfirmedbyherepithetSochitor
Sochet,meaningacornfield,asensewhichthewordstillretainsinCoptic.TheGreeksconceivedof
Isisasacorngoddess,fortheyidentifiedherwithDemeter.InaGreekepigramsheisdescribedasshe
whohasgivenbirthtothefruitsoftheearth,andthemotheroftheearsofcornandinahymn
composedinherhonourshespeaksofherselfasqueenofthewheatfield,andisdescribedascharged
withthecareofthefruitfulfurrowswheatrichpath.Accordingly,GreekorRomanartistsoften
representedherwithearsofcornonherheadorinherhand.
Such,wemaysuppose,wasIsisintheoldentime,arusticCornMotheradoredwithuncouthritesby
Egyptianswains.Butthehomelyfeaturesoftheclownishgoddesscouldhardlybetracedintherefined,
thesaintlyformwhich,spiritualisedbyagesofreligiousevolution,shepresentedtoherworshippersof
afterdaysasthetruewife,thetendermother,thebeneficentqueenofnature,encircledwiththenimbus
ofmoralpurity,ofimmemorialandmysterioussanctity.Thuschastenedandtransfiguredshewonmany
heartsfarbeyondtheboundariesofhernativeland.Inthatwelterofreligionswhichaccompaniedthe
declineofnationallifeinantiquityherworshipwasoneofthemostpopularatRomeandthroughoutthe
empire.SomeoftheRomanemperorsthemselveswereopenlyaddictedtoit.Andhoweverthereligion
ofIsismay,likeanyother,havebeenoftenwornasacloakbymenandwomenoflooselife,herrites
appearonthewholetohavebeenhonourablydistinguishedbyadignityandcomposure,asolemnityand
decorum,wellfittedtosoothethetroubledmind,toeasetheburdenedheart.Theyappealedthereforeto
gentlespirits,andabovealltowomen,whomthebloodyandlicentiousritesofotherOrientalgoddesses
onlyshockedandrepelled.Weneednotwonder,then,thatinaperiodofdecadence,whentraditional
faithswereshaken,whensystemsclashed,whenmensmindsweredisquieted,whenthefabricofempire
itself,oncedeemedeternal,begantoshowominousrentsandfissures,theserenefigureofIsiswithher
spiritualcalm,hergraciouspromiseofimmortality,shouldhaveappearedtomanylikeastarinastormy
sky,andshouldhaverousedintheirbreastsaraptureofdevotionnotunlikethatwhichwaspaidinthe
MiddleAgestotheVirginMary.Indeedherstatelyritual,withitsshavenandtonsuredpriests,itsmatins
andvespers,itstinklingmusic,itsbaptismandaspersionsofholywater,itssolemnprocessions,its
jewelledimagesoftheMotherofGod,presentedmanypointsofsimilaritytothepompsandceremonies
ofCatholicism.Theresemblanceneednotbepurelyaccidental.AncientEgyptmayhavecontributedits
sharetothegorgeoussymbolismoftheCatholicChurchaswellastothepaleabstractionsofher
theology.CertainlyinartthefigureofIsissucklingtheinfantHorusissolikethatoftheMadonnaand
childthatithassometimesreceivedtheadorationofignorantChristians.AndtoIsisinherlatercharacter
ofpatronessofmarinerstheVirginMaryperhapsowesherbeautifulepithetofStellaMaris,Starofthe
Sea,underwhichsheisadoredbytempesttossedsailors.Theattributesofamarinedeitymayhave
beenbestowedonIsisbytheseafaringGreeksofAlexandria.Theyarequiteforeigntoheroriginal
characterandtothehabitsoftheEgyptians,whohadnoloveofthesea.OnthishypothesisSirius,the
brightstarofIsis,whichonJulymorningsrisesfromtheglassywavesoftheeasternMediterranean,a
harbingerofhalcyonweathertomariners,wasthetrueStellaMaris,theStaroftheSea.

XLII.OsirisandtheSun
OSIRIShasbeensometimesinterpretedasthesungod,andinmoderntimesthisviewhasbeenheldby
somanydistinguishedwritersthatitdeservesabriefexamination.IfweenquireonwhatevidenceOsiris
hasbeenidentifiedwiththesunorthesungod,itwillbefoundonanalysistobeminuteinquantityand
dubious,whereitisnotabsolutelyworthless,inquality.ThediligentJablonski,thefirstmodernscholar
tocollectandsiftthetestimonyofclassicalwritersonEgyptianreligion,saysthatitcanbeshownin
manywaysthatOsirisisthesun,andthathecouldproduceacloudofwitnessestoproveit,butthatitis

needlesstodoso,sincenolearnedmanisignorantofthefact.Oftheancientwriterswhomhe
condescendstoquote,theonlytwowhoexpresslyidentifyOsiriswiththesunareDiodorusand
Macrobius.ButlittleweightcanbeattachedtotheirevidenceforthestatementofDiodorusisvagueand
rhetorical,andthereasonswhichMacrobius,oneofthefathersofsolarmythology,assignsforthe
identificationareexceedinglyslight.
ThegrounduponwhichsomemodernwritersseemchieflytorelyfortheidentificationofOsiriswiththe
sunisthatthestoryofhisdeathfitsbetterwiththesolarphenomenathanwithanyotherinnature.Itmay
readilybeadmittedthatthedailyappearanceanddisappearanceofthesunmightverynaturallybe
expressedbyamythofhisdeathandresurrectionandwriterswhoregardOsirisasthesunarecarefulto
indicatethatitisthediurnal,andnottheannual,courseofthesuntowhichtheyunderstandthemythto
apply.ThusRenouf,whoidentifiedOsiriswiththesun,admittedthattheEgyptiansuncouldnotwith
anyshowofreasonbedescribedasdeadinwinter.Butifhisdailydeathwasthethemeofthelegend,
whywasitcelebratedbyanannualceremony?Thisfactaloneseemsfataltotheinterpretationofthe
mythasdescriptiveofsunsetandsunrise.Again,thoughthesunmaybesaidtodiedaily,inwhatsense
canhebesaidtobetorninpieces?
Inthecourseofourenquiryithas,Itrust,beenmadeclearthatthereisanothernaturalphenomenonto
whichtheconceptionofdeathandresurrectionisasapplicableastosunsetandsunrise,andwhich,asa
matteroffact,hasbeensoconceivedandrepresentedinfolkcustom.Thatphenomenonistheannual
growthanddecayofvegetation.AstrongreasonforinterpretingthedeathofOsirisasthedecayof
vegetationratherthanasthesunsetistobefoundinthegeneral,thoughnotunanimous,voiceof
antiquity,whichclassedtogethertheworshipandmythsofOsiris,Adonis,Attis,Dionysus,andDemeter,
asreligionsofessentiallythesametype.Theconsensusofancientopiniononthissubjectseemstoogreat
toberejectedasamerefancy.SocloselydidtheritesofOsirisresemblethoseofAdonisatByblusthat
someofthepeopleofByblusthemselvesmaintainedthatitwasOsirisandnotAdoniswhosedeathwas
mournedbythem.Suchaviewcouldcertainlynothavebeenheldiftheritualsofthetwogodshadnot
beensoalikeastobealmostindistinguishable.HerodotusfoundthesimilaritybetweentheritesofOsiris
andDionysussogreat,thathethoughtitimpossiblethelattercouldhavearisenindependentlythey
must,hesupposed,havebeenrecentlyborrowed,withslightalterations,bytheGreeksfromthe
Egyptians.Again,Plutarch,averykeenstudentofcomparativereligion,insistsuponthedetailed
resemblanceoftheritesofOsiristothoseofDionysus.Wecannotrejecttheevidenceofsuchintelligent
andtrustworthywitnessesonplainmattersoffactwhichfellundertheirowncognizance.Their
explanationsoftheworshipsitisindeedpossibletoreject,forthemeaningofreligiouscultsisoften
opentoquestionbutresemblancesofritualaremattersofobservation.Therefore,thosewhoexplain
Osirisasthesunaredriventothealternativeofeitherdismissingasmistakenthetestimonyofantiquity
tothesimilarityoftheritesofOsiris,Adonis,Attis,Dionysus,andDemeter,orofinterpretingallthese
ritesassunworship.Nomodernscholarhasfairlyfacedandacceptedeithersideofthisalternative.To
accepttheformerwouldbetoaffirmthatweknowtheritesofthesedeitiesbetterthanthemenwho
practised,oratleastwhowitnessedthem.Toacceptthelatterwouldinvolveawrenching,clipping,
mangling,anddistortingofmythandritualfromwhichevenMacrobiusshrank.Ontheotherhand,the
viewthattheessenceofalltheseriteswasthemimicdeathandrevivalofvegetation,explainsthem
separatelyandcollectivelyinaneasyandnaturalway,andharmoniseswiththegeneraltestimonyborne
bytheancientstotheirsubstantialsimilarity.

XLIII.Dionysus
INTHEPRECEDINGchapterswesawthatinantiquitythecivilisednationsofWesternAsiaandEgypt
picturedtothemselvesthechangesoftheseasons,andparticularlytheannualgrowthanddecayof
vegetation,asepisodesinthelifeofgods,whosemournfuldeathandhappyresurrectiontheycelebrated

withdramaticritesofalternatelamentationandrejoicing.Butifthecelebrationwasinformdramatic,it
wasinsubstancemagicalthatistosay,itwasintended,ontheprinciplesofsympatheticmagic,to
ensurethevernalregenerationofplantsandthemultiplicationofanimals,whichhadseemedtobe
menacedbytheinroadsofwinter.Intheancientworld,however,suchideasandsuchriteswerebyno
meansconfinedtotheOrientalpeoplesofBabylonandSyria,ofPhrygiaandEgypttheywerenota
productpeculiartothereligiousmysticismofthedreamyEast,butweresharedbytheracesoflivelier
fancyandmoremercurialtemperamentwhoinhabitedtheshoresandislandsoftheAegean.Weneed
not,withsomeenquirersinancientandmoderntimes,supposethattheseWesternpeoplesborrowed
fromtheoldercivilisationoftheOrienttheconceptionoftheDyingandRevivingGod,togetherwiththe
solemnritual,inwhichthatconceptionwasdramaticallysetforthbeforetheeyesoftheworshippers.
MoreprobablytheresemblancewhichmaybetracedinthisrespectbetweenthereligionsoftheEastand
Westisnomorethanwhatwecommonly,thoughincorrectly,callafortuitouscoincidence,theeffectof
similarcausesactingalikeonthesimilarconstitutionofthehumanmindindifferentcountriesandunder
differentskies.TheGreekhadnoneedtojourneyintofarcountriestolearnthevicissitudesofthe
seasons,tomarkthefleetingbeautyofthedamaskrose,thetransientgloryofthegoldencorn,the
passingsplendourofthepurplegrapes.Yearbyyearinhisownbeautifullandhebeheld,withnatural
regret,thebrightpompofsummerfadingintothegloomandstagnationofwinter,andyearbyyearhe
hailedwithnaturaldelighttheoutburstoffreshlifeinspring.Accustomedtopersonifytheforcesof
nature,totingehercoldabstractionswiththewarmhuesofimagination,toclothehernakedrealities
withthegorgeousdraperyofamythicfancy,hefashionedforhimselfatrainofgodsandgoddesses,of
spiritsandelves,outoftheshiftingpanoramaoftheseasons,andfollowedtheannualfluctuationsof
theirfortuneswithalternateemotionsofcheerfulnessanddejection,ofgladnessandsorrow,whichfound
theirnaturalexpressioninalternateritesofrejoicingandlamentation,ofrevelryandmourning.A
considerationofsomeoftheGreekdivinitieswhothusdiedandroseagainfromthedeadmayfurnishus
withaseriesofcompanionpicturestosetsidebysidewiththesadfiguresofAdonis,Attis,andOsiris.
WebeginwithDionysus.
ThegodDionysusorBacchusisbestknowntousasapersonificationofthevineandoftheexhilaration
producedbythejuiceofthegrape.Hisecstaticworship,characterisedbywilddances,thrillingmusic,
andtipsyexcess,appearstohaveoriginatedamongtherudetribesofThrace,whowerenotoriously
addictedtodrunkenness.Itsmysticdoctrinesandextravagantriteswereessentiallyforeigntotheclear
intelligenceandsobertemperamentoftheGreekrace.Yetappealingasitdidtothatloveofmysteryand
thatpronenesstoreverttosavagerywhichseemtobeinnateinmostmen,thereligionspreadlike
wildfirethroughGreeceuntilthegodwhomHomerhardlydeignedtonoticehadbecomethemost
popularfigureofthepantheon.Theresemblancewhichhisstoryandhisceremoniespresenttothoseof
OsirishaveledsomeenquirersbothinancientandmoderntimestoholdthatDionysuswasmerelya
disguisedOsiris,importeddirectlyfromEgyptintoGreece.Butthegreatpreponderanceofevidence
pointstohisThracianorigin,andthesimilarityofthetwoworshipsissufficientlyexplainedbythe
similarityoftheideasandcustomsonwhichtheywerefounded.
WhilethevinewithitsclusterswasthemostcharacteristicmanifestationofDionysus,hewasalsoagod
oftreesingeneral.ThuswearetoldthatalmostalltheGreekssacrificedtoDionysusofthetree.In
BoeotiaoneofhistitleswasDionysusinthetree.Hisimagewasoftenmerelyanuprightpost,without
arms,butdrapedinamantle,withabeardedmasktorepresentthehead,andwithleafyboughs
projectingfromtheheadorbodytoshowthenatureofthedeity.Onavasehisrudeeffigyisdepicted
appearingoutofalowtreeorbush.AtMagnesiaontheMaeanderanimageofDionysusissaidtohave
beenfoundinaplanetree,whichhadbeenbrokenbythewind.Hewasthepatronofcultivatedtrees:
prayerswereofferedtohimthathewouldmakethetreesgrowandhewasespeciallyhonouredby
husbandmen,chieflyfruitgrowers,whosetupanimageofhim,intheshapeofanaturaltreestump,in
theirorchards.Hewassaidtohavediscoveredalltreefruits,amongstwhichapplesandfigsare
particularlymentionedandhewasreferredtoaswellfruited,heofthegreenfruit,andmakingthe

fruittogrow.Oneofhistitleswasteemingorbursting(asofsaporblossoms)andtherewasa
FloweryDionysusinAtticaandatPatraeinAchaia.TheAthenianssacrificedtohimfortheprosperityof
thefruitsoftheland.Amongstthetreesparticularlysacredtohim,inadditiontothevine,wasthepine
tree.TheDelphicoraclecommandedtheCorinthianstoworshipaparticularpinetreeequallywiththe
god,sotheymadetwoimagesofDionysusoutofit,withredfacesandgiltbodies.Inartawand,tipped
withapinecone,iscommonlycarriedbythegodorhisworshippers.Again,theivyandthefigtreewere
especiallyassociatedwithhim.IntheAttictownshipofAcharnaetherewasaDionysusIvyat
LacedaemontherewasaFigDionysusandinNaxos,wherefigswerecalledmeilicha,therewasa
DionysusMeilichios,thefaceofwhoseimagewasmadeoffigwood.
Further,thereareindications,fewbutsignificant,thatDionysuswasconceivedasadeityofagriculture
andthecorn.Heisspokenofashimselfdoingtheworkofahusbandman:heisreportedtohavebeenthe
firsttoyokeoxentotheplough,whichbeforehadbeendraggedbyhandaloneandsomepeoplefound
inthistraditionthecluetothebovineshapeinwhich,asweshallsee,thegodwasoftensupposedto
presenthimselftohisworshippers.Thusguidingtheploughshareandscatteringtheseedashewent,
Dionysusissaidtohaveeasedthelabourofthehusbandman.Further,wearetoldthatinthelandofthe
Bisaltae,aThraciantribe,therewasagreatandfairsanctuaryofDionysus,whereathisfestivalabright
lightshoneforthatnightasatokenofanabundantharvestvouchsafedbythedietybutifthecropswere
tofailthatyear,themysticlightwasnotseen,darknessbroodedoverthesanctuaryasatothertimes.
Moreover,amongtheemblemsofDionysuswasthewinnowingfan,thatisthelargeopenshovelshaped
basket,whichdowntomoderntimeshasbeenusedbyfarmerstoseparatethegrainfromthechaffby
tossingthecornintheair.ThissimpleagriculturalinstrumentfiguredinthemysticritesofDionysus
indeedthegodistraditionallysaidtohavebeenplacedatbirthinawinnowingfanasinacradle:inart
heisrepresentedasaninfantsocradledandfromthesetraditionsandrepresentationshederivedthe
epithetofLiknites,thatis,HeoftheWinnowingfan.
LikeothergodsofvegetationDionysuswasbelievedtohavediedaviolentdeath,buttohavebeen
broughttolifeagainandhissufferings,death,andresurrectionwereenactedinhissacredrites.His
tragicstoryisthustoldbythepoetNonnus.ZeusintheformofaserpentvisitedPersephone,andshe
borehimZagreus,thatis,Dionysus,ahornedinfant.Scarcelywasheborn,whenthebabemountedthe
throneofhisfatherZeusandmimickedthegreatgodbybrandishingthelightninginhistinyhand.But
hedidnotoccupythethronelongforthetreacherousTitans,theirfaceswhitenedwithchalk,attacked
himwithkniveswhilehewaslookingathimselfinamirror.Foratimeheevadedtheirassaultsby
turninghimselfintovariousshapes,assumingthelikenesssuccessivelyofZeusandCronus,ofayoung
man,ofalion,ahorse,andaserpent.Finally,intheformofabull,hewascuttopiecesbythemurderous
knivesofhisenemies.HisCretanmyth,asrelatedbyFirmicusMaternus,ranthus.Hewassaidtohave
beenthebastardsonofJupiter,aCretanking.Goingabroad,Jupitertransferredthethroneandsceptreto
theyouthfulDionysus,but,knowingthathiswifeJunocherishedajealousdislikeofthechild,he
entrustedDionysustothecareofguardsuponwhosefidelityhebelievedhecouldrely.Juno,however,
bribedtheguards,andamusingthechildwithrattlesandacunninglywroughtlookingglassluredhim
intoanambush,wherehersatellites,theTitans,rusheduponhim,cuthimlimbfromlimb,boiledhis
bodywithvariousherbs,andateit.ButhissisterMinerva,whohadsharedinthedeed,kepthisheartand
gaveittoJupiteronhisreturn,revealingtohimthewholehistoryofthecrime.Inhisrage,Jupiterputthe
Titanstodeathbytorture,and,tosoothehisgriefforthelossofhisson,madeanimageinwhichhe
enclosedthechildsheart,andthenbuiltatempleinhishonour.InthisversionaEuhemeristicturnhas
beengiventothemythbyrepresentingJupiterandJuno(ZeusandHera)asakingandqueenofCrete.
TheguardsreferredtoarethemythicalCureteswhodancedawardanceroundtheinfantDionysus,as
theyaresaidtohavedoneroundtheinfantZeus.Verynoteworthyisthelegend,recordedbothby
NonnusandFirmicus,thatinhisinfancyDionysusoccupiedforashorttimethethroneofhisfather
Zeus.SoProclustellsusthatDionysuswasthelastkingofthegodsappointedbyZeus.Forhisfather
sethimonthekinglythrone,andplacedinhishandthesceptre,andmadehimkingofallthegodsofthe

world.Suchtraditionspointtoacustomoftemporarilyinvestingthekingssonwiththeroyaldignityas
apreliminarytosacrificinghiminsteadofhisfather.Pomegranatesweresupposedtohavesprungfrom
thebloodofDionysus,asanemonesfromthebloodofAdonisandvioletsfromthebloodofAttis:hence
womenrefrainedfromeatingseedsofpomegranatesatthefestivaloftheThesmophoria.Accordingto
some,theseveredlimbsofDionysuswerepiecedtogether,atthecommandofZeus,byApollo,who
buriedthemonParnassus.ThegraveofDionysuswasshownintheDelphictemplebesideagolden
statueofApollo.However,accordingtoanotheraccount,thegraveofDionysuswasatThebes,wherehe
issaidtohavebeentorninpieces.Thusfartheresurrectionoftheslaingodisnotmentioned,butinother
versionsofthemythitisvariouslyrelated.Accordingtooneversion,whichrepresentedDionysusasa
sonofZeusandDemeter,hismotherpiecedtogetherhismangledlimbsandmadehimyoungagain.In
othersitissimplysaidthatshortlyafterhisburialherosefromthedeadandascendeduptoheavenor
thatZeusraisedhimupashelaymortallywoundedorthatZeusswallowedtheheartofDionysusand
thenbegathimafreshbySemele,whointhecommonlegendfiguresasmotherofDionysus.Or,again,
theheartwaspoundedupandgiveninapotiontoSemele,whotherebyconceivedhim.
Turningfromthemythtotheritual,wefindthattheCretanscelebratedabiennialfestivalatwhichthe
passionofDionysuswasrepresentedineverydetail.Allthathehaddoneorsufferedinhislastmoments
wasenactedbeforetheeyesofhisworshippers,whotorealivebulltopieceswiththeirteethandroamed
thewoodswithfranticshouts.Infrontofthemwascarriedacasketsupposedtocontainthesacredheart
ofDionysus,andtothewildmusicofflutesandcymbalstheymimickedtherattlesbywhichtheinfant
godhadbeenluredtohisdoom.Wheretheresurrectionformedpartofthemyth,italsowasactedatthe
rites,anditevenappearsthatageneraldoctrineofresurrection,oratleastofimmortality,wasinculcated
ontheworshippersforPlutarch,writingtoconsolehiswifeonthedeathoftheirinfantdaughter,
comfortsherwiththethoughtoftheimmortalityofthesoulastaughtbytraditionandrevealedinthe
mysteriesofDionysus.AdifferentformofthemythofthedeathandresurrectionofDionysusisthathe
descendedintoHadestobringuphismotherSemelefromthedead.ThelocalArgivetraditionwasthat
hewentdownthroughtheAlcyonianlakeandhisreturnfromthelowerworld,inotherwordshis
resurrection,wasannuallycelebratedonthespotbytheArgives,whosummonedhimfromthewaterby
trumpetblasts,whiletheythrewalambintothelakeasanofferingtothewarderofthedead.Whether
thiswasaspringfestivaldoesnotappear,buttheLydianscertainlycelebratedtheadventofDionysusin
springthegodwassupposedtobringtheseasonwithhim.Deitiesofvegetation,whoarebelievedto
passacertainportionofeachyearunderground,naturallycometoberegardedasgodsofthelower
worldorofthedead.BothDionysusandOsirisweresoconceived.
AfeatureinthemythicalcharacterofDionysus,whichatfirstsightappearsinconsistentwithhisnature
asadeityofvegetation,isthathewasoftenconceivedandrepresentedinanimalshape,especiallyinthe
form,oratleastwiththehorns,ofabull.Thusheisspokenofascowborn,bull,bullshaped,
bullfaced,bullbrowed,bullhorned,hornbearing,twohorned,horned.Hewasbelievedto
appear,atleastoccasionally,asabull.Hisimageswereoften,asatCyzicus,madeinbullshape,orwith
bullhornsandhewaspaintedwithhorns.TypesofthehornedDionysusarefoundamongstthe
survivingmonumentsofantiquity.Ononestatuetteheappearscladinabullshide,thehead,horns,and
hoofshangingdownbehind.Again,heisrepresentedasachildwithclustersofgrapesroundhisbrow,
andacalfshead,withsproutinghorns,attachedtothebackofhishead.Onaredfiguredvasethegodis
portrayedasacalfheadedchildseatedonawomanslap.ThepeopleofCynaethaheldafestivalof
Dionysusinwinter,whenmen,whohadgreasedtheirbodieswithoilfortheoccasion,usedtopickouta
bullfromtheherdandcarryittothesanctuaryofthegod.Dionysuswassupposedtoinspiretheirchoice
oftheparticularbull,whichprobablyrepresentedthedeityhimselfforathisfestivalshewasbelievedto
appearinbullform.ThewomenofElishailedhimasabull,andprayedhimtocomewithhisbullsfoot.
Theysang,Comehither,Dionysus,tothyholytemplebytheseacomewiththeGracestothytemple,
rushingwiththybullsfoot,Ogoodlybull,Ogoodlybull!TheBacchanalsofThraceworehornsin
imitationoftheirgod.Accordingtothemyth,itwasintheshapeofabullthathewastorntopiecesby

theTitansandtheCretans,whentheyactedthesufferingsanddeathofDionysus,torealivebullto
pieceswiththeirteeth.Indeed,therendinganddevouringoflivebullsandcalvesappeartohavebeena
regularfeatureoftheDionysiacrites.Whenweconsiderthepracticeofportrayingthegodasabullor
withsomeofthefeaturesoftheanimal,thebeliefthatheappearedinbullformtohisworshippersatthe
sacredrites,andthelegendthatinbullformhehadbeentorninpieces,wecannotdoubtthatinrending
anddevouringalivebullathisfestivaltheworshippersofDionysusbelievedthemselvestobekillingthe
god,eatinghisflesh,anddrinkinghisblood.
AnotheranimalwhoseformDionysusassumedwasthegoat.OneofhisnameswasKid.AtAthens
andatHermionhewasworshippedunderthetitleoftheoneoftheBlackGoatskin,andalegendran
thatonacertainoccasionhehadappearedcladintheskinfromwhichhetookthetitle.Inthewine
growingdistrictofPhlius,whereinautumntheplainisstillthicklymantledwiththeredandgolden
foliageofthefadingvines,therestoodofoldabronzeimageofagoat,whichthehusbandmenplastered
withgoldleafasameansofprotectingtheirvinesagainstblight.Theimageprobablyrepresentedthe
vinegodhimself.TosavehimfromthewrathofHera,hisfatherZeuschangedtheyouthfulDionysus
intoakidandwhenthegodsfledtoEgypttoescapethefuryofTyphon,Dionysuswasturnedintoa
goat.Hencewhenhisworshippersrentinpiecesalivegoatanddevoureditraw,theymusthavebelieved
thattheywereeatingthebodyandbloodofthegod.Thecustomoftearinginpiecesthebodiesof
animalsandofmenandthendevouringthemrawhasbeenpractisedasareligiousritebysavagesin
moderntimes.Weneednotthereforedismissasafablethetestimonyofantiquitytotheobservanceof
similarritesamongthefrenziedworshippersofBacchus.
Thecustomofkillingagodinanimalform,whichweshallexaminemoreindetailfurtheron,belongsto
averyearlystageofhumanculture,andisaptinlatertimestobemisunderstood.Theadvanceofthought
tendstostriptheoldanimalandplantgodsoftheirbestialandvegetablehusk,andtoleavetheirhuman
attributes(whicharealwaysthekerneloftheconception)asthefinalandsoleresiduum.Inotherwords,
animalandplantgodstendtobecomepurelyanthropomorphic.Whentheyhavebecomewhollyor
nearlyso,theanimalsandplantswhichwereatfirstthedeitiesthemselves,stillretainavagueandill
understoodconnexionwiththeanthropomorphicgodswhohavedevelopedoutofthem.Theoriginofthe
relationshipbetweenthedeityandtheanimalorplanthavingbeenforgotten,variousstoriesareinvented
toexplainit.Theseexplanationsmayfollowoneoftwolinesaccordingastheyarebasedonthehabitual
orontheexceptionaltreatmentofthesacredanimalorplant.Thesacredanimalwashabituallyspared,
andonlyexceptionallyslainandaccordinglythemythmightbedevisedtoexplaineitherwhyitwas
sparedorwhyitwaskilled.Devisedfortheformerpurpose,themythwouldtellofsomeservice
renderedtothedeitybytheanimaldevisedforthelatterpurpose,themythwouldtellofsomeinjury
inflictedbytheanimalonthegod.ThereasongivenforsacrificinggoatstoDionysusexemplifiesamyth
ofthelattersort.Theyweresacrificedtohim,itwassaid,becausetheyinjuredthevine.Nowthegoat,as
wehaveseen,wasoriginallyanembodimentofthegodhimself.Butwhenthegodhaddivestedhimself
ofhisanimalcharacterandhadbecomeessentiallyanthropomorphic,thekillingofthegoatinhis
worshipcametoberegardednolongerasaslayingofthedeityhimself,butasasacrificeofferedtohim
andsincesomereasonhadtobeassignedwhythegoatinparticularshouldbesacrificed,itwasalleged
thatthiswasapunishmentinflictedonthegoatforinjuringthevine,theobjectofthegodsespecialcare.
Thuswehavethestrangespectacleofagodsacrificedtohimselfonthegroundthatheishisownenemy.
Andasthedeityissupposedtopartakeofthevictimofferedtohim,itfollowsthat,whenthevictimis
thegodsoldself,thegodeatsofhisownflesh.HencethegoatgodDionysusisrepresentedaseating
rawgoatsbloodandthebullgodDionysusiscalledeaterofbulls.Ontheanalogyoftheseinstances
wemayconjecturethatwhereveradeityisdescribedastheeaterofaparticularanimal,theanimalin
questionwasoriginallynothingbutthedeityhimself.Lateronweshallfindthatsomesavagespropitiate
deadbearsandwhalesbyofferingthemportionsoftheirownbodies.
Allthis,however,doesnotexplainwhyadeityofvegetationshouldappearinanimalform.Butthe

considerationofthatpointhadbetterbedeferredtillwehavediscussedthecharacterandattributesof
Demeter.Meantimeitremainstomentionthatinsomeplaces,insteadofananimal,ahumanbeingwas
torninpiecesattheritesofDionysus.ThiswasthepracticeinChiosandTenedosandatPotniaein
BoeotiathetraditionranthatithadbeenformerlythecustomtosacrificetothegoatsmitingDionysusa
child,forwhomagoatwasafterwardssubstituted.AtOrchomenus,aswehaveseen,thehumanvictim
wastakenfromthewomenofanoldroyalfamily.Astheslainbullorgoatrepresentedtheslaingod,so,
wemaysuppose,thehumanvictimalsorepresentedhim.
ThelegendsofthedeathsofPentheusandLycurgus,twokingswhoaresaidtohavebeentorntopieces,
theonebyBacchanals,theotherbyhorses,fortheiroppositiontotheritesofDionysus,maybe,asI
havealreadysuggested,distortedreminiscencesofacustomofsacrificingdivinekingsinthecharacter
ofDionysusandofdispersingthefragmentsoftheirbrokenbodiesoverthefieldsforthepurposeof
fertilisingthem.ItisprobablynomerecoincidencethatDionysushimselfissaidtohavebeentornin
piecesatThebes,theveryplacewhereaccordingtolegendthesamefatebefellkingPentheusatthe
handsofthefrenziedvotariesofthevinegod.
However,atraditionofhumansacrificemaysometimeshavebeenameremisinterpretationofa
sacrificialritualinwhichananimalvictimwastreatedasahumanbeing.Forexample,atTenedosthe
newborncalfsacrificedtoDionysuswasshodinbuskins,andthemothercowwastendedlikeawoman
inchildbed.AtRomeashegoatwassacrificedtoVedijovisasifitwereahumanvictim.Yetonthe
otherhanditisequallypossible,andperhapsmoreprobable,thatthesecuriousriteswerethemselves
mitigationsofanolderandrudercustomofsacrificinghumanbeings,andthatthelaterpretenceof
treatingthesacrificialvictimsasiftheywerehumanbeingswasmerelypartofapiousandmerciful
fraud,whichpalmedoffonthedeitylesspreciousvictimsthanlivingmenandwomen.This
interpretationissupportedbymanyundoubtedcasesinwhichanimalshavebeensubstitutedforhuman
victims.

XLIV.DemeterandPersephone
DIONYSUSwasnottheonlyGreekdeitywhosetragicstoryandritualappeartoreflectthedecayand
revivalofvegetation.Inanotherformandwithadifferentapplicationtheoldtalereappearsinthemyth
ofDemeterandPersephone.SubstantiallytheirmythisidenticalwiththeSyrianoneofAphrodite
(Astarte)andAdonis,thePhrygianoneofCybeleandAttis,andtheEgyptianoneofIsisandOsiris.In
theGreekfable,asinitsAsiaticandEgyptiancounterparts,agoddessmournsthelossofalovedone,
whopersonifiesthevegetation,moreespeciallythecorn,whichdiesinwintertoreviveinspringonly
whereastheOrientalimaginationfiguredthelovedandlostoneasadeadloveroradeadhusband
lamentedbyhislemanorhiswife,Greekfancyembodiedthesameideainthetendererandpurerformof
adeaddaughterbewailedbyhersorrowingmother.
TheoldestliterarydocumentwhichnarratesthemythofDemeterandPersephoneisthebeautiful
HomericHymntoDemeter,whichcriticsassigntotheseventhcenturybeforeourera.Theobjectofthe
poemistoexplaintheoriginoftheEleusinianmysteries,andthecompletesilenceofthepoetasto
AthensandtheAthenians,whoinafteragestookconspicuouspartinthefestival,rendersitprobablethat
thehymnwascomposedinthefarofftimewhenEleusiswasstillapettyindependentstate,andbefore
thestatelyprocessionoftheMysterieshadbeguntodefile,inbrightSeptemberdays,overthelowchain
ofbarrenrockyhillswhichdividestheflatEleusiniancornlandfromthemorespaciousoliveclad
expanseoftheAthenianplain.Bethatasitmay,thehymnrevealstoustheconceptionwhichthewriter
entertainedofthecharacterandfunctionsofthetwogoddessestheirnaturalshapesstandoutsharply
enoughunderthethinveilofpoeticalimagery.TheyouthfulPersephone,sorunsthetale,wasgathering
rosesandlilies,crocusesandviolets,hyacinthsandnarcissusesinalushmeadow,whentheearthgaped

andPluto,lordoftheDead,issuingfromtheabysscarriedheroffonhisgoldencartobehisbrideand
queeninthegloomysubterraneanworld.HersorrowingmotherDemeter,withheryellowtressesveiled
inadarkmourningmantle,soughtheroverlandandsea,andlearningfromtheSunherdaughtersfate
shewithdrewinhighdudgeonfromthegodsandtookupherabodeatEleusis,whereshepresented
herselftothekingsdaughtersintheguiseofanoldwoman,sittingsadlyundertheshadowofanolive
treebesidetheMaidensWell,towhichthedamselshadcometodrawwaterinbronzepitchersfortheir
fathershouse.Inherwrathatherbereavementthegoddesssufferednottheseedtogrowintheearthbut
keptithiddenunderground,andshevowedthatneverwouldshesetfootonOlympusandneverwould
sheletthecornsprouttillherlostdaughtershouldberestoredtoher.Vainlytheoxendraggedthe
ploughstoandfrointhefieldsvainlythesowerdroppedthebarleyseedinthebrownfurrowsnothing
cameupfromtheparchedandcrumblingsoil.EventheRarianplainnearEleusis,whichwaswontto
wavewithyellowharvests,laybareandfallow.Mankindwouldhaveperishedofhungerandthegods
wouldhavebeenrobbedofthesacrificeswhichweretheirdue,ifZeusinalarmhadnotcommanded
Plutotodisgorgehisprey,torestorehisbridePersephonetohermotherDemeter.Thegrimlordofthe
Deadsmiledandobeyed,butbeforehesentbackhisqueentotheupperaironagoldencar,hegaveher
theseedofapomegranatetoeat,whichensuredthatshewouldreturntohim.ButZeusstipulatedthat
henceforthPersephoneshouldspendtwothirdsofeveryyearwithhermotherandthegodsintheupper
worldandonethirdoftheyearwithherhusbandinthenetherworld,fromwhichshewastoreturnyear
byyearwhentheearthwasgaywithspringflowers.Gladlythedaughterthenreturnedtothesunshine,
gladlyhermotherreceivedherandfelluponherneckandinherjoyatrecoveringthelostoneDemeter
madethecorntosproutfromtheclodsoftheploughedfieldsandallthebroadearthtobeheavywith
leavesandblossoms.AndstraightwayshewentandshowedthishappysighttotheprincesofEleusis,to
Triptolemus,Eumolpus,Diocles,andtothekingCeleushimself,andmoreoversherevealedtothemher
sacredritesandmysteries.Blessed,saysthepoet,isthemortalmanwhohasseenthesethings,buthe
whohashadnoshareoftheminlifewillneverbehappyindeathwhenhehasdescendedintothe
darknessofthegrave.SothetwogoddessesdepartedtodwellinblisswiththegodsonOlympusandthe
bardendsthehymnwithapiousprayertoDemeterandPersephonethattheywouldbepleasedtogrant
himalivelihoodinreturnforhissong.
Ithasbeengenerallyrecognised,andindeeditseemsscarcelyopentodoubt,thatthemainthemewhich
thepoetsetbeforehimselfincomposingthishymnwastodescribethetraditionalfoundationofthe
EleusinianmysteriesbythegoddessDemeter.Thewholepoemleadsuptothetransformationscenein
whichthebareleaflessexpanseoftheEleusinianplainissuddenlyturned,atthewillofthegoddess,into
avastsheetofruddycornthebeneficentdeitytakestheprincesofEleusis,showsthemwhatshehas
done,teachesthemhermysticrites,andvanisheswithherdaughtertoheaven.Therevelationofthe
mysteriesisthetriumphalcloseofthepiece.Thisconclusionisconfirmedbyamoreminuteexamination
ofthepoem,whichprovesthatthepoethasgiven,notmerelyageneralaccountofthefoundationofthe
mysteries,butalsoinmoreorlessveiledlanguagemythicalexplanationsoftheoriginofparticularrites
whichwehavegoodreasontobelieveformedessentialfeaturesofthefestival.Amongsttheritesasto
whichthepoetthusdropssignificanthintsarethepreliminaryfastofthecandidatesforinitiation,the
torchlightprocession,theallnightvigil,thesittingofthecandidates,veiledandinsilence,onstools
coveredwithsheepskins,theuseofscurrilouslanguage,thebreakingofribaldjests,andthesolemn
communionwiththedivinitybyparticipationinadraughtofbarleywaterfromaholychalice.
Butthereisyetanotherandadeepersecretofthemysterieswhichtheauthorofthepoemappearsto
havedivulgedundercoverofhisnarrative.Hetellsushow,assoonasshehadtransformedthebarren
brownexpanseoftheEleusinianplainintoafieldofgoldengrain,shegladdenedtheeyesofTriptolemus
andtheotherEleusinianprincesbyshowingthemthegrowingorstandingcorn.Whenwecomparethis
partofthestorywiththestatementofaChristianwriterofthesecondcentury,Hippolytus,thatthevery
heartofthemysteriesconsistedinshowingtotheinitiatedareapedearofcorn,wecanhardlydoubtthat
thepoetofthehymnwaswellacquaintedwiththissolemnrite,andthathedeliberatelyintendedto

explainitsorigininpreciselythesamewayasheexplainedotherritesofthemysteries,namelyby
representingDemeterashavingsettheexampleofperformingtheceremonyinherownperson.Thus
mythandritualmutuallyexplainandconfirmeachother.Thepoetoftheseventhcenturybeforeourera
givesusthemythhecouldnotwithoutsacrilegehaverevealedtheritual:theChristianfatherreveals
theritual,andhisrevelationaccordsperfectlywiththeveiledhintoftheoldpoet.Onthewhole,then,we
may,withmanymodernscholars,confidentlyacceptthestatementofthelearnedChristianfather
ClementofAlexandria,thatthemythofDemeterandPersephonewasactedasasacreddramainthe
mysteriesofEleusis.
Butifthemythwasactedasapart,perhapsastheprincipalpart,ofthemostfamousandsolemn
religiousritesofancientGreece,wehavestilltoenquire,Whatwas,afterall,strippedoflateraccretions,
theoriginalkernelofthemythwhichappearstolateragessurroundedandtransfiguredbyanaureoleof
aweandmystery,litupbysomeofthemostbrilliantraysofGrecianliteratureandart?Ifwefollowthe
indicationsgivenbyouroldestliteraryauthorityonthesubject,theauthoroftheHomerichymnto
Demeter,theriddleisnothardtoreadthefiguresofthetwogoddesses,themotherandthedaughter,
resolvethemselvesintopersonificationsofthecorn.Atleastthisappearstobefairlycertainforthe
daughterPersephone.Thegoddesswhospendsthreeor,accordingtoanotherversionofthemyth,six
monthsofeveryyearwiththedeadundergroundandtheremainderoftheyearwiththelivingabove
groundinwhoseabsencethebarleyseedishiddenintheearthandthefieldsliebareandfallowon
whosereturninspringtotheupperworldthecornshootsupfromtheclodsandtheearthisheavywith
leavesandblossomsthisgoddesscansurelybenothingelsethanamythicalembodimentofthe
vegetation,andparticularlyofthecorn,whichisburiedunderthesoilforsomemonthsofeverywinter
andcomestolifeagain,asfromthegrave,inthesproutingcornstalksandtheopeningflowersand
foliageofeveryspring.NootherreasonableandprobableexplanationofPersephoneseemspossible.
Andifthedaughtergoddesswasapersonificationoftheyoungcornofthepresentyear,maynotthe
mothergoddessbeapersonificationoftheoldcornoflastyear,whichhasgivenbirthtothenewcrops?
TheonlyalternativetothisviewofDemeterwouldseemtobetosupposethatsheisapersonificationof
theearth,fromwhosebroadbosomthecornandallotherplantsspringup,andofwhichaccordinglythey
mayappropriatelyenoughberegardedasthedaughters.ThisviewoftheoriginalnatureofDemeterhas
indeedbeentakenbysomewriters,bothancientandmodern,anditisonewhichcanbereasonably
maintained.ButitappearstohavebeenrejectedbytheauthoroftheHomerichymntoDemeter,forhe
notonlydistinguishesDemeterfromthepersonifiedEarthbutplacesthetwointhesharpestopposition
toeachother.HetellsusthatitwasEarthwho,inaccordancewiththewillofZeusandtopleasePluto,
luredPersephonetoherdoombycausingthenarcissusestogrowwhichtemptedtheyounggoddessto
strayfarbeyondthereachofhelpinthelushmeadow.ThusDemeterofthehymn,farfrombeing
identicalwiththeEarthgoddess,musthaveregardedthatdivinityasherworstenemy,sinceitwastoher
insidiouswilesthatsheowedthelossofherdaughter.ButiftheDemeterofthehymncannothavebeena
personificationoftheearth,theonlyalternativeapparentlyistoconcludethatshewasapersonification
ofthecorn.
TheconclusionisconfirmedbythemonumentsforinancientartDemeterandPersephonearealike
characterisedasgoddessesofthecornbythecrownsofcornwhichtheywearontheirheadsandbythe
stalksofcornwhichtheyholdintheirhands.Again,itwasDemeterwhofirstrevealedtotheAthenians
thesecretofthecornanddiffusedthebeneficentdiscoveryfarandwidethroughtheagencyof
Triptolemus,whomshesentforthasanitinerantmissionarytocommunicatetheboontoallmankind.On
monumentsofart,especiallyinvasepaintings,heisconstantlyrepresentedalongwithDemeterinthis
capacity,holdingcornstalksinhishandandsittinginhiscar,whichissometimeswingedand
sometimesdrawnbydragons,andfromwhichheissaidtohavesowedtheseeddownonthewhole
worldashespedthroughtheair.IngratitudeforthepricelessboonmanyGreekcitieslongcontinuedto
sendthefirstfruitsoftheirbarleyandwheatharvestsasthankofferingstotheTwoGoddesses,Demeter
andPersephone,atEleusis,wheresubterraneangranarieswerebuilttostoretheoverflowing

contributions.TheocritustellshowintheislandofCos,inthesweetscentedsummertime,thefarmer
broughtthefirstfruitsoftheharvesttoDemeterwhohadfilledhisthreshingfloorwithbarley,andwhose
rusticimageheldsheavesandpoppiesinherhands.Manyoftheepithetsbestowedbytheancientson
Demetermarkherintimateassociationwiththecornintheclearestmanner.
HowdeeplyimplantedinthemindoftheancientGreekswasthisfaithinDemeterasgoddessofthecorn
maybejudgedbythecircumstancethatthefaithactuallypersistedamongtheirChristiandescendantsat
heroldsanctuaryofEleusisdowntothebeginningofthenineteenthcentury.ForwhentheEnglish
travellerDodwellrevisitedEleusis,theinhabitantslamentedtohimthelossofacolossalimageof
Demeter,whichwascarriedoffbyClarkein1802andpresentedtotheUniversityofCambridge,where
itstillremains.InmyfirstjourneytoGreece,saysDodwell,thisprotectingdeitywasinitsfullglory,
situatedinthecentreofathreshingfloor,amongsttheruinsofhertemple.Thevillagerswereimpressed
withapersuasionthattheirrichharvestsweretheeffectofherbounty,andsinceherremoval,their
abundance,astheyassuredme,hasdisappeared.ThusweseetheCornGoddessDemeterstandingon
thethreshingfloorofEleusisanddispensingcorntoherworshippersinthenineteenthcenturyofthe
Christianera,preciselyasherimagestoodanddispensedcorntoherworshippersonthethreshingfloor
ofCosinthedaysofTheocritus.AndjustasthepeopleofEleusisinthenineteenthcenturyattributedthe
diminutionoftheirharveststothelossoftheimageofDemeter,soinantiquitytheSicilians,acorn
growingpeopledevotedtotheworshipofthetwoCornGoddesses,lamentedthatthecropsofmany
townshadperishedbecausetheunscrupulousRomangovernorVerreshadimpiouslycarriedoffthe
imageofDemeterfromherfamoustempleatHenna.CouldweaskforaclearerproofthatDemeterwas
indeedthegoddessofthecornthanthisbelief,heldbytheGreeksdowntomoderntimes,thatthecorn
cropsdependedonherpresenceandbountyandperishedwhenherimagewasremoved?
Onthewhole,then,if,ignoringtheories,weadheretotheevidenceoftheancientsthemselvesinregard
totheritesofEleusis,weshallprobablyinclinetoagreewiththemostlearnedofancientantiquaries,the
RomanVarro,who,toquoteAugustinesreportofhisopinion,interpretedthewholeoftheEleusinian
mysteriesasrelatingtothecornwhichCeres(Demeter)haddiscovered,andtoProserpine(Persephone),
whomPlutohadcarriedofffromher.AndProserpineherselfhesaid,signifiesthefecundityoftheseeds,
thefailureofwhichatacertaintimehadcausedtheearthtomournforbarrenness,andthereforehad
givenrisetotheopinionthatthedaughterofCeres,thatis,fecundityitself,hadbeenravishedbyPluto
anddetainedinthenetherworldandwhenthedearthhadbeenpubliclymournedandfecundityhad
returnedoncemore,therewasgladnessatthereturnofProserpineandsolemnriteswereinstituted
accordingly.Afterthathesays,continuesAugustine,reportingVarro,thatmanythingsweretaughtin
hermysterieswhichhadnoreferencebuttothediscoveryofthecorn.
ThusfarIhaveforthemostpartassumedanidentityofnaturebetweenDemeterandPersephone,the
divinemotheranddaughterpersonifyingthecorninitsdoubleaspectoftheseedcornoflastyearand
theripeearsofthis,andthisviewofthesubstantialunityofmotheranddaughterisborneoutbytheir
portraitsinGreekart,whichareoftensoalikeastobeindistinguishable.Suchacloseresemblance
betweentheartistictypesofDemeterandPersephonemilitatesdecidedlyagainsttheviewthatthetwo
goddessesaremythicalembodimentsoftwothingssodifferentandsoeasilydistinguishablefromeach
otherastheearthandthevegetationwhichspringsfromit.HadGreekartistsacceptedthatviewof
DemeterandPersephone,theycouldsurelyhavedevisedtypesofthemwhichwouldhavebroughtout
thedeepdistinctionbetweenthegoddesses.AndifDemeterdidnotpersonifytheearth,cantherebeany
reasonabledoubtthat,likeherdaughter,shepersonifiedthecornwhichwassocommonlycalledbyher
namefromthetimeofHomerdownwards?Theessentialidentityofmotheranddaughterissuggested,
notonlybythecloseresemblanceoftheirartistictypes,butalsobytheofficialtitleoftheTwo
GoddesseswhichwasregularlyappliedtotheminthegreatsanctuaryatEleusiswithoutany
specificationoftheirindividualattributesandtitles,asiftheirseparateindividualitieshadalmostmerged
inasingledivinesubstance.

Surveyingtheevidenceasawhole,wearefairlyentitledtoconcludethatinthemindoftheordinary
Greekthetwogoddesseswereessentiallypersonificationsofthecorn,andthatinthisgermthewhole
efflorescenceoftheirreligionfindsimplicitlyitsexplanation.Buttomaintainthisisnottodenythatin
thelongcourseofreligiousevolutionhighmoralandspiritualconceptionsweregraftedonthissimple
originalstockandblossomedoutintofairerflowersthanthebloomofthebarleyandthewheat.Above
all,thethoughtoftheseedburiedintheearthinordertospringuptonewandhigherlifereadily
suggestedacomparisonwithhumandestiny,andstrengthenedthehopethatformantoothegravemay
bebutthebeginningofabetterandhappierexistenceinsomebrighterworldunknown.Thissimpleand
naturalreflectionseemsperfectlysufficienttoexplaintheassociationoftheCornGoddessatEleusis
withthemysteryofdeathandthehopeofablissfulimmortality.Forthattheancientsregardedinitiation
intheEleusinianmysteriesasakeytounlockthegatesofParadiseappearstobeprovedbytheallusions
whichwellinformedwritersamongthemdroptothehappinessinstorefortheinitiatedhereafter.No
doubtitiseasyforustodiscerntheflimsinessofthelogicalfoundationonwhichsuchhighhopeswere
built.Butdrowningmenclutchatstraws,andweneednotwonderthattheGreeks,likeourselves,with
deathbeforethemandagreatloveoflifeintheirhearts,shouldnothavestoppedtoweighwithtoonice
ahandtheargumentsthattoldforandagainsttheprospectofhumanimmortality.Thereasoningthat
satisfiedSaintPaulandhasbroughtcomforttountoldthousandsofsorrowingChristians,standingbythe
deathbedortheopengraveoftheirlovedones,wasgoodenoughtopassmusterwithancientpagans,
whentheytoobowedtheirheadsundertheburdenofgrief,and,withthetaperoflifeburninglowinthe
socket,lookedforwardintothedarknessoftheunknown.Thereforewedonoindignitytothemythof
DemeterandPersephoneoneofthefewmythsinwhichthesunshineandclarityoftheGreekgenius
arecrossedbytheshadowandmysteryofdeathwhenwetraceitsorigintosomeofthemostfamiliar,
yeteternallyaffectingaspectsofnature,tothemelancholygloomanddecayofautumnandtothe
freshness,thebrightness,andtheverdureofspring.

XLV.TheCornMotherandtheCornMaideninNorthernEurope
IThasbeenarguedbyW.MannhardtthatthefirstpartofDemetersnameisderivedfromanalleged
Cretanworddeai,barley,andthataccordinglyDemetermeansneithermorenorlessthanBarley
motherorCornmotherfortherootofthewordseemstohavebeenappliedtodifferentkindsofgrain
bydifferentbranchesoftheAryans.AsCreteappearstohavebeenoneofthemostancientseatsofthe
worshipofDemeter,itwouldnotbesurprisingifhernamewereofCretanorigin.Buttheetymologyis
opentoseriousobjections,anditissaferthereforetolaynostressonit.Bethatasitmay,wehavefound
independentreasonsforidentifyingDemeterastheCornmother,andofthetwospeciesofcorn
associatedwithherinGreekreligion,namelybarleyandwheat,thebarleyhasperhapsthebetterclaimto
beheroriginalelementfornotonlywoulditseemtohavebeenthestaplefoodoftheGreeksinthe
Homericage,buttherearegroundsforbelievingthatitisoneoftheoldest,ifnottheveryoldest,cereal
cultivatedbytheAryanrace.CertainlytheuseofbarleyinthereligiousritualoftheancientHindoosas
wellasoftheancientGreeksfurnishesastrongargumentinfavourofthegreatantiquityofits
cultivation,whichisknowntohavebeenpractisedbythelakedwellersoftheStoneAgeinEurope.
AnalogiestotheCornmotherorBarleymotherofancientGreecehavebeencollectedingreat
abundancebyW.MannhardtfromthefolkloreofmodernEurope.Thefollowingmayserveas
specimens.
InGermanythecornisverycommonlypersonifiedunderthenameoftheCornmother.Thusinspring,
whenthecornwavesinthewind,thepeasantssay,TherecomestheCornmother,orTheCorn
motherisrunningoverthefield,orTheCornmotherisgoingthroughthecorn.Whenchildrenwish
togointothefieldstopullthebluecornflowersortheredpoppies,theyaretoldnottodoso,because
theCornmotherissittinginthecornandwillcatchthem.Oragainsheiscalled,accordingtothecrop,

theRyemotherorthePeamother,andchildrenarewarnedagainststrayingintheryeoramongthepeas
bythreatsoftheRyemotherorthePeamother.AgaintheCornmotherisbelievedtomakethecrop
grow.ThusintheneighbourhoodofMagdeburgitissometimessaid,Itwillbeagoodyearforflaxthe
Flaxmotherhasbeenseen.InavillageofStyriaitissaidthattheCornmother,intheshapeofafemale
puppetmadeoutofthelastsheafofcornanddressedinwhite,maybeseenatmidnightinthecorn
fields,whichshefertilisesbypassingthroughthembutifsheisangrywithafarmer,shewithersupall
hiscorn.
Further,theCornmotherplaysanimportantpartinharvestcustoms.Sheisbelievedtobepresentinthe
handfulofcornwhichisleftstandinglastonthefieldandwiththecuttingofthislasthandfulsheis
caught,ordrivenaway,orkilled.Inthefirstofthesecases,thelastsheafiscarriedjoyfullyhomeand
honouredasadivinebeing.Itisplacedinthebarn,andatthreshingthecornspiritappearsagain.Inthe
HanoveriandistrictofHadelnthereapersstandroundthelastsheafandbeatitwithsticksinorderto
drivetheCornmotheroutofit.Theycalltoeachother,Theresheis!hither!Takecareshedoesnt
catchyou!ThebeatinggoesontillthegrainiscompletelythreshedoutthentheCornmotheris
believedtobedrivenaway.IntheneighbourhoodofDanzigthepersonwhocutsthelastearsofcorn
makesthemintoadoll,whichiscalledtheCornmotherortheOldWomanandisbroughthomeonthe
lastwaggon.InsomepartsofHolsteinthelastsheafisdressedinwomansclothesandcalledtheCorn
mother.Itiscarriedhomeonthelastwaggon,andthenthoroughlydrenchedwithwater.Thedrenching
withwaterisdoubtlessaraincharm.InthedistrictofBruckinStyriathelastsheaf,calledtheCorn
mother,ismadeupintotheshapeofawomanbytheoldestmarriedwomaninthevillage,ofanagefrom
fiftytofiftyfiveyears.Thefinestearsarepluckedoutofitandmadeintoawreath,which,twinedwith
flowers,iscarriedonherheadbytheprettiestgirlofthevillagetothefarmerorsquire,whiletheCorn
motherislaiddowninthebarntokeepoffthemice.InothervillagesofthesamedistricttheCorn
mother,atthecloseofharvest,iscarriedbytwoladsatthetopofapole.Theymarchbehindthegirlwho
wearsthewreathtothesquireshouse,andwhilehereceivesthewreathandhangsitupinthehall,the
Cornmotherisplacedonthetopofapileofwood,wheresheisthecentreoftheharvestsupperand
dance.Afterwardssheishungupinthebarnandremainstheretillthethreshingisover.Themanwho
givesthelaststrokeatthreshingiscalledthesonoftheCornmotherheistiedupintheCornmother,
beaten,andcarriedthroughthevillage.ThewreathisdedicatedinchurchonthefollowingSundayand
onEasterEvethegrainisrubbedoutofitbyasevenyearoldgirlandscatteredamongsttheyoungcorn.
AtChristmasthestrawofthewreathisplacedinthemangertomakethecattlethrive.Herethefertilising
poweroftheCornmotherisplainlybroughtoutbyscatteringtheseedtakenfromherbody(forthe
wreathismadeoutoftheCornmother)amongthenewcornandherinfluenceoveranimallifeis
indicatedbyplacingthestrawinthemanger.AmongsttheSlavsalsothelastsheafisknownastheRye
mother,theWheatmother,theOatsmother,theBarleymother,andsoon,accordingtothecrop.Inthe
districtofTarnow,Galicia,thewreathmadeoutofthelaststalksiscalledtheWheatmother,Rye
mother,orPeamother.Itisplacedonagirlsheadandkepttillspring,whensomeofthegrainismixed
withtheseedcorn.HereagainthefertilisingpoweroftheCornmotherisindicated.InFrance,also,in
theneighbourhoodofAuxerre,thelastsheafgoesbythenameoftheMotheroftheWheat,Motherofthe
Barley,MotheroftheRye,orMotheroftheOats.Theyleaveitstandinginthefieldtillthelastwaggon
isabouttowendhomewards.Thentheymakeapuppetoutofit,dressitwithclothesbelongingtothe
farmer,andadornitwithacrownandablueorwhitescarf.Abranchofatreeisstuckinthebreastofthe
puppet,whichisnowcalledtheCeres.AtthedanceintheeveningtheCeresissetinthemiddleofthe
floor,andthereaperwhoreapedfastestdancesrounditwiththeprettiestgirlforhispartner.Afterthe
danceapyreismade.Allthegirls,eachwearingawreath,stripthepuppet,pullittopieces,andplaceit
onthepyre,alongwiththeflowerswithwhichitwasadorned.Thenthegirlwhowasthefirsttofinish
reapingsetsfiretothepile,andallpraythatCeresmaygiveafruitfulyear.Here,asMannhardtobserves,
theoldcustomhasremainedintact,thoughthenameCeresisabitofschoolmasterslearning.InUpper
Brittanythelastsheafisalwaysmadeintohumanshapebutifthefarmerisamarriedman,itismade
doubleandconsistsofalittlecornpuppetplacedinsideofalargeone.ThisiscalledtheMothersheaf.It

isdeliveredtothefarmerswife,whountiesitandgivesdrinkmoneyinreturn.
Sometimesthelastsheafiscalled,nottheCornmother,buttheHarvestmotherortheGreatMother.In
theprovinceofOsnabrck,Hanover,itiscalledtheHarvestmotheritismadeupinfemaleform,and
thenthereapersdanceaboutwithit.InsomepartsofWestphaliathelastsheafattheryeharvestismade
especiallyheavybyfasteningstonesinit.TheybringithomeonthelastwaggonandcallittheGreat
Mother,thoughtheydonotfashionitintoanyspecialshape.InthedistrictofErfurtaveryheavysheaf,
notnecessarilythelast,iscalledtheGreatMother,andiscarriedonthelastwaggontothebarn,where
allhandsliftitdownamidafireofjokes.
SometimesagainthelastsheafiscalledtheGrandmother,andisadornedwithflowers,ribbons,anda
womansapron.InEastPrussia,attheryeorwheatharvest,thereaperscallouttothewomanwhobinds
thelastsheaf,YouaregettingtheOldGrandmother.IntheneighbourhoodofMagdeburgthemenand
womenservantsstrivewhoshallgetthelastsheaf,calledtheGrandmother.Whoevergetsitwillbe
marriedinthenextyear,buthisorherspousewillbeoldifagirlgetsit,shewillmarryawidowerifa
mangetsit,hewillmarryanoldcrone.InSilesiatheGrandmotherahugebundlemadeupofthreeor
foursheavesbythepersonwhotiedthelastsheafwasformerlyfashionedintoarudelikenessofthe
humanform.IntheneighbourhoodofBelfastthelastsheafsometimesgoesbythenameoftheGranny.
Itisnotcutintheusualway,butallthereapersthrowtheirsicklesatitandtrytobringitdown.Itis
plaitedandkepttillthe(next?)autumn.Whoevergetsitwillmarryinthecourseoftheyear.
OftenthelastsheafiscalledtheOldWomanortheOldMan.InGermanyitisfrequentlyshapedand
dressedasawoman,andthepersonwhocutsitorbindsitissaidtogettheOldWoman.AtAltisheim,
inSwabia,whenallthecornofafarmhasbeencutexceptasinglestrip,allthereapersstandinarow
beforethestripeachcutshissharerapidly,andhewhogivesthelastcuthastheOldWoman.When
thesheavesarebeingsetupinheaps,thepersonwhogetsholdoftheOldWoman,whichisthelargest
andthickestofallthesheaves,isjeeredatbytherest,whocallouttohim,HehastheOldWomanand
mustkeepher.ThewomanwhobindsthelastsheafissometimesherselfcalledtheOldWoman,andit
issaidthatshewillbemarriedinthenextyear.InNeusaass,WestPrussia,boththelastsheafwhichis
dressedupinjacket,hat,andribbonsandthewomanwhobindsitarecalledtheOldWoman.Together
theyarebroughthomeonthelastwaggonandaredrenchedwithwater.InvariouspartsofNorth
GermanythelastsheafatharvestismadeupintoahumaneffigyandcalledtheOldManandthe
womanwhobounditissaidtohavetheOldMan.
InWestPrussia,whenthelastryeisbeingrakedtogether,thewomenandgirlshurrywiththework,for
noneofthemlikestobethelastandtogettheOldMan,thatis,apuppetmadeoutofthelastsheaf,
whichmustbecarriedbeforetheotherreapersbythepersonwhowasthelasttofinish.InSilesiathelast
sheafiscalledtheOldWomanortheOldManandisthethemeofmanyjestsitismadeunusuallylarge
andissometimesweightedwithastone.AmongtheWendsthemanorwomanwhobindsthelastsheaf
atwheatharvestissaidtohavetheOldMan.Apuppetismadeoutofthewheatenstrawandearsinthe
likenessofamananddeckedwithflowers.ThepersonwhoboundthelastsheafmustcarrytheOldMan
home,whiletherestlaughandjeerathim.Thepuppetishungupinthefarmhouseandremainstillanew
OldManismadeatthenextharvest.
Insomeofthesecustoms,asMannhardthasremarked,thepersonwhoiscalledbythesamenameasthe
lastsheafandsitsbesideitonthelastwaggonisobviouslyidentifiedwithitheorsherepresentsthe
cornspiritwhichhasbeencaughtinthelastsheafinotherwords,thecornspiritisrepresentedin
duplicate,byahumanbeingandbyasheaf.Theidentificationofthepersonwiththesheafismadestill
clearerbythecustomofwrappingupinthelastsheafthepersonwhocutsorbindsit.ThusatHermsdorf
inSilesiaitusedtobetheregularpracticetotieupinthelastsheafthewomanwhohadboundit.At
Weiden,inBavaria,itisthecutter,notthebinder,ofthelastsheafwhoistiedupinit.Heretheperson

wraptupinthecornrepresentsthecornspirit,exactlyasapersonwraptinbranchesorleavesrepresents
thetreespirit.
Thelastsheaf,designatedastheOldWoman,isoftendistinguishedfromtheothersheavesbyitssize
andweight.ThusinsomevillagesofWestPrussiatheOldWomanismadetwiceaslongandthickasa
commonsheaf,andastoneisfastenedinthemiddleofit.Sometimesitismadesoheavythatamancan
barelyliftit.AtAltPillau,inSamland,eightorninesheavesareoftentiedtogethertomaketheOld
Woman,andthemanwhosetsitupgrumblesatitsweight.AtItzgrund,inSaxeCoburg,thelastsheaf,
calledtheOldWoman,ismadelargewiththeexpressintentionoftherebysecuringagoodcropnext
year.Thusthecustomofmakingthelastsheafunusuallylargeorheavyisacharm,workingby
sympatheticmagic,toensurealargeandheavycropatthefollowingharvest.
InScotland,whenthelastcornwascutafterHallowmas,thefemalefiguremadeoutofitwassometimes
calledtheCarlinorCarline,thatis,theOldWoman.ButifcutbeforeHallowmas,itwascalledthe
Maidenifcutaftersunset,itwascalledtheWitch,beingsupposedtobringbadluck.Amongthe
HighlandersofScotlandthelastcorncutatharvestisknowneitherastheOldWife(Cailleach)orasthe
Maidenonthewholetheformernameseemstoprevailinthewesternandthelatterinthecentraland
easterndistricts.OftheMaidenweshallspeakpresentlyherewearedealingwiththeOldWife.The
followinggeneralaccountofthecustomisgivenbyacarefulandwellinformedenquirer,theRev.J.G.
Campbell,ministeroftheremoteHebrideanislandofTiree:TheHarvestOldWife(aCailleach).In
harvest,therewasastruggletoescapefrombeingthelastdonewiththeshearing,andwhentillagein
commonexisted,instanceswereknownofaridgebeingleftunshorn(nopersonwouldclaimit)because
ofitbeingbehindtherest.Thefearentertainedwasthatofhavingthefamineofthefarm(gorta
bhaile),intheshapeofanimaginaryoldwoman(cailleach),tofeedtillnextharvest.Muchemulation
andamusementarosefromthefearofthisoldwoman..Thefirstdonemadeadollofsomebladesof
corn,whichwascalledtheoldwife,andsentittohisnearestneighbour.Heinturn,whenready,passed
ittoanotherstilllessexpeditious,andthepersonitlastremainedwithhadtheoldwomantokeepfor
thatyear.
IntheislandofIslaythelastcorncutgoesbythenameoftheOldWife(Cailleach),andwhenshehas
doneherdutyatharvestsheishunguponthewallandstaystheretillthetimecomestoploughthefields
forthenextyearscrop.Thensheistakendown,andonthefirstdaywhenthemengotoploughsheis
dividedamongthembythemistressofthehouse.Theytakeherintheirpocketsandgivehertothe
horsestoeatwhentheyreachthefield.Thisissupposedtosecuregoodluckforthenextharvest,andis
understoodtobetheproperendoftheOldWife.
UsagesofthesamesortarereportedfromWales.ThusinNorthPembrokeshireatuftofthelastcorncut,
fromsixtotwelveincheslong,isplaitedandgoesbythenameoftheHag(wrach)andquaintold
customsusedtobepractisedwithitwithinthememoryofmanypersonsstillalive.Greatwasthe
excitementamongthereaperswhenthelastpatchofstandingcornwasreached.Allinturnthrewtheir
sicklesatit,andtheonewhosucceededincuttingitreceivedajugofhomebrewedale.TheHag(wrach)
wasthenhurriedlymadeandtakentoaneighbouringfarm,wherethereaperswerestillbusyattheir
work.Thiswasgenerallydonebytheploughmanbuthehadtobeverycarefulnottobeobservedbyhis
neighbours,foriftheysawhimcomingandhadtheleastsuspicionofhiserrandtheywouldsoonmake
himretracehissteps.Creepingstealthilyupbehindafencehewaitedtilltheforemanofhisneighbours
reaperswasjustoppositehimandwithineasyreach.ThenhesuddenlythrewtheHagoverthefenceand,
ifpossible,upontheforemanssickle.Onthathetooktohisheelsandmadeoffasfastashecouldrun,
andhewasaluckymanifheescapedwithoutbeingcaughtorcutbytheflyingsickleswhichthe
infuriatedreapershurledafterhim.InothercasestheHagwasbroughthometothefarmhousebyoneof
thereapers.Hedidhisbesttobringithomedryandwithoutbeingobservedbuthewasapttoberoughly
handledbythepeopleofthehouse,iftheysuspectedhiserrand.Sometimestheystrippedhimofmostof

hisclothes,sometimestheywoulddrenchhimwithwaterwhichhadbeencarefullystoredinbucketsand
pansforthepurpose.If,however,hesucceededinbringingtheHagindryandunobserved,themasterof
thehousehadtopayhimasmallfineorsometimesajugofbeerfromthecasknexttothewall,which
seemstohavecommonlyheldthebestbeer,wouldbedemandedbythebearer.TheHagwasthen
carefullyhungonanailinthehallorelsewhereandkepttherealltheyear.Thecustomofbringinginthe
Hag(wrach)intothehouseandhangingitupstillexistsinsomefarmsofNorthPembrokeshire,butthe
ancientceremonieswhichhavejustbeendescribedarenowdiscontinued.
InCountyAntrim,downtosomeyearsago,whenthesicklewasfinallyexpelledbythereapingmachine,
thefewstalksofcornleftstandinglastonthefieldwereplaitedtogetherthenthereapers,blindfolded,
threwtheirsicklesattheplaitedcorn,andwhoeverhappenedtocutitthroughtookithomewithhimand
putitoverhisdoor.ThisbunchofcornwascalledtheCarleyprobablythesamewordasCarlin.
SimilarcustomsareobservedbySlavonicpeoples.ThusinPolandthelastsheafiscommonlycalledthe
Baba,thatis,theOldWoman.Inthelastsheaf,itissaid,sitstheBaba.Thesheafitselfisalsocalled
theBaba,andissometimescomposedoftwelvesmallersheaveslashedtogether.Insomepartsof
BohemiatheBaba,madeoutofthelastsheaf,hasthefigureofawomanwithagreatstrawhat.Itis
carriedhomeonthelastharvestwaggonanddelivered,alongwithagarland,tothefarmerbytwogirls.
Inbindingthesheavesthewomenstrivenottobelast,forshewhobindsthelastsheafwillhaveachild
nextyear.Sometimestheharvesterscallouttothewomanwhobindsthelastsheaf,ShehastheBaba,
orSheistheBaba.InthedistrictofCracow,whenamanbindsthelastsheaf,theysay,The
Grandfatherissittinginitwhenawomanbindsit,theysay,TheBabaissittinginit,andthewoman
herselfiswraptupinthesheaf,sothatonlyherheadprojectsoutofit.Thusencasedinthesheaf,sheis
carriedonthelastharvestwaggontothehouse,wheresheisdrenchedwithwaterbythewholefamily.
Sheremainsinthesheaftillthedanceisover,andforayearsheretainsthenameofBaba.
InLithuaniathenameforthelastsheafisBoba(OldWoman),answeringtothePolishnameBaba.The
Bobaissaidtositinthecornwhichisleftstandinglast.Thepersonwhobindsthelastsheafordigsthe
lastpotatoisthesubjectofmuchbanter,andreceivesandlongretainsthenameoftheOldRyewoman
ortheOldPotatowoman.ThelastsheaftheBobaismadeintotheformofawoman,carried
solemnlythroughthevillageonthelastharvestwaggon,anddrenchedwithwateratthefarmershouse
theneveryonedanceswithit.
InRussiaalsothelastsheafisoftenshapedanddressedasawoman,andcarriedwithdanceandsongto
thefarmhouse.OutofthelastsheaftheBulgariansmakeadollwhichtheycalltheCornqueenorCorn
motheritisdressedinawomansshirt,carriedroundthevillage,andthenthrownintotheriverinorder
tosecureplentyofrainanddewforthenextyearscrop.Oritisburnedandtheashesstrewonthefields,
doubtlesstofertilisethem.ThenameQueen,asappliedtothelastsheaf,hasitsanalogiesinCentraland
NorthernEurope.Thus,intheSalzburgdistrictofAustria,attheendoftheharvestagreatprocession
takesplace,inwhichaQueenoftheCornears(hrenknigin)isdrawnalonginalittlecarriageby
youngfellows.ThecustomoftheHarvestQueenappearstohavebeencommoninEngland.Miltonmust
havebeenfamiliarwithit,forinParadiseLosthesays:
Adamthewhile
Waitingdesirousherreturn,hadwove
Ofchoicestflowrsagarlandtoadorn
Hertresses,andherrurallabourscrown,
Asreapersoftarewonttheirharvestqueen.
Oftencustomsofthissortarepractised,notontheharvestfieldbutonthethreshingfloor.Thespiritof
thecorn,fleeingbeforethereapersastheycutdowntheripegrain,quitsthereapedcornandtakesrefuge

inthebarn,whereitappearsinthelastsheafthreshed,eithertoperishundertheblowsoftheflailorto
fleethencetothestillunthreshedcornofaneighbouringfarm.Thusthelastcorntobethreshediscalled
theMotherCornortheOldWoman.Sometimesthepersonwhogivesthelaststrokewiththeflailis
calledtheOldWoman,andiswraptinthestrawofthelastsheaf,orhasabundleofstrawfastenedonhis
back.Whetherwraptinthestraworcarryingitonhisback,heiscartedthroughthevillageamidgeneral
laughter.InsomedistrictsofBavaria,Thringen,andelsewhere,themanwhothreshesthelastsheafis
saidtohavetheOldWomanortheOldCornwomanheistiedupinstraw,carriedorcartedaboutthe
village,andsetdownatlastonthedunghill,ortakentothethreshingfloorofaneighbouringfarmerwho
hasnotfinishedhisthreshing.InPolandthemanwhogivesthelaststrokeatthreshingiscalledBaba
(OldWoman)heiswraptincornandwheeledthroughthevillage.SometimesinLithuaniathelastsheaf
isnotthreshed,butisfashionedintofemaleshapeandcarriedtothebarnofaneighbourwhohasnot
finishedhisthreshing.
InsomepartsofSweden,whenastrangerwomanappearsonthethreshingfloor,aflailisputroundher
body,stalksofcornarewoundroundherneck,acrownofearsisplacedonherhead,andthethreshers
callout,BeholdtheCornwoman.Herethestrangerwoman,thussuddenlyappearing,istakentobe
thecornspiritwhohasjustbeenexpelledbytheflailsfromthecornstalks.Inothercasesthefarmers
wiferepresentsthecornspirit.ThusintheCommuneofSalign(Vende),thefarmerswife,along
withthelastsheaf,istiedupinasheet,placedonalitter,andcarriedtothethreshingmachine,under
whichsheisshoved.Thenthewomanisdrawnoutandthesheafisthreshedbyitself,butthewomanis
tossedinthesheet,asifshewerebeingwinnowed.Itwouldbeimpossibletoexpressmoreclearlythe
identificationofthewomanwiththecornthanbythisgraphicimitationofthreshingandwinnowingher.
Inthesecustomsthespiritoftheripecornisregardedasold,oratleastasofmatureage.Hencethe
namesofMother,Grandmother,OldWoman,andsoforth.Butinothercasesthecornspiritisconceived
asyoung.ThusatSaldern,nearWolfenbuttel,whentheryehasbeenreaped,threesheavesaretied
togetherwitharopesoastomakeapuppetwiththecornearsforahead.Thispuppetiscalledthe
MaidenortheCornmaiden.Sometimesthecornspiritisconceivedasachildwhoisseparatedfromits
motherbythestrokeofthesickle.ThislastviewappearsinthePolishcustomofcallingouttotheman
whocutsthelasthandfulofcorn,Youhavecutthenavelstring.InsomedistrictsofWestPrussiathe
figuremadeoutofthelastsheafiscalledtheBastard,andaboyiswraptupinit.Thewomanwhobinds
thelastsheafandrepresentstheCornmotheristoldthatsheisabouttobebroughttobedshecrieslikea
womanintravail,andanoldwomaninthecharacterofgrandmotheractsasmidwife.Atlastacryis
raisedthatthechildisbornwhereupontheboywhoistiedupinthesheafwhimpersandsquallslikean
infant.Thegrandmotherwrapsasack,inimitationofswaddlingbands,roundthepretendedbaby,whois
carriedjoyfullytothebarn,lestheshouldcatchcoldintheopenair.InotherpartsofNorthGermanythe
lastsheaf,orthepuppetmadeoutofit,iscalledtheChild,theHarvestChild,andsoon,andtheycallout
tothewomanwhobindsthelastsheaf,youaregettingthechild.
InsomepartsofScotland,aswellasinthenorthofEngland,thelasthandfulofcorncutontheharvest
fieldwascalledthekirn,andthepersonwhocarrieditoffwassaidtowinthekirn.Itwasthendressed
uplikeachildsdollandwentbythenameofthekirnbaby,thekirndoll,ortheMaiden.In
Berwickshiredowntoaboutthemiddleofthenineteenthcenturytherewasaneagercompetitionamong
thereaperstocutthelastbunchofstandingcorn.Theygatheredrounditatalittledistanceandthrew
theirsicklesinturnatit,andthemanwhosucceededincuttingitthroughgaveittothegirlhepreferred.
Shemadethecornsocutintoakirndollyanddressedit,andthedollwasthentakentothefarmhouse
andhunguptheretillthenextharvest,whenitsplacewastakenbythenewkirndolly.AtSpottiswoode
inBerwickshirethereapingofthelastcornatharvestwascalledcuttingtheQueenalmostasoftenas
cuttingthekirn.Themodeofcuttingitwasnotbythrowingsickles.Oneofthereapersconsentedtobe
blindfolded,andhavingbeengivenasickleinhishandandturnedtwiceorthriceaboutbyhisfellows,
hewasbiddentogoandcutthekirn.Hisgropingaboutandmakingwildstrokesintheairwithhissickle

excitedmuchhilarity.Whenhehadtiredhimselfoutinvainandgivenupthetaskashopeless,another
reaperwasblindfoldedandpursuedthequest,andsoon,oneaftertheother,tillatlastthekirnwascut.
Thesuccessfulreaperwastossedupintheairwiththreecheersbyhisbrotherharvesters.Todecoratethe
roominwhichthekirnsupperwasheldatSpottiswoodeaswellasthegranary,wherethedancingtook
place,twowomenmadekirndolliesorQueenseveryyearandmanyoftheserusticeffigiesofthecorn
spiritmightbeseenhanginguptogether.
InsomepartsoftheHighlandsofScotlandthelasthandfulofcornthatiscutbythereapersonany
particularfarmiscalledtheMaiden,orinGaelicMaidhdeanbuain,literally,theshornMaiden.
SuperstitionsattachtothewinningoftheMaiden.Ifitisgotbyayoungperson,theythinkitanomen
thatheorshewillbemarriedbeforeanotherharvest.Forthatorotherreasonsthereisastrifebetween
thereapersastowhoshallgettheMaiden,andtheyresorttovariousstratagemsforthepurposeof
securingit.Oneofthem,forexample,willoftenleaveahandfulofcornuncutandcoveritupwithearth
tohideitfromtheotherreapers,tillalltherestofthecornonthefieldiscutdown.Severalmaytryto
playthesametrick,andtheonewhoiscoolestandholdsoutlongestobtainsthecoveteddistinction.
Whenithasbeencut,theMaidenisdressedwithribbonsintoasortofdollandaffixedtoawallofthe
farmhouse.InthenorthofScotlandtheMaideniscarefullypreservedtillYulemorning,whenitis
dividedamongthecattletomakethemthrivealltheyearround.IntheneighbourhoodofBalquhidder,
Perthshire,thelasthandfulofcorniscutbytheyoungestgirlonthefield,andismadeintotherudeform
ofafemaledoll,cladinapaperdress,anddeckedwithribbons.ItiscalledtheMaiden,andiskeptinthe
farmhouse,generallyabovethechimney,foragoodwhile,sometimestilltheMaidenofthenextyearis
broughtin.ThewriterofthisbookwitnessedtheceremonyofcuttingtheMaidenatBalquhidderin
September1888.AladyfriendinformedmethatasayounggirlshecuttheMaidenseveraltimesatthe
requestofthereapersintheneighbourhoodofPerth.ThenameoftheMaidenwasgiventothelast
handfulofstandingcornareaperheldthetopofthebunchwhileshecutit.Afterwardsthebunchwas
plaited,deckedwithribbons,andhungupinaconspicuousplaceonthewallofthekitchentillthenext
Maidenwasbroughtin.TheharvestsupperinthisneighbourhoodwasalsocalledtheMaidenthe
reapersdancedatit.
OnsomefarmsontheGareloch,inDumbartonshire,abouttheyear1830,thelasthandfulofstanding
cornwascalledtheMaiden.Itwasdividedintwo,plaited,andthencutwiththesicklebyagirl,who,it
wasthought,wouldbeluckyandwouldsoonbemarried.Whenitwascutthereapersgatheredtogether
andthrewtheirsicklesintheair.TheMaidenwasdressedwithribbonsandhunginthekitchennearthe
roof,whereitwaskeptforseveralyearswiththedateattached.SometimesfiveorsixMaidensmightbe
seenhangingatonceonhooks.TheharvestsupperwascalledtheKirn.InotherfarmsontheGareloch
thelasthandfulofcornwascalledtheMaidenheadortheHeaditwasneatlyplaited,sometimesdecked
withribbons,andhunginthekitchenforayear,whenthegrainwasgiventothepoultry.
InAberdeenshirethelastsheafcut,orMaiden,iscarriedhomeinmerryprocessionbytheharvesters.
Itisthenpresentedtothemistressofthehouse,whodressesituptobepreservedtillthefirstmarefoals.
TheMaidenisthentakendownandpresentedtothemareasitsfirstfood.Theneglectofthiswouldhave
untowardeffectsuponthefoal,anddisastrousconsequencesuponfarmoperationsgenerallyforthe
season.InthenortheastofAberdeenshirethelastsheafiscommonlycalledtheclyacksheaf.Itusedto
becutbytheyoungestgirlpresentandwasdressedasawoman.Beingbroughthomeintriumph,itwas
kepttillChristmasmorning,andthengiventoamareinfoal,iftherewasoneonthefarm,or,ifthere
wasnot,totheoldestcowincalf.Elsewherethesheafwasdividedbetweenallthecowsandtheircalves
orbetweenallthehorsesandthecattleofthefarm.InFifeshirethelasthandfulofcorn,knownasthe
Maiden,iscutbyayounggirlandmadeintotherudefigureofadoll,tiedwithribbons,bywhichitis
hungonthewallofthefarmkitchentillthenextspring.ThecustomofcuttingtheMaidenatharvestwas
alsoobservedinInvernessshireandSutherlandshire.

AsomewhatmaturerbutstillyouthfulageisassignedtothecornspiritbytheappellationsofBride,
Oatsbride,andWheatbride,whichinGermanyaresometimesbestowedbothonthelastsheafandon
thewomanwhobindsit.AtwheatharvestnearMglitz,inMoravia,asmallportionofthewheatisleft
standingafteralltheresthasbeenreaped.Thisremnantisthencut,amidtherejoicingofthereapers,by
ayounggirlwhowearsawreathofwheatenearsonherheadandgoesbythenameoftheWheatbride.
Itissupposedthatshewillbearealbridethatsameyear.NearRoslinandStonehaven,inScotland,the
lasthandfulofcorncutgotthenameofthebride,andshewasplacedoverthebressorchimneypiece
shehadaribbontiedbelowhernumerousears,andanotherroundherwaist.
SometimestheideaimpliedbythenameofBrideisworkedoutmorefullybyrepresentingthe
productivepowersofvegetationasbrideandbridegroom.ThusintheVorharzanOatsmanandanOats
woman,swathedinstraw,danceattheharvestfeast.InSouthSaxonyanOatsbridegroomandanOats
bridefiguretogetherattheharvestcelebration.TheOatsbridegroomisamancompletelywraptinoats
strawtheOatsbrideisamandressedinwomansclothes,butnotwraptinstraw.Theyaredrawnina
waggontothealehouse,wherethedancetakesplace.Atthebeginningofthedancethedancerspluck
thebunchesofoatsonebyonefromtheOatsbridegroom,whilehestrugglestokeepthem,tillatlasthe
iscompletelystriptofthemandstandsbare,exposedtothelaughterandjestsofthecompany.In
AustrianSilesiatheceremonyoftheWheatbrideiscelebratedbytheyoungpeopleattheendofthe
harvest.ThewomanwhoboundthelastsheafplaysthepartoftheWheatbride,wearingtheharvest
crownofwheatearsandflowersonherhead.Thusadorned,standingbesideherBridegroomina
waggonandattendedbybridesmaids,sheisdrawnbyapairofoxen,infullimitationofamarriage
procession,tothetavern,wherethedancingiskeptuptillmorning.Somewhatlaterintheseasonthe
weddingoftheOatsbrideiscelebratedwiththelikerusticpomp.AboutNeisse,inSilesia,anOatsking
andanOatsqueen,dressedupquaintlyasabridalpair,areseatedonaharrowanddrawnbyoxeninto
thevillage.
Intheselastinstancesthecornspiritispersonifiedindoubleformasmaleandfemale.Butsometimes
thespiritappearsinadoublefemaleformasbotholdandyoung,correspondingexactlytotheGreek
DemeterandPersephone,ifmyinterpretationofthesegoddessesisright.WehaveseenthatinScotland,
especiallyamongtheGaelicspeakingpopulation,thelastcorncutissometimescalledtheOldWifeand
sometimestheMaiden.NowtherearepartsofScotlandinwhichbothanOldWife(Cailleach)anda
Maidenarecutatharvest.Theaccountsofthiscustomarenotquiteclearandconsistent,butthegeneral
ruleseemstobethat,wherebothaMaidenandanOldWife(Cailleach)arefashionedoutofthereaped
cornatharvest,theMaidenismadeoutofthelaststalksleftstanding,andiskeptbythefarmeronwhose
landitwascutwhiletheOldWifeismadeoutofotherstalks,sometimesoutofthefirststalkscut,and
isregularlypassedontoalaggardfarmerwhohappenstobestillreapingafterhisbriskerneighbourhas
cutallhiscorn.ThuswhileeachfarmerkeepshisownMaiden,astheembodimentoftheyoungand
fruitfulspiritofthecorn,hepassesontheOldWifeassoonashecantoaneighbour,andsotheoldlady
maymaketheroundofallthefarmsinthedistrictbeforeshefindsaplaceinwhichtolayhervenerable
head.Thefarmerwithwhomshefinallytakesupherabodeisofcoursetheonewhohasbeenthelastof
allthecountrysidetofinishreapinghiscrops,andthusthedistinctionofentertainingherisratheran
invidiousone.Heisthoughttobedoomedtopovertyortobeundertheobligationofprovidingforthe
dearthofthetownshipintheensuingseason.SimilarlywesawthatinPembrokeshire,wherethelast
corncutiscalled,nottheMaiden,buttheHag,sheispassedonhastilytoaneighbourwhoisstillatwork
inhisfieldsandwhoreceiveshisagedvisitorwithanythingbutatransportofjoy.IftheOldWife
representsthecornspiritofthepastyear,assheprobablydoeswhereversheiscontrastedwithand
opposedtoaMaiden,itisnaturalenoughthatherfadedcharmsshouldhavelessattractionsforthe
husbandmanthanthebuxomformofherdaughter,whomaybeexpectedtobecomeinherturnthe
motherofthegoldengrainwhentherevolvingyearhasbroughtroundanotherautumn.Thesamedesire
togetridoftheeffeteMotheroftheCornbypalmingheroffonotherpeoplecomesoutclearlyinsome
ofthecustomsobservedatthecloseofthreshing,particularlyinthepracticeofpassingonahideous

strawpuppettoaneighbourfarmerwhoisstillthreshinghiscorn.
Theharvestcustomsjustdescribedarestrikinglyanalogoustothespringcustomswhichwereviewedin
anearlierpartofthiswork.(1)Asinthespringcustomsthetreespiritisrepresentedbothbyatreeand
byaperson,sointheharvestcustomsthecornspiritisrepresentedbothbythelastsheafandbythe
personwhocutsorbindsorthreshesit.Theequivalenceofthepersontothesheafisshownbygiving
himorherthesamenameasthesheafbywrappinghimorherinitandbytheruleobservedinsome
places,thatwhenthesheafiscalledtheMother,itmustbemadeupintohumanshapebytheoldest
marriedwoman,butthatwhenitiscalledtheMaiden,itmustbecutbytheyoungestgirl.Heretheageof
thepersonalrepresentativeofthecornspiritcorrespondswiththatofthesupposedageofthecornspirit,
justasthehumanvictimsofferedbytheMexicanstopromotethegrowthofthemaizevariedwiththe
ageofthemaize.ForintheMexican,asintheEuropean,customthehumanbeingswereprobably
representativesofthecornspiritratherthanvictimsofferedtoit.(2)Againthesamefertilisinginfluence
whichthetreespiritissupposedtoexertovervegetation,cattle,andevenwomenisascribedtothecorn
spirit.Thus,itssupposedinfluenceonvegetationisshownbythepracticeoftakingsomeofthegrainof
thelastsheaf(inwhichthecornspiritisregularlysupposedtobepresent),andscatteringitamongthe
youngcorninspringormixingitwiththeseedcorn.Itsinfluenceonanimalsisshownbygivingthelast
sheaftoamareinfoal,toacowincalf,andtohorsesatthefirstploughing.Lastly,itsinfluenceon
womenisindicatedbythecustomofdeliveringtheMothersheaf,madeintothelikenessofapregnant
woman,tothefarmerswifebythebeliefthatthewomanwhobindsthelastsheafwillhaveachildnext
yearperhaps,too,bytheideathatthepersonwhogetsitwillsoonbemarried.
Plainly,therefore,thesespringandharvestcustomsarebasedonthesameancientmodesofthought,and
formpartsofthesameprimitiveheathendom,whichwasdoubtlesspractisedbyourforefatherslong
beforethedawnofhistory.Amongstthemarksofaprimitiveritualwemaynotethefollowing:
1.Nospecialclassofpersonsissetapartfortheperformanceoftheritesinotherwords,thereareno
priests.Theritesmaybeperformedbyanyone,asoccasiondemands.
2.Nospecialplacesaresetapartfortheperformanceoftheritesinotherwords,therearenotemples.
Theritesmaybeperformedanywhere,asoccasiondemands.
3.Spirits,notgods,arerecognised.(a)Asdistinguishedfromgods,spiritsarerestrictedintheir
operationstodefinitedepartmentsofnature.Theirnamesaregeneral,notproper.Theirattributesare
generic,ratherthanindividualinotherwords,thereisanindefinitenumberofspiritsofeachclass,and
theindividualsofaclassareallmuchaliketheyhavenodefinitelymarkedindividualitynoaccepted
traditionsarecurrentastotheirorigin,life,adventures,andcharacter.(b)Ontheotherhandgods,as
distinguishedfromspirits,arenotrestrictedtodefinitedepartmentsofnature.Itistruethatthereis
generallysomeonedepartmentoverwhichtheypresideastheirspecialprovincebuttheyarenot
rigorouslyconfinedtoittheycanexerttheirpowerforgoodorevilinmanyotherspheresofnatureand
life.Again,theybearindividualorpropernames,suchasDemeter,Persephone,Dionysusandtheir
individualcharactersandhistoriesarefixedbycurrentmythsandtherepresentationsofart.
4.Theritesaremagicalratherthanpropitiatory.Inotherwords,thedesiredobjectsareattained,notby
propitiatingthefavourofdivinebeingsthroughsacrifice,prayer,andpraise,butbyceremonieswhich,as
Ihavealreadyexplained,arebelievedtoinfluencethecourseofnaturedirectlythroughaphysical
sympathyorresemblancebetweentheriteandtheeffectwhichitistheintentionoftheritetoproduce.
Judgedbythesetests,thespringandharvestcustomsofourEuropeanpeasantrydeservetorankas
primitive.Fornospecialclassofpersonsandnospecialplacesaresetexclusivelyapartfortheir
performancetheymaybeperformedbyanyone,masterorman,mistressormaid,boyorgirltheyare

practised,notintemplesorchurches,butinthewoodsandmeadows,besidebrooks,inbarns,onharvest
fieldsandcottagefloors.Thesupernaturalbeingswhoseexistenceistakenforgrantedinthemarespirits
ratherthandeities:theirfunctionsarelimitedtocertainwelldefineddepartmentsofnature:theirnames
aregeneralliketheBarleymother,theOldWoman,theMaiden,notpropernameslikeDemeter,
Persephone,Dionysus.Theirgenericattributesareknown,buttheirindividualhistoriesandcharacters
arenotthesubjectofmyths.Fortheyexistinclassesratherthanasindividuals,andthemembersofeach
classareindistinguishable.Forexample,everyfarmhasitsCornmother,oritsOldWoman,orits
MaidenbuteveryCornmotherismuchlikeeveryotherCornmother,andsowiththeOldWomenand
Maidens.Lastly,intheseharvests,asinthespringcustoms,theritualismagicalratherthanpropitiatory.
ThisisshownbythrowingtheCornmotherintotheriverinordertosecurerainanddewforthecrops
bymakingtheOldWomanheavyinordertogetaheavycropnextyearbystrewinggrainfromthelast
sheafamongsttheyoungcropsinspringandbygivingthelastsheaftothecattletomakethemthrive.

XLVI.TheCornMotherinManyLands
1.TheCornmotherinAmerica
EUROPEANpeoples,ancientandmodern,havenotbeensingularinpersonifyingthecornasamother
goddess.Thesamesimpleideahassuggesteditselftootheragriculturalracesindistantpartsofthe
world,andhasbeenappliedbythemtootherindigenouscerealsthanbarleyandwheat.IfEuropehasits
WheatmotheranditsBarleymother,AmericahasitsMaizemotherandtheEastIndiestheirRice
mother.ThesepersonificationsIwillnowillustrate,beginningwiththeAmericanpersonificationofthe
maize.
WehaveseenthatamongEuropeanpeoplesitisacommoncustomtokeeptheplaitedcornstalksofthe
lastsheaf,orthepuppetwhichisformedoutofthem,inthefarmhousefromharvesttoharvest.The
intentionnodoubtis,orratheroriginallywas,bypreservingtherepresentativeofthecornspiritto
maintainthespirititselfinlifeandactivitythroughouttheyear,inorderthatthecornmaygrowandthe
cropsbegood.Thisinterpretationofthecustomisatalleventsrenderedhighlyprobablebyasimilar
customobservedbytheancientPeruvians,andthusdescribedbytheoldSpanishhistorianAcosta:They
takeacertainportionofthemostfruitfulofthemaizethatgrowsintheirfarms,thewhichtheyputina
certaingranarywhichtheydocallPirua,withcertainceremonies,watchingthreenightstheyputthis
maizeintherichestgarmentstheyhave,andbeingthuswrappedanddressed,theyworshipthisPirua,
andholditingreatveneration,sayingitisthemotherofthemaizeoftheirinheritances,andthatbythis
meansthemaizeaugmentsandispreserved.Inthismonth[thesixthmonth,answeringtoMay]they
makeaparticularsacrifice,andthewitchesdemandofthisPiruaifithathstrengthsufficienttocontinue
untilthenextyearandifitanswersno,thentheycarrythismaizetothefarmtoburn,whencethey
broughtit,accordingtoeverymanspowerthentheymakeanotherPirua,withthesameceremonies,
sayingthattheyrenewit,totheendtheseedofmaizemaynotperish,andifitanswersthatithathforce
sufficienttolastlonger,theyleaveituntilthenextyear.Thisfoolishvanitycontinuethtothisday,andit
isverycommonamongsttheIndianstohavethesePiruas.
Inthisdescriptionofthecustomthereseemstobesomeerror.Probablyitwasthedressedupbunchof
maize,notthegranary(Pirua),whichwasworshippedbythePeruviansandregardedastheMotherof
theMaize.ThisisconfirmedbywhatweknowofthePeruviancustomfromanothersource.The
Peruvians,wearetold,believedallusefulplantstobeanimatedbyadivinebeingwhocausestheir
growth.Accordingtotheparticularplant,thesedivinebeingswerecalledtheMaizemother(Zara
mama),theQuinoamother(Quinoamama),theCocamother(Cocamama),andthePotatomother
(Axomama).Figuresofthesedivinemothersweremaderespectivelyofearsofmaizeandleavesofthe
quinoaandcocaplantstheyweredressedinwomensclothesandworshipped.ThustheMaizemother

wasrepresentedbyapuppetmadeofstalksofmaizedressedinfullfemaleattireandtheIndians
believedthatasmother,ithadthepowerofproducingandgivingbirthtomuchmaize.Probably,
therefore,Acostamisunderstoodhisinformant,andtheMotheroftheMaizewhichhedescribeswasnot
thegranary(Pirua),butthebunchofmaizedressedinrichvestments.ThePeruvianMotherofthe
Maize,liketheharvestMaidenatBalquhidder,waskeptforayearinorderthatbyhermeansthecorn
mightgrowandmultiply.Butlestherstrengthmightnotsufficetolasttillthenextharvest,shewas
askedinthecourseoftheyearhowshefelt,andifsheansweredthatshefeltweak,shewasburnedanda
freshMotheroftheMaizemade,totheendtheseedofmaizemaynotperish.Here,itmaybe
observed,wehaveastrongconfirmationoftheexplanationalreadygivenofthecustomofkillingthe
god,bothperiodicallyandoccasionally.TheMotherofthemaizewasallowed,asarule,tolivethrough
ayear,thatbeingtheperiodduringwhichherstrengthmightreasonablybesupposedtolastunimpaired
butonanysymptomofherstrengthfailingshewasputtodeath,andafreshandvigorousMotherofthe
Maizetookherplace,lestthemaizewhichdependedonherforitsexistenceshouldlanguishanddecay.
2.TheRicemotherintheEastIndies
IFTHEREADERstillfeelsanydoubtsastothemeaningoftheharvestcustomswhichhavebeen
practisedwithinlivingmemorybyEuropeanpeasants,thesedoubtsmayperhapsbedispelledby
comparingthecustomsobservedatthericeharvestbytheMalaysandDyaksoftheEastIndies.For
theseEasternpeopleshavenot,likeourpeasantry,advancedbeyondtheintellectualstageatwhichthe
customsoriginatedtheirtheoryandtheirpracticearestillinunisonforthemthequaintriteswhichin
Europehavelongdwindledintomerefossils,thepastimeofclownsandthepuzzleofthelearned,are
stilllivingrealitiesofwhichtheycanrenderanintelligibleandtruthfulaccount.Henceastudyoftheir
beliefsandusagesconcerningthericemaythrowsomelightonthetruemeaningoftheritualofthecorn
inancientGreeceandmodernEurope.
NowthewholeoftheritualwhichtheMalaysandDyaksobserveinconnexionwiththericeisfounded
onthesimpleconceptionofthericeasanimatedbyasoullikethatwhichthesepeopleattributeto
mankind.Theyexplainthephenomenaofreproduction,growth,decay,anddeathinthericeonthesame
principlesonwhichtheyexplainthecorrespondingphenomenainhumanbeings.Theyimaginethatin
thefibresoftheplant,asinthebodyofaman,thereisacertainvitalelement,whichissofar
independentoftheplantthatitmayforatimebecompletelyseparatedfromitwithoutfataleffects,
thoughifitsabsencebeprolongedbeyondcertainlimitstheplantwillwitheranddie.Thisvitalyet
separableelementiswhat,forthewantofabetterword,wemustcallthesoulofaplant,justasasimilar
vitalandseparableelementiscommonlysupposedtoconstitutethesoulofmanandonthistheoryor
mythoftheplantsoulisbuiltthewholeworshipofthecereals,justasonthetheoryormythofthe
humansoulisbuiltthewholeworshipofthedead,atoweringsuperstructurerearedonaslenderand
precariousfoundation.
Believingthericetobeanimatedbyasoullikethatofaman,theIndonesiansnaturallytreatitwiththe
deferenceandtheconsiderationwhichtheyshowtotheirfellows.Thustheybehavetowardsthericein
bloomastheybehavetowardsapregnantwomantheyabstainfromfiringgunsormakingloudnoisesin
thefield,lesttheyshouldsofrightenthesoulofthericethatitwouldmiscarryandbearnograinandfor
thesamereasontheywillnottalkofcorpsesordemonsinthericefields.Moreover,theyfeedthe
bloomingricewithfoodsofvariouskindswhicharebelievedtobewholesomeforwomenwithchildbut
whenthericeearsarejustbeginningtoform,theyarelookeduponasinfants,andwomengothroughthe
fieldsfeedingthemwithricepapasiftheywerehumanbabes.Insuchnaturalandobviouscomparisons
ofthebreedingplanttoabreedingwoman,andoftheyounggraintoayoungchild,istobesoughtthe
originofthekindredGreekconceptionoftheCornmotherandtheCorndaughter,Demeterand
Persephone.Butifthetimorousfemininesoulofthericecanbefrightenedintoamiscarriageevenby

loudnoises,itiseasytoimaginewhatherfeelingsmustbeatharvest,whenpeopleareunderthesad
necessityofcuttingdownthericewiththeknife.Atsocriticalaseasoneveryprecautionmustbeusedto
renderthenecessarysurgicaloperationofreapingasinconspicuousandaspainlessaspossible.Forthat
reasonthereapingoftheseedriceisdonewithknivesofapeculiarpattern,suchthatthebladesare
hiddeninthereapershandsanddonotfrightenthericespirittilltheverylastmoment,whenherheadis
sweptoffalmostbeforesheisawareandfromalikedelicatemotivethereapersatworkinthefields
employaspecialformofspeech,whichthericespiritcannotbeexpectedtounderstand,sothatshehas
nowarningorinklingofwhatisgoingforwardtilltheheadsofricearesafelydepositedinthebasket.
AmongtheIndonesianpeopleswhothuspersonifythericewemaytaketheKayansorBahausofCentral
Borneoastypical.InordertosecureanddetainthevolatilesoulofthericetheKayansresorttoanumber
ofdevices.Amongtheinstrumentsemployedforthispurposeareaminiatureladder,aspatula,anda
basketcontaininghooks,thorns,andcords.Withthespatulathepriestessstrokesthesouloftherice
downthelittleladderintothebasket,whereitisnaturallyheldfastbythehooks,thethorn,andthecord
andhavingthuscapturedandimprisonedthesoulsheconveysitintothericegranary.Sometimesa
bambooboxandanetareusedforthesamepurpose.Andinordertoensureagoodharvestforthe
followingyearitisnecessarynotonlytodetainthesoulofallthegrainsofricewhicharesafelystoredin
thegranary,butalsotoattractandrecoverthesoulofallthericethathasbeenlostthroughfallingtothe
earthorbeingeatenbydeer,apes,andpigs.Forthispurposeinstrumentsofvarioussortshavebeen
inventedbythepriests.One,forexample,isabamboovesselprovidedwithfourhooksmadefromthe
woodofafruittree,bymeansofwhichtheabsentricesoulmaybehookedanddrawnbackintothe
vessel,whichisthenhungupinthehouse.Sometimestwohandscarvedoutofthewoodofafruittree
areusedforthesamepurpose.AndeverytimethataKayanhousewifefetchesricefromthegranaryfor
theuseofherhousehold,shemustpropitiatethesoulsofthericeinthegranary,lesttheyshouldbeangry
atbeingrobbedoftheirsubstance.
Thesameneedofsecuringthesouloftherice,ifthecropistothrive,iskeenlyfeltbytheKarensof
Burma.Whenaricefielddoesnotflourish,theysupposethatthesoul(kelah)ofthericeisinsomeway
detainedfromtherice.Ifthesoulcannotbecalledback,thecropwillfail.Thefollowingformulaisused
inrecallingthekelah(soul)oftherice:Ocome,ricekelah,come!Cometothefield.Cometotherice.
Withseedofeachgender,come.ComefromtheriverKho,comefromtheriverKawfromtheplace
wheretheymeet,come.ComefromtheWest,comefromtheEast.Fromthethroatofthebird,fromthe
mawoftheape,fromthethroatoftheelephant.Comefromthesourcesofriversandtheirmouths.Come
fromthecountryoftheShanandBurman.Fromthedistantkingdomscome.Fromallgranariescome.O
ricekelah,cometotherice.
TheCornmotherofourEuropeanpeasantshashermatchintheRicemotheroftheMinangkabauersof
Sumatra.TheMinangkabauersdefinitelyattributeasoultorice,andwillsometimesassertthatrice
poundedintheusualwaytastesbetterthanricegroundinamill,becauseinthemillthebodyoftherice
wassobruisedandbatteredthatthesoulhasfledfromit.LiketheJavanesetheythinkthatthericeis
underthespecialguardianshipofafemalespiritcalledSaningSari,whoisconceivedassocloselyknit
upwiththeplantthatthericeoftengoesbyhername,aswiththeRomansthecornmightbecalled
Ceres.InparticularSaningSariisrepresentedbycertainstalksorgrainscalledindoeapadi,thatis,
literally,MotherofRice,anamethatisoftengiventotheguardianspiritherself.ThissocalledMother
ofRiceistheoccasionofanumberofceremoniesobservedattheplantingandharvestingofthericeas
wellasduringitspreservationinthebarn.Whentheseedofthericeisabouttobesowninthenurseryor
beddingoutground,whereunderthewetsystemofcultivationitisregularlyallowedtosproutbefore
beingtransplantedtothefields,thebestgrainsarepickedouttoformtheRicemother.Thesearethen
sowninthemiddleofthebed,andthecommonseedisplantedroundaboutthem.ThestateoftheRice
motherissupposedtoexertthegreatestinfluenceonthegrowthofthericeifshedroopsorpinesaway,
theharvestwillbebadinconsequence.ThewomanwhosowstheRicemotherinthenurseryletsher

hairhanglooseandafterwardsbathes,asameansofensuringanabundantharvest.Whenthetimecomes
totransplantthericefromthenurserytothefield,theRicemotherreceivesaspecialplaceeitherinthe
middleorinacornerofthefield,andaprayerorcharmisutteredasfollows:SaningSari,maya
measureofricecomefromastalkofriceandabasketfulfromarootmayyoubefrightenedneitherby
lightningnorbypassersby!Sunshinemakeyougladwiththestormmayyoubeatpeaceandmayrain
servetowashyourface!Whilethericeisgrowing,theparticularplantwhichwasthustreatedasthe
RicemotherislostsightofbutbeforeharvestanotherRicemotherisfound.Whenthecropisripefor
cutting,theoldestwomanofthefamilyorasorcerergoesouttolookforher.Thefirststalksseentobend
underapassingbreezearetheRicemother,andtheyaretiedtogetherbutnotcutuntilthefirstfruitsof
thefieldhavebeencarriedhometoserveasafestalmealforthefamilyandtheirfriends,nayevenfor
thedomesticanimalssinceitisSaningSarispleasurethatthebeastsalsoshouldpartakeofhergood
gifts.Afterthemealhasbeeneaten,theRicemotherisfetchedhomebypersonsingayattire,whocarry
herverycarefullyunderanumbrellainaneatlyworkedbagtothebarn,whereaplaceinthemiddleis
assignedtoher.Everyonebelievesthatshetakescareofthericeinthebarnandevenmultipliesitnot
uncommonly.
WhentheTomoriofCentralCelebesareabouttoplanttherice,theyburyinthefieldsomebetelasan
offeringtothespiritswhocausethericetogrow.Thericethatisplantedroundthisspotisthelasttobe
reapedatharvest.Atthecommencementofthereapingthestalksofthispatchofricearetiedtogether
intoasheaf,whichiscalledtheMotheroftheRice(inenopae),andofferingsintheshapeofrice,
fowlsliver,eggs,andotherthingsarelaiddownbeforeit.Whenalltherestofthericeinthefieldhas
beenreaped,theMotheroftheRiceiscutdownandcarriedwithduehonourtothericebarn,whereit
islaidonthefloor,andalltheothersheavesarepileduponit.TheTomori,wearetold,regardthe
MotheroftheRiceasaspecialofferingmadetothericespiritOmonga,whodwellsinthemoon.Ifthat
spiritisnottreatedwithproperrespect,forexampleifthepeoplewhofetchricefromthebarnarenot
decentlyclad,heisangryandpunishestheoffendersbyeatinguptwiceasmuchriceinthebarnasthey
havetakenoutofitsomepeoplehaveheardhimsmackinghislipsinthebarn,ashedevouredtherice.
OntheotherhandtheToradjasofCentralCelebes,whoalsopracticethecustomoftheRicemotherat
harvest,regardherastheactualmotherofthewholeharvest,andthereforekeephercarefully,lestinher
absencethegarneredstoreofriceshouldallmeltawayanddisappear.
Again,justasinScotlandtheoldandtheyoungspiritofthecornarerepresentedasanOldWife
(Cailleach)andaMaidenrespectively,sointheMalayPeninsulawefindboththeRicemotherandher
childrepresentedbydifferentsheavesorbundlesofearsontheharvestfield.Theceremonyofcutting
andbringinghometheSouloftheRicewaswitnessedbyMr.W.W.SkeatatChodoiinSelangoronthe
twentyeighthofJanuary1897.TheparticularbunchorsheafwhichwastoserveastheMotherofthe
Ricesoulhadpreviouslybeensoughtandidentifiedbymeansofthemarkingsorshapeoftheears.From
thissheafanagedsorceress,withmuchsolemnity,cutalittlebundleofsevenears,anointedthemwith
oil,tiedthemroundwithparticolouredthread,fumigatedthemwithincense,andhavingwraptthemina
whiteclothdepositedtheminalittleovalshapedbasket.ThesesevenearsweretheinfantSoulofthe
Riceandthelittlebasketwasitscradle.Itwascarriedhometothefarmershousebyanotherwoman,
whoheldupanumbrellatoscreenthetenderinfantfromthehotraysofthesun.Arrivedatthehousethe
Ricechildwaswelcomedbythewomenofthefamily,andlaid,cradleandall,onanewsleepingmat
withpillowsatthehead.Afterthatthefarmerswifewasinstructedtoobservecertainrulesoftaboofor
threedays,therulesbeinginmanyrespectsidenticalwiththosewhichhavetobeobservedforthreedays
afterthebirthofarealchild.Somethingofthesametendercarewhichisthusbestowedonthenewly
bornRicechildisnaturallyextendedalsotoitsparent,thesheaffromwhosebodyitwastaken.This
sheaf,whichremainsstandinginthefieldaftertheRicesoulhasbeencarriedhomeandputtobed,is
treatedasanewlymademotherthatistosay,youngshootsoftreesarepoundedtogetherandscattered
broadcasteveryeveningforthreesuccessivedays,andwhenthethreedaysareupyoutakethepulpofa
coconutandwhatarecalledgoatflowers,mixthemup,eatthemwithalittlesugar,andspitsomeof

themixtureoutamongtherice.Soafterarealbirththeyoungshootsofthejackfruit,theroseapple,
certainkindsofbanana,andthethinpulpofyoungcoconutsaremixedwithdriedfish,salt,acid,prawn
condiment,andthelikedaintiestoformasortofsalad,whichisadministeredtomotherandchildfor
threesuccessivedays.Thelastsheafisreapedbythefarmerswife,whocarriesitbacktothehouse,
whereitisthreshedandmixedwiththeRicesoul.ThefarmerthentakestheRicesoulanditsbasketand
depositsit,togetherwiththeproductofthelastsheaf,inthebigcircularricebinusedbytheMalays.
SomegrainsfromtheRicesoularemixedwiththeseedwhichistobesowninthefollowingyear.Inthis
RicemotherandRicechildoftheMalayPeninsulawemayseethecounterpartandinasensethe
prototypeoftheDemeterandPersephoneofancientGreece.
Oncemore,theEuropeancustomofrepresentingthecornspiritinthedoubleformofbrideand
bridegroomhasitsparallelinaceremonyobservedatthericeharvestinJava.Beforethereapersbeginto
cuttherice,thepriestorsorcererpicksoutanumberofearsofrice,whicharetiedtogether,smeared
withointment,andadornedwithflowers.Thusdeckedout,theearsarecalledthepadipengantn,that
is,theRicebrideandtheRicebridegroomtheirweddingfeastiscelebrated,andthecuttingoftherice
beginsimmediatelyafterwards.Lateron,whenthericeisbeinggotin,abridalchamberispartitionedoff
inthebarn,andfurnishedwithanewmat,alamp,andallkindsoftoiletarticles.Sheavesofrice,to
representtheweddingguests,areplacedbesidetheRicebrideandtheRicebridegroom.Nottillthishas
beendonemaythewholeharvestbehousedinthebarn.Andforthefirstfortydaysafterthericehas
beenhoused,noonemayenterthebarn,forfearofdisturbingthenewlyweddedpair.
IntheislandsofBaliandLombok,whenthetimeofharvesthascome,theownerofthefieldhimself
makesabeginningbycuttingtheprincipalricewithhisownhandsandbindingitintotwosheaves,
eachcomposedofonehundredandeightstalkswiththeirleavesattachedtothem.Oneofthesheaves
representsamanandtheotherawoman,andtheyarecalledhusbandandwife.Themalesheafis
woundaboutwiththreadsothatnoneoftheleavesarevisible,whereasthefemalesheafhasitsleaves
bentoverandtiedsoastoresembletherollofawomanshair.Sometimes,forfurtherdistinction,a
necklaceofricestrawistiedroundthefemalesheaf.Whenthericeisbroughthomefromthefield,the
twosheavesrepresentingthehusbandandwifearecarriedbyawomanonherhead,andarethelastofall
tobedepositedinthebarn.Theretheyarelaidtorestonasmallerectionoronacushionofricestraw.
Thewholearrangement,weareinformed,hasforitsobjecttoinducethericetoincreaseandmultiplyin
thegranary,sothattheownermaygetmoreoutofitthanheputin.HencewhenthepeopleofBalibring
thetwosheaves,thehusbandandwife,intothebarn,theysay,Increaseyeandmultiplywithout
ceasing.Whenallthericeinthebarnhasbeenusedup,thetwosheavesrepresentingthehusbandand
wiferemainintheemptybuildingtilltheyhavegraduallydisappearedorbeendevouredbymice.The
pinchofhungersometimesdrivesindividualstoeatupthericeofthesetwosheaves,butthewretches
whodosoareviewedwithdisgustbytheirfellowsandbrandedaspigsanddogs.Nobodywouldever
selltheseholysheaveswiththerestoftheirprofanebrethren.
Thesamenotionofthepropagationofthericebyamaleandfemalepowerfindsexpressionamongstthe
SzisofUpperBurma.Whenthepaddy,thatis,thericewiththehusksstillonit,hasbeendriedandpiled
inaheapforthreshing,allthefriendsofthehouseholdareinvitedtothethreshingfloor,andfoodand
drinkarebroughtout.Theheapofpaddyisdividedandonehalfspreadoutforthreshing,whiletheother
halfisleftpiledup.Onthepilefoodandspiritsareset,andoneoftheelders,addressingthefatherand
motherofthepaddyplant,praysforplenteousharvestsinfuture,andbegsthattheseedmaybearmany
fold.Thenthewholepartyeat,drink,andmakemerry.Thisceremonyatthethreshingflooristheonly
occasionwhenthesepeopleinvokethefatherandmotherofthepaddy.
3.TheSpiritoftheCornembodiedinHumanBeings

THUSthetheorywhichrecognisesintheEuropeanCornmother,Cornmaiden,andsoforth,the
embodimentinvegetableformoftheanimatingspiritofthecropsisamplyconfirmedbytheevidenceof
peoplesinotherpartsoftheworld,who,becausetheyhavelaggedbehindtheEuropeanracesinmental
development,retainforthatveryreasonakeenersenseoftheoriginalmotivesforobservingthoserustic
riteswhichamongourselveshavesunktothelevelofmeaninglesssurvivals.Thereadermay,however,
rememberthataccordingtoMannhardt,whosetheoryIamexpounding,thespiritofthecornmanifests
itselfnotmerelyinvegetablebutalsoinhumanformthepersonwhocutsthelastsheaforgivesthelast
strokeatthreshingpassesforatemporaryembodimentofthecornspirit,justasmuchasthebunchof
cornwhichhereapsorthreshes.Nowintheparallelswhichhavebeenhithertoadducedfromthe
customsofpeoplesoutsideEuropethespiritofthecropsappearsonlyinvegetableform.Itremains,
therefore,toprovethatotherracesbesidesourEuropeanpeasantryhaveconceivedthespiritofthecrops
asincorporateinorrepresentedbylivingmenandwomen.Suchaproof,Imayremindthereader,is
germanetothethemeofthisbookforthemoreinstanceswediscoverofhumanbeingsrepresentingin
themselvesthelifeoranimatingspiritofplants,thelessdifficultywillbefeltatclassingamongstthem
theKingoftheWoodatNemi.
TheMandansandMinnitareesofNorthAmericausedtoholdafestivalinspringwhichtheycalledthe
cornmedicinefestivalofthewomen.TheythoughtthatacertainOldWomanwhoNeverDiesmadethe
cropstogrow,andthat,livingsomewhereinthesouth,shesentthemigratorywaterfowlinspringasher
tokensandrepresentatives.EachsortofbirdrepresentedaspecialkindofcropcultivatedbytheIndians:
thewildgoosestoodforthemaize,thewildswanforthegourds,andthewildduckforthebeans.So
whenthefeatheredmessengersoftheOldWomanbegantoarriveinspringtheIndianscelebratedthe
cornmedicinefestivalofthewomen.Scaffoldsweresetup,onwhichthepeoplehungdriedmeatand
otherthingsbywayofofferingstotheOldWomanandonacertaindaytheoldwomenofthetribe,as
representativesoftheOldWomanwhoNeverDies,assembledatthescaffoldseachbearinginherhand
anearofmaizefastenedtoastick.Theyfirstplantedthesesticksintheground,thendancedroundthe
scaffolds,andfinallytookupthesticksagainintheirarms.Meanwhileoldmenbeatdrumsandshook
rattlesasamusicalaccompanimenttotheperformanceoftheoldwomen.Further,youngwomencame
andputdriedfleshintothemouthsoftheoldwomen,forwhichtheyreceivedinreturnagrainofthe
consecratedmaizetoeat.Threeorfourgrainsoftheholycornwerealsoplacedinthedishesofthe
youngwomen,tobeafterwardscarefullymixedwiththeseedcorn,whichtheyweresupposedto
fertilise.Thedriedfleshhungonthescaffoldbelongedtotheoldwomen,becausetheyrepresentedthe
OldWomanwhoNeverDies.Asimilarcornmedicinefestivalwasheldinautumnforthepurposeof
attractingtheherdsofbuffaloesandsecuringasupplyofmeat.Atthattimeeverywomancarriedinher
armsanuprootedplantofmaize.TheygavethenameoftheOldWomanwhoNeverDiesbothtothe
maizeandtothosebirdswhichtheyregardedassymbolsofthefruitsoftheearth,andtheyprayedto
theminautumnsaying,Mother,havepityonus!sendusnotthebittercoldtoosoon,lestwehavenot
meatenough!letnotallthegamedepart,thatwemayhavesomethingforthewinter!Inautumn,when
thebirdswereflyingsouth,theIndiansthoughtthattheyweregoinghometotheOldWomanandtaking
tohertheofferingsthathadbeenhunguponthescaffolds,especiallythedriedmeat,whichsheate.Here
thenwehavethespiritordivinityofthecornconceivedasanOldWomanandrepresentedinbodily
formbyoldwomen,whointheircapacityofrepresentativesreceivesomeatleastoftheofferingswhich
areintendedforher.
InsomepartsofIndiatheharvestgoddessGauriisrepresentedatoncebyanunmarriedgirlandbya
bundleofwildbalsamplants,whichismadeupintothefigureofawomananddressedassuchwith
mask,garments,andornaments.Boththehumanandthevegetablerepresentativeofthegoddessare
worshipped,andtheintentionofthewholeceremonyappearstobetoensureagoodcropofrice.
4.TheDoublePersonificationoftheCornasMotherandDaughter

COMPAREDwiththeCornmotherofGermanyandtheHarvestmaidenofScotland,theDemeterand
PersephoneofGreecearelateproductsofreligiousgrowth.YetasmembersoftheAryanfamilythe
Greeksmustatonetimeoranotherhaveobservedharvestcustomslikethosewhicharestillpractisedby
Celts,Teutons,andSlavs,andwhich,farbeyondthelimitsoftheAryanworld,havebeenpractisedby
theIndiansofPeruandmanypeoplesoftheEastIndiesasufficientproofthattheideasonwhichthese
customsrestarenotconfinedtoanyonerace,butnaturallysuggestthemselvestoalluntutoredpeoples
engagedinagriculture.Itisprobable,therefore,thatDemeterandPersephone,thosestatelyandbeautiful
figuresofGreekmythology,grewoutofthesamesimplebeliefsandpracticeswhichstillprevailamong
ourmodernpeasantry,andthattheywererepresentedbyrudedollsmadeoutoftheyellowsheaveson
manyaharvestfieldlongbeforetheirbreathingimageswerewroughtinbronzeandmarblebythe
masterhandsofPhidiasandPraxiteles.Areminiscenceofthatoldentimeascent,sotosay,ofthe
harvestfieldlingeredtothelastinthetitleoftheMaiden(Kore)bywhichPersephonewascommonly
known.ThusiftheprototypeofDemeteristheCornmotherofGermany,theprototypeofPersephoneis
theHarvestmaidenwhich,autumnafterautumn,isstillmadefromthelastsheafontheBraesof
Balquhidder.Indeed,ifweknewmoreaboutthepeasantfarmersofancientGreece,weshouldprobably
findthateveninclassicaltimestheycontinuedannuallytofashiontheirCornmothers(Demeters)and
Maidens(Persephones)outoftheripecornontheharvestfields.ButunfortunatelytheDemeterand
Persephonewhomweknowwerethedenizensoftowns,themajesticinhabitantsoflordlytemplesitwas
forsuchdivinitiesalonethattherefinedwritersofantiquityhadeyestheuncouthritesperformedby
rusticsamongstthecornwerebeneaththeirnotice.Eveniftheynoticedthem,theyprobablynever
dreamedofanyconnexionbetweenthepuppetofcornstalksonthesunnystubblefieldandthemarble
divinityintheshadycoolnessofthetemple.Stillthewritingsevenofthesetownbredandcultured
personsaffordusanoccasionalglimpseofaDemeterasrudeastherudestthataremoteGermanvillage
canshow.ThusthestorythatIasionbegatachildPlutus(wealth,abundance)byDemeterona
thriceploughedfield,maybecomparedwiththeWestPrussiancustomofthemockbirthofachildon
theharvestfield.InthisPrussiancustomthepretendedmotherrepresentstheCornmother
(ytniamatka)thepretendedchildrepresentstheCornbaby,andthewholeceremonyisacharmto
ensureacropnextyear.Thecustomandthelegendalikepointtoanolderpracticeofperforming,among
thesproutingcropsinspringorthestubbleinautumn,oneofthoserealormimicactsofprocreationby
which,aswehaveseen,primitivemanoftenseekstoinfusehisownvigorouslifeintothelanguidor
decayingenergiesofnature.AnotherglimpseofthesavageunderthecivilisedDemeterwillbeafforded
fartheron,whenwecometodealwithanotheraspectofthoseagriculturaldivinities.
Thereadermayhaveobservedthatinmodernfolkcustomsthecornspiritisgenerallyrepresentedeither
byaCornmother(OldWoman,etc.)orbyaMaiden(Harvestchild,etc.),notbothbyaCornmother
andbyaMaiden.WhythendidtheGreeksrepresentthecornbothasamotherandadaughter?
IntheBretoncustomthemothersheafalargefiguremadeoutofthelastsheafwithasmallcorndoll
insideofitclearlyrepresentsboththeCornmotherandtheCorndaughter,thelatterstillunborn.
Again,inthePrussiancustomjustreferredto,thewomanwhoplaysthepartofCornmotherrepresents
theripegrainthechildappearstorepresentnextyearscorn,whichmayberegarded,naturallyenough,
asthechildofthisyearscorn,sinceitisfromtheseedofthisyearsharvestthatnextyearscropwill
spring.Further,wehaveseenthatamongtheMalaysofthePeninsulaandsometimesamongthe
HighlandersofScotlandthespiritofthegrainisrepresentedindoublefemaleform,bothasoldand
young,bymeansofearstakenalikefromtheripecrop:inScotlandtheoldspiritofthecornappearsas
theCarlineorCailleach,theyoungspiritastheMaidenwhileamongtheMalaysofthePeninsulathe
twospiritsofthericearedefinitelyrelatedtoeachotherasmotherandchild.Judgedbytheseanalogies
DemeterwouldbetheripecropofthisyearPersephonewouldbetheseedcorntakenfromitandsown
inautumn,toreappearinspring.ThedescentofPersephoneintothelowerworldwouldthusbea

mythicalexpressionforthesowingoftheseedherreappearanceinspringwouldsignifythesproutingof
theyoungcorn.InthiswaythePersephoneofoneyearbecomestheDemeterofthenext,andthismay
verywellhavebeentheoriginalformofthemyth.Butwhenwiththeadvanceofreligiousthoughtthe
corncametobepersonifiednolongerasabeingthatwentthroughthewholecycleofbirth,growth,
reproduction,anddeathwithinayear,butasanimmortalgoddess,consistencyrequiredthatoneofthe
twopersonifications,themotherorthedaughter,shouldbesacrificed.However,thedoubleconception
ofthecornasmotheranddaughtermayhavebeentoooldandtoodeeplyrootedinthepopularmindto
beeradicatedbylogic,andsoroomhadtobefoundinthereformedmythbothformotheranddaughter.
ThiswasdonebyassigningtoPersephonethecharacterofthecornsowninautumnandsproutingin
spring,whileDemeterwaslefttoplaythesomewhatvaguepartoftheheavymotherofthecorn,who
lamentsitsannualdisappearanceunderground,andrejoicesoveritsreappearanceinspring.Thusinstead
ofaregularsuccessionofdivinebeings,eachlivingayearandthengivingbirthtohersuccessor,the
reformedmythexhibitstheconceptionoftwodivineandimmortalbeings,oneofwhomannually
disappearsintoandreappearsfromtheground,whiletheotherhaslittletodobuttoweepandrejoiceat
theappropriateseasons.
ThistheoryofthedoublepersonificationofthecorninGreekmythassumesthatbothpersonifications
(DemeterandPersephone)areoriginal.ButifwesupposethattheGreekmythstartedwithasingle
personification,theaftergrowthofasecondpersonificationmayperhapsbeexplainedasfollows.On
lookingovertheharvestcustomswhichhavebeenpassedunderreview,itmaybenoticedthatthey
involvetwodistinctconceptionsofthecornspirit.Forwhereasinsomeofthecustomsthecornspiritis
treatedasimmanentinthecorn,inothersitisregardedasexternaltoit.Thuswhenaparticularsheafis
calledbythenameofthecornspirit,andisdressedinclothesandhandledwithreverence,thespiritis
clearlyregardedasimmanentinthecorn.Butwhenthespiritissaidtomakethecropsgrowbypassing
throughthem,ortoblightthegrainofthoseagainstwhomshehasagrudge,sheisapparentlyconceived
asdistinctfrom,thoughexercisingpowerover,thecorn.Conceivedinthelattermodethecornspiritisin
afairwaytobecomeadeityofthecorn,ifshehasnotbecomesoalready.Ofthesetwoconceptions,that
ofthecornspiritasimmanentinthecornisdoubtlesstheolder,sincetheviewofnatureasanimatedby
indwellingspiritsappearstohavegenerallyprecededtheviewofitascontrolledbyexternaldeitiesto
putitshortly,animismprecedesdeism.IntheharvestcustomsofourEuropeanpeasantrythecornspirit
seemstobeconceivednowasimmanentinthecornandnowasexternaltoit.InGreekmythology,on
theotherhand,Demeterisviewedratherasthedeityofthecornthanasthespiritimmanentinit.The
processofthoughtwhichleadstothechangefromtheonemodeofconceptiontotheotheris
anthropomorphism,orthegradualinvestmentoftheimmanentspiritswithmoreandmoreofthe
attributesofhumanity.Asmenemergefromsavagerythetendencytohumanisetheirdivinitiesgains
strengthandthemorehumanthesebecomethewideristhebreachwhichseversthemfromthenatural
objectsofwhichtheywereatfirstmerelytheanimatingspiritsorsouls.Butintheprogressupwards
fromsavagerymenofthesamegenerationdonotmarchabreastandthoughthenewanthropomorphic
godsmaysatisfythereligiouswantsofthemoredevelopedintelligences,thebackwardmembersofthe
communitywillclingbypreferencetotheoldanimisticnotions.Nowwhenthespiritofanynatural
objectsuchasthecornhasbeeninvestedwithhumanqualities,detachedfromtheobject,andconverted
intoadeitycontrollingit,theobjectitselfis,bythewithdrawalofitsspirit,leftinanimateitbecomes,so
tosay,aspiritualvacuum.Butthepopularfancy,intolerantofsuchavacuum,inotherwords,unableto
conceiveanythingasinanimate,immediatelycreatesafreshmythicalbeing,withwhichitpeoplesthe
vacantobject.Thusthesamenaturalobjectcomestoberepresentedinmythologybytwodistinctbeings:
firstbytheoldspiritnowseparatedfromitandraisedtotherankofadeitysecond,bythenewspirit,
freshlycreatedbythepopularfancytosupplytheplacevacatedbytheoldspiritonitselevationtoa
highersphere.Insuchcasestheproblemformythologyis,havinggottwodistinctpersonificationsofthe
sameobject,whattodowiththem?Howaretheirrelationstoeachothertobeadjusted,androomfound
forbothinthemythologicalsystem?Whentheoldspiritornewdeityisconceivedascreatingor
producingtheobjectinquestion,theproblemiseasilysolved.Sincetheobjectisbelievedtobeproduced

bytheoldspirit,andanimatedbythenewone,thelatter,asthesouloftheobject,mustalsooweits
existencetotheformerthustheoldspiritwillstandtothenewoneasproducertoproduced,thatis,in
mythology,asparenttochild,andifbothspiritsareconceivedasfemale,theirrelationwillbethatof
motheranddaughter.Inthisway,startingfromasinglepersonificationofthecornasfemale,mythic
fancymightintimereachadoublepersonificationofitasmotheranddaughter.Itwouldbeveryrashto
affirmthatthiswasthewayinwhichthemythofDemeterandPersephoneactuallytookshapebutit
seemsalegitimateconjecturethatthereduplicationofdeities,ofwhichDemeterandPersephonefurnish
anexample,maysometimeshaveariseninthewayindicated.Forexample,amongthepairsofdeities
dealtwithinaformerpartofthiswork,ithasbeenshownthattherearegroundsforregardingbothIsis
andhercompaniongodOsirisaspersonificationsofthecorn.Onthehypothesisjustsuggested,Isis
wouldbetheoldcornspirit,andOsiriswouldbethenewerone,whoserelationshiptotheoldspiritwas
variouslyexplainedasthatofbrother,husband,andsonforofcoursemythologywouldalwaysbefree
toaccountforthecoexistenceofthetwodivinitiesinmorewaysthanone.Itmustnot,however,be
forgottenthatthisproposedexplanationofsuchpairsofdeitiesasDemeterandPersephoneorIsisand
Osirisispurelyconjectural,andisonlygivenforwhatitisworth.

XLVII.Lityerses
1.SongsoftheCornReapers
INTHEPRECEDINGpagesanattempthasbeenmadetoshowthatintheCornmotherandHarvest
maidenofNorthernEuropewehavetheprototypesofDemeterandPersephone.Butanessentialfeature
isstillwantingtocompletetheresemblance.AleadingincidentintheGreekmythisthedeathand
resurrectionofPersephoneitisthisincidentwhich,coupledwiththenatureofthegoddessasadeityof
vegetation,linksthemythwiththecultsofAdonis,Attis,Osiris,andDionysusanditisinvirtueofthis
incidentthatthemythfindsaplaceinourdiscussionoftheDyingGod.Itremains,therefore,tosee
whethertheconceptionoftheannualdeathandresurrectionofagod,whichfiguressoprominentlyin
thesegreatGreekandOrientalworships,hasnotalsoitsoriginoritsanalogyintherusticritesobserved
byreapersandvinedressersamongstthecornshocksandthevines.
Ourgeneralignoranceofthepopularsuperstitionsandcustomsoftheancientshasalreadybeen
confessed.Buttheobscuritywhichthushangsoverthefirstbeginningsofancientreligionisfortunately
dissipatedtosomeextentinthepresentcase.TheworshipsofOsiris,Adonis,andAttishadtheir
respectiveseats,aswehaveseen,inEgypt,Syria,andPhrygiaandineachofthesecountriescertain
harvestandvintagecustomsareknowntohavebeenobserved,theresemblanceofwhichtoeachother
andtothenationalritesstrucktheancientsthemselves,and,comparedwiththeharvestcustomsof
modernpeasantsandbarbarians,seemstothrowsomelightontheoriginoftheritesinquestion.
Ithasbeenalreadymentioned,ontheauthorityofDiodorus,thatinancientEgyptthereaperswerewont
tolamentoverthefirstsheafcut,invokingIsisasthegoddesstowhomtheyowedthediscoveryofcorn.
TotheplaintivesongorcrysungorutteredbyEgyptianreaperstheGreeksgavethenameofManeros,
andexplainedthenamebyastorythatManeros,theonlysonofthefirstEgyptianking,invented
agriculture,and,dyinganuntimelydeath,wasthuslamentedbythepeople.Itappears,however,thatthe
nameManerosisduetoamisunderstandingoftheformulamaanehra,Cometothehouse,whichhas
beendiscoveredinvariousEgyptianwritings,forexampleinthedirgeofIsisintheBookoftheDead.
Hencewemaysupposethatthecrymaanehrawaschantedbythereapersoverthecutcornasadirge
forthedeathofthecornspirit(IsisorOsiris)andaprayerforitsreturn.Asthecrywasraisedoverthe
firstearsreaped,itwouldseemthatthecornspiritwasbelievedbytheEgyptianstobepresentinthefirst
corncutandtodieunderthesickle.WehaveseenthatintheMalayPeninsulaandJavathefirstearsof
ricearetakentorepresenteithertheSouloftheRiceortheRicebrideandtheRicebridegroom.Inparts

ofRussiathefirstsheafistreatedmuchinthesamewaythatthelastsheafistreatedelsewhere.Itis
reapedbythemistressherself,takenhomeandsetintheplaceofhonourneartheholypictures
afterwardsitisthreshedseparately,andsomeofitsgrainismixedwiththenextyearsseedcorn.In
Aberdeenshire,whilethelastcorncutwasgenerallyusedtomaketheclyacksheaf,itwassometimes,
thoughrarely,thefirstcorncutthatwasdressedupasawomanandcarriedhomewithceremony.
InPhoeniciaandWesternAsiaaplaintivesong,likethatchantedbytheEgyptiancornreapers,wassung
atthevintageandprobably(tojudgebyanalogy)alsoatharvest.ThisPhoeniciansongwascalledbythe
GreeksLinusorAilinusandexplained,likeManeros,asalamentforthedeathofayouthnamedLinus.
AccordingtoonestoryLinuswasbroughtupbyashepherd,buttorntopiecesbyhisdogs.But,like
Maneros,thenameLinusorAilinusappearstohaveoriginatedinaverbalmisunderstanding,andtobe
nothingmorethanthecryailanu,thatisWoetous,whichthePhoeniciansprobablyutteredin
mourningforAdonisatleastSapphoseemstohaveregardedAdonisandLinusasequivalent.
InBithyniaalikemournfulditty,calledBormusorBorimus,waschantedbyMariandynianreapers.
Bormuswassaidtohavebeenahandsomeyouth,thesonofKingUpiasorofawealthyand
distinguishedman.Onesummerday,watchingthereapersatworkinhisfields,hewenttofetchthema
drinkofwaterandwasneverheardofmore.Sothereaperssoughtforhim,callinghiminplaintive
strains,whichtheycontinuedtochantatharvesteverafterwards.
2.KillingtheCornspirit
INPHRYGIAthecorrespondingsong,sungbyharvestersbothatreapingandatthreshing,wascalled
Lityerses.Accordingtoonestory,LityerseswasabastardsonofMidas,KingofPhrygia,anddweltat
Celaenae.Heusedtoreapthecorn,andhadanenormousappetite.Whenastrangerhappenedtoenterthe
cornfieldortopassbyit,Lityersesgavehimplentytoeatanddrink,thentookhimtothecornfieldson
thebanksoftheMaeanderandcompelledhimtoreapalongwithhim.Lastly,itwashiscustomtowrap
thestrangerinasheaf,cutoffhisheadwithasickle,andcarryawayhisbody,swathedinthecornstalks.
ButatlastHerculesundertooktoreapwithhim,cutoffhisheadwiththesickle,andthrewhisbodyinto
theriver.AsHerculesisreportedtohaveslainLityersesinthesamewaythatLityersesslewothers,we
mayinferthatLityersesusedtothrowthebodiesofhisvictimsintotheriver.Accordingtoanother
versionofthestory,Lityerses,asonofMidas,waswonttochallengepeopletoareapingmatchwith
him,andifhevanquishedthemheusedtothrashthembutonedayhemetwithastrongerreaper,who
slewhim.
TherearesomegroundsforsupposingthatinthesestoriesofLityerseswehavethedescriptionofa
Phrygianharvestcustominaccordancewithwhichcertainpersons,especiallystrangerspassingthe
harvestfield,wereregularlyregardedasembodimentsofthecornspirit,andassuchwereseizedbythe
reapers,wraptinsheaves,andbeheaded,theirbodies,boundupinthecornstalks,beingafterwards
thrownintowaterasaraincharm.Thegroundsforthissuppositionare,first,theresemblanceofthe
LityersesstorytotheharvestcustomsofEuropeanpeasantry,and,second,thefrequencyofhuman
sacrificesofferedbysavageracestopromotethefertilityofthefields.Wewillexaminethesegrounds
successively,beginningwiththeformer.
IncomparingthestorywiththeharvestcustomsofEurope,threepointsdeservespecialattention,
namely:I.thereapingmatchandthebindingofpersonsinthesheavesII.thekillingofthecornspiritor
hisrepresentativesIII.thetreatmentofvisitorstotheharvestfieldorofstrangerspassingit.
I.Inregardtothefirsthead,wehaveseenthatinmodernEuropethepersonwhocutsorbindsor
threshesthelastsheafisoftenexposedtoroughtreatmentatthehandsofhisfellowlabourers.For
example,heisboundupinthelastsheaf,and,thusencased,iscarriedorcartedabout,beaten,drenched

withwater,thrownonadunghill,andsoforth.Or,ifheissparedthishorseplay,heisatleastthesubject
ofridiculeoristhoughttobedestinedtosuffersomemisfortuneinthecourseoftheyear.Hencethe
harvestersarenaturallyreluctanttogivethelastcutatreapingorthelaststrokeatthreshingortobind
thelastsheaf,andtowardsthecloseoftheworkthisreluctanceproducesanemulationamongthe
labourers,eachstrivingtofinishhistaskasfastaspossible,inorderthathemayescapetheinvidious
distinctionofbeinglast.Forexample,intheMittelmarkdistrictofPrussia,whentheryehasbeenreaped,
andthelastsheavesareabouttobetiedup,thebindersstandintworowsfacingeachother,every
womanwithhersheafandherstrawropebeforeher.Atagivensignaltheyalltieuptheirsheaves,and
theonewhoisthelasttofinishisridiculedbytherest.Notonlyso,buthersheafismadeupintohuman
shapeandcalledtheOldMan,andshemustcarryithometothefarmyard,wheretheharvestersdancein
acircleroundherandit.ThentheytaketheOldMantothefarmeranddeliverittohimwiththewords,
WebringtheOldMantotheMaster.Hemaykeephimtillhegetsanewone.AfterthattheOldMan
issetupagainstatree,whereheremainsforalongtime,thebuttofmanyjests.AtAschbachinBavaria,
whenthereapingisnearlyfinished,thereaperssay,Now,wewilldriveouttheOldMan.Eachofthem
setshimselftoreapapatchofcornasfastashecanhewhocutsthelasthandfulorthelaststalkis
greetedbytherestwithanexultingcry,YouhavetheOldMan.Sometimesablackmaskisfastened
onthereapersfaceandheisdressedinwomansclothesorifthereaperisawoman,sheisdressedin
mansclothes.Adancefollows.AtthesuppertheOldMangetstwiceaslargeaportionofthefoodas
theothers.Theproceedingsaresimilaratthreshingthepersonwhogivesthelaststrokeissaidtohave
theOldMan.Atthesuppergiventothethreshershehastoeatoutofthecreamladleandtodrinkagreat
deal.Moreover,heisquizzedandteasedinallsortsofwaystillhefreeshimselffromfurtherannoyance
bytreatingtheotherstobrandyorbeer.
Theseexamplesillustratethecontestsinreaping,threshing,andbindingwhichtakeplaceamongstthe
harvesters,fromtheirunwillingnesstosuffertheridiculeanddiscomfortincurredbytheonewho
happenstofinishhisworklast.Itwillberememberedthatthepersonwhoislastatreaping,binding,or
threshing,isregardedastherepresentativeofthecornspirit,andthisideaismorefullyexpressedby
bindinghimorherincornstalks.Thelattercustomhasbeenalreadyillustrated,butafewmoreinstances
maybeadded.AtKloxin,nearStettin,theharvesterscallouttothewomanwhobindsthelastsheaf,
YouhavetheOldMan,andmustkeephim.Aslateasthefirsthalfofthenineteenthcenturythe
customwastotieupthewomanherselfinpeasestraw,andbringherwithmusictothefarmhouse,where
theharvestersdancedwithhertillthepeasestrawfelloff.InothervillagesroundStettin,whenthelast
harvestwaggonisbeingloaded,thereisaregularraceamongstthewomen,eachstrivingnottobelast.
ForshewhoplacesthelastsheafonthewaggoniscalledtheOldMan,andiscompletelyswathedin
cornstalkssheisalsodeckedwithflowers,andflowersandahelmetofstrawareplacedonherhead.In
solemnprocessionshecarriestheharvestcrowntothesquire,overwhoseheadsheholdsitwhileshe
uttersastringofgoodwishes.Atthedancewhichfollows,theOldManhastherighttochoosehis,or
ratherher,partneritisanhonourtodancewithhim.AtGommern,nearMagdeburg,thereaperwhocuts
thelastearsofcornisoftenwraptupincornstalkssocompletelythatitishardtoseewhetherthereisa
maninthebundleornot.Thuswraptupheistakenbyanotherstalwartreaperonhisback,andcarried
roundthefieldamidstthejoyouscriesoftheharvesters.AtNeuhausen,nearMerseburg,thepersonwho
bindsthelastsheafiswraptinearsofoatsandsalutedastheOatsman,whereupontheothersdance
roundhim.AtBrie,IsledeFrance,thefarmerhimselfistiedupinthefirstsheaf.AtDingelstedt,inthe
districtofErfurt,downtothefirsthalfofthenineteenthcenturyitwasthecustomtotieupamaninthe
lastsheaf.HewascalledtheOldMan,andwasbroughthomeonthelastwaggon,amidhuzzasand
music.Onreachingthefarmyardhewasrolledroundthebarnanddrenchedwithwater.AtNrdlingen
inBavariathemanwhogivesthelaststrokeatthreshingiswraptinstrawandrolledonthethreshing
floor.InsomepartsofOberpfalz,Bavaria,heissaidtogettheOldMan,iswraptinstraw,andcarried
toaneighbourwhohasnotyetfinishedhisthreshing.InSilesiathewomanwhobindsthelastsheafhas
tosubmittoagooddealofhorseplay.Sheispushed,knockeddown,andtiedupinthesheaf,after

whichsheiscalledthecornpuppet(Kornpopel).
InallthesecasestheideaisthatthespiritofthecorntheOldManofvegetationisdrivenoutofthe
cornlastcutorlastthreshed,andlivesinthebarnduringthewinter.Atsowingtimehegoesoutagainto
thefieldstoresumehisactivityasanimatingforceamongthesproutingcorn.
II.PassingtothesecondpointofcomparisonbetweentheLityersesstoryandEuropeanharvestcustoms,
wehavenowtoseethatinthelatterthecornspiritisoftenbelievedtobekilledatreapingorthreshing.
IntheRomsdalandotherpartsofNorway,whenthehaymakingisover,thepeoplesaythattheOld
Haymanhasbeenkilled.InsomepartsofBavariathemanwhogivesthelaststrokeatthreshingissaid
tohavekilledtheCornman,theOatsman,ortheWheatman,accordingtothecrop.IntheCantonof
Tillot,inLorraine,atthreshingthelastcornthemenkeeptimewiththeirflails,callingoutastheythresh,
WearekillingtheOldWoman!WearekillingtheOldWoman!Ifthereisanoldwomaninthehouse
sheiswarnedtosaveherself,orshewillbestruckdead.NearRagnit,inLithuania,thelasthandfulof
cornisleftstandingbyitself,withthewords,TheOldWoman(Boba)issittinginthere.Thenayoung
reaperwhetshisscytheand,withastrongsweep,cutsdownthehandful.Itisnowsaidofhimthathe
hascutofftheBobasheadandhereceivesagratuityfromthefarmerandajugfulofwateroverhis
headfromthefarmerswife.Accordingtoanotheraccount,everyLithuanianreapermakeshastetofinish
histaskfortheOldRyewomanlivesinthelaststalks,andwhoevercutsthelaststalkskillstheOld
Ryewoman,andbykillingherhebringstroubleonhimself.InWilkischken,inthedistrictofTilsit,the
manwhocutsthelastcorngoesbythenameofthekilleroftheRyewoman.InLithuania,again,the
cornspiritisbelievedtobekilledatthreshingaswellasatreaping.Whenonlyasinglepileofcorn
remainstobethreshed,allthethresherssuddenlystepbackafewpaces,asifatthewordofcommand.
Thentheyfalltowork,plyingtheirflailswiththeutmostrapidityandvehemence,tilltheycometothe
lastbundle.Uponthistheyflingthemselveswithalmostfranticfury,strainingeverynerve,andraining
blowsonittillthewordHalt!ringsoutsharplyfromtheleader.Themanwhoseflailisthelasttofall
afterthecommandtostophasbeengivenisimmediatelysurroundedbyalltherest,cryingoutthathe
hasstrucktheOldRyewomandead.Hehastoexpiatethedeedbytreatingthemtobrandyand,likethe
manwhocutsthelastcorn,heisknownasthekilleroftheOldRyewoman.SometimesinLithuania
theslaincornspiritwasrepresentedbyapuppet.Thusafemalefigurewasmadeoutofcornstalks,
dressedinclothes,andplacedonthethreshingfloor,undertheheapofcornwhichwastobethreshed
last.WhoeverthereaftergavethelaststrokeatthreshingstrucktheOldWomandead.Wehavealready
metwithexamplesofburningthefigurewhichrepresentsthecornspirit.IntheEastRidingofYorkshire
acustomcalledburningtheOldWitchisobservedonthelastdayofharvest.Asmallsheafofcornis
burntonthefieldinafireofstubblepeasareparchedatthefireandeatenwithaliberalallowanceof
aleandtheladsandlassesrompabouttheflamesandamusethemselvesbyblackeningeachothers
faces.Sometimes,again,thecornspiritisrepresentedbyaman,wholiesdownunderthelastcornitis
thresheduponhisbody,andthepeoplesaythattheOldManisbeingbeatentodeath.Wesawthat
sometimesthefarmerswifeisthrust,togetherwiththelastsheaf,underthethreshingmachine,asifto
threshher,andthatafterwardsapretenceismadeofwinnowingher.AtVolders,intheTyrol,husksof
cornarestuckbehindtheneckofthemanwhogivesthelaststrokeatthreshing,andheisthrottledwitha
strawgarland.Ifheistall,itisbelievedthatthecornwillbetallnextyear.Thenheistiedonabundle
andflungintotheriver.InCarinthia,thethresherwhogavethelaststroke,andthepersonwhountiedthe
lastsheafonthethreshingfloor,areboundhandandfootwithstrawbands,andcrownsofstraware
placedontheirheads.Thentheyaretied,facetoface,onasledge,draggedthroughthevillage,andflung
intoabrook.Thecustomofthrowingtherepresentativeofthecornspiritintoastream,likethatof
drenchinghimwithwater,is,asusual,araincharm.
III.Thusfartherepresentativesofthecornspirithavegenerallybeenthemanorwomanwhocuts,binds,
orthreshesthelastcorn.Wenowcometothecasesinwhichthecornspiritisrepresentedeitherbya
strangerpassingtheharvestfield(asintheLityersestale),orbyavisitorenteringitforthefirsttime.All

overGermanyitiscustomaryforthereapersorthresherstolayholdofpassingstrangersandbindthem
witharopemadeofcornstalks,tilltheypayaforfeitandwhenthefarmerhimselforoneofhisguests
entersthefieldorthethreshingfloorforthefirsttime,heistreatedinthesameway.Sometimestherope
isonlytiedroundhisarmorhisfeetorhisneck.Butsometimesheisregularlyswathedincorn.Thusat
SolrinNorway,whoeverentersthefield,behethemasterorastranger,istiedupinasheafandmust
payaransom.IntheneighbourhoodofSoest,whenthefarmervisitstheflaxpullersforthefirsttime,he
iscompletelyenvelopedinflax.Passersbyarealsosurroundedbythewomen,tiedupinflax,and
compelledtostandbrandy.AtNrdlingenstrangersarecaughtwithstrawropesandtiedupinasheaf
tilltheypayaforfeit.AmongtheGermansofHaselberg,inWestBohemia,assoonasafarmerhadgiven
thelastcorntobethreshedonthethreshingfloor,hewasswathedinitandhadtoredeemhimselfbya
presentofcakes.InthecantonofPutanges,inNormandy,apretenceoftyinguptheownerofthelandin
thelastsheafofwheatisstillpractised,oratleastwasstillpractisedsomequarterofacenturyago.The
taskfallstothewomenalone.Theythrowthemselvesontheproprietor,seizehimbythearms,thelegs,
andthebody,throwhimtotheground,andstretchhimonthelastsheaf.Thenashowismadeofbinding
him,andtheconditionstobeobservedattheharvestsupperaredictatedtohim.Whenhehasaccepted
them,heisreleasedandallowedtogetup.AtBrie,IsledeFrance,whenanyonewhodoesnotbelongto
thefarmpassesbytheharvestfield,thereapersgivechase.Iftheycatchhim,theybindhiminasheafan
dbitehim,oneaftertheother,intheforehead,crying,Youshallcarrythekeyofthefield.Tohavethe
keyisanexpressionusedbyharvesterselsewhereinthesenseoftocutorbindorthreshthelastsheaf
hence,itisequivalenttothephrasesYouhavetheOldMan,YouaretheOldMan,whichare
addressedtothecutter,binder,orthresherofthelastsheaf.Therefore,whenastranger,asatBrie,istied
upinasheafandtoldthathewillcarrythekeyofthefield,itisasmuchastosaythatheistheOld
Man,thatis,anembodimentofthecornspirit.Inhoppicking,ifawelldressedstrangerpassesthehop
yard,heisseizedbythewomen,tumbledintothebin,coveredwithleaves,andnotreleasedtillhehas
paidafine.
Thus,liketheancientLityerses,modernEuropeanreapershavebeenwonttolayholdofapassing
strangerandtiehimupinasheaf.Itisnottobeexpectedthattheyshouldcompletetheparallelby
cuttingoffhisheadbutiftheydonottakesuchastrongstep,theirlanguageandgesturesareatleast
indicativeofadesiretodoso.Forinstance,inMecklenburgonthefirstdayofreaping,ifthemasteror
mistressorastrangerentersthefield,ormerelypassesbyit,allthemowersfacetowardshimand
sharpentheirscythes,clashingtheirwhetstonesagainsttheminunison,asiftheyweremakingreadyto
mow.Thenthewomanwholeadsthemowersstepsuptohimandtiesabandroundhisleftarm.Hemust
ransomhimselfbypaymentofaforfeit.NearRatzeburg,whenthemasterorotherpersonofmarkenters
thefieldorpassesbyit,alltheharvestersstopworkandmarchtowardshiminabody,themenwiththeir
scythesinfront.Onmeetinghimtheyformupinline,menandwomen.Themenstickthepolesoftheir
scythesintheground,astheydoinwhettingthemthentheytakeofftheircapsandhangthemonthe
scythes,whiletheirleaderstandsforwardandmakesaspeech.Whenhehasdone,theyallwhettheir
scythesinmeasuredtimeveryloudly,afterwhichtheyputontheircaps.Twoofthewomenbindersthen
comeforwardoneofthemtiesthemasterorstranger(asthecasemaybe)withcornearsorwithasilken
bandtheotherdeliversarhymingaddress.Thefollowingarespecimensofthespeechesmadebythe
reaperontheseoccasions.InsomepartsofPomeraniaeverypasserbyisstopped,hiswaybeingbarred
withacornrope.Thereapersformacircleroundhimandsharpentheirscythes,whiletheirleadersays:
Themenareready,
Thescythesarebent,
Thecornisgreatandsmall,
Thegentlemanmustbemowed.
Thentheprocessofwhettingthescythesisrepeated.AtRamin,inthedistrictofStettin,thestranger,
standingencircledbythereapers,isthusaddressed:

Wellstrokethegentleman
Withournakedsword,
Wherewithweshearmeadowsandfields.
Weshearprincesandlords.
Labourersareoftenathirst
Ifthegentlemanwillstandbeerandbrandy
Thejokewillsoonbeover.
But,ifourprayerhedoesnotlike,
Theswordhasarighttostrike.
Onthethreshingfloorstrangersarealsoregardedasembodimentsofthecornspirit,andaretreated
accordingly.AtWiedinghardeinSchleswigwhenastrangercomestothethreshingfloorheisasked,
ShallIteachyoutheflaildance?Ifhesaysyes,theyputthearmsofthethreshingflailroundhisneck
asifhewereasheafofcorn,andpressthemtogethersotightthatheisnearlychoked.Insomeparishes
ofWermland(Sweden),whenastrangerentersthethreshingfloorwherethethreshersareatwork,they
saythattheywillteachhimthethreshingsong.Thentheyputaflailroundhisneckandastrawrope
abouthisbody.Also,aswehaveseen,ifastrangerwomanentersthethreshingfloor,thethreshersputa
flailroundherbodyandawreathofcornstalksroundherneck,andcallout,SeetheCornwoman!See!
thatishowtheCornmaidenlooks!
ThusintheseharvestcustomsofmodernEuropethepersonwhocuts,binds,orthreshesthelastcornis
treatedasanembodimentofthecornspiritbybeingwraptupinsheaves,killedinmimicryby
agriculturalimplements,andthrownintothewater.ThesecoincidenceswiththeLityersesstoryseemto
provethatthelatterisagenuinedescriptionofanoldPhrygianharvestcustom.Butsinceinthemodern
parallelsthekillingofthepersonalrepresentativeofthecornspiritisnecessarilyomittedoratmost
enactedonlyinmimicry,itisdesirabletoshowthatinrudesocietyhumanbeingshavebeencommonly
killedasanagriculturalceremonytopromotethefertilityofthefields.Thefollowingexampleswill
makethisplain.
3.HumanSacrificesfortheCrops
THEINDIANSofGuayaquil,inEcuador,usedtosacrificehumanbloodandtheheartsofmenwhen
theysowedtheirfields.ThepeopleofCaar(nowCuencainEcuador)usedtosacrificeahundred
childrenannuallyatharvest.ThekingsofQuito,theIncasofPeru,andforalongtimetheSpaniards
wereunabletosuppressthebloodyrite.AtaMexicanharvestfestival,whenthefirstfruitsoftheseason
wereofferedtothesun,acriminalwasplacedbetweentwoimmensestones,balancedoppositeeach
other,andwascrushedbythemastheyfelltogether.Hisremainswereburied,andafeastanddance
followed.Thissacrificewasknownasthemeetingofthestones.Wehaveseenthattheancient
Mexicansalsosacrificedhumanbeingsatallthevariousstagesinthegrowthofthemaize,theageofthe
victimscorrespondingtotheageofthecornfortheysacrificednewbornbabesatsowing,olderchildren
whenthegrainhadsprouted,andsoontillitwasfullyripe,whentheysacrificedoldmen.Nodoubtthe
correspondencebetweentheagesofthevictimsandthestateofthecornwassupposedtoenhancethe
efficacyofthesacrifice.
ThePawneesannuallysacrificedahumanvictiminspringwhentheysowedtheirfields.Thesacrifice
wasbelievedtohavebeenenjoinedonthembytheMorningStar,orbyacertainbirdwhichtheMorning
Starhadsenttothemasitsmessenger.Thebirdwasstuffedandpreservedasapowerfultalisman.They
thoughtthatanomissionofthissacrificewouldbefollowedbythetotalfailureofthecropsofmaize,
beans,andpumpkins.Thevictimwasacaptiveofeithersex.Hewascladinthegayestandmostcostly
attire,wasfattenedonthechoicestfood,andcarefullykeptinignoranceofhisdoom.Whenhewasfat

enough,theyboundhimtoacrossinthepresenceofthemultitude,dancedasolemndance,thenclefthis
headwithatomahawkandshothimwitharrows.Accordingtoonetrader,thesquawsthencutpiecesof
fleshfromthevictimsbody,withwhichtheygreasedtheirhoesbutthiswasdeniedbyanothertrader
whohadbeenpresentattheceremony.Immediatelyafterthesacrificethepeopleproceededtoplanttheir
fields.AparticularaccounthasbeenpreservedofthesacrificeofaSiouxgirlbythePawneesinApril
1837or1838.Thegirlwasfourteenorfifteenyearsoldandhadbeenkeptforsixmonthsandwell
treated.Twodaysbeforethesacrificeshewasledfromwigwamtowigwam,accompaniedbythewhole
councilofchiefsandwarriors.Ateachlodgeshereceivedasmallbilletofwoodandalittlepaint,which
shehandedtothewarriornexttoher.Inthiswayshecalledateverywigwam,receivingateachthesame
presentofwoodandpaint.OnthetwentysecondofAprilshewastakenouttobesacrificed,attendedby
thewarriors,eachofwhomcarriedtwopiecesofwoodwhichhehadreceivedfromherhands.Herbody
havingbeenpaintedhalfredandhalfblack,shewasattachedtoasortofgibbetandroastedforsome
timeoveraslowfire,thenshottodeathwitharrows.Thechiefsacrificernexttoreoutherheartand
devouredit.Whileherfleshwasstillwarmitwascutinsmallpiecesfromthebones,putinlittlebaskets,
andtakentoaneighbouringcornfield.Theretheheadchieftookapieceofthefleshfromabasketand
squeezedadropofblooduponthenewlydepositedgrainsofcorn.Hisexamplewasfollowedbytherest,
tillalltheseedhadbeensprinkledwiththeblooditwasthencoveredupwithearth.Accordingtoone
accountthebodyofthevictimwasreducedtoakindofpaste,whichwasrubbedorsprinklednotonlyon
themaizebutalsoonthepotatoes,thebeans,andotherseedstofertilisethem.Bythissacrificethey
hopedtoobtainplentifulcrops.
AWestAfricanqueenusedtosacrificeamanandwomaninthemonthofMarch.Theywerekilledwith
spadesandhoes,andtheirbodiesburiedinthemiddleofafieldwhichhadjustbeentilled.AtLagosin
Guineaitwasthecustomannuallytoimpaleayounggirlalivesoonafterthespringequinoxinorderto
securegoodcrops.Alongwithherweresacrificedsheepandgoats,which,withyams,headsofmaize,
andplantains,werehungonstakesoneachsideofher.Thevictimswerebredupforthepurposeinthe
kingsseraglio,andtheirmindshadbeensopowerfullywroughtuponbythefetishmenthattheywent
cheerfullytotheirfate.AsimilarsacrificeusedtobeannuallyofferedatBenin,inGuinea.TheMarimos,
aBechuanatribe,sacrificeahumanbeingforthecrops.Thevictimchosenisgenerallyashort,stout
man.Heisseizedbyviolenceorintoxicatedandtakentothefields,whereheiskilledamongstthewheat
toserveasseed(sotheyphraseit).Afterhisbloodhascoagulatedinthesun,itisburnedalongwith
thefrontalbone,thefleshattachedtoit,andthebraintheashesarethenscatteredoverthegroundto
fertiliseit.Therestofthebodyiseaten.
TheBagobosofMindanao,oneofthePhilippineIslands,offerahumansacrificebeforetheysowtheir
rice.Thevictimisaslave,whoishewntopiecesintheforest.ThenativesofBontocintheinteriorof
Luzon,oneofthePhilippineIslands,arepassionateheadhunters.Theirprincipalseasonsforhead
huntingarethetimesofplantingandreapingtherice.Inorderthatthecropmayturnoutwell,every
farmmustgetatleastonehumanheadatplantingandoneatsowing.Theheadhuntersgooutintwosor
threes,lieinwaitforthevictim,whethermanorwoman,cutoffhisorherhead,hands,andfeet,and
bringthembackinhastetothevillage,wheretheyarereceivedwithgreatrejoicings.Theskullsareat
firstexposedonthebranchesoftwoorthreedeadtreeswhichstandinanopenspaceofeveryvillage
surroundedbylargestoneswhichserveasseats.Thepeoplethendanceroundthemandfeastandget
drunk.Whenthefleshhasdecayedfromthehead,themanwhocutitofftakesithomeandpreservesit
asarelic,whilehiscompanionsdothesamewiththehandsandthefeet.Similarcustomsareobserved
bytheApoyaos,anothertribeintheinteriorofLuzon.
AmongtheLhotaNaga,oneofthemanysavagetribeswhoinhabitthedeepruggedlabyrinthineglens
whichwindintothemountainsfromtherichvalleyofBrahmapootra,itusedtobeacommoncustomto
chopofftheheads,hands,andfeetofpeopletheymetwith,andthentostickuptheseveredextremities
intheirfieldstoensureagoodcropofgrain.Theyborenoillwillwhatevertothepersonsuponwhom

theyoperatedinthisunceremoniousfashion.Oncetheyflayedaboyalive,carvedhiminpieces,and
distributedthefleshamongallthevillagers,whoputitintotheircornbinstoavertbadluckandensure
plentifulcropsofgrain.TheGondsofIndia,aDravidianrace,kidnappedBrahmanboys,andkeptthem
asvictimstobesacrificedonvariousoccasions.Atsowingandreaping,afteratriumphalprocession,one
oftheladswasslainbybeingpuncturedwithapoisonedarrow.Hisbloodwasthensprinkledoverthe
ploughedfieldortheripecrop,andhisfleshwasdevoured.TheOraonsorUraonsofChotaNagpur
worshipagoddesscalledAnnaKuari,whocangivegoodcropsandmakeamanrich,buttoinduceher
todosoitisnecessarytoofferhumansacrifices.InspiteofthevigilanceoftheBritishGovernmentthese
sacrificesaresaidtobestillsecretlyperpetrated.Thevictimsarepoorwaifsandstrayswhose
disappearanceattractsnonotice.AprilandMayarethemonthswhenthecatchpolesareoutontheprowl.
Atthattimestrangerswillnotgoaboutthecountryalone,andparentswillnotlettheirchildrenenterthe
jungleorherdthecattle.Whenacatchpolehasfoundavictim,hecutshisthroatandcarriesawaythe
upperpartoftheringfingerandthenose.Thegoddesstakesupherabodeinthehouseofanymanwho
hasofferedherasacrifice,andfromthattimehisfieldsyieldadoubleharvest.Theformsheassumesin
thehouseisthatofasmallchild.Whenthehouseholderbringsinhisunhuskedrice,hetakesthegoddess
androllsherovertheheaptodoubleitssize.Butshesoongrowsrestlessandcanonlybepacifiedwith
thebloodoffreshhumanvictims.
Butthebestknowncaseofhumansacrifices,systematicallyofferedtoensuregoodcrops,issuppliedby
theKhondsorKandhs,anotherDravidianraceinBengal.Ourknowledgeofthemisderivedfromthe
accountswrittenbyBritishofficerswho,aboutthemiddleofthenineteenthcentury,wereengagedin
puttingthemdown.ThesacrificeswereofferedtotheEarthGoddess.TariPennuorBeraPennu,and
werebelievedtoensuregoodcropsandimmunityfromalldiseaseandaccidents.Inparticular,theywere
considerednecessaryinthecultivationofturmeric,theKhondsarguingthattheturmericcouldnothavea
deepredcolourwithoutthesheddingofblood.ThevictimorMeriah,ashewascalled,wasacceptableto
thegoddessonlyifhehadbeenpurchased,orhadbeenbornavictimthatis,thesonofavictimfather,
orhadbeendevotedasachildbyhisfatherorguardian.Khondsindistressoftensoldtheirchildrenfor
victims,consideringthebeatificationoftheirsoulscertain,andtheirdeath,forthebenefitofmankind,
themosthonourablepossible.AmanofthePanuatribewasonceseentoloadaKhondwithcurses,and
finallytospitinhisface,becausetheKhondhadsoldforavictimhisownchild,whomthePanuahad
wishedtomarry.ApartyofKhonds,whosawthis,immediatelypressedforwardtocomfortthesellerof
hischild,saying,Yourchildhasdiedthatalltheworldmaylive,andtheEarthGoddessherselfwill
wipethatspittlefromyourface.Thevictimswereoftenkeptforyearsbeforetheyweresacrificed.
Beingregardedasconsecratedbeings,theyweretreatedwithextremeaffection,mingledwithdeference,
andwerewelcomedwherevertheywent.AMeriahyouth,onattainingmaturity,wasgenerallygivena
wife,whowasherselfusuallyaMeriahorvictimandwithherhereceivedaportionoflandandfarm
stock.Theiroffspringwerealsovictims.HumansacrificeswereofferedtotheEarthGoddessbytribes,
branchesoftribes,orvillages,bothatperiodicalfestivalsandonextraordinaryoccasions.Theperiodical
sacrificesweregenerallysoarrangedbytribesanddivisionsoftribesthateachheadofafamilywas
enabled,atleastonceayear,toprocureashredoffleshforhisfields,generallyaboutthetimewhenhis
chiefcropwaslaiddown.
Themodeofperformingthesetribalsacrificeswasasfollows.Tenortwelvedaysbeforethesacrifice,
thevictimwasdevotedbycuttingoffhishair,which,untilthen,hadbeenkeptunshorn.Crowdsofmen
andwomenassembledtowitnessthesacrificenonemightbeexcluded,sincethesacrificewasdeclared
tobeforallmankind.Itwasprecededbyseveraldaysofwildrevelryandgrossdebauchery.Ontheday
beforethesacrificethevictim,dressedinanewgarment,wasledforthfromthevillageinsolemn
procession,withmusicanddancing,totheMeriahgrove,aclumpofhighforesttreesstandingalittle
wayfromthevillageanduntouchedbytheaxe.Theretheytiedhimtoapost,whichwassometimes
placedbetweentwoplantsofthesankissarshrub.Hewasthenanointedwithoil,ghee,andturmeric,and
adornedwithflowersandaspeciesofreverence,whichitisnoteasytodistinguishfromadoration,

waspaidtohimthroughouttheday.Agreatstrugglenowarosetoobtainthesmallestrelicfromhis
personaparticleoftheturmericpastewithwhichhewassmeared,oradropofhisspittle,wasesteemed
ofsovereignvirtue,especiallybythewomen.Thecrowddancedroundtheposttomusic,andaddressing
theearth,said,OGod,weofferthissacrificetoyougiveusgoodcrops,seasons,andhealththen
speakingtothevictimtheysaid,Weboughtyouwithaprice,anddidnotseizeyounowwesacrifice
youaccordingtocustom,andnosinrestswithus.
Onthelastmorningtheorgies,whichhadbeenscarcelyinterruptedduringthenight,wereresumed,and
continuedtillnoon,whentheyceased,andtheassemblyproceededtoconsummatethesacrifice.The
victimwasagainanointedwithoil,andeachpersontouchedtheanointedpart,andwipedtheoilonhis
ownhead.Insomeplacestheytookthevictiminprocessionroundthevillage,fromdoortodoor,where
somepluckedhairfromhishead,andothersbeggedforadropofhisspittle,withwhichtheyanointed
theirheads.Asthevictimmightnotbeboundnormakeanyshowofresistance,thebonesofhisarms
and,ifnecessary,hislegswerebrokenbutoftenthisprecautionwasrenderedunnecessarybystupefying
himwithopium.Themodeofputtinghimtodeathvariedindifferentplaces.Oneofthecommonest
modesseemstohavebeenstrangulation,orsqueezingtodeath.Thebranchofagreentreewascleft
severalfeetdownthemiddlethevictimsneck(inotherplaces,hischest)wasinsertedinthecleft,
whichthepriest,aidedbyhisassistants,strovewithallhisforcetoclose.Thenhewoundedthevictim
slightlywithhisaxe,whereuponthecrowdrushedatthewretchandhewedthefleshfromthebones,
leavingtheheadandbowelsuntouched.Sometimeshewascutupalive.InChinnaKimedyhewas
draggedalongthefields,surroundedbythecrowd,who,avoidinghisheadandintestines,hackedthe
fleshfromhisbodywiththeirknivestillhedied.Anotherverycommonmodeofsacrificeinthesame
districtwastofastenthevictimtotheproboscisofawoodenelephant,whichrevolvedonastoutpost,
and,asitwhirledround,thecrowdcutthefleshfromthevictimwhileliferemained.Insomevillages
MajorCampbellfoundasmanyasfourteenofthesewoodenelephants,whichhadbeenusedat
sacrifices.Inonedistrictthevictimwasputtodeathslowlybyfire.Alowstagewasformed,slopingon
eithersidelikearoofuponittheylaidthevictim,hislimbswoundroundwithcordstoconfinehis
struggles.Fireswerethenlightedandhotbrandsapplied,tomakehimrollupanddowntheslopesofthe
stageaslongaspossibleforthemoretearsheshedthemoreabundantwouldbethesupplyofrain.Next
daythebodywascuttopieces.
Thefleshcutfromthevictimwasinstantlytakenhomebythepersonswhohadbeendeputedbyeach
villagetobringit.Tosecureitsrapidarrival,itwassometimesforwardedbyrelaysofmen,and
conveyedwithpostalfleetnessfiftyorsixtymiles.Ineachvillageallwhostayedathomefastedrigidly
untiltheflesharrived.Thebearerdepositeditintheplaceofpublicassembly,whereitwasreceivedby
thepriestandtheheadsoffamilies.Thepriestdivideditintotwoportions,oneofwhichheofferedtothe
EarthGoddessbyburyingitinaholeinthegroundwithhisbackturned,andwithoutlooking.Theneach
manaddedalittleearthtoburyit,andthepriestpouredwateronthespotfromahillgourd.Theother
portionoffleshhedividedintoasmanysharesastherewereheadsofhousespresent.Eachheadofa
houserolledhisshredoffleshinleaves,andburieditinhisfavouritefield,placingitintheearthbehind
hisbackwithoutlooking.Insomeplaceseachmancarriedhisportionoffleshtothestreamwhich
wateredhisfields,andtherehungitonapole.Forthreedaysthereafternohousewassweptand,inone
district,strictsilencewasobserved,nofiremightbegivenout,nowoodcut,andnostrangersreceived.
Theremainsofthehumanvictim(namely,thehead,bowels,andbones)werewatchedbystrongparties
thenightafterthesacrificeandnextmorningtheywereburned,alongwithawholesheep,onafuneral
pile.Theasheswerescatteredoverthefields,laidaspasteoverthehousesandgranaries,ormixedwith
thenewcorntopreserveitfrominsects.Sometimes,however,theheadandboneswereburied,notburnt.
Afterthesuppressionofthehumansacrifices,inferiorvictimsweresubstitutedinsomeplacesfor
instance,inthecapitalofChinnaKimedyagoattooktheplaceofthehumanvictim.Otherssacrificea
buffalo.Theytieittoawoodenpostinasacredgrove,dancewildlyrounditwithbrandishedknives,
then,fallingonthelivinganimal,hackittoshredsandtattersinafewminutes,fightingandstruggling

witheachotherforeveryparticleofflesh.Assoonasamanhassecuredapiecehemakesoffwithitat
fullspeedtoburyitinhisfields,accordingtoancientcustom,beforethesunhasset,andassomeof
themhavefartogotheymustrunveryfast.Allthewomenthrowclodsofearthattherapidlyretreating
figuresofthemen,someofthemtakingverygoodaim.Soonthesacredgrove,solatelyasceneof
tumult,issilentanddesertedexceptforafewpeoplewhoremaintoguardallthatisleftofthebuffalo,to
wit,thehead,thebones,andthestomach,whichareburnedwithceremonyatthefootofthestake.
IntheseKhondsacrificestheMeriahsarerepresentedbyourauthoritiesasvictimsofferedtopropitiate
theEarthGoddess.Butfromthetreatmentofthevictimsbothbeforeandafterdeathitappearsthatthe
customcannotbeexplainedasmerelyapropitiatorysacrifice.Apartofthefleshcertainlywasofferedto
theEarthGoddess,buttherestwasburiedbyeachhouseholderinhisfields,andtheashesoftheother
partsofthebodywerescatteredoverthefields,laidaspasteonthegranaries,ormixedwiththenew
corn.TheselattercustomsimplythattothebodyoftheMeriahtherewasascribedadirectorintrinsic
powerofmakingthecropstogrow,quiteindependentoftheindirectefficacywhichitmighthaveasan
offeringtosecurethegoodwillofthedeity.Inotherwords,thefleshandashesofthevictimwere
believedtobeendowedwithamagicalorphysicalpoweroffertilisingtheland.Thesameintrinsic
powerwasascribedtothebloodandtearsoftheMeriah,hisbloodcausingtherednessoftheturmeric
andhistearsproducingrainforitcanhardlybedoubtedthat,originallyatleast,thetearsweresupposed
tobringdowntherain,notmerelytoprognosticateit.Similarlythecustomofpouringwateronthe
buriedfleshoftheMeriahwasnodoubtaraincharm.Again,magicalpowerasanattributeoftheMeriah
appearsinthesovereignvirtuebelievedtoresideinanythingthatcamefromhisperson,ashishairor
spittle.TheascriptionofsuchpowertotheMeriahindicatesthathewasmuchmorethanamereman
sacrificedtopropitiateadeity.Oncemore,theextremereverencepaidhimpointstothesameconclusion.
MajorCampbellspeaksoftheMeriahasbeingregardedassomethingmorethanmortal,andMajor
Macphersonsays,Aspeciesofreverence,whichitisnoteasytodistinguishfromadoration,ispaidto
him.Inshort,theMeriahseemstohavebeenregardedasdivine.Assuch,hemayoriginallyhave
representedtheEarthGoddessor,perhaps,adeityofvegetationthoughinlatertimeshecametobe
regardedratherasavictimofferedtoadeitythanashimselfanincarnategod.Thislaterviewofthe
MeriahasavictimratherthanadivinitymayperhapshavereceivedundueemphasisfromtheEuropean
writerswhohavedescribedtheKhondreligion.Habituatedtothelaterideaofsacrificeasanoffering
madetoagodforthepurposeofconciliatinghisfavour,Europeanobserversareapttointerpretall
religiousslaughterinthissense,andtosupposethatwhereversuchslaughtertakesplace,theremust
necessarilybeadeitytowhomthecarnageisbelievedbytheslayerstobeacceptable.Thustheir
preconceivedideasmayunconsciouslycolourandwarptheirdescriptionsofsavagerites.
Thesamecustomofkillingtherepresentativeofagod,ofwhichstrongtracesappearintheKhond
sacrifices,mayperhapsbedetectedinsomeoftheotherhumansacrificesdescribedabove.Thusthe
ashesoftheslaughteredMarimowerescatteredoverthefieldsthebloodoftheBrahmanladwasputon
thecropandfieldthefleshoftheslainNagawasstowedinthecornbinandthebloodoftheSiouxgirl
wasallowedtotrickleontheseed.Again,theidentificationofthevictimwiththecorn,inotherwords,
theviewthatheisanembodimentorspiritofthecorn,isbroughtoutinthepainswhichseemtobetaken
tosecureaphysicalcorrespondencebetweenhimandthenaturalobjectwhichheembodiesorrepresents.
ThustheMexicanskilledyoungvictimsfortheyoungcornandoldonesfortheripecorntheMarimos
sacrifice,asseed,ashort,fatman,theshortnessofhisstaturecorrespondingtothatoftheyoungcorn,
hisfatnesstotheconditionwhichitisdesiredthatthecropsmayattainandthePawneesfattenedtheir
victimsprobablywiththesameview.Again,theidentificationofthevictimwiththecorncomesoutin
theAfricancustomofkillinghimwithspadesandhoes,andtheMexicancustomofgrindinghim,like
corn,betweentwostones.
Onemorepointinthesesavagecustomsdeservestobenoted.ThePawneechiefdevouredtheheartof
theSiouxgirl,andtheMarimosandGondsatethevictimsflesh.If,aswesuppose,thevictimwas

regardedasdivine,itfollowsthatineatinghisfleshhisworshippersbelievedthemselvestobepartaking
ofthebodyoftheirgod.
4.TheCornspiritslaininhisHumanRepresentatives
THEBARBAROUSritesjustdescribedofferanalogiestotheharvestcustomsofEurope.Thusthe
fertilisingvirtueascribedtothecornspiritisshownequallyinthesavagecustomofmixingthevictims
bloodorasheswiththeseedcornandtheEuropeancustomofmixingthegrainfromthelastsheafwith
theyoungcorninspring.Again,theidentificationofthepersonwiththecornappearsalikeinthesavage
customofadaptingtheageandstatureofthevictimtotheageandstature,whetheractualorexpected,of
thecropintheScotchandStyrianrulesthatwhenthecornspiritisconceivedastheMaidenthelastcorn
shallbecutbyayoungmaiden,butwhenitisconceivedastheCornmotheritshallbecutbyanold
womaninthewarninggiventooldwomeninLorrainetosavethemselveswhentheOldWomanis
beingkilled,thatis,whenthelastcornisbeingthreshedandintheTyroleseexpectationthatiftheman
whogivesthelaststrokeatthreshingistall,thenextyearscornwillbetallalso.Further,thesame
identificationisimpliedinthesavagecustomofkillingtherepresentativeofthecornspiritwithhoesor
spadesorbygrindinghimbetweenstones,andintheEuropeancustomofpretendingtokillhimwiththe
scytheortheflail.OncemoretheKhondcustomofpouringwaterontheburiedfleshofthevictimis
paralleltotheEuropeancustomsofpouringwateronthepersonalrepresentativeofthecornspiritor
plunginghimintoastream.BoththeKhondandtheEuropeancustomsareraincharms.
ToreturnnowtotheLityersesstory.Ithasbeenshownthatinrudesocietyhumanbeingshavebeen
commonlykilledtopromotethegrowthofthecrops.Thereisthereforenoimprobabilityinthe
suppositionthattheymayoncehavebeenkilledforalikepurposeinPhrygiaandEuropeandwhen
PhrygianlegendandEuropeanfolkcustom,closelyagreeingwitheachother,pointtotheconclusionthat
menweresoslain,wearebound,provisionallyatleast,toaccepttheconclusion.Further,boththe
LityersesstoryandEuropeanharvestcustomsagreeinindicatingthatthevictimwasputtodeathasa
representativeofthecornspirit,andthisindicationisinharmonywiththeviewwhichsomesavages
appeartotakeofthevictimslaintomakethecropsflourish.Onthewhole,then,wemayfairlysuppose
thatbothinPhrygiaandinEuropetherepresentativeofthecornspiritwasannuallykilleduponthe
harvestfield.GroundshavebeenalreadyshownforbelievingthatsimilarlyinEuropetherepresentative
ofthetreespiritwasannuallyslain.Theproofsofthesetworemarkableandcloselyanalogouscustoms
areentirelyindependentofeachother.Theircoincidenceseemstofurnishfreshpresumptioninfavourof
both.
Tothequestion,Howwastherepresentativeofthecornspiritchosen?oneanswerhasbeenalready
given.BoththeLityersesstoryandEuropeanfolkcustomshowthatpassingstrangerswereregardedas
manifestationsofthecornspiritescapingfromthecutorthreshedcorn,andassuchwereseizedand
slain.Butthisisnottheonlyanswerwhichtheevidencesuggests.AccordingtothePhrygianlegendthe
victimsofLityerseswerenotsimplypassingstrangers,butpersonswhomhehadvanquishedinareaping
contestandafterwardswraptupincornsheavesandbeheaded.Thissuggeststhattherepresentativeof
thecornspiritmayhavebeenselectedbymeansofacompetitionontheharvestfield,inwhichthe
vanquishedcompetitorwascompelledtoacceptthefatalhonour.Thesuppositioniscountenancedby
Europeanharvestcustoms.WehaveseenthatinEuropethereissometimesacontestamongstthereapers
toavoidbeinglast,andthatthepersonwhoisvanquishedinthiscompetition,thatis,whocutsthelast
corn,isoftenroughlyhandled.Itistruewehavenotfoundthatapretenceismadeofkillinghimbuton
theotherhandwehavefoundthatapretenceismadeofkillingthemanwhogivesthelaststrokeat
threshing,thatis,whoisvanquishedinthethreshingcontest.Now,sinceitisinthecharacterof
representativeofthecornspiritthatthethresherofthelastcornisslaininmimicry,andsincethesame
representativecharacterattaches(aswehaveseen)tothecutterandbinderaswellastothethresherof

thelastcorn,andsincethesamerepugnanceisevincedbyharvesterstobelastinanyoneofthese
labours,wemayconjecturethatapretencehasbeencommonlymadeofkillingthereaperandbinderas
wellasthethresherofthelastcorn,andthatinancienttimesthiskillingwasactuallycarriedout.This
conjectureiscorroboratedbythecommonsuperstitionthatwhoevercutsthelastcornmustdiesoon.
Sometimesitisthoughtthatthepersonwhobindsthelastsheafonthefieldwilldieinthecourseofnext
year.Thereasonforfixingonthereaper,binder,orthresherofthelastcornastherepresentativeofthe
cornspiritmaybethis.Thecornspiritissupposedtolurkaslongashecaninthecorn,retreatingbefore
thereapers,thebinders,andthethreshersattheirwork.Butwhenheisforciblyexpelledfromhisrefuge
inthelastcorncutorthelastsheafboundorthelastgrainthreshed,henecessarilyassumessomeother
formthanthatofthecornstalks,whichhadhithertobeenhisgarmentorbody.Andwhatformcanthe
expelledcornspiritassumemorenaturallythanthatofthepersonwhostandsnearesttothecornfrom
whichhe(thecornspirit)hasjustbeenexpelled?Butthepersoninquestionisnecessarilythereaper,
binder,orthresherofthelastcorn.Heorshe,therefore,isseizedandtreatedasthecornspirithimself.
Thusthepersonwhowaskilledontheharvestfieldastherepresentativeofthecornspiritmayhave
beeneitherapassingstrangerortheharvesterwhowaslastatreaping,binding,orthreshing.Butthereis
athirdpossibility,towhichancientlegendandmodernfolkcustomalikepoint.Lityersesnotonlyput
strangerstodeathhewashimselfslain,andapparentlyinthesamewayashehadslainothers,namely,
bybeingwraptinacornsheaf,beheaded,andcastintotheriveranditisimpliedthatthishappenedto
Lityersesonhisownland.Similarlyinmodernharvestcustomsthepretenceofkillingappearstobe
carriedoutquiteasoftenonthepersonofthemaster(farmerorsquire)asonthatofstrangers.Nowwhen
werememberthatLityerseswassaidtohavebeenasonoftheKingofPhrygia,andthatinoneaccount
heishimselfcalledaking,andwhenwecombinewiththisthetraditionthathewasputtodeath,
apparentlyasarepresentativeofthecornspirit,weareledtoconjecturethatwehavehereanothertrace
ofthecustomofannuallyslayingoneofthosedivineorpriestlykingswhoareknowntohaveheld
ghostlyswayinmanypartsofWesternAsiaandparticularlyinPhrygia.Thecustomappears,aswehave
seen,tohavebeensofarmodifiedinplacesthatthekingssonwasslaininthekingsstead.Ofthe
customthusmodifiedthestoryofLityerseswouldbe,inoneversionatleast,areminiscence.
TurningnowtotherelationofthePhrygianLityersestothePhrygianAttis,itmayberememberedthatat
Pessinustheseatofapriestlykingshipthehighpriestappearstohavebeenannuallyslaininthe
characterofAttis,agodofvegetation,andthatAttiswasdescribedbyanancientauthorityasareaped
earofcorn.ThusAttis,asanembodimentofthecornspirit,annuallyslaininthepersonofhis
representative,mightbethoughttobeultimatelyidenticalwithLityerses,thelatterbeingsimplythe
rusticprototypeoutofwhichthestatereligionofAttiswasdeveloped.Itmayhavebeensobut,onthe
otherhand,theanalogyofEuropeanfolkcustomwarnsusthatamongstthesamepeopletwodistinct
deitiesofvegetationmayhavetheirseparatepersonalrepresentatives,bothofwhomareslaininthe
characterofgodsatdifferenttimesoftheyear.ForinEurope,aswehaveseen,itappearsthatoneman
wascommonlyslaininthecharacterofthetreespiritinspring,andanotherinthecharacterofthecorn
spiritinautumn.ItmayhavebeensoinPhrygiaalso.Attiswasespeciallyatreegod,andhisconnexion
withcornmayhavebeenonlysuchanextensionofthepowerofatreespiritasisindicatedincustoms
liketheHarvestMay.Again,therepresentativeofAttisappearstohavebeenslaininspringwhereas
Lityersesmusthavebeenslaininsummerorautumn,accordingtothetimeoftheharvestinPhrygia.On
thewhole,then,whilewearenotjustifiedinregardingLityersesastheprototypeofAttis,thetwomay
beregardedasparallelproductsofthesamereligiousidea,andmayhavestoodtoeachotherasin
EuropetheOldManofharveststandstotheWildMan,theLeafMan,andsoforth,ofspring.Bothwere
spiritsordeitiesofvegetation,andthepersonalrepresentativesofbothwereannuallyslain.Butwhereas
theAttisworshipbecameelevatedintothedignityofastatereligionandspreadtoItaly,theritesof
LityersesseemnevertohavepassedthelimitsoftheirnativePhrygia,andalwaysretainedtheircharacter
ofrusticceremoniesperformedbypeasantsontheharvestfield.Atmostafewvillagesmayhave
clubbedtogether,asamongsttheKhonds,toprocureahumanvictimtobeslainasrepresentativeofthe

cornspiritfortheircommonbenefit.Suchvictimsmayhavebeendrawnfromthefamiliesofpriestly
kingsorkinglets,whichwouldaccountforthelegendarycharacterofLityersesasthesonofaPhrygian
kingorashimselfaking.Whenvillagesdidnotsoclubtogether,eachvillageorfarmmayhaveprocured
itsownrepresentativeofthecornspiritbydoomingtodeatheitherapassingstrangerortheharvester
whocut,bound,orthreshedthelastsheaf.Perhapsintheoldentimethepracticeofheadhuntingasa
meansofpromotingthegrowthofthecornmayhavebeenascommonamongtherudeinhabitantsof
EuropeandWesternAsiaasitstillis,orwastilllately,amongtheprimitiveagriculturaltribesofAssam,
Burma,thePhilippineIslands,andtheIndianArchipelago.ItishardlynecessarytoaddthatinPhrygia,
asinEurope,theoldbarbarouscustomofkillingamanontheharvestfieldorthethreshingfloorhad
doubtlesspassedintoamerepretencelongbeforetheclassicalera,andwasprobablyregardedbythe
reapersandthreshersthemselvesasnomorethanaroughjestwhichthelicenseofaharvesthome
permittedthemtoplayoffonapassingstranger,acomrade,orevenontheirmasterhimself.
IhavedweltontheLityersessongatlengthbecauseitaffordssomanypointsofcomparisonwith
Europeanandsavagefolkcustom.TheotherharvestsongsofWesternAsiaandEgypt,towhich
attentionhasbeencalledabove,maynowbedismissedmuchmorebriefly.Thesimilarityofthe
BithynianBormustothePhrygianLityerseshelpstobearouttheinterpretationwhichhasbeengivenof
thelatter.Bormus,whosedeathorratherdisappearancewasannuallymournedbythereapersina
plaintivesong,was,likeLityerses,akingssonoratleastthesonofawealthyanddistinguishedman.
Thereaperswhomhewatchedwereatworkonhisownfields,andhedisappearedingoingtofetchwater
forthemaccordingtooneversionofthestoryhewascarriedoffbythenymphs,doubtlessthenymphs
ofthespringorpoolorriverwhitherhewenttodrawwater.ViewedinthelightoftheLityersesstory
andofEuropeanfolkcustom,thisdisappearanceofBormusmaybeareminiscenceofthecustomof
bindingthefarmerhimselfinacornsheafandthrowinghimintothewater.Themournfulstrainwhich
thereaperssangwasprobablyalamentationoverthedeathofthecornspirit,slaineitherinthecutcorn
orinthepersonofahumanrepresentativeandthecallwhichtheyaddressedtohimmayhavebeena
prayerthathemightreturninfreshvigournextyear.
ThePhoenicianLinussongwassungatthevintage,atleastinthewestofAsiaMinor,aswelearnfrom
Homerandthis,combinedwiththelegendofSyleus,suggeststhatinancienttimespassingstrangers
werehandledbyvintagersandvinediggersinmuchthesamewayastheyaresaidtohavebeenhandled
bythereaperLityerses.TheLydianSyleus,soranthelegend,compelledpassersbytodigforhiminhis
vineyard,tillHerculescameandkilledhimandduguphisvinesbytheroots.Thisseemstobethe
outlineofalegendlikethatofLityersesbutneitherancientwritersnormodernfolkcustomenableusto
fillinthedetails.But,further,theLinussongwasprobablysungalsobyPhoenicianreapers,for
HerodotuscomparesittotheManerossong,which,aswehaveseen,wasalamentraisedbyEgyptian
reapersoverthecutcorn.Further,LinuswasidentifiedwithAdonis,andAdonishassomeclaimstobe
regardedasespeciallyacorndeity.ThustheLinuslament,assungatharvest,wouldbeidenticalwith
theAdonislamenteachwouldbethelamentationraisedbyreapersoverthedeadspiritofthecorn.But
whereasAdonis,likeAttis,grewintoastatelyfigureofmythology,adoredandmournedinsplendid
citiesfarbeyondthelimitsofhisPhoenicianhome,Linusappearstohaveremainedasimpledittysung
byreapersandvintagersamongthecornsheavesandthevines.TheanalogyofLityersesandoffolk
custom,bothEuropeanandsavage,suggeststhatinPhoeniciatheslaincornspiritthedeadAdonis
mayformerlyhavebeenrepresentedbyahumanvictimandthissuggestionispossiblysupportedbythe
HarranlegendthatTammuz(Adonis)wasslainbyhiscruellord,whogroundhisbonesinamilland
scatteredthemtothewind.ForinMexico,aswehaveseen,thehumanvictimatharvestwascrushed
betweentwostonesandbothinAfricaandIndiatheashesorotherremainsofthevictimwerescattered
overthefields.ButtheHarranlegendmaybeonlyamythicalwayofexpressingthegrindingofcornin
themillandthescatteringoftheseed.Itseemsworthsuggestingthatthemockkingwhowasannually
killedattheBabylonianfestivaloftheSacaeaonthesixteenthdayofthemonthLousmayhave
representedTammuzhimself.ForthehistorianBerosus,whorecordsthefestivalanditsdate,probably

usedtheMacedoniancalendar,sincehededicatedhishistorytoAntiochusSoterandinhisdaythe
MacedonianmonthLousappearstohavecorrespondedtotheBabylonianmonthTammuz.Ifthis
conjectureisright,theviewthatthemockkingattheSacaeawasslaininthecharacterofagodwouldbe
established.
ThereisagooddealmoreevidencethatinEgypttheslaincornspiritthedeadOsiriswasrepresented
byahumanvictim,whomthereapersslewontheharvestfield,mourninghisdeathinadirge,towhich
theGreeks,throughaverbalmisunderstanding,gavethenameofManeros.ForthelegendofBusiris
seemstopreserveareminiscenceofhumansacrificesonceofferedbytheEgyptiansinconnexionwith
theworshipofOsiris.BusiriswassaidtohavebeenanEgyptiankingwhosacrificedallstrangersonthe
altarofZeus.TheoriginofthecustomwastracedtoadearthwhichafflictedthelandofEgyptfornine
years.ACyprianseerinformedBusiristhatthedearthwouldceaseifamanwereannuallysacrificedto
Zeus.SoBusirisinstitutedthesacrifice.ButwhenHerculescametoEgypt,andwasbeingdraggedtothe
altartobesacrificed,hebursthisbondsandslewBusirisandhisson.HerethenisalegendthatinEgypt
ahumanvictimwasannuallysacrificedtopreventthefailureofthecrops,andabeliefisimpliedthatan
omissionofthesacrificewouldhaveentailedarecurrenceofthatinfertilitywhichitwastheobjectofthe
sacrificetoprevent.SothePawnees,aswehaveseen,believedthatanomissionofthehumansacrificeat
plantingwouldhavebeenfollowedbyatotalfailureoftheircrops.ThenameBusiriswasinrealitythe
nameofacity,peAsar,thehouseofOsiris,thecitybeingsocalledbecauseitcontainedthegraveof
Osiris.IndeedsomehighmodernauthoritiesbelievethatBusiriswastheoriginalhomeofOsiris,from
whichhisworshipspreadtootherpartsofEgypt.Thehumansacrificeweresaidtohavebeenofferedat
hisgrave,andthevictimswereredhairedmen,whoseasheswerescatteredabroadbymeansof
winnowingfans.ThistraditionofhumansacrificesofferedatthetombofOsirisisconfirmedbythe
evidenceofthemonuments.
InthelightoftheforegoingdiscussiontheEgyptiantraditionofBusirisadmitsofaconsistentandfairly
probableexplanation.Osiris,thecornspirit,wasannuallyrepresentedatharvestbyastranger,whosered
hairmadehimasuitablerepresentativeoftheripecorn.Thisman,inhisrepresentativecharacter,was
slainontheharvestfield,andmournedbythereapers,whoprayedatthesametimethatthecornspirit
mightreviveandreturn(mnerha,Maneros)withrenewedvigourinthefollowingyear.Finally,the
victim,orsomepartofhim,wasburned,andtheashesscatteredbywinnowingfansoverthefieldsto
fertilisethem.Herethechoiceofthevictimonthegroundofhisresemblancetothecornwhichhewasto
representagreeswiththeMexicanandAfricancustomsalreadydescribed.Similarlythewomanwho
diedinthecharacteroftheCornmotherattheMexicanmidsummersacrificehadherfacepaintedred
andyellowintokenofthecoloursofthecorn,andsheworeapasteboardmitresurmountedbywaving
plumesinimitationofthetasselofthemaize.Ontheotherhand,atthefestivaloftheGoddessofthe
WhiteMaizetheMexicanssacrificedlepers.TheRomanssacrificedredhairedpuppiesinspringtoavert
thesupposedblightinginfluenceoftheDogstar,believingthatthecropswouldthusgrowripeand
ruddy.TheheathenofHarranofferedtothesun,moon,andplanetshumanvictimswhowerechosenon
thegroundoftheirsupposedresemblancetotheheavenlybodiestowhichtheyweresacrificedfor
example,thepriests,clothedinredandsmearedwithblood,offeredaredhaired,redcheekedmanto
theredplanetMarsinatemplewhichwaspaintedredanddrapedwithredhangings.Theseandthe
likecasesofassimilatingthevictimtothegod,ortothenaturalphenomenonwhichherepresents,are
basedultimatelyontheprincipleofhomoeopathicorimitativemagic,thenotionbeingthattheobject
aimedatwillbemostreadilyattainedbymeansofasacrificewhichresemblestheeffectthatitis
designedtobringabout.
ThestorythatthefragmentsofOsirissbodywerescatteredupanddowntheland,andburiedbyIsison
thespotswheretheylay,mayverywellbeareminiscenceofacustom,likethatobservedbytheKhonds,
ofdividingthehumanvictiminpiecesandburyingthepieces,oftenatintervalsofmanymilesfromeach
other,inthefields.

Thus,ifIamright,thekeytothemysteriesofOsirisisfurnishedbythemelancholycryoftheEgyptian
reapers,whichdowntoRomantimescouldbeheardyearafteryearsoundingacrossthefields,
announcingthedeathofthecornspirit,therusticprototypeofOsiris.Similarcries,aswehaveseen,
werealsoheardonalltheharvestfieldsofWesternAsia.Bytheancientstheyarespokenofassongs
buttojudgefromtheanalysisofthenamesLinusandManeros,theyprobablyconsistedonlyofafew
wordsutteredinaprolongedmusicalnotewhichcouldbeheardatagreatdistance.Suchsonorousand
longdrawncries,raisedbyanumberofstrongvoicesinconcert,musthavehadastrikingeffect,and
couldhardlyfailtoarresttheattentionofanywayfarerwhohappenedtobewithinhearing.Thesounds,
repeatedagainandagain,couldprobablybedistinguishedwithtolerableeaseevenatadistancebuttoa
GreektravellerinAsiaorEgypttheforeignwordswouldcommonlyconveynomeaning,andhemight
takethem,notunnaturally,forthenameofsomeone(Maneros,Linus,Lityerses,Bormus)uponwhom
thereaperswerecalling.Andifhisjourneyledhimthroughmorecountriesthanone,asBithyniaand
Phrygia,orPhoeniciaandEgypt,whilethecornwasbeingreaped,hewouldhaveanopportunityof
comparingthevariousharvestcriesofthedifferentpeoples.Thuswecanreadilyunderstandwhythese
harvestcriesweresooftennotedandcomparedwitheachotherbytheGreeks.Whereas,iftheyhadbeen
regularsongs,theycouldnothavebeenheardatsuchdistances,andthereforecouldnothaveattracted
theattentionofsomanytravellersand,moreover,evenifthewayfarerwerewithinhearingofthem,he
couldnotsoeasilyhavepickedoutthewords.
DowntorecenttimesDevonshirereapersutteredcriesofthesamesort,andperformedonthefielda
ceremonyexactlyanalogoustothatinwhich,ifIamnotmistaken,theritesofOsirisoriginated.Thecry
andtheceremonyarethusdescribedbyanobserverwhowroteinthefirsthalfofthenineteenthcentury.
Afterthewheatisallcut,onmostfarmsinthenorthofDevon,theharvestpeoplehaveacustomof
cryingtheneck.Ibelievethatthispracticeisseldomomittedonanylargefarminthatpartofthe
country.Itisdoneinthisway.Anoldman,orsomeoneelsewellacquaintedwiththeceremoniesused
ontheoccasion(whenthelabourersarereapingthelastfieldofwheat),goesroundtotheshocksand
sheaves,andpicksoutalittlebundleofallthebestearshecanfindthisbundlehetiesupveryneatand
trim,andplatsandarrangesthestrawsverytastefully.Thisiscalledtheneckofwheat,orwheatenears.
Afterthefieldiscutout,andthepitcheroncemorecirculated,thereapers,binders,andthewomenstand
roundinacircle.Thepersonwiththeneckstandsinthecentre,graspingitwithbothhands.Hefirst
stoopsandholdsitneartheground,andallthemenformingtheringtakeofftheirhats,stoopingand
holdingthemwithbothhandstowardstheground.Theythenallbeginatonceinaveryprolongedand
harmonioustonetocryTheneck!atthesametimeslowlyraisingthemselvesupright,andelevating
theirarmsandhatsabovetheirheadsthepersonwiththeneckalsoraisingitonhigh.Thisisdone
threetimes.TheythenchangetheircrytoWeeyen!Wayyen!whichtheysoundinthesame
prolongedandslowmannerasbefore,withsingularharmonyandeffect,threetimes.Thislastcryis
accompaniedbythesamemovementsofthebodyandarmsasincryingtheneck.Afterhavingthus
repeatedtheneckthreetimes,andweeyen,orwayyenasoften,theyallburstoutintoakindof
loudandjoyouslaugh,flinginguptheirhatsandcapsintotheair,caperingaboutandperhapskissingthe
girls.Oneofthemthengetstheneckandrunsashardashecandowntothefarmhouse,wherethe
dairymaid,oroneoftheyoungfemaledomestics,standsatthedoorpreparedwithapailofwater.Ifhe
whoholdstheneckcanmanagetogetintothehouse,inanywayunseen,oropenly,byanyotherway
thanthedooratwhichthegirlstandswiththepailofwater,thenhemaylawfullykissherbut,if
otherwise,heisregularlysousedwiththecontentsofthebucket.Onafinestillautumneveningthe
cryingoftheneckhasawonderfuleffectatadistance,farfinerthanthatoftheTurkishmuezzin,which
LordByroneulogisessomuch,andwhichhesaysispreferabletoallthebellsofChristendom.Ihave
onceortwiceheardupwardsoftwentymencryit,andsometimesjoinedbyanequalnumberoffemale
voices.Aboutthreeyearsback,onsomehighgrounds,whereourpeoplewereharvesting,Iheardsixor
sevenneckscriedinonenight,althoughIknowthatsomeofthemwerefourmilesoff.Theyareheard
throughthequieteveningairataconsiderabledistancesometimes.Again,Mrs.Braytellshow,
travellinginDevonshire,shesawapartyofreapersstandinginacircleonarisingground,holdingtheir

sicklesaloft.Oneinthemiddleheldupsomeearsofcorntiedtogetherwithflowers,andtheparty
shoutedthreetimes(whatshewritesas)Arnack,arnack,arnack,wehaven,wehaven,wehaven.They
wenthome,accompaniedbywomenandchildrencarryingboughsofflowers,shoutingandsinging.The
manservantwhoattendedMrs.Braysaiditwasonlythepeoplemakingtheirgames,astheyalwaysdid,
tothespiritofharvest.Here,asMissBurneremarks,arnack,wehaven!isobviouslyintheDevon
dialect,aneck(ornack)!wehaveun!
Anotheraccountofthisoldcustom,writtenatTruroin1839,runsthus:Now,whenallthecornwascut
atHeligan,thefarmingmenandmaidenscomeinfrontofthehouse,andbringwiththemasmallsheaf
ofcorn,thelastthathasbeencut,andthisisadornedwithribbonsandflowers,andonepartistiedquite
tight,soastolooklikeaneck.ThentheycryoutOur(my)side,myside,asloudastheycanthenthe
dairymaidgivesthenecktotheheadfarmingman.Hetakesit,andsays,veryloudlythreetimes,Ihave
him,Ihavehim,Ihavehim.Thenanotherfarmingmanshoutsveryloudly,Whathaveye?whathave
ye?whathaveye?Thenthefirstsays,Aneck,aneck,aneck.Andwhenhehassaidthis,allthe
peoplemakeaverygreatshouting.Thistheydothreetimes,andafteronefamousshoutgoawayandeat
supper,anddance,andsingsongs.Accordingtoanotheraccount,allwentouttothefieldwhenthelast
cornwascut,theneckwastiedwithribbonsandplaited,andtheydancedroundit,andcarriedittothe
greatkitchen,wherebyandbythesupperwas.Thewordswereasgiveninthepreviousaccount,and
Hip,hip,hack,heck,Ihaveee,Ihaveee,Ihaveee.Itwashungupinthehall.Anotheraccount
relatesthatoneofthemenrushedfromthefieldwiththelastsheaf,whiletherestpursuedhimwith
vesselsofwater,whichtheytriedtothrowoverthesheafbeforeitcouldbebroughtintothebarn.
Intheforegoingcustomsaparticularbunchofears,generallythelastleftstanding,isconceivedasthe
neckofthecornspirit,whoisconsequentlybeheadedwhenthebunchiscutdown.Similarlyin
Shropshirethenameneck,orthegandersneck,usedtobecommonlygiventothelasthandfulof
earsleftstandinginthemiddleofthefieldwhenalltherestofthecornwascut.Itwasplaitedtogether,
andthereapers,standingtenortwentypacesoff,threwtheirsicklesatit.Whoevercutitthroughwas
saidtohavecutoffthegandersneck.Theneckwastakentothefarmerswife,whowassupposedto
keepitinthehouseforgoodlucktillthenextharvestcameround.NearTrves,themanwhoreapsthe
laststandingcorncutsthegoatsneckoff.AtFaslane,ontheGareloch(Dumbartonshire),thelast
handfulofstandingcornwassometimescalledthehead.AtAurich,inEastFriesland,themanwho
reapsthelastcorncutstheharestailoff.InmowingdownthelastcornerofafieldFrenchreapers
sometimescallout,Wehavethecatbythetail.InBresse(Bourgogne)thelastsheafrepresentedthe
fox.Besideitascoreofearswereleftstandingtoformthetail,andeachreaper,goingbacksomepaces,
threwhissickleatit.Hewhosucceededinseveringitcutoffthefoxstail,andacryofYoucoucou!
wasraisedinhishonour.TheseexamplesleavenoroomtodoubtthemeaningoftheDevonshireand
Cornishexpressiontheneck,asappliedtothelastsheaf.Thecornspiritisconceivedinhumanor
animalform,andthelaststandingcornispartofitsbodyitsneck,itshead,oritstail.Sometimes,aswe
haveseen,thelastcornisregardedasthenavelstring.Lastly,theDevonshirecustomofdrenchingwith
waterthepersonwhobringsintheneckisaraincharm,suchaswehavehadmanyexamplesof.Its
parallelinthemysteriesofOsiriswasthecustomofpouringwaterontheimageofOsirisoronthe
personwhorepresentedhim.

XLVIII.TheCornSpiritasanAnimal
1.AnimalEmbodimentsoftheCornspirit
INSOMEoftheexampleswhichIhavecitedtoestablishthemeaningofthetermneckasappliedto
thelastsheaf,thecornspiritappearsinanimalformasagander,agoat,ahare,acat,andafox.This
introducesustoanewaspectofthecornspirit,whichwemustnowexamine.Bydoingsoweshallnot

onlyhavefreshexamplesofkillingthegod,butmayhopealsotoclearupsomepointswhichremain
obscureinthemythsandworshipofAdonis,Attis,Osiris,Dionysus,Demeter,andVirbius.
Amongstthemanyanimalswhoseformsthecornspiritissupposedtotakearethewolf,dog,hare,fox,
cock,goose,quail,cat,goat,cow(ox,bull),pig,andhorse.Inoneorotheroftheseshapesthecornspirit
isoftenbelievedtobepresentinthecorn,andtobecaughtorkilledinthelastsheaf.Asthecornisbeing
cuttheanimalfleesbeforethereapers,andifareaperistakenillonthefield,heissupposedtohave
stumbledunwittinglyonthecornspirit,whohasthuspunishedtheprofaneintruder.ItissaidtheRye
wolfhasgotholdofhim,theHarvestgoathasgivenhimapush.Thepersonwhocutsthelastcornor
bindsthelastsheafgetsthenameoftheanimal,astheRyewolf,theRyesow,theOatsgoat,andso
forth,andretainsthenamesometimesforayear.Alsotheanimalisfrequentlyrepresentedbyapuppet
madeoutofthelastsheaforofwood,flowers,andsoon,whichiscarriedhomeamidrejoicingsonthe
lastharvestwaggon.Evenwherethelastsheafisnotmadeupinanimalshape,itisoftencalledtheRye
wolf,theHare,Goat,andsoforth.Generallyeachkindofcropissupposedtohaveitsspecialanimal,
whichiscaughtinthelastsheaf,andcalledtheRyewolf,theBarleywolf,theOatswolf,thePeawolf,
orthePotatowolf,accordingtothecropbutsometimesthefigureoftheanimalisonlymadeuponce
forallatgettinginthelastcropofthewholeharvest.Sometimesthecreatureisbelievedtobekilledby
thelaststrokeofthesickleorscythe.Butofteneritisthoughttolivesolongasthereiscornstill
unthreshed,andtobecaughtinthelastsheafthreshed.Hencethemanwhogivesthelaststrokewiththe
flailistoldthathehasgottheCornsow,theThreshingdog,orthelike.Whenthethreshingisfinished,a
puppetismadeintheformoftheanimal,andthisiscarriedbythethresherofthelastsheaftoa
neighbouringfarm,wherethethreshingisstillgoingon.Thisagainshowsthatthecornspiritisbelieved
tolivewhereverthecornisstillbeingthreshed.Sometimesthethresherofthelastsheafhimself
representstheanimalandifthepeopleofthenextfarm,whoarestillthreshing,catchhim,theytreathim
liketheanimalherepresents,byshuttinghimupinthepigsty,callinghimwiththecriescommonly
addressedtopigs,andsoforth.Thesegeneralstatementswillnowbeillustratedbyexamples.
2.TheCornspiritasaWolforaDog
WEbeginwiththecornspiritconceivedasawolforadog.ThisconceptioniscommoninFrance,
Germany,andSlavoniccountries.Thus,whenthewindsetsthecorninwavelikemotionthepeasants
oftensay,TheWolfisgoingover,orthrough,thecorn,theRyewolfisrushingoverthefield,the
Wolfisinthecorn,themadDogisinthecorn,thebigDogisthere.Whenchildrenwishtogointo
thecornfieldstopluckearsorgatherthebluecornflowers,theyarewarnednottodoso,forthebig
Dogsitsinthecorn,ortheWolfsitsinthecorn,andwilltearyouinpieces,theWolfwilleatyou.
Thewolfagainstwhomthechildrenarewarnedisnotacommonwolf,forheisoftenspokenofasthe
Cornwolf,Ryewolf,orthelikethustheysay,TheRyewolfwillcomeandeatyouup,children,the
Ryewolfwillcarryyouoff,andsoforth.Stillhehasalltheoutwardappearanceofawolf.Forinthe
neighbourhoodofFeilenhof(EastPrussia),whenawolfwasseenrunningthroughafield,thepeasants
usedtowatchwhetherhecarriedhistailintheairordraggeditontheground.Ifhedraggeditonthe
ground,theywentafterhim,andthankedhimforbringingthemablessing,andevensettitbitsbefore
him.Butifhecarriedhistailhigh,theycursedhimandtriedtokillhim.Herethewolfisthecornspirit
whosefertilisingpowerisinhistail.
Bothdogandwolfappearasembodimentsofthecornspiritinharvestcustoms.Thusinsomepartsof
SilesiathepersonwhocutsorbindsthelastsheafiscalledtheWheatdogorthePeaspug.Butitisinthe
harvestcustomsofthenortheastofFrancethattheideaoftheCorndogcomesoutmostclearly.Thus
whenaharvester,throughsickness,weariness,orlaziness,cannotorwillnotkeepupwiththereaperin
frontofhim,theysay,TheWhiteDogpassednearhim,hehastheWhiteBitch,ortheWhiteBitch
hasbittenhim.IntheVosgestheHarvestMayiscalledtheDogoftheharvest,andthepersonwho

cutsthelasthandfulofhayorwheatissaidtokilltheDog.AboutLonsleSaulnier,intheJura,thelast
sheafiscalledtheBitch.IntheneighbourhoodofVerduntheregularexpressionforfinishingthereaping
is,TheyaregoingtokilltheDogandatEpinaltheysay,accordingtothecrop,Wewillkillthe
Wheatdog,ortheRyedog,orthePotatodog.InLorraineitissaidofthemanwhocutsthelastcorn,
HeiskillingtheDogoftheharvest.AtDux,intheTyrol,themanwhogivesthelaststrokeat
threshingissaidtostrikedowntheDogandatAhnebergen,nearStade,heiscalled,accordingtothe
crop,Cornpug,Ryepug,Wheatpug.
Sowiththewolf.InSilesia,whenthereapersgatherroundthelastpatchofstandingcorntoreapitthey
aresaidtobeabouttocatchtheWolf.InvariouspartsofMecklenburg,wherethebeliefintheCorn
wolfisparticularlyprevalent,everyonefearstocutthelastcorn,becausetheysaythattheWolfissitting
inithenceeveryreaperexertshimselftotheutmostinordernottobethelast,andeverywoman
similarlyfearstobindthelastsheafbecausetheWolfisinit.Sobothamongthereapersandthe
bindersthereisacompetitionnottobethelasttofinish.AndinGermanygenerallyitappearstobea
commonsayingthattheWolfsitsinthelastsheaf.Insomeplacestheycallouttothereaper,Beware
oftheWolfortheysay,HeischasingtheWolfoutofthecorn.InMecklenburgthelastbunchof
standingcornisitselfcommonlycalledtheWolf,andthemanwhoreapsithastheWolf,theanimal
beingdescribedastheRyewolf,theWheatwolf,theBarleywolf,andsoonaccordingtotheparticular
crop.ThereaperofthelastcornishimselfcalledWolfortheRyewolf,ifthecropisrye,andinmany
partsofMecklenburghehastosupportthecharacterbypretendingtobitetheotherharvestersorby
howlinglikeawolf.ThelastsheafofcornisalsocalledtheWolfortheRyewolfortheOatswolf
accordingtothecrop,andofthewomanwhobindsittheysay,TheWolfisbitingher,Shehasthe
Wolf,ShemustfetchtheWolf(outofthecorn).Moreover,sheherselfiscalledWolftheycryoutto
her,ThouarttheWolf,andshehastobearthenameforawholeyearsometimes,accordingtothe
crop,sheiscalledtheRyewolforthePotatowolf.IntheislandofRgennotonlyisthewomanwho
bindsthelastsheafcalledWolf,butwhenshecomeshomeshebitestheladyofthehouseandthe
stewardess,forwhichshereceivesalargepieceofmeat.YetnobodylikestobetheWolf.Thesame
womanmaybeRyewolf,Wheatwolf,andOatswolf,ifshehappenstobindthelastsheafofrye,wheat,
andoats.AtBuir,inthedistrictofCologne,itwasformerlythecustomtogivetothelastsheaftheshape
ofawolf.Itwaskeptinthebarntillallthecornwasthreshed.Thenitwasbroughttothefarmerandhe
hadtosprinkleitwithbeerorbrandy.AtBrunshaupteninMecklenburgtheyoungwomanwhobound
thelastsheafofwheatusedtotakeahandfulofstalksoutofitandmaketheWheatwolfwiththemit
wasthefigureofawolfabouttwofeetlongandhalfafoothigh,thelegsoftheanimalbeingrepresented
bystiffstalksanditstailandmanebywheatears.ThisWheatwolfshecarriedbackattheheadofthe
harvesterstothevillage,whereitwassetuponahighplaceintheparlourofthefarmandremainedthere
foralongtime.InmanyplacesthesheafcalledtheWolfismadeupinhumanformanddressedin
clothes.Thisindicatesaconfusionofideasbetweenthecornspiritconceivedinhumanandinanimal
form.GenerallytheWolfisbroughthomeonthelastwaggonwithjoyfulcries.Hencethelastwaggon
loaditselfreceivesthenameoftheWolf.
Again,theWolfissupposedtohidehimselfamongstthecutcorninthegranary,untilheisdrivenoutof
thelastbundlebythestrokesoftheflail.HenceatWanzleben,nearMagdeburg,afterthethreshingthe
peasantsgoinprocession,leadingbyachainamanwhoisenvelopedinthethreshedoutstrawandis
calledtheWolf.Herepresentsthecornspiritwhohasbeencaughtescapingfromthethreshedcorn.In
thedistrictofTrevesitisbelievedthattheCornwolfiskilledatthreshing.Thementhreshthelastsheaf
tillitisreducedtochoppedstraw.InthiswaytheythinkthattheCornwolf,whowaslurkinginthelast
sheaf,hasbeencertainlykilled.
InFrancealsotheCornwolfappearsatharvest.Thustheycallouttothereaperofthelastcorn,You
willcatchtheWolf.NearChambrytheyformaringroundthelaststandingcorn,andcry,TheWolf
isinthere.InFinisterre,whenthereapingdrawsnearanend,theharvesterscry,ThereistheWolfwe

willcatchhim.Eachtakesaswathtoreap,andhewhofinishesfirstcallsout,IvecaughttheWolf.In
Guyenne,whenthelastcornhasbeenreaped,theyleadawetherallroundthefield.ItiscalledtheWolf
ofthefield.Itshornsaredeckedwithawreathofflowersandcornears,anditsneckandbodyarealso
encircledwithgarlandsandribbons.Allthereapersmarch,singing,behindit.Thenitiskilledonthe
field.InthispartofFrancethelastsheafiscalledthecoujoulage,which,inthepatois,meansawether.
Hencethekillingofthewetherrepresentsthedeathofthecornspirit,consideredaspresentinthelast
sheafbuttwodifferentconceptionsofthecornspiritasawolfandasawetheraremixedup
together.
SometimesitappearstobethoughtthattheWolf,caughtinthelastcorn,livesduringthewinterinthe
farmhouse,readytorenewhisactivityascornspiritinthespring.Henceatmidwinter,whenthe
lengtheningdaysbegintoheraldtheapproachofspring,theWolfmakeshisappearanceoncemore.In
Polandaman,withawolfsskinthrownoverhishead,isledaboutatChristmasorastuffedwolfis
carriedaboutbypersonswhocollectmoney.Therearefactswhichpointtoanoldcustomofleading
aboutamanenvelopedinleavesandcalledtheWolf,whilehisconductorscollectedmoney.
3.TheCornspiritasaCock
ANOTHERformwhichthecornspiritoftenassumesisthatofacock.InAustriachildrenarewarned
againststrayinginthecornfields,becausetheCorncocksitsthere,andwillpecktheireyesout.InNorth
GermanytheysaythattheCocksitsinthelastsheafandatcuttingthelastcornthereaperscry,Now
wewillchaseouttheCock.Whenitiscuttheysay,WehavecaughttheCock.AtBraller,in
Transylvania,whenthereaperscometothelastpatchofcorn,theycry,HereweshallcatchtheCock.
AtFrstenwalde,whenthelastsheafisabouttobebound,themasterreleasesacock,whichhehas
broughtinabasket,andletsitrunoverthefield.Alltheharvesterschaseittilltheycatchit.Elsewhere
theharvestersalltrytoseizethelastcorncuthewhosucceedsingraspingitmustcrow,andiscalled
Cock.AmongtheWendsitisorusedtobecustomaryforthefarmertohidealivecockunderthelast
sheafasitlayonthefieldandwhenthecornwasbeinggatheredup,theharvesterwholighteduponthis
sheafhadarighttokeepthecock,providedhecouldcatchit.Thisformedthecloseoftheharvest
festivalandwasknownastheCockcatching,andthebeerwhichwasservedouttothereapersatthis
timewentbythenameofCockbeer.ThelastsheafiscalledCock,Cocksheaf,Harvestcock,Harvest
hen,Autumnhen.AdistinctionismadebetweenaWheatcock,Beancock,andsoon,accordingtothe
crop.AtWnschensuhl,inThringen,thelastsheafismadeintotheshapeofacock,andcalledthe
Harvestcock.Afigureofacock,madeofwood,pasteboard,earsofcorn,orflowers,isborneinfrontof
theharvestwaggon,especiallyinWestphalia,wherethecockcarriesinhisbeakfruitsoftheearthofall
kinds.SometimestheimageofthecockisfastenedtothetopofaMaytreeonthelastharvestwaggon.
Elsewherealivecock,orafigureofone,isattachedtoaharvestcrownandcarriedonapole.InGalicia
andelsewherethislivecockisfastenedtothegarlandofcornearsorflowers,whichtheleaderofthe
womenreaperscarriesonherheadasshemarchesinfrontoftheharvestprocession.InSilesiaalive
cockispresentedtothemasteronaplate.TheharvestsupperiscalledHarvestcock,Stubblecock,etc.,
andachiefdishatit,atleastinsomeplaces,isacock.Ifawaggonerupsetsaharvestwaggon,itissaid
thathehasspilttheHarvestcock,andhelosesthecock,thatis,theharvestsupper.Theharvest
waggon,withthefigureofthecockonit,isdrivenroundthefarmhousebeforeitistakentothebarn.
Thenthecockisnailedoveroratthesideofthehousedoor,oronthegable,andremainstheretillnext
harvest.InEastFrieslandthepersonwhogivesthelaststrokeatthreshingiscalledtheCluckinghen,and
grainisstrewedbeforehimasifhewereahen.
Again,thecornspiritiskilledintheformofacock.InpartsofGermany,Hungary,Poland,andPicardy
thereapersplacealivecockinthecornwhichistobecutlast,andchaseitoverthefield,orburyitupto
theneckinthegroundafterwardstheystrikeoffitsheadwithasickleorscythe.Inmanypartsof

Westphalia,whentheharvestersbringthewoodencocktothefarmer,hegivesthemalivecock,which
theykillwithwhipsorsticks,orbeheadwithanoldsword,orthrowintothebarntothegirls,orgiveto
themistresstocook.IttheHarvestcockhasnotbeenspiltthatis,ifnowaggonhasbeenupsetthe
harvestershavetherighttokillthefarmyardcockbythrowingstonesatitorbeheadingit.Wherethis
customhasfallenintodisuse,itisstillcommonforthefarmerswifetomakecockieleekieforthe
harvesters,andtoshowthemtheheadofthecockwhichhasbeenkilledforthesoup.Inthe
neighbourhoodofKlausenburg,Transylvania,acockisburiedontheharvestfieldintheearth,sothat
onlyitsheadappears.Ayoungmanthentakesascytheandcutsoffthecocksheadatasinglesweep.If
hefailstodothis,heiscalledtheRedCockforawholeyear,andpeoplefearthatnextyearscropwill
bebad.NearUdvarhely,inTransylvania,alivecockisboundupinthelastsheafandkilledwithaspit.It
isthenskinned.Thefleshisthrownaway,buttheskinandfeathersarekepttillnextyearandinspring
thegrainfromthelastsheafismixedwiththefeathersofthecockandscatteredonthefieldwhichisto
betilled.Nothingcouldsetinaclearerlighttheidentificationofthecockwiththespiritofthecorn.By
beingtiedupinthelastsheafandkilled,thecockisidentifiedwiththecorn,anditsdeathwiththe
cuttingofthecorn.Bykeepingitsfeatherstillspring,thenmixingthemwiththeseedcorntakenfrom
theverysheafinwhichthebirdhadbeenbound,andscatteringthefeatherstogetherwiththeseedover
thefield,theidentityofthebirdwiththecornisagainemphasised,anditsquickeningandfertilising
power,asanembodimentofthecornspirit,isintimatedintheplainestmanner.Thusthecornspirit,in
theformofacock,iskilledatharvest,butrisestofreshlifeandactivityinspring.Again,theequivalence
ofthecocktothecornisexpressed,hardlylessplainly,inthecustomofburyingthebirdintheground,
andcuttingoffitshead(liketheearsofcorn)withthescythe.
4.TheCornspiritasaHare
ANOTHERcommonembodimentofthecornspiritisthehare.InGallowaythereapingofthelast
standingcorniscalledcuttingtheHare.Themodeofcuttingitisasfollows.Whentherestofthecorn
hasbeenreaped,ahandfulisleftstandingtoformtheHare.Itisdividedintothreepartsandplaited,and
theearsaretiedinaknot.Thereapersthenretireafewyardsandeachthrowshisorhersickleinturnat
theHaretocutitdown.Itmustbecutbelowtheknot,andthereaperscontinuetothrowtheirsicklesatit,
oneaftertheother,untiloneofthemsucceedsinseveringthestalksbelowtheknot.TheHareisthen
carriedhomeandgiventoamaidservantinthekitchen,whoplacesitoverthekitchendoorontheinside.
SometimestheHareusedtobethuskepttillthenextharvest.IntheparishofMinnigaff,whentheHare
wascut,theunmarriedreapersranhomewithallspeed,andtheonewhoarrivedfirstwasthefirsttobe
married.InGermanyalsooneofthenamesforthelastsheafistheHare.ThusinsomepartsofAnhalt,
whenthecornhasbeenreapedandonlyafewstalksareleftstanding,theysay,TheHarewillsoon
come,orthereaperscrytoeachother,LookhowtheHarecomesjumpingout.InEastPrussiathey
saythattheHaresitsinthelastpatchofstandingcorn,andmustbechasedoutbythelastreaper.The
reapershurrywiththeirwork,eachbeinganxiousnottohavetochaseouttheHareforthemanwho
doesso,thatis,whocutsthelastcorn,ismuchlaughedat.AtAurich,aswehaveseen,anexpressionfor
cuttingthelastcornistocutofftheHarestail.HeiskillingtheHareiscommonlysaidoftheman
whocutsthelastcorninGermany,Sweden,Holland,France,andItaly.InNorwaythemanwhoisthus
saidtokilltheHaremustgiveharesblood,intheformofbrandy,tohisfellowstodrink.InLesbos,
whenthereapersareatworkintwoneighbouringfields,eachpartytriestofinishfirstinordertodrive
theHareintotheirneighboursfieldthereaperswhosucceedindoingsobelievethatnextyearthecrop
willbebetter.Asmallsheafofcornismadeupandkeptbesidetheholypicturetillnextharvest.
5.TheCornspiritasaCat
AGAIN,thecornspiritsometimestakestheformofacat.NearKielchildrenarewarnednottogointo
thecornfieldsbecausetheCatsitsthere.IntheEisenachOberlandtheyaretoldtheCorncatwill

comeandfetchyou,theCorncatgoesinthecorn.InsomepartsofSilesiaatmowingthelastcorn
theysay,TheCatiscaughtandatthreshing,themanwhogivesthelaststrokeiscalledtheCat.Inthe
neighbourhoodofLyonsthelastsheafandtheharvestsupperarebothcalledtheCat.AboutVesoul
whentheycutthelastcorntheysay,WehavetheCatbythetail.AtBrianon,inDauphin,atthe
beginningofreaping,acatisdeckedoutwithribbons,flowers,andearsofcorn.ItiscalledtheCatofthe
ballskin(lechatdepeaudeballe).Ifareaperiswoundedathiswork,theymakethecatlickthewound.
Atthecloseofthereapingthecatisagaindeckedoutwithribbonsandearsofcornthentheydanceand
makemerry.Whenthedanceisoverthegirlssolemnlystripthecatofitsfinery.AtGrneberg,in
Silesia,thereaperwhocutsthelastcorngoesbythenameoftheTomcat.Heisenvelopedinryestalks
andgreenwithes,andisfurnishedwithalongplaitedtail.Sometimesasacompanionhehasaman
similarlydressed,whoiscalledthe(female)Cat.Theirdutyistorunafterpeoplewhomtheyseeandto
beatthemwithalongstick.NearAmienstheexpressionforfinishingtheharvestis,Theyaregoingto
killtheCatandwhenthelastcorniscuttheykillacatinthefarmyard.Atthreshing,insomepartsof
France,alivecatisplacedunderthelastbundleofcorntobethreshed,andisstruckdeadwiththeflails.
ThenonSundayitisroastedandeatenasaholidaydish.IntheVosgesMountainsthecloseof
haymakingorharvestiscalledcatchingthecat,killingthedog,ormorerarelycatchingthehare.
Thecat,thedog,orthehareissaidtobefatorleanaccordingasthecropisgoodorbad.Themanwho
cutsthelasthandfulofhayorofwheatissaidtocatchthecatorthehareortokillthedog.
6.TheCornspiritasaGoat
FURTHER,thecornspiritoftenappearsintheformofagoat.InsomepartsofPrussia,whenthecorn
bendsbeforethewind,theysay,TheGoatsarechasingeachother,thewindisdrivingtheGoats
throughthecorn,theGoatsarebrowsingthere,andtheyexpectaverygoodharvest.Againtheysay,
TheOatsgoatissittingintheoatsfield,theCorngoatissittingintheryefield.Childrenarewarned
nottogointothecornfieldstopluckthebluecornflowers,oramongstthebeanstopluckpods,because
theRyegoat,theCorngoat,theOatsgoat,ortheBeangoatissittingorlyingthere,andwillcarrythem
awayorkillthem.Whenaharvesteristakensickorlagsbehindhisfellowsattheirwork,theycallout,
TheHarvestgoathaspushedhim,hehasbeenpushedbytheCorngoat.Intheneighbourhoodof
Braunsberg(EastPrussia)atbindingtheoatseveryharvestermakeshastelesttheCorngoatpushhim.
AtOefoten,inNorway,eachreaperhashisallottedpatchtoreap.Whenareaperinthemiddlehasnot
finishedreapinghispieceafterhisneighbourshavefinishedtheirs,theysayofhim,Heremainsonthe
island.Andifthelaggardisaman,theyimitatethecrywithwhichtheycallahegoatifawoman,the
crywithwhichtheycallashegoat.NearStraubing,inLowerBavaria,itissaidofthemanwhocutsthe
lastcornthathehastheCorngoat,ortheWheatgoat,ortheOatsgoat,accordingtothecrop.
Moreover,twohornsaresetuponthelastheapofcorn,anditiscalledthehornedGoat.At
Kreutzburg,EastPrussia,theycallouttothewomanwhoisbindingthelastsheaf,TheGoatissittingin
thesheaf.AtGablingen,inSwabia,whenthelastfieldofoatsuponafarmisbeingreaped,thereapers
carveagoatoutofwood.Earsofoatsareinsertedinitsnostrilsandmouth,anditisadornedwith
garlandsofflowers.ItissetuponthefieldandcalledtheOatsgoat.Whenthereapingapproachesan
end,eachreaperhastenstofinishhispiecefirsthewhoisthelasttofinishgetstheOatsgoat.Again,the
lastsheafisitselfcalledtheGoat.Thus,inthevalleyoftheWiesent,Bavaria,thelastsheafboundonthe
fieldiscalledtheGoat,andtheyhaveaproverb,Thefieldmustbearagoat.AtSpachbrcken,in
Hesse,thelasthandfulofcornwhichiscutiscalledtheGoat,andthemanwhocutsitismuchridiculed.
AtDrrenbchigandaboutMosbachinBadenthelastsheafisalsocalledtheGoat.Sometimesthelast
sheafismadeupintheformofagoat,andtheysay,TheGoatissittinginit.Again,thepersonwho
cutsorbindsthelastsheafiscalledtheGoat.Thus,inpartsofMecklenburgtheycallouttothewoman
whobindsthelastsheaf,YouaretheHarvestgoat.NearUelzen,inHanover,theharvestfestival
beginswiththebringingoftheHarvestgoatthatis,thewomanwhoboundthelastsheafiswraptin
straw,crownedwithaharvestwreath,andbroughtinawheelbarrowtothevillage,wherearounddance

takesplace.AboutLuneburg,also,thewomanwhobindsthelastcornisdeckedwithacrownofcorn
earsandiscalledtheCorngoat.AtMnzesheiminBadenthereaperwhocutsthelasthandfulofcorn
oroatsiscalledtheCorngoatortheOatsgoat.IntheCantonSt.Gall,Switzerland,thepersonwhocuts
thelasthandfulofcornonthefield,ordrivesthelastharvestwaggontothebarn,iscalledtheCorngoat
ortheRyegoat,orsimplytheGoat.IntheCantonThurgauheiscalledCorngoatlikeagoathehasa
bellhungroundhisneck,isledintriumph,anddrenchedwithliquor.InpartsofStyria,also,theman
whocutsthelastcorniscalledCorngoat,Oatsgoat,orthelike.Asarule,themanwhothusgetsthe
nameofCorngoathastobearitawholeyeartillthenextharvest.
Accordingtooneview,thecornspirit,whohasbeencaughtintheformofagoatorotherwise,livesin
thefarmhouseorbarnoverwinter.Thus,eachfarmhasitsownembodimentofthecornspirit.But,
accordingtoanotherview,thecornspiritisthegeniusordeity,notofthecornofonefarmonly,butof
allthecorn.Hencewhenthecornononefarmisallcut,hefleestoanotherwherethereisstillcornleft
standing.ThisideaisbroughtoutinaharvestcustomwhichwasformerlyobservedinSkye.Thefarmer
whofirstfinishedreapingsentamanorwomanwithasheaftoaneighbouringfarmerwhohadnot
finishedthelatterinhisturn,whenhehadfinished,sentonthesheaftohisneighbourwhowasstill
reapingandsothesheafmadetheroundofthefarmstillallthecornwascut.Thesheafwascalledthe
goabbirbhacagh,thatis,theCrippleGoat.Thecustomappearsnottobeextinctatthepresentday,forit
wasreportedfromSkyenotverymanyyearsago.Thecornspiritwasprobablythusrepresentedaslame
becausehehadbeencrippledbythecuttingofthecorn.Sometimestheoldwomanwhobringshomethe
lastsheafmustlimpononefoot.
Butsometimesthecornspirit,intheformofagoat,isbelievedtobeslainontheharvestfieldbythe
sickleorscythe.Thus,intheneighbourhoodofBernkastel,ontheMoselle,thereapersdeterminebylot
theorderinwhichtheyshallfolloweachother.Thefirstiscalledtheforereaper,thelastthetailbearer.
Ifareaperovertakesthemaninfronthereapspasthim,bendingroundsoastoleavetheslowerreaperin
apatchbyhimself.ThispatchiscalledtheGoatandthemanforwhomtheGoatiscutinthisway,is
laughedandjeeredatbyhisfellowsfortherestoftheday.Whenthetailbearercutsthelastearsofcorn,
itissaid,HeiscuttingtheGoatsneckoff.IntheneighbourhoodofGrenoble,beforetheendofthe
reaping,alivegoatisadornedwithflowersandribbonsandallowedtorunaboutthefield.Thereapers
chaseitandtrytocatchit.Whenitiscaught,thefarmerswifeholdsitfastwhilethefarmercutsoffits
head.Thegoatsfleshservestofurnishtheharvestsupper.Apieceofthefleshispickledandkepttillthe
nextharvest,whenanothergoatiskilled.Thenalltheharvesterseatoftheflesh.Onthesamedaythe
skinofthegoatismadeintoacloak,whichthefarmer,whoworkswithhismen,mustalwayswearat
harvesttimeifrainorbadweathersetsin.Butifareapergetspainsinhisback,thefarmergiveshimthe
goatskintowear.Thereasonforthisseemstobethatthepainsintheback,beinginflictedbythecorn
spirit,canalsobehealedbyit.Similarly,wesawthatelsewhere,whenareaperiswoundedatreaping,a
cat,astherepresentativeofthecornspirit,ismadetolickthewound.Esthonianreapersoftheislandof
Monthinkthatthemanwhocutsthefirstearsofcornatharvestwillgetpainsinhisback,probably
becausethecornspiritisbelievedtoresentespeciallythefirstwoundand,inordertoescapepainsinthe
back,SaxonreapersinTransylvaniagirdtheirloinswiththefirsthandfulofearswhichtheycut.Here,
again,thecornspiritisappliedtoforhealingorprotection,butinhisoriginalvegetableform,notinthe
formofagoatoracat.
Further,thecornspiritundertheformofagoatissometimesconceivedaslurkingamongthecutcornin
thebarn,tillheisdrivenfromitbythethreshingflail.ThusinBadenthelastsheaftobethreshedis
calledtheCorngoat,theSpeltgoat,ortheOatsgoataccordingtothekindofgrain.Again,nearMarktl,
inUpperBavaria,thesheavesarecalledStrawgoatsorsimplyGoats.Theyarelaidinagreatheapon
theopenfieldandthreshedbytworowsofmenstandingoppositeeachother,who,astheyplytheir
flails,singasonginwhichtheysaythattheyseetheStrawgoatamongstthecornstalks.ThelastGoat,
thatis,thelastsheaf,isadornedwithawreathofvioletsandotherflowersandwithcakesstrung

together.Itisplacedrightinthemiddleoftheheap.Someofthethreshersrushatitandtearthebestofit
outotherslayonwiththeirflailssorecklesslythatheadsaresometimesbroken.AtOberinntal,inthe
Tyrol,thelastthresheriscalledGoat.SoatHaselberg,inWestBohemia,themanwhogivesthelast
strokeatthreshingoatsiscalledtheOatsgoat.AtTettnang,inWrtemburg,thethresherwhogivesthe
laststroketothelastbundleofcornbeforeitisturnedgoesbythenameoftheHegoat,anditissaid,
HehasdriventheHegoataway.Thepersonwho,afterthebundlehasbeenturned,givesthelast
strokeofall,iscalledtheShegoat.Inthiscustomitisimpliedthatthecornisinhabitedbyapairof
cornspirits,maleandfemale.
Further,thecornspirit,capturedintheformofagoatatthreshing,ispassedontoaneighbourwhose
threshingisnotyetfinished.InFrancheComt,assoonasthethreshingisover,theyoungpeoplesetup
astrawfigureofagoatonthefarmyardofaneighbourwhoisstillthreshing.Hemustgivethemwineor
moneyinreturn.AtEllwangen,inWrtemburg,theeffigyofagoatismadeoutofthelastbundleof
cornatthreshingfoursticksformitslegs,andtwoitshorns.Themanwhogivesthelaststrokewiththe
flailmustcarrytheGoattothebarnofaneighbourwhoisstillthreshingandthrowitdownonthefloor
ifheiscaughtintheact,theytietheGoatonhisback.AsimilarcustomisobservedatIndersdorf,in
UpperBavariathemanwhothrowsthestrawGoatintotheneighboursbarnimitatesthebleatingofa
goatiftheycatchhim,theyblackenhisfaceandtietheGoatonhisback.AtSaverne,inAlsace,whena
farmerisaweekormorebehindhisneighbourswithhisthreshing,theysetarealstuffedgoatorfox
beforehisdoor.
Sometimesthespiritofthecorningoatformisbelievedtobekilledatthreshing.Inthedistrictof
Traunstein,UpperBavaria,theythinkthattheOatsgoatisinthelastsheafofoats.Heisrepresentedby
anoldrakesetuponend,withanoldpotforahead.ThechildrenarethentoldtokilltheOatsgoat.
7.TheCornspiritasaBull,Cow,orOx
ANOTHERformwhichthecornspiritoftenassumesisthatofabull,cow,orox.Whenthewindsweeps
overthecorntheysayatConitz,inWestPrussia,TheSteerisrunninginthecornwhenthecornis
thickandstronginonespot,theysayinsomepartsofEastPrussia,TheBullislyinginthecorn.When
aharvesterhasoverstrainedandlamedhimself,theysayintheGraudenzdistrictofWestPrussia,The
BullpushedhiminLorrainetheysay,HehastheBull.Themeaningofbothexpressionsisthathe
hasunwittinglylighteduponthedivinecornspirit,whohaspunishedtheprofaneintruderwithlameness.
SonearChambrywhenareaperwoundshimselfwithhissickle,itissaidthathehasthewoundofthe
Ox.InthedistrictofBunzlau(Silesia)thelastsheafissometimesmadeintotheshapeofahornedox,
stuffedwithtowandwraptincornears.ThisfigureiscalledtheOldMan.InsomepartsofBohemiathe
lastsheafismadeupinhumanformandcalledtheBuffalobull.Thesecasesshowaconfusionofthe
humanwiththeanimalshapeofthecornspirit.Theconfusionislikethatofkillingawetherunderthe
nameofawolf.AlloverSwabiathelastbundleofcornonthefieldiscalledtheCowthemanwhocuts
thelastearshastheCow,andishimselfcalledCoworBarleycoworOatscow,accordingtothecrop
attheharvestsupperhegetsanosegayofflowersandcornearsandamoreliberalallowanceofdrink
thantherest.ButheisteasedandlaughedatsonoonelikestobetheCow.TheCowwassometimes
representedbythefigureofawomanmadeoutofearsofcornandcornflowers.Itwascarriedtothe
farmhousebythemanwhohadcutthelasthandfulofcorn.Thechildrenranafterhimandthe
neighboursturnedouttolaughathim,tillthefarmertooktheCowfromhim.Hereagaintheconfusion
betweenthehumanandtheanimalformofthecornspiritisapparent.InvariouspartsofSwitzerlandthe
reaperwhocutsthelastearsofcorniscalledWheatcow,Corncow,Oatscow,orCornsteer,andisthe
buttofmanyajoke.Ontheotherhand,inthedistrictofRosenheim,UpperBavaria,whenafarmeris
laterofgettinginhisharvestthanhisneighbours,theysetuponhislandaStrawbull,asitiscalled.This
isagiganticfigureofabullmadeofstubbleonaframeworkofwoodandadornedwithflowersand

leaves.Attachedtoitisalabelonwhicharescrawleddoggerelversesinridiculeofthemanonwhose
landtheStrawbullissetup.
Again,thecornspiritintheformofabulloroxiskilledontheharvestfieldatthecloseofthereaping.
AtPouilly,nearDijon,whenthelastearsofcornareabouttobecut,anoxadornedwithribbons,
flowers,andearsofcornisledallroundthefield,followedbythewholetroopofreapersdancing.Then
amandisguisedastheDevilcutsthelastearsofcornandimmediatelyslaughterstheox.Partoftheflesh
oftheanimaliseatenattheharvestsupperpartispickledandkepttillthefirstdayofsowinginspring.
AtPontMoussonandelsewhereontheeveningofthelastdayofreaping,acalfadornedwithflowers
andearsofcornisledthriceroundthefarmyard,beingalluredbyabaitordrivenbymenwithsticks,or
conductedbythefarmerswifewitharope.Thecalfchosenforthisceremonyisthecalfwhichwasborn
firstonthefarminthespringoftheyear.Itisfollowedbyallthereaperswiththeirtools.Thenitis
allowedtorunfreethereaperschaseit,andwhoevercatchesitiscalledKingoftheCalf.Lastly,itis
solemnlykilledatLunvillethemanwhoactsasbutcheristheJewishmerchantofthevillage.
Sometimesagainthecornspirithideshimselfamongstthecutcorninthebarntoreappearinbullorcow
formatthreshing.ThusatWurmlingen,inThringen,themanwhogivesthelaststrokeatthreshingis
calledtheCow,orrathertheBarleycow,Oatscow,Peascow,orthelike,accordingtothecrop.Heis
entirelyenvelopedinstrawhisheadissurmountedbysticksinimitationofhorns,andtwoladsleadhim
byropestothewelltodrink.Onthewaythitherhemustlowlikeacow,andforalongtimeafterwards
hegoesbythenameoftheCow.AtObermedlingen,inSwabia,whenthethreshingdrawsnearanend,
eachmaniscarefultoavoidgivingthelaststroke.HewhodoesgiveitgetstheCow,whichisastraw
figuredressedinanoldraggedpetticoat,hood,andstockings.Itistiedonhisbackwithastrawropehis
faceisblackened,andbeingboundwithstrawropestoawheelbarrowheiswheeledroundthevillage.
Here,again,wemeetwiththatconfusionbetweenthehumanandanimalshapeofthecornspiritwhich
wehavenotedinothercustoms.InCantonSchaffhausenthemanwhothreshesthelastcorniscalledthe
CowinCantonThurgau,theCornbullinCantonZurich,theThreshercow.Inthelastmentioned
districtheiswraptinstrawandboundtooneofthetreesintheorchard.AtArad,inHungary,theman
whogivesthelaststrokeatthreshingisenvelopedinstrawandacowshidewiththehornsattachedtoit.
AtPessnitz,inthedistrictofDresden,themanwhogivesthelaststrokewiththeflailiscalledBull.He
mustmakeastrawmanandsetitupbeforeaneighbourswindow.Here,apparently,asinsomany
cases,thecornspiritispassedontoaneighbourwhohasnotfinishedthreshing.SoatHerbrechtingen,in
Thringen,theeffigyofaraggedoldwomanisflungintothebarnofthefarmerwhoislastwithhis
threshing.Themanwhothrowsitincries,ThereistheCowforyou.Ifthethresherscatchhimthey
detainhimovernightandpunishhimbykeepinghimfromtheharvestsupper.Intheselattercustomsthe
confusionbetweenthehumanandtheanimalshapeofthecornspiritmeetsusagain.
Further,thecornspiritinbullformissometimesbelievedtobekilledatthreshing.AtAuxerre,in
threshingthelastbundleofcorn,theycallouttwelvetimes,WearekillingtheBull.Inthe
neighbourhoodofBordeaux,whereabutcherkillsanoxonthefieldimmediatelyafterthecloseofthe
reaping,itissaidofthemanwhogivesthelaststrokeatthreshingthathehaskilledtheBull.At
ChambrythelastsheafiscalledthesheafoftheYoungOx,andaracetakesplacetoitinwhichallthe
reapersjoin.WhenthelaststrokeisgivenatthreshingtheysaythattheOxiskilledandimmediately
thereuponarealoxisslaughteredbythereaperwhocutthelastcorn.Thefleshoftheoxiseatenbythe
threshersatsupper.
Wehaveseenthatsometimestheyoungcornspirit,whosetaskitistoquickenthecornofthecoming
year,isbelievedtobebornasaCornbabyontheharvestfield.SimilarlyinBerrytheyoungcornspirit
issometimessupposedtobebornonthefieldincalfformforwhenabinderhasnotropeenoughtobind
allthecorninsheaves,heputsasidethewheatthatremainsoverandimitatesthelowingofacow.The

meaningisthatthesheafhasgivenbirthtoacalf.InPuydeDmewhenabindercannotkeepup
withthereaperwhomheorshefollows,theysayHe(orshe)isgivingbirthtotheCalf.Insomeparts
ofPrussia,insimilarcircumstances,theycallouttothewoman,TheBulliscoming,andimitatethe
bellowingofabull.InthesecasesthewomanisconceivedastheCorncoworoldcornspirit,whilethe
supposedcalfistheCorncalforyoungcornspirit.InsomepartsofAustriaamythicalcalf
(Muhklbchen)isbelievedtobeseenamongstthesproutingcorninspringandtopushthechildren
whenthecornwavesinthewindtheysay,TheCalfisgoingabout.Clearly,asMannhardtobserves,
thiscalfofthespringtimeisthesameanimalwhichisafterwardsbelievedtobekilledatreaping.
8.TheCornspiritasaHorseorMare
SOMETIMESthecornspiritappearsintheshapeofahorseormare.BetweenKalwandStuttgart,when
thecornbendsbeforethewind,theysay,ThererunstheHorse.AtBohlingen,nearRadolfzellin
Baden,thelastsheafofoatsiscalledtheOatsstallion.InHertfordshire,attheendofthereaping,thereis
orusedtobeobservedaceremonycalledcryingtheMare.Thelastbladesofcornleftstandingonthe
fieldaretiedtogetherandcalledtheMare.Thereapersstandatadistanceandthrowtheirsicklesatithe
whocutsitthroughhastheprize,withacclamationsandgoodcheer.Afteritiscutthereaperscry
thricewithaloudvoice,Ihaveher!Othersanswerthrice,Whathaveyou?AMare!aMare!a
Mare!Whoseisshe?isnextaskedthrice.A.B.s,namingtheownerthrice.Whitherwillyou
sendher?ToC.D.,namingsomeneighbourwhohasnotreapedallhiscorn.Inthiscustomthe
cornspiritintheformofamareispassedonfromafarmwherethecornisallcuttoanotherfarmwhere
itisstillstanding,andwherethereforethecornspiritmaybesupposednaturallytotakerefuge.In
Shropshirethecustomissimilar.Thefarmerwhofinisheshisharvestlast,andwhothereforecannotsend
theMaretoanyoneelse,issaidtokeepherallwinter.ThemockingofferoftheMaretoalaggard
neighbourwassometimesrespondedtobyamockingacceptanceofherhelp.Thusanoldmantoldan
inquirer,Whilewewunatsupper,amoncummdwiaautar[halter]tofatchheraway.Atoneplacea
realmareusedtobesent,butthemanwhorodeherwassubjectedtosomeroughtreatmentatthe
farmhousetowhichhepaidhisunwelcomevisit.
IntheneighbourhoodofLilletheideaofthecornspiritinhorseforminclearlypreserved.Whena
harvestergrowswearyathiswork,itissaid,HehasthefatigueoftheHorse.Thefirstsheaf,calledthe
CrossoftheHorse,isplacedonacrossofboxwoodinthebarn,andtheyoungesthorseonthefarm
musttreadonit.Thereapersdanceroundthelastbladesofcorn,crying,SeetheremainsoftheHorse.
Thesheafmadeoutoftheselastbladesisgiventotheyoungesthorseoftheparish(commune)toeat.
Thisyoungesthorseoftheparishclearlyrepresents,asMannhardtsays,thecornspiritofthefollowing
year,theCornfoal,whichabsorbsthespiritoftheoldCornhorsebyeatingthelastcorncutfor,as
usual,theoldcornspirittakeshisfinalrefugeinthelastsheaf.Thethresherofthelastsheafissaidto
beattheHorse.
9.TheCornspiritasaPig(BoarorSow)
THELASTanimalembodimentofthecornspiritwhichweshallnoticeisthepig(boarorsow).In
Thringen,whenthewindsetstheyoungcorninmotion,theysometimessay,TheBoarisrushing
throughthecorn.AmongsttheEsthoniansoftheislandofOeselthelastsheafiscalledtheRyeboar,and
themanwhogetsitissalutedwithacryofYouhavetheRyeboaronyourback!Inreplyhestrikesup
asong,inwhichhepraysforplenty.AtKohlerwinkel,nearAugsburg,atthecloseoftheharvest,thelast
bunchofstandingcorniscutdown,stalkbystalk,byallthereapersinturn.Hewhocutsthelaststalk
getstheSow,andislaughedat.InotherSwabianvillagesalsothemanwhocutsthelastcornhasthe
Sow,orhastheRyesow.AtBohlingen,nearRadolfzellinBaden,thelastsheafiscalledtheRyesow

ortheWheatsow,accordingtothecropandatRhrenbachinBadenthepersonwhobringsthelast
armfulforthelastsheafiscalledtheCornsowortheOatssow.AtFriedingen,inSwabia,thethresher
whogivesthelaststrokeiscalledSowBarleysow,Cornsow,orthelike,accordingtothecrop.At
OnstmettingenthemanwhogivesthelaststrokeatthreshinghastheSowheisoftenboundupina
sheafanddraggedbyaropealongtheground.And,generally,inSwabiathemanwhogivesthelast
strokewiththeflailiscalledSow.Hemay,however,ridhimselfofthisinvidiousdistinctionbypassing
ontoaneighbourthestrawrope,whichisthebadgeofhispositionasSow.Sohegoestoahouseand
throwsthestrawropeintoit,crying,There,IbringyoutheSow.Alltheinmatesgivechaseandif
theycatchhimtheybeathim,shuthimupforseveralhoursinthepigsty,andobligehimtotakethe
Sowawayagain.InvariouspartsofUpperBavariathemanwhogivesthelaststrokeatthreshingmust
carrythePigthatis,eitherastraweffigyofapigormerelyabundleofstrawropes.Thishecarries
toaneighbouringfarmwherethethreshingisnotfinished,andthrowsitintothebarn.Ifthethreshers
catchhimtheyhandlehimroughly,beatinghim,blackeningordirtyinghisface,throwinghimintofilth,
bindingtheSowonhisback,andsoonifthebeareroftheSowisawomantheycutoffherhair.Atthe
harvestsupperordinnerthemanwhocarriedthePiggetsoneormoredumplingsmadeintheformof
pigs.Whenthedumplingsareservedupbythemaidservant,allthepeopleattablecrySz,sz,sz
!thatbeingthecryusedincallingpigs.SometimesafterdinnerthemanwhocarriedthePighashis
faceblackened,andissetonacartanddrawnroundthevillagebyhisfellows,followedbyacrowd
cryingSz,sz,sz!asiftheywerecallingswine.Sometimes,afterbeingwheeledroundthe
village,heisflungonthedunghill.
Again,thecornspiritintheformofapigplayshispartatsowingtimeaswellasatharvest.AtNeuautz,
inCourland,whenbarleyissownforthefirsttimeintheyear,thefarmerswifeboilsthechineofapig
alongwiththetail,andbringsittothesoweronthefield.Heeatsofit,butcutsoffthetailandsticksitin
thefielditisbelievedthattheearsofcornwillthengrowaslongasthetail.Herethepigisthecorn
spirit,whosefertilisingpowerissometimessupposedtolieespeciallyinhistail.Asapigheisputinthe
groundatsowingtime,andasapighereappearsamongsttheripecornatharvest.Foramongstthe
neighbouringEsthonians,aswehaveseen,thelastsheafiscalledtheRyeboar.Somewhatsimilar
customsareobservedinGermany.IntheSalzadistrict,nearMeiningen,acertainboneinthepigis
calledtheJewonthewinnowingfan.ThefleshofthisboneisboiledonShroveTuesday,butthebone
isputamongsttheasheswhichtheneighboursexchangeaspresentsonSt.PetersDay(thetwenty
secondofFebruary),andthenmixwiththeseedcorn.InthewholeofHesse,Meiningen,andother
districts,peopleeatpeasoupwithdriedpigribsonAshWednesdayorCandlemas.Theribsarethen
collectedandhungintheroomtillsowingtime,whentheyareinsertedinthesownfieldorintheseed
bagamongsttheflaxseed.Thisisthoughttobeaninfalliblespecificagainstearthfleasandmoles,and
tocausetheflaxtogrowwellandtall.
Buttheideaofthecornspiritasembodiedinpigformisnowheremoreclearlyexpressedthaninthe
ScandinaviancustomoftheYuleBoar.InSwedenandDenmarkatYule(Christmas)itisthecustomto
bakealoafintheformofaboarpig.ThisiscalledtheYuleBoar.Thecornofthelastsheafisoftenused
tomakeit.AllthroughYuletheYuleBoarstandsonthetable.Oftenitiskepttillthesowingtimein
spring,whenpartofitismixedwiththeseedcornandpartgiventotheploughmanandploughhorsesor
ploughoxentoeat,intheexpectationofagoodharvest.Inthiscustomthecornspirit,immanentinthe
lastsheaf,appearsatmidwinterintheformofaboarmadefromthecornofthelastsheafandhis
quickeninginfluenceonthecornisshownbymixingpartoftheYuleBoarwiththeseedcorn,and
givingpartofittotheploughmanandhiscattletoeat.SimilarlywesawthattheCornwolfmakeshis
appearanceatmidwinter,thetimewhentheyearbeginstovergetowardsspring.Formerlyarealboar
wassacrificedatChristmas,andapparentlyalsoamaninthecharacteroftheYuleBoar.This,atleast,
mayperhapsbeinferredfromaChristmascustomstillobservedinSweden.Amaniswraptupinaskin,
andcarriesawispofstrawinhismouth,sothattheprojectingstrawslooklikethebristlesofaboar.A

knifeisbrought,andanoldwoman,withherfaceblackened,pretendstosacrificehim.
OnChristmasEveinsomepartsoftheEsthonianislandofOeseltheybakealongcakewiththetwoends
turnedup.ItiscalledtheChristmasBoar,andstandsonthetabletillthemorningofNewYearsDay,
whenitisdistributedamongthecattle.InotherpartsoftheislandtheChristmasBoarisnotacakebuta
littlepigborninMarch,whichthehousewifefattenssecretly,oftenwithouttheknowledgeoftheother
membersofthefamily.OnChristmasEvethelittlepigissecretlykilled,thenroastedintheoven,andset
onthetablestandingonallfours,whereitremainsinthispostureforseveraldays.Inotherpartsofthe
island,again,thoughtheChristmascakehasneitherthenamenortheshapeofaboar,itiskepttillthe
NewYear,whenhalfofitisdividedamongallthemembersandallthequadrupedsofthefamily.The
otherhalfofthecakeiskepttillsowingtimecomesround,whenitissimilarlydistributedinthemorning
amonghumanbeingsandbeasts.InotherpartsofEsthonia,again,theChristmasBoar,asitiscalled,is
bakedofthefirstryecutatharvestithasaconicalshapeandacrossisimpressedonitwithapigsbone
orakey,orthreedintsaremadeinitwithabuckleorapieceofcharcoal.Itstandswithalightbesideit
onthetableallthroughthefestalseason.OnNewYearsDayandEpiphany,beforesunrise,alittleofthe
cakeiscrumbledwithsaltandgiventothecattle.Therestiskepttillthedaywhenthecattlearedriven
outtopastureforthefirsttimeinspring.Itisthenputintheherdsmansbag,andateveningisdivided
amongthecattletoguardthemfrommagicandharm.InsomeplacestheChristmasBoarispartakenof
byfarmservantsandcattleatthetimeofthebarleysowing,forthepurposeoftherebyproducinga
heaviercrop.
10.OntheAnimalEmbodimentsoftheCornspirit
SOmuchfortheanimalembodimentsofthecornspiritastheyarepresentedtousinthefolkcustomsof
NorthernEurope.Thesecustomsbringoutclearlythesacramentalcharacteroftheharvestsupper.The
cornspiritisconceivedasembodiedinananimalthisdivineanimalisslain,anditsfleshandbloodare
partakenofbytheharvesters.Thusthecock,thehare,thecat,thegoat,andtheOXareeaten
sacramentallybytheharvester,andthepigiseatensacramentallybyploughmeninspring.Again,asa
substitutefortherealfleshofthedivinebeing,breadordumplingsaremadeinhisimageandeaten
sacramentallythus,pigshapeddumplingsareeatenbytheharvesters,andloavesmadeinboarshape
(theYuleBoar)areeateninspringbytheploughmanandhiscattle.
Thereaderhasprobablyremarkedthecompleteparallelismbetweentheconceptionsofthecornspiritin
humanandinanimalform.Theparallelmaybeherebrieflyresumed.Whenthecornwavesinthewindit
issaideitherthattheCornmotherorthattheCornwolf,etc.,ispassingthroughthecorn.Childrenare
warnedagainststrayingincornfieldseitherbecausetheCornmotherorbecausetheCornwolf,etc.,is
there.InthelastcorncutorthelastsheafthreshedeithertheCornmotherortheCornwolf,etc.,is
supposedtobepresent.ThelastsheafisitselfcalledeithertheCornmotherortheCornwolf,etc.,andis
madeupintheshapeeitherofawomanorofawolf,etc.Thepersonwhocuts,binds,orthreshesthelast
sheafiscalledeithertheOldWomanortheWolf,etc.,accordingtothenamebestowedonthesheaf
itself.AsinsomeplacesasheafmadeinhumanformandcalledtheMaiden,theMotheroftheMaize,
etc.,iskeptfromoneharvesttothenextinordertosecureacontinuanceofthecornspiritsblessing,so
insomeplacestheHarvestcockandinothersthefleshofthegoatiskeptforasimilarpurposefromone
harvesttothenext.AsinsomeplacesthegraintakenfromtheCornmotherismixedwiththeseedcorn
inspringtomakethecropabundant,soinsomeplacesthefeathersofthecock,andinSwedentheYule
Boar,arekepttillspringandmixedwiththeseedcornforalikepurpose.AspartoftheCornmotheror
MaidenisgiventothecattleatChristmasortothehorsesatthefirstploughing,sopartoftheYuleBoar
isgiventotheploughinghorsesoroxeninspring.Lastly,thedeathofthecornspiritisrepresentedby
killingorpretendingtokilleitherhishumanorhisanimalrepresentativeandtheworshipperspartake
sacramentallyeitheroftheactualbodyandbloodoftherepresentativeofthedivinity,orofbreadmade

inhislikeness.
Otheranimalformsassumedbythecornspiritarethefox,stag,roe,sheep,bear,ass,mouse,quail,stork,
swan,andkite.Ifitisaskedwhythecornspiritshouldbethoughttoappearintheformofananimaland
ofsomanydifferentanimals,wemayreplythattoprimitivemanthesimpleappearanceofananimalor
birdamongthecornisprobablyenoughtosuggestamysteriouslinkbetweenthecreatureandthecorn
andwhenwerememberthatintheolddays,beforefieldswerefencedin,allkindsofanimalsmusthave
beenfreetoroamoverthem,weneednotwonderthatthecornspiritshouldhavebeenidentifiedeven
withlargeanimalslikethehorseandcow,whichnowadayscouldnot,exceptbyarareaccident,befound
strayinginanEnglishcornfield.Thisexplanationapplieswithpeculiarforcetotheverycommoncasein
whichtheanimalembodimentofthecornspiritisbelievedtolurkinthelaststandingcorn.Forat
harvestanumberofwildanimals,suchashares,rabbits,andpartridges,arecommonlydrivenbythe
progressofthereapingintothelastpatchofstandingcorn,andmaketheirescapefromitasitisbeing
cutdown.Soregularlydoesthishappenthatreapersandothersoftenstandroundthelastpatchofcorn
armedwithsticksorguns,withwhichtheykilltheanimalsastheydartoutoftheirlastrefugeamongthe
stalks.Now,primitiveman,towhommagicalchangesofshapeseemperfectlycredible,findsitmost
naturalthatthespiritofthecorn,drivenfromhishomeintheripegrain,shouldmakehisescapeinthe
formoftheanimalwhichisseentorushoutofthelastpatchofcornasitfallsunderthescytheofthe
reaper.Thustheidentificationofthecornspiritwithananimalisanalogoustotheidentificationofhim
withapassingstranger.Asthesuddenappearanceofastrangerneartheharvestfieldorthreshingfloor
is,totheprimitivemind,enoughtoidentifyhimasthespiritofthecornescapingfromthecutor
threshedcorn,sothesuddenappearanceofananimalissuingfromthecutcornisenoughtoidentifyit
withthecornspiritescapingfromhisruinedhome.Thetwoidentificationsaresoanalogousthatthey
canhardlybedissociatedinanyattempttoexplainthem.Thosewholooktosomeotherprinciplethan
theoneheresuggestedfortheexplanationofthelatteridentificationareboundtoshowthattheirtheory
coverstheformeridentificationalso.

XLIX.AncientDeitiesofVegetationasAnimals
1.Dionysus,theGoatandtheBull
HOWEVERwemayexplainit,thefactremainsthatinpeasantfolklorethecornspiritisvery
commonlyconceivedandrepresentedinanimalform.Maynotthisfactexplaintherelationinwhich
certainanimalsstoodtotheancientdeitiesofvegetation,Dionysus,Demeter,Adonis,Attis,andOsiris?
TobeginwithDionysus.Wehaveseenthathewasrepresentedsometimesasagoatandsometimesasa
bull.Asagoathecanhardlybeseparatedfromtheminordivinities,thePans,Satyrs,andSilenuses,all
ofwhomarecloselyassociatedwithhimandarerepresentedmoreorlesscompletelyintheformof
goats.Thus,Panwasregularlyportrayedinsculptureandpaintingwiththefaceandlegsofagoat.The
Satyrsweredepictedwithpointedgoatears,andsometimeswithsproutinghornsandshorttails.They
weresometimesspokenofsimplyasgoatsandinthedramatheirpartswereplayedbymendressedin
goatskins.Silenusisrepresentedinartcladinagoatskin.Further,theFauns,theItaliancounterpartofthe
GreekPansandSatyrs,aredescribedasbeinghalfgoats,withgoatfeetandgoathorns.Again,allthese
minorgoatformeddivinitiespartakemoreorlessclearlyofthecharacterofwoodlanddeities.Thus,Pan
wascalledbytheArcadianstheLordoftheWood.TheSilenuseskeptcompanywiththetreenymphs.
TheFaunsareexpresslydesignatedaswoodlanddeitiesandtheircharacterassuchisstillfurther
broughtoutbytheirassociation,orevenidentification,withSilvanusandtheSilvanuses,who,astheir
nameofitselfindicates,arespiritsofthewoods.Lastly,theassociationoftheSatyrswiththeSilenuses,
Fauns,andSilvanuses,provesthattheSatyrsalsowerewoodlanddeities.Thesegoatformedspiritsof
thewoodshavetheircounterpartsinthefolkloreofNorthernEurope.Thus,theRussianwoodspirits,

calledLjeschie(fromljes,wood),arebelievedtoappearpartlyinhumanshape,butwiththehorns,
ears,andlegsofgoats.TheLjeschicanalterhisstatureatpleasurewhenhewalksinthewoodheisas
tallasthetreeswhenhewalksinthemeadowsheisnohigherthanthegrass.SomeoftheLjeschieare
spiritsofthecornaswellasofthewoodbeforeharvesttheyareastallasthecornstalks,butafteritthey
shrinktotheheightofthestubble.Thisbringsoutwhatwehaveremarkedbeforethecloseconnexion
betweentreespiritsandcornspirits,andshowshoweasilytheformermaymeltintothelatter.Similarly
theFauns,thoughwoodspirits,werebelievedtofosterthegrowthofthecrops.Wehavealreadyseen
howoftenthecornspiritisrepresentedinfolkcustomasagoat.Onthewhole,then,asMannhardt
argues,thePans,Satyrs,andFaunsperhapsbelongtoawidelydiffusedclassofwoodspiritsconceived
ingoatform.Thefondnessofgoatsforstrayinginwoodsandnibblingthebarkoftrees,towhichindeed
theyaremostdestructive,isanobviousandperhapssufficientreasonwhywoodspiritsshouldsooften
besupposedtotaketheformofgoats.Theinconsistencyofagodofvegetationsubsistinguponthe
vegetationwhichhepersonifiesisnotonetostriketheprimitivemind.Suchinconsistenciesarisewhen
thedeity,ceasingtobeimmanentinthevegetation,comestoberegardedasitsownerorlordforthe
ideaofowningthevegetationnaturallyleadstothatofsubsistingonit.Sometimesthecornspirit,
originallyconceivedasimmanentinthecorn,afterwardscomestoberegardedasitsowner,wholiveson
itandisreducedtopovertyandwantbybeingdeprivedofit.HenceheisoftenknownasthePoorMan
orthePoorWoman.OccasionallythelastsheafisleftstandingonthefieldforthePoorOldWoman
orfortheOldRyewoman.
Thustherepresentationofwoodspiritsintheformofgoatsappearstobebothwidespreadand,tothe
primitivemind,natural.Thereforewhenwefind,aswehavedone,thatDionysusatreegodis
sometimesrepresentedingoatform,wecanhardlyavoidconcludingthatthisrepresentationissimplya
partofhispropercharacterasatreegodandisnottobeexplainedbythefusionoftwodistinctand
independentworships,inoneofwhichheoriginallyappearedasatreegodandintheotherasagoat.
Dionysuswasalsofigured,aswehaveseen,intheshapeofabull.Afterwhathasgonebeforeweare
naturallyledtoexpectthathisbullformmusthavebeenonlyanotherexpressionforhischaracterasa
deityofvegetation,especiallyasthebullisacommonembodimentofthecornspiritinNorthernEurope
andthecloseassociationofDionysuswithDemeterandPersephoneinthemysteriesofEleusisshows
thathehadatleaststrongagriculturalaffinities.
Theprobabilityofthisviewwillbesomewhatincreasedifitcanbeshownthatinotherritesthanthose
ofDionysustheancientsslewanOXasarepresentativeofthespiritofvegetation.Thistheyappearto
havedoneintheAtheniansacrificeknownasthemurderoftheOX(bouphonia).Ittookplaceabout
theendofJuneorbeginningofJuly,thatis,aboutthetimewhenthethreshingisnearlyoverinAttica.
Accordingtotraditionthesacrificewasinstitutedtoprocureacessationofdroughtanddearthwhichhad
afflictedtheland.Theritualwasasfollows.Barleymixedwithwheat,orcakesmadeofthem,werelaid
uponthebronzealtarofZeusPolieusontheAcropolis.Oxenweredrivenroundthealtar,andtheOX
whichwentuptothealtarandatetheofferingonitwassacrificed.Theaxeandknifewithwhichthe
beastwasslainhadbeenpreviouslywettedwithwaterbroughtbymaidenscalledwatercarriers.The
weaponswerethensharpenedandhandedtothebutchers,oneofwhomfelledtheOXwiththeaxeand
anothercutitsthroatwiththeknife.AssoonashehadfelledtheOX,theformerthrewtheaxefromhim
andfledandthemanwhocutthebeaststhroatapparentlyimitatedhisexample.MeantimetheOXwas
skinnedandallpresentpartookofitsflesh.Thenthehidewasstuffedwithstrawandsewedupnextthe
stuffedanimalwassetonitsfeetandyokedtoaploughasifitwereploughing.Atrialthentookplacein
anancientlawcourtpresidedoverbytheKing(ashewascalled)todeterminewhohadmurderedthe
OX.Themaidenswhohadbroughtthewateraccusedthemenwhohadsharpenedtheaxeandknifethe
menwhohadsharpenedtheaxeandknifeblamedthemenwhohadhandedtheseimplementstothe
butchersthemenwhohadhandedtheimplementstothebutchersblamedthebutchersandthebutchers
laidtheblameontheaxeandknife,whichwereaccordinglyfoundguilty,condemned,andcastintothe

sea.
Thenameofthissacrifice,themurderoftheOX,thepainstakenbyeachpersonwhohadahand
intheslaughtertolaytheblameonsomeoneelse,togetherwiththeformaltrialandpunishmentofthe
axeorknifeorboth,provethattheOXwashereregardednotmerelyasavictimofferedtoagod,butas
itselfasacredcreature,theslaughterofwhichwassacrilegeormurder.Thisisborneoutbyastatement
ofVarrothattokillanOXwasformerlyacapitalcrimeinAttica.Themodeofselectingthevictim
suggeststhattheOXwhichtastedthecornwasviewedasthecorndeitytakingpossessionofhisown.
Thisinterpretationissupportedbythefollowingcustom.InBeauce,inthedistrictofOrleans,onthe
twentyfourthortwentyfifthofApriltheymakeastrawmancalledthegreatmondard.Fortheysay
thattheoldmondardisnowdeadanditisnecessarytomakeanewone.Thestrawmaniscarriedin
solemnprocessionupanddownthevillageandatlastisplacedupontheoldestappletree.Therehe
remainstilltheapplesaregathered,whenheistakendownandthrownintothewater,orheisburned
andhisashescastintowater.Butthepersonwhoplucksthefirstfruitfromthetreesucceedstothetitle
ofthegreatmondard.Herethestrawfigure,calledthegreatmondardandplacedontheoldestapple
treeinspring,representsthespiritofthetree,who,deadinwinter,reviveswhentheappleblossoms
appearontheboughs.Thusthepersonwhoplucksthefirstfruitfromthetreeandtherebyreceivesthe
nameofthegreatmondardmustberegardedasarepresentativeofthetreespirit.Primitivepeoplesare
usuallyreluctanttotastetheannualfirstfruitsofanycrop,untilsomeceremonyhasbeenperformed
whichmakesitsafeandpiousforthemtodoso.Thereasonofthisreluctanceappearstobeabeliefthat
thefirstfruitseitherbelongtooractuallycontainadivinity.Thereforewhenamanoranimalisseen
boldlytoappropriatethesacredfirstfruits,heoritisnaturallyregardedasthedivinityhimselfinhuman
oranimalformtakingpossessionofhisown.ThetimeoftheAtheniansacrifice,whichfellaboutthe
closeofthethreshing,suggeststhatthewheatandbarleylaiduponthealtarwereaharvestofferingand
thesacramentalcharacterofthesubsequentrepastallpartakingofthefleshofthedivineanimal
wouldmakeitparalleltotheharvestsuppersofmodernEurope,inwhich,aswehaveseen,thefleshof
theanimalwhichstandsforthecornspiritiseatenbytheharvesters.Again,thetraditionthatthe
sacrificewasinstitutedinordertoputanendtodroughtandfamineisinfavouroftakingitasaharvest
festival.Theresurrectionofthecornspirit,enactedbysettingupthestuffedOXandyokingittothe
plough,maybecomparedwiththeresurrectionofthetreespiritinthepersonofhisrepresentative,the
WildMan.
TheOXappearsasarepresentativeofthecornspiritinotherpartsoftheworld.AtGreatBassam,in
Guinea,twooxenareslainannuallytoprocureagoodharvest.Ifthesacrificeistobeeffectual,itis
necessarythattheoxenshouldweep.Soallthewomenofthevillagesitinfrontofthebeasts,chanting,
TheOXwillweepyes,hewillweep!Fromtimetotimeoneofthewomenwalksroundthebeasts,
throwingmaniocmealorpalmwineuponthem,especiallyintotheireyes.Whentearsrolldownfromthe
eyesoftheoxen,thepeopledance,singing,TheOXweeps!theOXweeps!Thentwomenseizethe
tailsofthebeastsandcutthemoffatoneblow.Itisbelievedthatagreatmisfortunewillhappeninthe
courseoftheyearifthetailsarenotseveredatoneblow.Theoxenareafterwardskilled,andtheirflesh
iseatenbythechiefs.Herethetearsoftheoxen,likethoseofthehumanvictimsamongsttheKhonds
andtheAztecs,areprobablyaraincharm.Wehavealreadyseenthatthevirtueofthecornspirit,
embodiedinanimalform,issometimessupposedtoresideinthetail,andthatthelasthandfulofcornis
sometimesconceivedasthetailofthecornspirit.IntheMithraicreligionthisconceptionisgraphically
setforthinsomeofthenumeroussculptureswhichrepresentMithraskneelingonthebackofabulland
plungingaknifeintoitsflankforoncertainofthesemonumentsthetailofthebullendsinthreestalks
ofcorn,andinoneofthemcornstalksinsteadofbloodareseenissuingfromthewoundinflictedbythe
knife.Suchrepresentationscertainlysuggestthatthebull,whosesacrificeappearstohaveformeda
leadingfeatureintheMithraicritual,wasconceived,inoneatleastofitsaspects,asanincarnationofthe
cornspirit.

Stillmoreclearlydoestheoxappearasapersonificationofthecornspiritinaceremonywhichis
observedinalltheprovincesanddistrictsofChinatowelcometheapproachofspring.Onthefirstdayof
spring,usuallyonthethirdorfourthofFebruary,whichisalsothebeginningoftheChineseNewYear,
thegovernororprefectofthecitygoesinprocessiontotheeastgateofthecity,andsacrificestothe
DivineHusbandman,whoisrepresentedwithabullsheadonthebodyofaman.Alargeeffigyofanox,
cow,orbuffalohasbeenpreparedfortheoccasion,andstandsoutsideoftheeastgate,withagricultural
implementsbesideit.Thefigureismadeofdifferentlycolouredpiecesofpaperpastedonaframework
eitherbyablindmanoraccordingtothedirectionsofanecromancer.Thecoloursofthepaper
prognosticatethecharacterofthecomingyearifredprevails,therewillbemanyfiresifwhite,there
willbefloodsandrainandsowiththeothercolours.Themandarinswalkslowlyroundtheox,beatingit
severelyateachstepwithrodsofvarioushues.Itisfilledwithfivekindsofgrain,whichpourforthwhen
theeffigyisbrokenbytheblowsoftherods.Thepaperfragmentsarethensetonfire,andascramble
takesplacefortheburningfragments,becausethepeoplebelievethatwhoevergetsoneofthemissureto
befortunatethroughouttheyear.Alivebuffaloisnextkilled,anditsfleshisdividedamongthe
mandarins.Accordingtooneaccount,theeffigyoftheoxismadeofclay,and,afterbeingbeatenbythe
governor,isstonedbythepeopletilltheybreakitinpieces,fromwhichtheyexpectanabundantyear.
Herethecornspiritappearstobeplainlyrepresentedbythecornfilledox,whosefragmentsmay
thereforebesupposedtobringfertilitywiththem.
OnthewholewemayperhapsconcludethatbothasagoatandasabullDionysuswasessentiallyagod
ofvegetation.TheChineseandEuropeancustomswhichIhavecitedmayperhapsshedlightonthe
customofrendingalivebullorgoatattheritesofDionysus.Theanimalwastorninfragments,asthe
Khondvictimwascutinpieces,inorderthattheworshippersmighteachsecureaportionofthelife
givingandfertilisinginfluenceofthegod.Thefleshwaseatenrawasasacrament,andwemay
conjecturethatsomeofitwastakenhometobeburiedinthefields,orotherwiseemployedsoasto
conveytothefruitsoftheearththequickeninginfluenceofthegodofvegetation.Theresurrectionof
Dionysus,relatedinhismyth,mayhavebeenenactedinhisritesbystuffingandsettinguptheslainox,
aswasdoneattheAthenianbouphonia.
2.Demeter,thePigandtheHorse
PASSINGnexttothecorngoddessDemeter,andrememberingthatinEuropeanfolklorethepigisa
commonembodimentofthecornspirit,wemaynowaskwhetherthepig,whichwassoclosely
associatedwithDemeter,maynothavebeenoriginallythegoddessherselfinanimalform.Thepigwas
sacredtoherinartshewasportrayedcarryingoraccompaniedbyapigandthepigwasregularly
sacrificedinhermysteries,thereasonassignedbeingthatthepiginjuresthecornandisthereforean
enemyofthegoddess.Butafterananimalhasbeenconceivedasagod,oragodasananimal,it
sometimeshappens,aswehaveseen,thatthegodsloughsoffhisanimalformandbecomespurely
anthropomorphicandthatthentheanimal,whichatfirsthadbeenslaininthecharacterofthegod,
comestobeviewedasavictimofferedtothegodonthegroundofitshostilitytothedeityinshort,the
godissacrificedtohimselfonthegroundthatheishisownenemy.ThishappenedtoDionysus,andit
mayhavehappenedtoDemeteralso.Andinfacttheritesofoneofherfestivals,theThesmophoria,bear
outtheviewthatoriginallythepigwasanembodimentofthecorngoddessherself,eitherDemeterorher
daughteranddoublePersephone.TheAtticThesmophoriawasanautumnfestival,celebratedbywomen
aloneinOctober,andappearstohaverepresentedwithmourningritesthedescentofPersephone(or
Demeter)intothelowerworld,andwithjoyherreturnfromthedead.HencethenameDescentorAscent
variouslyappliedtothefirst,andthenameKalligeneia(fairborn)appliedtothethirddayofthefestival.
NowitwascustomaryattheThesmophoriatothrowpigs,cakesofdough,andbranchesofpinetrees
intothechasmsofDemeterandPersephone,whichappeartohavebeensacredcavernsorvaults.In
thesecavernsorvaultsthereweresaidtobeserpents,whichguardedthecavernsandconsumedmostof

thefleshofthepigsanddoughcakeswhichwerethrownin.Afterwardsapparentlyatthenextannual
festivalthedecayedremainsofthepigs,thecakes,andthepinebrancheswerefetchedbywomen
calleddrawers,who,afterobservingrulesofceremonialpurityforthreedays,descendedintothe
caverns,and,frighteningawaytheserpentsbyclappingtheirhands,broughtuptheremainsandplaced
themonthealtar.Whoevergotapieceofthedecayedfleshandcakes,andsoweditwiththeseedcornin
hisfield,wasbelievedtobesureofagoodcrop.
ToexplaintherudeandancientritualoftheThesmophoriathefollowinglegendwastold.Atthemoment
whenPlutocarriedoffPersephone,aswineherdcalledEubuleuschancedtobeherdinghisswineonthe
spot,andhisherdwasengulfedinthechasmdownwhichPlutovanishedwithPersephone.Accordingly
attheThesmophoriapigswereannuallythrownintocavernstocommemoratethedisappearanceofthe
swineofEubuleus.ItfollowsfromthisthatthecastingofthepigsintothevaultsattheThesmophoria
formedpartofthedramaticrepresentationofPersephonesdescentintothelowerworldandasnoimage
ofPersephoneappearstohavebeenthrownin,wemayinferthatthedescentofthepigswasnotsomuch
anaccompanimentofherdescentasthedescentitself,inshort,thatthepigswerePersephone.
AfterwardswhenPersephoneorDemeter(forthetwoareequivalent)tookonhumanform,areasonhad
tobefoundforthecustomofthrowingpigsintocavernsatherfestivalandthiswasdonebysayingthat
whenPlutocarriedoffPersephonetherehappenedtobesomeswinebrowsingnear,whichwere
swallowedupalongwithher.Thestoryisobviouslyaforcedandawkwardattempttobridgeoverthe
gulfbetweentheoldconceptionofthecornspiritasapigandthenewconceptionofherasan
anthropomorphicgoddess.Atraceoftheolderconceptionsurvivedinthelegendthatwhenthesad
motherwassearchingfortracesofthevanishedPersephone,thefootprintsofthelostonewere
obliteratedbythefootprintsofapigoriginally,wemayconjecture,thefootprintsofthepigwerethe
footprintsofPersephoneandofDemeterherself.Aconsciousnessoftheintimateconnexionofthepig
withthecornlurksinthelegendthattheswineherdEubuleuswasabrotherofTriptolemus,towhom
Demeterfirstimpartedthesecretofthecorn.Indeed,accordingtooneversionofthestory,Eubuleus
himselfreceived,jointlywithhisbrotherTriptolemus,thegiftofthecornfromDemeterasarewardfor
revealingtoherthefateofPersephone.Further,itistobenotedthatattheThesmophoriathewomen
appeartohaveeatenswinesflesh.Themeal,ifIamright,musthavebeenasolemnsacramentor
communion,theworshipperspartakingofthebodyofthegod.
Asthusexplained,theThesmophoriahasitsanalogiesinthefolkcustomsofNorthernEuropewhich
havebeenalreadydescribed.JustasattheThesmophoriaanautumnfestivalinhonourofthecorn
goddessswinesfleshwaspartlyeaten,partlykeptincavernstillthefollowingyear,whenitwastaken
uptobesownwiththeseedcorninthefieldsforthepurposeofsecuringagoodcropsointhe
neighbourhoodofGrenoblethegoatkilledontheharvestfieldispartlyeatenattheharvestsupper,
partlypickledandkepttillthenextharvestsoatPouillytheoxkilledontheharvestfieldispartlyeaten
bytheharvesters,partlypickledandkepttillthefirstdayofsowinginspring,probablytobethenmixed
withtheseed,oreatenbytheploughmen,orbothsoatUdvarhelythefeathersofthecockwhichis
killedinthelastsheafatharvestarekepttillspring,andthensownwiththeseedonthefieldsoinHesse
andMeiningenthefleshofpigsiseatenonAshWednesdayorCandlemas,andthebonesarekepttill
sowingtime,whentheyareputintothefieldsownormixedwiththeseedinthebagso,lastly,thecorn
fromthelastsheafiskepttillChristmas,madeintotheYuleBoar,andafterwardsbrokenandmixedwith
theseedcornatsowinginspring.Thus,toputitgenerally,thecornspiritiskilledinanimalformin
autumnpartofhisfleshiseatenasasacramentbyhisworshippersandpartofitiskepttillnextsowing
timeorharvestasapledgeandsecurityforthecontinuanceorrenewalofthecornspiritsenergies.
IfpersonsoffastidioustasteshouldobjectthattheGreeksnevercouldhaveconceivedDemeterand
Persephonetobeembodiedintheformofpigs,itmaybeansweredthatinthecaveofPhigaliain
ArcadiatheBlackDemeterwasportrayedwiththeheadandmaneofahorseonthebodyofawoman.
Betweentheportraitsofagoddessasapig,andtheportraitofherasawomanwithahorseshead,there

islittletochooseinrespectofbarbarism.ThelegendtoldofthePhigalianDemeterindicatesthatthe
horsewasoneoftheanimalformsassumedinancientGreece,asinmodernEurope,bythecornspirit.It
wassaidthatinhersearchforherdaughter,Demeterassumedtheformofamaretoescapetheaddresses
ofPoseidon,andthat,offendedathisimportunity,shewithdrewindudgeontoacavenotfarfrom
PhigaliainthehighlandsofWesternArcadia.There,robedinblack,shetarriedsolongthatthefruitsof
theearthwereperishing,andmankindwouldhavediedoffamineifPanhadnotsoothedtheangry
goddessandpersuadedhertoquitthecave.Inmemoryofthisevent,thePhigalianssetupanimageof
theBlackDemeterinthecaveitrepresentedawomandressedinalongrobe,withtheheadandmaneof
ahorse.TheBlackDemeter,inwhoseabsencethefruitsoftheearthperish,isplainlyamythical
expressionforthebarewintryearthstrippedofitssummermantleofgreen.
3.Attis,Adonis,andthePig
PASSINGnowtoAttisandAdonis,wemaynoteafewfactswhichseemtoshowthatthesedeitiesof
vegetationhadalso,likeotherdeitiesofthesameclass,theiranimalembodiments.Theworshippersof
Attisabstainedfromeatingthefleshofswine.Thisappearstoindicatethatthepigwasregardedasan
embodimentofAttis.AndthelegendthatAttiswaskilledbyaboarpointsinthesamedirection.For
aftertheexamplesofthegoatDionysusandthepigDemeteritmayalmostbelaiddownasarulethatan
animalwhichissaidtohaveinjuredagodwasoriginallythegodhimself.PerhapsthecryofHyes
Attes!HyesAttes!whichwasraisedbytheworshippersofAttis,maybeneithermorenorlessthanPig
Attis!PigAttis!hyesbeingpossiblyaPhrygianformoftheGreekhys,apig.
InregardtoAdonis,hisconnexionwiththeboarwasnotalwaysexplainedbythestorythathehadbeen
killedbytheanimal.Accordingtoanotherstory,aboarrentwithhistuskthebarkofthetreeinwhich
theinfantAdoniswasborn.Accordingtoyetanotherstory,heperishedatthehandsofHephaestuson
MountLebanonwhilehewashuntingwildboars.Thesevariationsinthelegendservetoshowthat,
whiletheconnexionoftheboarwithAdoniswascertain,thereasonoftheconnexionwasnot
understood,andthatconsequentlydifferentstoriesweredevisedtoexplainit.Certainlythepigrankedas
asacredanimalamongtheSyrians.AtthegreatreligiousmetropolisofHierapolisontheEuphratespigs
wereneithersacrificednoreaten,andifamantouchedapighewasuncleanfortherestoftheday.Some
peoplesaidthiswasbecausethepigswereuncleanotherssaiditwasbecausethepigsweresacred.This
differenceofopinionpointstoahazystateofreligiousthoughtinwhichtheideasofsanctityand
uncleannessarenotyetsharplydistinguished,bothbeingblentinasortofvaporoussolutiontowhichwe
givethenameoftaboo.Itisquiteconsistentwiththisthatthepigshouldhavebeenheldtobean
embodimentofthedivineAdonis,andtheanalogiesofDionysusandDemetermakeitprobablethatthe
storyofthehostilityoftheanimaltothegodwasonlyalatemisapprehensionoftheoldviewofthegod
asembodiedinapig.TherulethatpigswerenotsacrificedoreatenbyworshippersofAttisand
presumablyofAdonis,doesnotexcludethepossibilitythatintheseritualsthepigwasslainonsolemn
occasionsasarepresentativeofthegodandconsumedsacramentallybytheworshippers.Indeed,the
sacramentalkillingandeatingofananimalimpliesthattheanimalissacred,andthat,asageneralrule,it
isspared.
TheattitudeoftheJewstothepigwasasambiguousasthatoftheheathenSyrianstowardsthesame
animal.TheGreekscouldnotdecidewhethertheJewsworshippedswineorabominatedthem.Onthe
onehandtheymightnoteatswinebutontheotherhandtheymightnotkillthem.Andiftheformerrule
speaksfortheuncleanness,thelatterspeaksstillmorestronglyforthesanctityoftheanimal.For
whereasbothrulesmay,andonerulemust,beexplainedonthesuppositionthatthepigwassacred
neitherrulemust,andonerulecannot,beexplainedonthesuppositionthatthepigwasunclean.If,
therefore,weprefertheformersupposition,wemustconcludethat,originallyatleast,thepigwas
reveredratherthanabhorredbytheIsraelites.Weareconfirmedinthisopinionbyobservingthatdown

tothetimeofIsaiahsomeoftheJewsusedtomeetsecretlyingardenstoeatthefleshofswineandmice
asareligiousrite.Doubtlessthiswasaveryancientceremony,datingfromatimewhenboththepigand
themousewereveneratedasdivine,andwhentheirfleshwaspartakenofsacramentallyonrareand
solemnoccasionsasthebodyandbloodofgods.Andingeneralitmayperhapsbesaidthatallsocalled
uncleananimalswereoriginallysacredthereasonfornoteatingthemwasthattheyweredivine.
4.Osiris,thePigandtheBull
INANCIENTEgypt,withinhistoricaltimes,thepigoccupiedthesamedubiouspositionasinSyriaand
Palestine,thoughatfirstsightitsuncleannessismoreprominentthanitssanctity.TheEgyptiansare
generallysaidbyGreekwriterstohaveabhorredthepigasafoulandloathsomeanimal.Ifamanso
muchastouchedapiginpassing,hesteppedintotheriverwithallhisclotheson,towashoffthetaint.
Todrinkpigsmilkwasbelievedtocauseleprosytothedrinker.Swineherds,thoughnativesofEgypt,
wereforbiddentoenteranytemple,andtheyweretheonlymenwhowerethusexcluded.Noonewould
givehisdaughterinmarriagetoaswineherd,ormarryaswineherdsdaughtertheswineherdsmarried
amongthemselves.YetonceayeartheEgyptianssacrificedpigstothemoonandtoOsiris,andnotonly
sacrificedthem,butateoftheirflesh,thoughonanyotherdayoftheyeartheywouldneithersacrifice
themnortasteoftheirflesh.Thosewhoweretoopoortoofferapigonthisdaybakedcakesofdough,
andofferedtheminstead.Thiscanhardlybeexplainedexceptbythesuppositionthatthepigwasa
sacredanimalwhichwaseatensacramentallybyhisworshippersonceayear.
TheviewthatinEgyptthepigwassacredisborneoutbytheveryfactswhich,tomoderns,mightseem
toprovethecontrary.ThustheEgyptiansthought,aswehaveseen,thattodrinkpigsmilkproduced
leprosy.Butexactlyanalogousviewsareheldbysavagesabouttheanimalsandplantswhichtheydeem
mostsacred.ThusintheislandofWetar(betweenNewGuineaandCelebes)peoplebelievethemselves
tobevariouslydescendedfromwildpigs,serpents,crocodiles,turtles,dogs,andeelsamanmaynoteat
ananimalofthekindfromwhichheisdescendedifhedoesso,hewillbecomealeper,andgomad.
AmongsttheOmahaIndiansofNorthAmericamenwhosetotemistheelk,believethatiftheyatethe
fleshofthemaleelktheywouldbreakoutinboilsandwhitespotsindifferentpartsoftheirbodies.In
thesametribemenwhosetotemistheredmaize,thinkthatiftheyateredmaizetheywouldhave
runningsoresallroundtheirmouths.TheBushnegroesofSurinam,whopractisetotemism,believethat
iftheyatethecapia(ananimallikeapig)itwouldgivethemleprosyperhapsthecapiaisoneof
theirtotems.TheSyrians,inantiquity,whoesteemedfishsacred,thoughtthatiftheyatefishtheirbodies
wouldbreakoutinulcers,andtheirfeetandstomachwouldswellup.TheChasasofOrissabelievethat
iftheyweretoinjuretheirtotemicanimaltheywouldbeattackedbyleprosyandtheirlinewoulddieout.
Theseexamplesprovethattheeatingofasacredanimalisoftenbelievedtoproduceleprosyorother
skindiseasessofar,therefore,theysupporttheviewthatthepigmusthavebeensacredinEgypt,since
theeffectofdrinkingitsmilkwasbelievedtobeleprosy.
Again,therulethat,aftertouchingapig,amanhadtowashhimselfandhisclothes,alsofavoursthe
viewofthesanctityofthepig.Foritisacommonbeliefthattheeffectofcontactwithasacredobject
mustberemoved,bywashingorotherwise,beforeamanisfreetominglewithhisfellows.Thusthe
Jewswashtheirhandsafterreadingthesacredscriptures.Beforecomingforthfromthetabernacleafter
thesinoffering,thehighpriesthadtowashhimself,andputoffthegarmentswhichhehadworninthe
holyplace.ItwasaruleofGreekritualthat,inofferinganexpiatorysacrifice,thesacrificershouldnot
touchthesacrifice,andthat,aftertheofferingwasmade,hemustwashhisbodyandhisclothesinariver
orspringbeforehecouldenteracityorhisownhouse.ThePolynesiansfeltstronglytheneedofridding
themselvesofthesacredcontagion,ifitmaybesocalled,whichtheycaughtbytouchingsacredobjects.
Variousceremonieswereperformedforthepurposeofremovingthiscontagion.Wehaveseen,for
example,howinTongaamanwhohappenedtotouchasacredchief,oranythingpersonallybelongingto

him,hadtoperformacertainceremonybeforehecouldfeedhimselfwithhishandsotherwiseitwas
believedthathewouldswellupanddie,oratleastbeafflictedwithscrofulaorsomeotherdisease.We
haveseen,too,whatfataleffectsaresupposedtofollow,anddoactuallyfollow,fromcontactwitha
sacredobjectinNewZealand.Inshort,primitivemanbelievesthatwhatissacredisdangerousitis
pervadedbyasortofelectricalsanctitywhichcommunicatesashockto,evenifitdoesnotkill,whatever
comesincontactwithit.Hencethesavageisunwillingtotouchoreventoseethatwhichhedeems
peculiarlyholy.ThusBechuanas,oftheCrocodileclan,thinkithatefulandunluckytomeetorseea
crocodilethesightisthoughttocauseinflammationoftheeyes.Yetthecrocodileistheirmostsacred
objecttheycallittheirfather,swearbyit,andcelebrateitintheirfestivals.Thegoatisthesacredanimal
oftheMadenassanaBushmenyettolookuponitwouldbetorenderthemanforthetimeimpure,as
wellastocausehimundefineduneasiness.TheElkclan,amongtheOmahaIndians,believethatevento
touchthemaleelkwouldbefollowedbyaneruptionofboilsandwhitespotsonthebody.Membersof
theReptileclaninthesametribethinkthatifoneofthemtouchesorsmellsasnake,itwillmakehishair
white.InSamoapeoplewhosegodwasabutterflybelievedthatiftheycaughtabutterflyitwouldstrike
themdead.Again,inSamoathereddishsearedleavesofthebananatreewerecommonlyusedasplates
forhandingfoodbutifanymemberoftheWildPigeonfamilyhadusedbananaleavesforthispurpose,
itwassupposedthathewouldsufferfromrheumaticswellingsoraneruptionalloverthebodylike
chickenpox.TheMoriclanoftheBhilsinCentralIndiaworshipthepeacockastheirtotemandmake
offeringsofgraintoityetmembersoftheclanbelievethatweretheyeventosetfootonthetracksofa
peacocktheywouldafterwardssufferfromsomedisease,andifawomanseesapeacockshemustveil
herfaceandlookaway.Thustheprimitivemindseemstoconceiveofholinessasasortofdangerous
virus,whichaprudentmanwillshunasfaraspossible,andofwhich,ifheshouldchancetobeinfected
byit,hewillcarefullydisinfecthimselfbysomeformofceremonialpurification.
InthelightoftheseparallelsthebeliefsandcustomsoftheEgyptianstouchingthepigareprobablytobe
explainedasbaseduponanopinionoftheextremesanctityratherthanoftheextremeuncleannessofthe
animalorrather,toputitmorecorrectly,theyimplythattheanimalwaslookedon,notsimplyasa
filthyanddisgustingcreature,butasabeingendowedwithhighsupernaturalpowers,andthatassuchit
wasregardedwiththatprimitivesentimentofreligiousaweandfearinwhichthefeelingsofreverence
andabhorrencearealmostequallyblended.Theancientsthemselvesseemtohavebeenawarethatthere
wasanothersidetothehorrorwithwhichswineseemedtoinspiretheEgyptians.FortheGreek
astronomerandmathematicianEudoxus,whoresidedfourteenmonthsinEgyptandconversedwiththe
priests,wasofopinionthattheEgyptianssparedthepig,notoutofabhorrence,butfromaregardtoits
utilityinagriculturefor,accordingtohim,whentheNilehadsubsided,herdsofswinewereturnedloose
overthefieldstotreadtheseeddownintothemoistearth.Butwhenabeingisthustheobjectofmixed
andimplicitlycontradictoryfeelings,hemaybesaidtooccupyapositionofunstableequilibrium.In
courseoftimeoneofthecontradictoryfeelingsislikelytoprevailovertheother,andaccordingasthe
feelingwhichfinallypredominatesisthatofreverenceorabhorrence,thebeingwhoistheobjectofit
willriseintoagodorsinkintoadevil.Thelatter,onthewhole,wasthefateofthepiginEgypt.Forin
historicaltimesthefearandhorrorofthepigseemcertainlytohaveoutweighedthereverenceand
worshipofwhichhemayoncehavebeentheobject,andofwhich,eveninhisfallenstate,heneverquite
losttrace.HecametobelookedonasanembodimentofSetorTyphon,theEgyptiandevilandenemyof
Osiris.ForitwasintheshapeofablackpigthatTyphoninjuredtheeyeofthegodHorus,whoburned
himandinstitutedthesacrificeofthepig,thesungodRahavingdeclaredthebeastabominable.Again,
thestorythatTyphonwashuntingaboarwhenhediscoveredandmangledthebodyofOsiris,andthat
thiswasthereasonwhypigsweresacrificedonceayear,isclearlyamodernisedversionofanolder
storythatOsiris,likeAdonisandAttis,wasslainormangledbyaboar,orbyTyphonintheformofa
boar.Thus,theannualsacrificeofapigtoOsirismightnaturallybeinterpretedasvengeanceinflictedon
thehostileanimalthathadslainormangledthegod.But,inthefirstplace,whenananimalisthuskilled
asasolemnsacrificeonceandonceonlyintheyear,itgenerallyoralwaysmeansthattheanimalis
divine,thatheissparedandrespectedtherestoftheyearasagodandslain,whenheisslain,alsointhe

characterofagod.Inthesecondplace,theexamplesofDionysusandDemeter,ifnotofAttisand
Adonis,havetaughtusthattheanimalwhichissacrificedtoagodonthegroundthatheisthegods
enemymayhavebeen,andprobablywas,originallythegodhimself.Therefore,theannualsacrificeofa
pigtoOsiris,coupledwiththeallegedhostilityoftheanimaltothegod,tendstoshow,first,that
originallythepigwasagod,and,second,thathewasOsiris.Atalaterage,whenOsirisbecame
anthropomorphicandhisoriginalrelationtothepighadbeenforgotten,theanimalwasfirst
distinguishedfromhim,andafterwardsopposedasanenemytohimbymythologistswhocouldthinkof
noreasonforkillingabeastinconnexionwiththeworshipofagodexceptthatthebeastwasthegods
enemyor,asPlutarchputsit,notthatwhichisdeartothegods,butthatwhichisthecontrary,isfittobe
sacrificed.Atthislaterstagethehavocwhichawildboarnotoriouslymakesamongstthecornwould
supplyaplausiblereasonforregardinghimasthefoeofthecornspirit,thoughoriginally,ifIamright,
theveryfreedomwithwhichtheboarrangedatwillthroughthecornledpeopletoidentifyhimwiththe
cornspirit,towhomhewasafterwardsopposedasanenemy.
TheviewwhichidentifiesthepigwithOsirisderivesnotalittlesupportfromthesacrificeofpigstohim
ontheverydayonwhich,accordingtotradition,Osirishimselfwaskilledforthusthekillingofthepig
wastheannualrepresentationofthekillingofOsiris,justasthethrowingofthepigsintothecavernsat
theThesmophoriawasanannualrepresentationofthedescentofPersephoneintothelowerworldand
bothcustomsareparalleltotheEuropeanpracticeofkillingagoat,cock,andsoforth,atharvestasa
representativeofthecornspirit.
Again,thetheorythatthepig,originallyOsirishimself,afterwardscametoberegardedasan
embodimentofhisenemyTyphon,issupportedbythesimilarrelationofredhairedmenandredoxento
Typhon.Forinregardtotheredhairedmenwhowereburnedandwhoseasheswerescatteredwith
winnowingfans,wehaveseenfairgroundsforbelievingthatoriginally,liketheredhairedpuppies
killedatRomeinspring,theywererepresentativesofthecornspirithimselfthatis,ofOsiris,andwere
slainfortheexpresspurposeofmakingthecornturnredorgolden.Yetatalatertimethesemenwere
explainedtoberepresentatives,notofOsiris,butofhisenemyTyphon,andthekillingofthemwas
regardedasanactofvengeanceinflictedontheenemyofthegod.Similarly,theredoxensacrificedby
theEgyptiansweresaidtobeofferedonthegroundoftheirresemblancetoTyphonthoughitismore
likelythatoriginallytheywereslainonthegroundoftheirresemblancetothecornspiritOsiris.Wehave
seenthattheoxisacommonrepresentativeofthecornspiritandisslainassuchontheharvestfield.
OsiriswasregularlyidentifiedwiththebullApisofMemphisandthebullMnevisofHeliopolis.Butitis
hardtosaywhetherthesebullswereembodimentsofhimasthecornspirit,astheredoxenappearto
havebeen,orwhethertheywerenotinoriginentirelydistinctdeitieswhocametobefusedwithOsirisat
alatertime.Theuniversalityoftheworshipofthesetwobullsseemstoputthemonadifferentfooting
fromtheordinarysacredanimalswhoseworshipswerepurelylocal.Butwhatevertheoriginalrelationof
ApistoOsirismayhavebeen,thereisonefactabouttheformerwhichoughtnottobepassedoverina
disquisitiononthecustomofkillingagod.AlthoughthebullApiswasworshippedasagodwithmuch
pompandprofoundreverence,hewasnotsufferedtolivebeyondacertainlengthoftimewhichwas
prescribedbythesacredbooks,andontheexpiryofwhichhewasdrownedinaholyspring.Thelimit,
accordingtoPlutarch,wastwentyfiveyearsbutitcannotalwayshavebeenenforced,forthetombsof
theApisbullshavebeendiscoveredinmoderntimes,andfromtheinscriptionsonthemitappearsthatin
thetwentyseconddynastytwooftheholysteerslivedmorethantwentysixyears.
5.VirbiusandtheHorse
WEarenowinapositiontohazardaconjectureastothemeaningofthetraditionthatVirbius,thefirst
ofthedivineKingsoftheWoodatAricia,hadbeenkilledinthecharacterofHippolytusbyhorses.

Havingfound,first,thatspiritsofthecornarenotinfrequentlyrepresentedintheformofhorsesand,
second,thattheanimalwhichinlaterlegendsissaidtohaveinjuredthegodwassometimesoriginally
thegodhimself,wemayconjecturethatthehorsesbywhichVirbiusorHippolytuswassaidtohavebeen
slainwerereallyembodimentsofhimasadeityofvegetation.Themyththathehadbeenkilledby
horseswasprobablyinventedtoexplaincertainfeaturesinhisworship,amongstothersthecustomof
excludinghorsesfromhissacredgrove.Formythchangeswhilecustomremainsconstantmencontinue
todowhattheirfathersdidbeforethem,thoughthereasonsonwhichtheirfathersactedhavebeenlong
forgotten.Thehistoryofreligionisalongattempttoreconcileoldcustomwithnewreason,tofinda
soundtheoryforanabsurdpractice.Inthecasebeforeuswemaybesurethatthemythismoremodern
thanthecustomandbynomeansrepresentstheoriginalreasonforexcludinghorsesfromthegrove.
Fromtheirexclusionitmightbeinferredthathorsescouldnotbethesacredanimalsorembodimentsof
thegodofthegrove.Buttheinferencewouldberash.Thegoatwasatonetimeasacredanimalor
embodimentofAthena,asmaybeinferredfromthepracticeofrepresentingthegoddesscladinagoat
skin(aegis).Yetthegoatwasneithersacrificedtoherasarule,norallowedtoenterhergreatsanctuary,
theAcropolisatAthens.Thereasonallegedforthiswasthatthegoatinjuredtheolive,thesacredtreeof
Athena.Sofar,therefore,therelationofthegoattoAthenaisparalleltotherelationofthehorseto
Virbius,bothanimalsbeingexcludedfromthesanctuaryonthegroundofinjurydonebythemtothe
god.ButfromVarrowelearnthattherewasanexceptiontotherulewhichexcludedthegoatfromthe
Acropolis.Onceayear,hesays,thegoatwasdrivenontotheAcropolisforanecessarysacrifice.Now,
ashasbeenremarkedbefore,whenananimalissacrificedonceandonceonlyintheyear,itisprobably
slain,notasavictimofferedtothegod,butasarepresentativeofthegodhimself.Thereforewemay
inferthatifagoatwassacrificedontheAcropolisonceayear,itwassacrificedinthecharacterof
Athenaherselfanditmaybeconjecturedthattheskinofthesacrificedanimalwasplacedonthestatue
ofthegoddessandformedtheaegis,whichwouldthusberenewedannually.SimilarlyatThebesin
Egyptramsweresacredandwerenotsacrificed.Butononedayintheyeararamwaskilled,anditsskin
wasplacedonthestatueofthegodAmmon.Now,ifweknewtheritualoftheAriciangrovebetter,we
mightfindthattheruleofexcludinghorsesfromit,liketheruleofexcludinggoatsfromtheAcropolisat
Athens,wassubjecttoanannualexception,ahorsebeingonceayeartakenintothegroveandsacrificed
asanembodimentofthegodVirbius.Bytheusualmisunderstandingthehorsethuskilledwouldcomein
timetoberegardedasanenemyofferedupinsacrificetothegodwhomhehadinjured,likethepig
whichwassacrificedtoDemeterandOsirisorthegoatwhichwassacrificedtoDionysus,andpossiblyto
Athena.Itissoeasyforawritertorecordarulewithoutnoticinganexceptionthatweneednotwonder
atfindingtheruleoftheAriciangroverecordedwithoutanymentionofanexceptionsuchasIsuppose.
IfwehadhadonlythestatementsofAthenaeusandPliny,weshouldhaveknownonlytherulewhich
forbadethesacrificeofgoatstoAthenaandexcludedthemfromtheAcropolis,withoutbeingawareof
theimportantexceptionwhichthefortunatepreservationofVarrosworkhasrevealedtous.
TheconjecturethatonceayearahorsemayhavebeensacrificedintheAriciangroveasarepresentative
ofthedeityofthegrovederivessomesupportfromthesimilarsacrificeofahorsewhichtookplaceonce
ayearatRome.OnthefifteenthofOctoberineachyearachariotracewasrunontheFieldofMars.
Stabbedwithaspear,therighthandhorseofthevictoriousteamwasthensacrificedtoMarsforthe
purposeofensuringgoodcrops,anditsheadwascutoffandadornedwithastringofloaves.Thereupon
theinhabitantsoftwowardstheSacredWayandtheSuburacontendedwitheachotherwhoshould
getthehead.IfthepeopleoftheSacredWaygotit,theyfastenedittoawallofthekingshouseifthe
peopleoftheSuburagotit,theyfastenedittotheMamiliantower.Thehorsestailwascutoffand
carriedtothekingshousewithsuchspeedthattheblooddrippedonthehearthofthehouse.Further,it
appearsthatthebloodofthehorsewascaughtandpreservedtillthetwentyfirstofApril,whenthe
VestalVirginsmixeditwiththebloodoftheunborncalveswhichhadbeensacrificedsixdaysbefore.
Themixturewasthendistributedtoshepherds,andusedbythemforfumigatingtheirflocks.
Inthisceremonythedecorationofthehorsesheadwithastringofloaves,andtheallegedobjectofthe

sacrifice,namely,toprocureagoodharvest,seemtoindicatethatthehorsewaskilledasoneofthose
animalrepresentativesofthecornspiritofwhichwehavefoundsomanyexamples.Thecustomof
cuttingoffthehorsestailisliketheAfricancustomofcuttingoffthetailsoftheoxenandsacrificing
themtoobtainagoodcrop.InboththeRomanandtheAfricancustomtheanimalapparentlystandsfor
thecornspirit,anditsfructifyingpowerissupposedtoresideespeciallyinitstail.Thelatterideaoccurs,
aswehaveseen,inEuropeanfolklore.Again,thepracticeoffumigatingthecattleinspringwiththe
bloodofthehorsemaybecomparedwiththepracticeofgivingtheOldWife,theMaiden,ortheclyack
sheafasfoddertothehorsesinspringorthecattleatChristmas,andgivingtheYuleBoartothe
ploughingoxenorhorsestoeatinspring.Alltheseusagesaimatensuringtheblessingofthecornspirit
onthehomesteadanditsinmatesandstoringitupforanotheryear.
TheRomansacrificeoftheOctoberhorse,asitwascalled,carriesusbacktotheearlydayswhenthe
Subura,afterwardsalowandsqualidquarterofthegreatmetropolis,wasstillaseparatevillage,whose
inhabitantsengagedinafriendlycontestontheharvestfieldwiththeirneighboursofRome,thenalittle
ruraltown.TheFieldofMarsonwhichtheceremonytookplacelaybesidetheTiber,andformedpartof
thekingsdomaindowntotheabolitionofthemonarchy.Fortraditionranthatatthetimewhenthelast
ofthekingswasdrivenfromRome,thecornstoodripeforthesickleonthecrownlandsbesidetheriver
butnoonewouldeattheaccursedgrainanditwasflungintotheriverinsuchheapsthat,thewaterbeing
lowwiththesummerheat,itformedthenucleusofanisland.Thehorsesacrificewasthusanoldautumn
customobserveduponthekingscornfieldsattheendoftheharvest.Thetailandbloodofthehorse,as
thechiefpartsofthecornspiritsrepresentative,weretakentothekingshouseandkepttherejustasin
Germanytheharvestcockisnailedonthegableoroverthedoorofthefarmhouseandasthelastsheaf,
intheformoftheMaiden,iscarriedhomeandkeptoverthefireplaceintheHighlandsofScotland.Thus
theblessingofthecornspiritwasbroughttothekingshouseandhearthand,throughthem,tothe
communityofwhichhewasthehead.SimilarlyinthespringandautumncustomsofNorthernEurope
theMaypoleissometimessetupinfrontofthehouseofthemayororburgomaster,andthelastsheafat
harvestisbroughttohimastheheadofthevillage.Butwhilethetailandbloodfelltotheking,the
neighbouringvillageoftheSubura,whichnodoubtoncehadasimilarceremonyofitsown,was
gratifiedbybeingallowedtocompetefortheprizeofthehorseshead.TheMamiliantower,towhich
theSuburansnailedthehorsesheadwhentheysucceededincarryingitoff,appearstohavebeenapeel
towerorkeepoftheoldMamilianfamily,themagnatesofthevillage.Theceremonythusperformedon
thekingsfieldsandathishouseonbehalfofthewholetownandoftheneighbouringvillage
presupposesatimewheneachtownshipperformedasimilarceremonyonitsownfields.Intherural
districtsofLatiumthevillagesmayhavecontinuedtoobservethecustom,eachonitsownland,long
aftertheRomanhamletshadmergedtheirseparateharvesthomesinthecommoncelebrationonthe
kingslands.ThereisnointrinsicimprobabilityinthesuppositionthatthesacredgroveofAricia,likethe
FieldofMarsatRome,mayhavebeenthesceneofacommonharvestcelebration,atwhichahorsewas
sacrificedwiththesameruderitesonbehalfoftheneighbouringvillages.Thehorsewouldrepresentthe
fructifyingspiritbothofthetreeandofthecorn,forthetwoideasmeltintoeachother,asweseein
customsliketheHarvestMay.

L.EatingtheGod
1.TheSacramentofFirstFruits
WEhavenowseenthatthecornspiritisrepresentedsometimesinhuman,sometimesinanimalform,
andthatinbothcasesheiskilledinthepersonofhisrepresentativeandeatensacramentally.Tofind
examplesofactuallykillingthehumanrepresentativeofthecornspiritwehadnaturallytogotosavage
racesbuttheharvestsuppersofourEuropeanpeasantshavefurnishedunmistakableexamplesofthe
sacramentaleatingofanimalsasrepresentativesofthecornspirit.Butfurther,asmighthavebeen

anticipated,thenewcornisitselfeatensacramentally,thatis,asthebodyofthecornspirit.In
Wermland,Sweden,thefarmerswifeusesthegrainofthelastsheaftobakealoafintheshapeofalittle
girlthisloafisdividedamongstthewholehouseholdandeatenbythem.Heretheloafrepresentsthe
cornspiritconceivedasamaidenjustasinScotlandthecornspiritissimilarlyconceivedand
representedbythelastsheafmadeupintheformofawomanandbearingthenameoftheMaiden.As
usual,thecornspiritisbelievedtoresideinthelastsheafandtoeataloafmadefromthelastsheafis,
therefore,toeatthecornspirititself.SimilarlyatLaPalisse,inFrance,amanmadeofdoughishung
uponthefirtreewhichiscarriedonthelastharvestwaggon.Thetreeandthedoughmanaretakentothe
mayorshouseandkepttheretillthevintageisover.Thenthecloseoftheharvestiscelebratedbyafeast
atwhichthemayorbreaksthedoughmaninpiecesandgivesthepiecestothepeopletoeat.
Intheseexamplesthecornspiritisrepresentedandeateninhumanshape.Inothercases,thoughthenew
cornisnotbakedinloavesofhumanshape,stillthesolemnceremonieswithwhichitiseatensufficeto
indicatethatitispartakenofsacramentally,thatis,asthebodyofthecornspirit.Forexample,the
followingceremoniesusedtobeobservedbyLithuanianpeasantsateatingthenewcorn.Aboutthetime
oftheautumnsowing,whenallthecornhadbeengotinandthethreshinghadbegun,eachfarmerhelda
festivalcalledSabarios,thatis,themixingorthrowingtogether.Hetookninegoodhandfulsofeach
kindofcropwheat,barley,oats,flax,beans,lentils,andtherestandeachhandfulhedividedintothree
parts.Thetwentysevenportionsofeachgrainwerethenthrownonaheapandallmixeduptogether.The
grainusedhadtobethatwhichwasfirstthreshedandwinnowedandwhichhadbeensetasideandkept
forthispurpose.Apartofthegrainthusmixedwasemployedtobakelittleloaves,oneforeachofthe
householdtherestwasmixedwithmorebarleyoroatsandmadeintobeer.Thefirstbeerbrewedfrom
thismixturewasforthedrinkingofthefarmer,hiswife,andchildrenthesecondbrewwasforthe
servants.Thebeerbeingready,thefarmerchoseaneveningwhennostrangerwasexpected.Thenhe
kneltdownbeforethebarrelofbeer,drewajugfuloftheliquorandpoureditonthebungofthebarrel,
saying,Ofruitfulearth,makeryeandbarleyandallkindsofcorntoflourish.Nexthetookthejugto
theparlour,wherehiswifeandchildrenawaitedhim.Ontheflooroftheparlourlayboundablackor
whiteorspeckled(notared)cockandahenofthesamecolourandofthesamebrood,whichmusthave
beenhatchedwithintheyear.Thenthefarmerkneltdown,withthejuginhishand,andthankedGodfor
theharvestandprayedforagoodcropnextyear.Nextalllifteduptheirhandsandsaid,OGod,and
thou,Oearth,wegiveyouthiscockandhenasafreewilloffering.Withthatthefarmerkilledthe
fowlswiththeblowsofawoodenspoon,forhemightnotcuttheirheadsoff.Afterthefirstprayerand
afterkillingeachofthebirdshepouredoutathirdofthebeer.Thenhiswifeboiledthefowlsinanew
potwhichhadneverbeenusedbefore.Afterthat,abushelwasset,bottomupwards,onthefloor,andon
itwereplacedthelittleloavesmentionedaboveandtheboiledfowls.Nextthenewbeerwasfetched,
togetherwithaladleandthreemugs,noneofwhichwasusedexceptonthisoccasion.Whenthefarmer
hadladledthebeerintothemugs,thefamilykneltdownroundthebushel.Thefatherthenuttereda
prayeranddrankoffthethreemugsofbeer.Therestfollowedhisexample.Thentheloavesandtheflesh
ofthefowlswereeaten,afterwhichthebeerwentroundagain,tilleveryonehademptiedeachofthe
threemugsninetimes.Noneofthefoodshouldremainoverbutifanythingdidhappentobeleft,itwas
consumednextmorningwiththesameceremonies.Thebonesweregiventothedogtoeatifhedidnot
eatthemallup,theremainswereburiedunderthedunginthecattlestall.Thisceremonywasobserved
atthebeginningofDecember.Onthedayonwhichittookplacenobadwordmightbespoken.
Suchwasthecustomabouttwohundredyearsormoreago.AtthepresentdayinLithuania,whennew
potatoesorloavesmadefromthenewcornarebeingeaten,allthepeopleattablepulleachothershair.
Themeaningofthislastcustomisobscure,butasimilarcustomwascertainlyobservedbytheheathen
Lithuaniansattheirsolemnsacrifices.ManyoftheEsthoniansoftheislandofOeselwillnoteatbread
bakedofthenewcorntilltheyhavefirsttakenabiteatapieceofiron.Theironishereplainlyacharm,
intendedtorenderharmlessthespiritthatisinthecorn.InSutherlandshireatthepresentday,whenthe
newpotatoesaredugallthefamilymusttastethem,otherwisethespiritsinthem[thepotatoes]take

offence,andthepotatoeswouldnotkeep.InonepartofYorkshireitisstillcustomaryfortheclergyman
tocutthefirstcornandmyinformantbelievesthatthecornsocutisusedtomakethecommunion
bread.Ifthelatterpartofthecustomiscorrectlyreported(andanalogyisallinitsfavour),itshowshow
theChristiancommunionhasabsorbedwithinitselfasacramentwhichisdoubtlessfarolderthan
Christianity.
TheAinoorAinuofJapanaresaidtodistinguishvariouskindsofmilletasmaleandfemalerespectively,
andthesekinds,takentogether,arecalledthedivinehusbandandwifecereal(Umurekharukamui).
Thereforebeforemilletispoundedandmadeintocakesforgeneraleating,theoldmenhaveafewmade
forthemselvesfirsttoworship.Whentheyarereadytheypraytothemveryearnestlyandsay:Othou
cerealdeity,weworshipthee.Thouhastgrownverywellthisyear,andthyflavourwillbesweet.Thou
artgood.Thegoddessoffirewillbeglad,andwealsoshallrejoicegreatly.Othougod,Othoudivine
cereal,dothounourishthepeople.Inowpartakeofthee.Iworshiptheeandgivetheethanks.After
havingthusprayed,they,theworshippers,takeacakeandeatit,andfromthistimethepeoplemayall
partakeofthenewmillet.Andsowithmanygesturesofhomageandwordsofprayerthiskindoffoodis
dedicatedtothewellbeingoftheAinu.Nodoubtthecerealofferingisregardedasatributepaidtoa
god,butthatgodisnootherthantheseeditselfanditisonlyagodinsofarasitisbeneficialtothe
humanbody.
AtthecloseofthericeharvestintheEastIndianislandofBuru,eachclanmeetsatacommon
sacramentalmeal,towhicheverymemberoftheclanisboundtocontributealittleofthenewrice.This
mealiscalledeatingthesouloftherice,anamewhichclearlyindicatesthesacramentalcharacterof
therepast.Someofthericeisalsosetapartandofferedtothespirits.AmongsttheAlfoorsofMinahassa,
inCelebes,thepriestsowsthefirstriceseedandplucksthefirstripericeineachfield.Thisriceheroasts
andgrindsintomeal,andgivessomeofittoeachofthehousehold.Shortlybeforethericeharvestin
BolandMongondo,anotherdistrictofCelebes,anofferingismadeofasmallpigorafowl.Thenthe
priestplucksalittlerice,firstonhisownfieldandnextonthoseofhisneighbours.Allthericethus
pluckedbyhimhedriesalongwithhisown,andthengivesitbacktotherespectiveowners,whohaveit
groundandboiled.Whenitisboiledthewomentakeitback,withanegg,tothepriest,whooffersthe
egginsacrificeandreturnsthericetothewomen.Ofthisriceeverymemberofthefamily,downtothe
youngestchild,mustpartake.Afterthisceremonyeveryoneisfreetogetinhisrice.
AmongsttheBurghersorBadagas,atribeoftheNeilgherryHillsinSouthernIndia,thefirsthandfulof
seedissownandthefirstsheafreapedbyaCurumbar,amanofadifferenttribe,themembersofwhich
theBurghersregardassorcerers.Thegraincontainedinthefirstsheafisthatdayreducedtomeal,made
intocakes,and,beingofferedasafirstfruitoblation,is,togetherwiththeremainderofthesacrificed
animal,partakenofbytheBurgherandthewholeofhisfamily,asthemeatofafederalofferingand
sacrifice.AmongtheHindoosofSouthernIndiatheeatingofthenewriceistheoccasionofafamily
festivalcalledPongol.Thenewriceisboiledinanewpotonafirewhichiskindledatnoonontheday
when,accordingtoHindooastrologers,thesunentersthetropicofCapricorn.Theboilingofthepotis
watchedwithgreatanxietybythewholefamily,forasthemilkboils,sowillthecomingyearbe.Ifthe
milkboilsrapidly,theyearwillbeprosperousbutitwillbethereverseifthemilkboilsslowly.Someof
thenewboiledriceisofferedtotheimageofGanesatheneveryonepartakesofit.Insomepartsof
NorthernIndiathefestivalofthenewcropisknownasNavan,thatis,newgrain.Whenthecropis
ripe,theownertakestheomens,goestothefield,plucksfiveorsixearsofbarleyinthespringcropand
oneofthemilletsintheautumnharvest.Thisisbroughthome,parched,andmixedwithcoarsesugar,
butter,andcurds.Someofitisthrownonthefireinthenameofthevillagegodsanddeceasedancestors
therestiseatenbythefamily.
TheceremonyofeatingthenewyamsatOnitsha,ontheNiger,isthusdescribed:Eachheadman
broughtoutsixyams,andcutdownyoungbranchesofpalmleavesandplacedthembeforehisgate,

roastedthreeoftheyams,andgotsomekolanutsandfish.Aftertheyamisroasted,theLibia,orcountry
doctor,takestheyam,scrapesitintoasortofmeal,anddividesitintohalveshethentakesonepiece,
andplacesitonthelipsofthepersonwhoisgoingtoeatthenewyam.Theeaterthenblowsupthesteam
fromthehotyam,andafterwardspokesthewholeintohismouth,andsays,IthankGodforbeing
permittedtoeatthenewyamhethenbeginstochewitheartily,withfishlikewise.
AmongtheNandiofBritishEastAfrica,whentheeleusinegrainisripeninginautumn,everywoman
whoownsacornfieldgoesoutintoitwithherdaughters,andtheyallplucksomeoftheripegrain.Each
ofthewomenthenfixesonegraininhernecklaceandchewsanother,whichsherubsonherforehead,
throat,andbreast.Nomarkofjoyescapesthemsorrowfullytheycutabasketfulofthenewcorn,and
carryingithomeplaceitinthelofttodry.Astheceilingisofwickerwork,agooddealofthegraindrops
throughthecrevicesandfallsintothefire,whereitexplodeswithacracklingnoise.Thepeoplemakeno
attempttopreventthiswastefortheyregardthecracklingofthegraininthefireasasignthatthesouls
ofthedeadarepartakingofit.Afewdayslaterporridgeismadefromthenewgrainandservedupwith
milkattheeveningmeal.Allthemembersofthefamilytakesomeoftheporridgeanddabitonthewalls
androofsofthehutsalsotheyputalittleintheirmouthsandspititouttowardstheeastandonthe
outsideofthehuts.Then,holdingupsomeofthegraininhishand,theheadofthefamilypraystoGod
forhealthandstrength,andlikewiseformilk,andeverybodypresentrepeatsthewordsoftheprayerafter
him.
AmongsttheCaffresofNatalandZululand,noonemayeatofthenewfruitstillafterafestivalwhich
marksthebeginningoftheCaffreyearandfallsattheendofDecemberorthebeginningofJanuary.All
thepeopleassembleatthekingskraal,wheretheyfeastanddance.Beforetheyseparatethededication
ofthepeopletakesplace.Variousfruitsoftheearth,ascorn,mealies,andpumpkins,mixedwiththe
fleshofasacrificedanimalandwithmedicine,areboiledingreatpots,andalittleofthisfoodis
placedineachmansmouthbythekinghimself.Afterthuspartakingofthesanctifiedfruits,amanis
himselfsanctifiedforthewholeyear,andmayimmediatelygetinhiscrops.Itisbelievedthatifanyman
weretopartakeofthenewfruitsbeforethefestival,hewoulddieifheweredetected,hewouldbeputto
death,oratleastallhiscattlewouldbetakenfromhim.Theholinessofthenewfruitsiswellmarkedby
therulethattheymustbecookedinaspecialpotwhichisusedonlyforthispurpose,andonanewfire
kindledbyamagicianthroughthefrictionoftwostickswhicharecalledhusbandandwife.
AmongtheBechuanasitisarulethatbeforetheypartakeofthenewcropstheymustpurifythemselves.
ThepurificationtakesplaceatthecommencementofthenewyearonadayinJanuarywhichisfixedby
thechief.Itbeginsinthegreatkraalofthetribe,wherealltheadultmalesassemble.Eachofthemtakes
inhishandleavesofagourdcalledbythenativeslerotse(describedassomethingbetweenapumpkin
andavegetablemarrow)andhavingcrushedtheleavesheanointswiththeexpressedjuicehisbigtoes
andhisnavelmanypeopleindeedapplythejuicetoallthejointsoftheirbody,butthebetterinformed
saythatthisisavulgardeparturefromancientcustom.Afterthisceremonyinthegreatkraaleveryman
goeshometohisownkraal,assemblesallthemembersofhisfamily,men,women,andchildren,and
smearsthemallwiththejuiceofthelerotseleaves.Someoftheleavesarealsopounded,mixedwith
milkinalargewoodendish,andgiventothedogstolapup.Thentheporridgeplateofeachmemberof
thefamilyisrubbedwiththelerotseleaves.Whenthispurificationhasbeencompleted,butnotbefore,
thepeoplearefreetoeatofthenewcrops.
TheBororoIndiansofBrazilthinkthatitwouldbecertaindeathtoeatthenewmaizebeforeithasbeen
blessedbythemedicineman.Theceremonyofblessingitisasfollows.Thehalfripehuskiswashedand
placedbeforethemedicineman,whobydancingandsingingforseveralhours,andbyincessant
smoking,workshimselfupintoastateofecstasy,whereuponhebitesintothehusk,tremblinginevery
limbandutteringshrieksfromtimetotime.Asimilarceremonyisperformedwheneveralargeanimalor
alargefishiskilled.TheBororoarefirmlypersuadedthatwereanymantotouchunconsecratedmaize

ormeat,beforetheceremonyhadbeencompleted,heandhiswholetribewouldperish.
AmongsttheCreekIndiansofNorthAmerica,thebuskorfestivaloffirstfruitswasthechiefceremony
oftheyear.ItwasheldinJulyorAugust,whenthecornwasripe,andmarkedtheendoftheoldyearand
thebeginningofthenewone.Beforeittookplace,noneoftheIndianswouldeatorevenhandleanypart
ofthenewharvest.Sometimeseachtownhaditsownbusksometimesseveraltownsunitedtoholdone
incommon.Beforecelebratingthebusk,thepeopleprovidedthemselveswithnewclothesandnew
householdutensilsandfurnituretheycollectedtheiroldclothesandrubbish,togetherwithallthe
remaininggrainandotheroldprovisions,castthemtogetherinonecommonheap,andconsumedthem
withfire.Asapreparationfortheceremony,allthefiresinthevillagewereextinguished,andtheashes
sweptcleanaway.Inparticular,thehearthoraltarofthetemplewasdugupandtheashescarriedout.
Thenthechiefpriestputsomerootsofthebuttonsnakeplant,withsomegreentobaccoleavesandalittle
ofthenewfruits,atthebottomofthefireplace,whichheafterwardscommandedtobecoveredupwith
whiteclay,andwettedoverwithcleanwater.Athickarbourofgreenbranchesofyoungtreeswasthen
madeoverthealtar.Meanwhilethewomenathomewerecleaningouttheirhouses,renewingtheold
hearths,andscouringallthecookingvesselsthattheymightbereadytoreceivethenewfireandthenew
fruits.Thepublicorsacredsquarewascarefullysweptofeventhesmallestcrumbsofpreviousfeasts,
forfearofpollutingthefirstfruitofferings.Alsoeveryvesselthathadcontainedorhadbeenused
aboutanyfoodduringtheexpiringyearwasremovedfromthetemplebeforesunset.Thenallthemen
whowerenotknowntohaveviolatedthelawofthefirstfruitofferingandthatofmarriageduringthe
yearweresummonedbyacriertoentertheholysquareandobserveasolemnfast.Butthewomen
(exceptsixoldones),thechildren,andallwhohadnotattainedtherankofwarriorswereforbiddento
enterthesquare.Sentinelswerealsopostedatthecornersofthesquaretokeepoutallpersonsdeemed
impureandallanimals.Astrictfastwasthenobservedfortwonightsandaday,thedevoteesdrinkinga
bitterdecoctionofbuttonsnakerootinordertovomitandpurgetheirsinfulbodies.Thatthepeople
outsidethesquaremightalsobepurified,oneoftheoldmenlaiddownaquantityofgreentobaccoata
cornerofthesquarethiswascarriedoffbyanoldwomananddistributedtothepeoplewithout,who
chewedandswalloweditinordertoafflicttheirsouls.Duringthisgeneralfast,thewomen,children,
andmenofweakconstitutionwereallowedtoeataftermidday,butnotbefore.Onthemorningwhen
thefastended,thewomenbroughtaquantityoftheoldyearsfoodtotheoutsideofthesacredsquare.
Theseprovisionswerethenfetchedinandsetbeforethefamishedmultitude,butalltracesofthemhadto
beremovedbeforenoon.Whenthesunwasdecliningfromthemeridian,allthepeoplewerecommanded
bythevoiceofacriertostaywithindoors,todonobadact,andtobesuretoextinguishandthrowaway
everysparkoftheoldfire.Universalsilencenowreigned.Thenthehighpriestmadethenewfirebythe
frictionoftwopiecesofwood,andplaceditonthealtarunderthegreenarbour.Thisnewfirewas
believedtoatoneforallpastcrimesexceptmurder.Nextabasketofnewfruitswasbroughtthehigh
priesttookoutalittleofeachsortoffruit,rubbeditwithbearsoil,andofferedit,togetherwithsome
flesh,tothebountifulholyspiritoffire,asafirstfruitoffering,andanannualoblationforsin.Healso
consecratedthesacredemetics(thebuttonsnakerootandthecassinaorblackdrink)bypouringalittle
ofthemintothefire.Thepersonswhohadremainedoutsidenowapproached,withoutentering,the
sacredsquareandthechiefpriestthereuponmadeaspeech,exhortingthepeopletoobservetheirold
ritesandcustoms,announcingthatthenewdivinefirehadpurgedawaythesinsofthepastyear,and
earnestlywarningthewomenthat,ifanyofthemhadnotextinguishedtheoldfire,orhadcontractedany
impurity,theymustforthwithdepart,lestthedivinefireshouldspoilboththemandthepeople.Some
ofthenewfirewasthensetdownoutsidetheholysquarethewomencarriedithomejoyfully,andlaidit
ontheirunpollutedhearths.Whenseveraltownshadunitedtocelebratethefestival,thenewfiremight
thusbecarriedforseveralmiles.Thenewfruitswerethendressedonthenewfiresandeatenwithbears
oil,whichwasdeemedindispensable.Atonepointofthefestivalthemenrubbedthenewcornbetween
theirhands,thenontheirfacesandbreasts.Duringthefestivalwhichfollowed,thewarriors,dressedin
theirwildmartialarray,theirheadscoveredwithwhitedownandcarryingwhitefeathersintheirhands,
dancedroundthesacredarbour,underwhichburnedthenewfire.Theceremonieslastedeightdays,

duringwhichthestrictestcontinencewaspractised.Towardstheconclusionofthefestivalthewarriors
foughtamockbattlethenthemenandwomentogether,inthreecircles,dancedroundthesacredfire.
Lastly,allthepeoplesmearedthemselveswithwhiteclayandbathedinrunningwater.Theycameoutof
thewaterbelievingthatnoevilcouldnowbefallthemforwhattheyhaddoneamissinthepast.Sothey
departedinjoyandpeace.
Tothisday,also,theremnantoftheSeminoleIndiansofFlorida,apeopleofthesamestockasthe
Creeks,holdanannualpurificationandfestivalcalledtheGreenCornDance,atwhichthenewcornis
eaten.OntheeveningofthefirstdayofthefestivaltheyquaffanauseousBlackDrink,asitiscalled,
whichactsbothasanemeticandapurgativetheybelievethathewhodoesnotdrinkofthisliquor
cannotsafelyeatthenewgreencorn,andbesidesthathewillbesickatsometimeintheyear.Whilethe
liquorisbeingdrunk,thedancingbegins,andthemedicinemenjoininit.Nextdaytheyeatofthegreen
cornthefollowingdaytheyfast,probablyfromfearofpollutingthesacredfoodintheirstomachsby
contactwithcommonfoodbutthethirddaytheyholdagreatfeast.
Eventribeswhichdonottillthegroundsometimesobserveanalogousceremonieswhentheygatherthe
firstwildfruitsordigthefirstrootsoftheseason.ThusamongtheSalishandTinnehIndiansofNorth
WestAmerica,beforetheyoungpeopleeatthefirstberriesorrootsoftheseason,theyalways
addressedthefruitorplant,andbeggedforitsfavourandaid.InsometribesregularFirstfruit
ceremonieswereannuallyheldatthetimeofpickingthewildfruitorgatheringtheroots,andalsoamong
thesalmoneatingtribeswhentherunofthesockeyesalmonbegan.Theseceremonieswerenotso
muchthanksgivings,asperformancestoensureaplentifulcroporsupplyoftheparticularobjectdesired,
foriftheywerenotproperlyandreverentlycarriedouttherewasdangerofgivingoffencetothespirits
oftheobjects,andbeingdeprivedofthem.Forexample,theseIndiansarefondoftheyoungshootsor
suckersofthewildraspberry,andtheyobserveasolemnceremonyateatingthefirstoftheminseason.
Theshootsarecookedinanewpot:thepeopleassembleandstandinagreatcirclewithclosedeyes,
whilethepresidingchieformedicinemaninvokesthespiritoftheplant,beggingthatitwillbe
propitioustothemandgrantthemagoodsupplyofsuckers.Afterthispartoftheceremonyisoverthe
cookedsuckersarehandedtothepresidingofficerinanewlycarveddish,andasmallportionisgivento
eachpersonpresent,whoreverentlyanddecorouslyeatsit.
TheThompsonIndiansofBritishColumbiacookandeatthesunflowerroot(Balsamorrhizasagittata,
Nutt.),buttheyusedtoregarditasamysteriousbeing,andobservedanumberoftaboosinconnexion
withitforexample,womenwhowereengagedindiggingorcookingtherootmustpracticecontinence,
andnomanmightcomeneartheovenwherethewomenwerebakingtheroot.Whenyoungpeopleate
thefirstberries,roots,orotherproductsoftheseason,theyaddressedaprayertotheSunflowerRootas
follows:IinformtheethatIintendtoeatthee.Mayestthoualwayshelpmetoascend,sothatImay
alwaysbeabletoreachthetopsofmountains,andmayIneverbeclumsy!Iaskthisfromthee,
SunflowerRoot.Thouartthegreatestofallinmystery.Toomitthisprayerwouldmaketheeaterlazy
andcausehimtosleeplonginthemorning.
ThesecustomsoftheThompsonandotherIndiantribesofNorthWestAmericaareinstructive,because
theyclearlyindicatethemotive,oratleastoneofthemotives,whichunderliestheceremoniesobserved
ateatingthefirstfruitsoftheseason.ThatmotiveinthecaseoftheseIndiansissimplyabeliefthatthe
plantitselfisanimatedbyaconsciousandmoreorlesspowerfulspirit,whomustbepropitiatedbefore
thepeoplecansafelypartakeofthefruitsorrootswhicharesupposedtobepartofhisbody.Nowifthis
istrueofwildfruitsandroots,wemayinferwithsomeprobabilitythatitisalsotrueofcultivatedfruits
androots,suchasyams,andinparticularthatitholdsgoodofthecereals,suchaswheat,barley,oats,
rice,andmaize.Inallcasesitseemsreasonabletoinferthatthescrupleswhichsavagesmanifestat
eatingthefirstfruitsofanycrop,andtheceremonieswhichtheyobservebeforetheyovercometheir
scruples,aredueatleastinlargemeasuretoanotionthattheplantortreeisanimatedbyaspiritoreven

adeity,whoseleavemustbeobtained,orwhosefavourmustbesought,beforeitispossibletopartake
withsafetyofthenewcrop.ThisindeedisplainlyaffirmedoftheAino:theycallthemilletthedivine
cereal,thecerealdeity,andtheypraytoandworshiphimbeforetheywilleatofthecakesmadefrom
thenewmillet.Andevenwheretheindwellingdivinityofthefirstfruitsisnotexpresslyaffirmed,it
appearstobeimpliedbothbythesolemnpreparationsmadeforeatingthemandbythedangersupposed
tobeincurredbypersonswhoventuretopartakeofthemwithoutobservingtheprescribedritual.Inall
suchcases,accordingly,wemaynotimproperlydescribetheeatingofthenewfruitsasasacramentor
communionwithadeity,oratalleventswithapowerfulspirit.
Amongtheusageswhichpointtothisconclusionarethecustomofemployingeitherneworspecially
reservedvesselstoholdthenewfruits,andthepracticeofpurifyingthepersonsofthecommunicants
beforeitislawfultoengageinthesolemnactofcommunionwiththedivinity.Ofallthemodesof
purificationadoptedontheseoccasionsnoneperhapsbringsoutthesacramentalvirtueoftheriteso
clearlyastheCreekandSeminolepracticeoftakingapurgativebeforeswallowingthenewcorn.The
intentionistherebytopreventthesacredfoodfrombeingpollutedbycontactwithcommonfoodinthe
stomachoftheeater.ForthesamereasonCatholicspartakeoftheEucharistfastingandamongthe
pastoralMasaiofEasternAfricatheyoungwarriors,wholiveonmeatandmilkexclusively,areobliged
toeatnothingbutmilkforsomanydaysandthennothingbutmeatforsomanymore,andbeforethey
passfromtheonefoodtotheothertheymustmakesurethatnoneoftheoldfoodremainsintheir
stomachsthistheydobyswallowingaverypowerfulpurgativeandemetic.
Insomeofthefestivalswhichwehaveexamined,thesacramentoffirstfruitsiscombinedwitha
sacrificeorpresentationofthemtogodsorspirits,andincourseoftimethesacrificeoffirstfruitstends
tothrowthesacramentintotheshade,ifnottosupersedeit.Themerefactofofferingthefirstfruitsto
thegodsorspiritscomesnowtobethoughtasufficientpreparationforeatingthenewcornthehigher
powershavingreceivedtheirshare,manisfreetoenjoytherest.Thismodeofviewingthenewfruits
impliesthattheyareregardednolongerasthemselvesinstinctwithdivinelife,butmerelyasagift
bestowedbythegodsuponman,whoisboundtoexpresshisgratitudeandhomagetohisdivine
benefactorsbyreturningtothemaportionoftheirbounty.
2.EatingtheGodamongtheAztecs
THECUSTOMofeatingbreadsacramentallyasthebodyofagodwaspractisedbytheAztecsbefore
thediscoveryandconquestofMexicobytheSpaniards.Twiceayear,inMayandDecember,animage
ofthegreatMexicangodHuitzilopochtliorVitzilipuztliwasmadeofdough,thenbrokeninpieces,and
solemnlyeatenbyhisworshippers.TheMayceremonyisthusdescribedbythehistorianAcosta:The
MexicansinthemonthofMaymadetheirprincipalfeasttotheirgodVitzilipuztli,andtwodaysbefore
thisfeast,thevirginswhereofIhavespoken(thewhichwereshutupandsecludedinthesametemple
andwereasitwerereligiouswomen)didmingleaquantityoftheseedofbeetswithroastedmaize,and
thentheydidmoulditwithhoney,makinganidolofthatpasteinbignessliketothatofwood,putting
insteadofeyesgrainsofgreenglass,ofblueorwhiteandforteethgrainsofmaizesetforthwithallthe
ornamentandfurniturethatIhavesaid.Thisbeingfinished,allthenoblemencameandbroughtitan
exquisiteandrichgarment,likeuntothatoftheidol,wherewiththeydidattireit.Beingthuscladand
deckt,theydidsetitinanazuredchairandinalittertocarryitontheirshoulders.Themorningofthis
feastbeingcome,anhourbeforedayallthemaidenscameforthattiredinwhite,withnewornaments,the
whichthatdaywerecalledtheSistersoftheirgodVitzilipuztli,theycamecrownedwithgarlandsof
maizeroastedandparched,beinglikeuntoazaharorthefloweroforangeandabouttheirneckstheyhad
greatchainsofthesame,whichwentbauldrickwiseundertheirleftarm.Theircheeksweredyedwith
vermilion,theirarmsfromtheelbowtothewristwerecoveredwithredparrotsfeathers.Youngmen,
dressedinredrobesandcrownedlikethevirginswithmaize,thencarriedtheidolinitslittertothefoot

ofthegreatpyramidshapedtemple,upthesteepandnarrowstepsofwhichitwasdrawntothemusicof
flutes,trumpets,cornets,anddrums.Whiletheymounteduptheidolallthepeoplestoodinthecourt
withmuchreverenceandfear.Beingmountedtothetop,andthattheyhadplaceditinalittlelodgeof
roseswhichtheyheldready,presentlycametheyoungmen,whichstrewedmanyflowersofsundry
kinds,wherewiththeyfilledthetemplebothwithinandwithout.Thisdone,allthevirginscameoutof
theirconvent,bringingpiecesofpastecompoundedofbeetsandroastedmaize,whichwasofthesame
pastewhereoftheiridolwasmadeandcompounded,andtheywereofthefashionofgreatbones.They
deliveredthemtotheyoungmen,whocarriedthemupandlaidthemattheidolsfeet,wherewiththey
filledthewholeplacethatitcouldreceivenomore.Theycalledthesemorselsofpastethefleshand
bonesofVitzilipuztli.Havinglaidabroadthesebones,presentlycamealltheancientsofthetemple,
priests,Levites,andalltherestoftheministers,accordingtotheirdignitiesandantiquities(forherein
therewasastrictorderamongstthem)oneafteranother,withtheirveilsofdiversecoloursandworks,
everyoneaccordingtohisdignityandoffice,havinggarlandsupontheirheadsandchainsofflowers
abouttheirnecksafterthemcametheirgodsandgoddesseswhomtheyworshipped,ofdiversefigures,
attiredinthesameliverythenputtingthemselvesinorderaboutthosemorselsandpiecesofpaste,they
usedcertainceremonieswithsinginganddancing.Bymeanswhereoftheywereblessedandconsecrated
forthefleshandbonesofthisidol.Thisceremonyandblessing(wherebytheyweretakenfortheflesh
andbonesoftheidol)beingended,theyhonouredthosepiecesinthesamesortastheirgod.Allthe
citycametothisgoodlyspectacle,andtherewasacommandmentverystrictlyobservedthroughoutall
theland,thatthedayofthefeastoftheidolofVitzilipuztlitheyshouldeatnoothermeatbutthispaste,
withhoney,whereoftheidolwasmade.Andthisshouldbeeatenatthepointofday,andtheyshould
drinknowaternoranyotherthingtillafternoon:theyhelditforanillsign,yea,forsacrilegetodothe
contrary:butaftertheceremoniesended,itwaslawfulforthemtoeatanything.Duringthetimeofthis
ceremonytheyhidthewaterfromtheirlittlechildren,admonishingallsuchashadtheuseofreasonnot
todrinkanywaterwhich,iftheydid,theangerofGodwouldcomeuponthem,andtheyshoulddie,
whichtheydidobserveverycarefullyandstrictly.Theceremonies,dancing,andsacrificeended,the
wenttounclothethemselves,andthepriestsandsuperiorsofthetempletooktheidolofpaste,which
theyspoiledofalltheornamentsithad,andmademanypieces,aswelloftheidolitselfasofthe
truncheonswhichtheyconsecrated,andthentheygavethemtothepeopleinmannerofacommunion,
beginningwiththegreater,andcontinuinguntotherest,bothmen,women,andlittlechildren,who
receiveditwithsuchtears,fear,andreverenceasitwasanadmirablething,sayingthattheydideatthe
fleshandbonesofGod,wherewiththeyweregrieved.Suchashadanysickfolksdemandedthereoffor
them,andcarrieditwithgreatreverenceandveneration.
FromthisinterestingpassagewelearnthattheancientMexicans,evenbeforethearrivalofChristian
missionaries,werefullyacquaintedwiththedoctrineoftransubstantiationandacteduponitinthe
solemnritesoftheirreligion.Theybelievedthatbyconsecratingbreadtheirpriestscouldturnitintothe
verybodyoftheirgod,sothatallwhothereuponpartookoftheconsecratedbreadenteredintoamystic
communionwiththedeitybyreceivingaportionofhisdivinesubstanceintothemselves.Thedoctrineof
transubstantiation,orthemagicalconversionofbreadintoflesh,wasalsofamiliartotheAryansof
ancientIndialongbeforethespreadandeventheriseofChristianity.TheBrahmanstaughtthattherice
cakesofferedinsacrificeweresubstitutesforhumanbeings,andthattheywereactuallyconvertedinto
therealbodiesofmenbythemanipulationofthepriest.Wereadthatwhenit(thericecake)still
consistsofricemeal,itisthehair.Whenhepourswateronit,itbecomesskin.Whenhemixesit,it
becomesflesh:forthenitbecomesconsistentandconsistentalsoistheflesh.Whenitisbaked,it
becomesbone:forthenitbecomessomewhathardandhardisthebone.Andwhenheisabouttotakeit
off(thefire)andsprinklesitwithbutter,hechangesitintomarrow.Thisisthecompletenesswhichthey
callthefivefoldanimalsacrifice.
Now,too,wecanperfectlyunderstandwhyonthedayoftheirsolemncommunionwiththedeitythe
Mexicansrefusedtoeatanyotherfoodthantheconsecratedbreadwhichtheyreveredastheveryflesh

andbonesoftheirGod,andwhyuptillnoontheymightdrinknothingatall,notevenwater.Theyfeared
nodoubttodefiletheportionofGodintheirstomachsbycontactwithcommonthings.Asimilarpious
fearledtheCreekandSeminoleIndians,aswesaw,toadoptthemorethoroughgoingexpedientof
rinsingouttheirbodiesbyastrongpurgativebeforetheydaredtopartakeofthesacramentoffirstfruits.
AtthefestivalofthewintersolsticeinDecembertheAztecskilledtheirgodHuitzilopochtliineffigyfirst
andatehimafterwards.Asapreparationforthissolemnceremonyanimageofthedeityinthelikeness
ofamanwasfashionedoutofseedsofvarioussorts,whichwerekneadedintoadoughwiththebloodof
children.Thebonesofthegodwererepresentedbypiecesofacaciawood.Thisimagewasplacedonthe
chiefaltarofthetemple,andonthedayofthefestivalthekingofferedincensetoit.Earlynextdayit
wastakendownandsetonitsfeetinagreathall.Thenapriest,whoborethenameandactedthepartof
thegodQuetzalcoatl,tookaflinttippeddartandhurleditintothebreastofthedoughimage,piercingit
throughandthrough.ThiswascalledkillingthegodHuitzilopochtlisothathisbodymightbeeaten.
Oneofthepriestscutouttheheartoftheimageandgaveittothekingtoeat.Therestoftheimagewas
dividedintominutepieces,ofwhicheverymangreatandsmall,downtothemalechildreninthecradle,
receiveonetoeat.Butnowomanmighttasteamorsel.Theceremonywascalledteoqualo,thatis,god
iseaten.
AtanotherfestivaltheMexicansmadelittleimageslikemen,whichstoodforthecloudcapped
mountains.Theseimagesweremouldedofapasteofvariousseedsandweredressedinpaperornaments.
Somepeoplefashionedfive,othersten,othersasmanyasfifteenofthem.Havingbeenmade,theywere
placedintheoratoryofeachhouseandworshipped.Fourtimesinthecourseofthenightofferingsof
foodwerebroughttothemintinyvesselsandpeoplesangandplayedtheflutebeforethemthroughall
thehoursofdarkness.Atbreakofdaythepriestsstabbedtheimageswithaweaversinstrument,cutoff
theirheads,andtoreouttheirhearts,whichtheypresentedtothemasterofthehouseonagreensaucer.
Thebodiesoftheimagesweretheneatenbyallthefamily,especiallybytheservants,inorderthatby
eatingthemtheymightbepreservedfromcertaindistempers,towhichthosepersonswhowerenegligent
ofworshiptothosedeitiesconceivedthemselvestobesubject.
3.ManyManiiatAricia
WEarenowabletosuggestanexplanationoftheproverbTherearemanyManiiatAricia.Certain
loavesmadeintheshapeofmenwerecalledbytheRomansmaniae,anditappearsthatthiskindofloaf
wasespeciallymadeatAricia.Now,Mania,thenameofoneoftheseloaves,wasalsothenameofthe
MotherorGrandmotherofGhosts,towhomwoolleneffigiesofmenandwomenwerededicatedatthe
festivaloftheCompitalia.TheseeffigieswerehungatthedoorsofallthehousesinRomeoneeffigy
washungupforeveryfreepersoninthehouse,andoneeffigy,ofadifferentkind,foreveryslave.The
reasonwasthatonthisdaytheghostsofthedeadwerebelievedtobegoingabout,anditwashopedthat,
eitheroutofgoodnatureorthroughsimpleinadvertence,theywouldcarryofftheeffigiesatthedoor
insteadofthelivingpeopleinthehouse.Accordingtotradition,thesewoollenfiguresweresubstitutes
foraformercustomofsacrificinghumanbeings.Upondatasofragmentaryanduncertain,itis
impossibletobuildwithconfidencebutitseemsworthsuggestingthattheloavesinhumanform,which
appeartohavebeenbakedatAricia,weresacramentalbread,andthatintheolddays,whenthedivine
KingoftheWoodwasannuallyslain,loavesweremadeinhisimage,likethepastefiguresofthegodsin
Mexico,andwereeatensacramentallybyhisworshippers.TheMexicansacramentsinhonourof
Huitzilopochtliwerealsoaccompaniedbythesacrificeofhumanvictims.Thetraditionthatthefounder
ofthesacredgroveatAriciawasamannamedManius,fromwhommanyManiiweredescended,would
thusbeanetymologicalmythinventedtoexplainthenamemaniaeasappliedtothesesacramental
loaves.Adimrecollectionoftheoriginalconnexionoftheloaveswithhumansacrificesmayperhapsbe
tracedinthestorythattheeffigiesdedicatedtoManiaattheCompitaliaweresubstitutesforhuman

victims.Thestoryitself,however,isprobablydevoidoffoundation,sincethepracticeofputtingup
dummiestodiverttheattentionofghostsordemonsfromlivingpeopleisnotuncommon.
Forexample,theTibetansstandinfearofinnumerableearthdemons,allofwhomareunderthe
authorityofOldMotherKhnma.Thisgoddess,whomaybecomparedtotheRomanMania,the
MotherorGrandmotherofGhosts,isdressedingoldenyellowrobes,holdsagoldennooseinherhand,
andridesonaram.Inordertobarthedwellinghouseagainstthefoulfiends,ofwhomOldMother
Khnmaismistress,anelaboratestructuresomewhatresemblingachandelierisfixedabovethedoor
ontheoutsideofthehouse.Itcontainsaramsskull,avarietyofpreciousobjectssuchasgoldleaf,
silver,andturquoise,alsosomedryfood,suchasrice,wheat,andpulse,andfinallyimagesorpicturesof
aman,awoman,andahouse.Theobjectofthesefiguresofaman,wife,andhouseistodeceivethe
demonsshouldtheystillcomeinspiteofthisoffering,andtomisleadthemintothebeliefthatthe
foregoingpicturesaretheinmatesofthehouse,sothattheymaywreaktheirwrathonthesebitsofwood
andtosavetherealhumanoccupants.Whenallisready,apriestpraystoOldMotherKhnmathat
shewouldbepleasedtoacceptthesedaintyofferingsandtoclosetheopendoorsoftheearth,inorder
thatthedemonsmaynotcomeforthtoinfestandinjurethehousehold.
Again,effigiesareoftenemployedasameansofpreventingorcuringsicknessthedemonsofdisease
eithermistaketheeffigiesforlivingpeopleorarepersuadedorcompelledtoenterthem,leavingthereal
menandwomenwellandwhole.ThustheAlfoorsofMinahassa,inCelebes,willsometimestransporta
sickmantoanotherhouse,whiletheyleaveonhisbedadummymadeupofapillowandclothes.This
dummythedemonissupposedtomistakeforthesickman,whoconsequentlyrecovers.Cureor
preventionofthissortseemstofindespecialfavourwiththenativesofBorneo.Thus,whenanepidemic
isragingamongthem,theDyaksoftheKatoengouwRiversetupwoodenimagesattheirdoorsinthe
hopethatthedemonsoftheplaguemaybedeludedintocarryingofftheeffigiesinsteadofthepeople.
AmongtheOlohNgadjuofBorneo,whenasickmanissupposedtobesufferingfromtheassaultsofa
ghost,puppetsofdoughorricemealaremadeandthrownunderthehouseassubstitutesforthepatient,
whothusridshimselfoftheghost.IncertainofthewesterndistrictsofBorneoifamanistakensuddenly
andviolentlysick,thephysician,whointhispartoftheworldisgenerallyanoldwoman,fashionsa
woodenimageandbringsitseventimesintocontactwiththesufferershead,whileshesays:This
imageservestotaketheplaceofthesickmansickness,passoverintotheimage.Then,withsomerice,
salt,andtobaccoinalittlebasket,thesubstituteiscarriedtothespotwheretheevilspiritissupposedto
haveenteredintotheman.Thereitissetuprightontheground,afterthephysicianhasinvokedthespirit
asfollows:Odevil,hereisanimagewhichstandsinsteadofthesickman.Releasethesoulofthesick
manandplaguetheimage,foritisindeedprettierandbetterthanhe.Batakmagicianscanconjurethe
demonofdiseaseoutofthepatientsbodyintoanimagemadeoutofabananatreewithahumanface
andwraptupinmagicherbstheimageisthenhurriedlyremovedandthrownawayorburiedbeyondthe
boundariesofthevillage.Sometimestheimage,dressedasamanorawomanaccordingtothesexofthe
patient,isdepositedatacrossroadorotherthoroughfare,inthehopethatsomepasserby,seeingit,may
startandcryout,Ah!SoandSoisdeadforsuchanexclamationissupposedtodeludethedemonof
diseaseintoabeliefthathehasaccomplishedhisfellpurpose,sohetakeshimselfoffandleavesthe
sufferertogetwell.TheMaiDarat,aSakaitribeoftheMalayPeninsula,attributeallkindsofdiseasesto
theagencyofspiritswhichtheycallnyanifortunately,however,themagiciancaninducethese
maleficentbeingstocomeoutofthesickpersonandtakeuptheirabodeinrudefiguresofgrass,which
arehungupoutsidethehousesinlittlebellshapedshrinesdecoratedwithpeeledsticks.Duringan
epidemicofsmallpoxtheEwenegroeswillsometimesclearaspaceoutsideofthetown,wherethey
erectanumberoflowmoundsandcoverthemwithasmanylittleclayfiguresastherearepeopleinthe
place.Potsoffoodandwaterarealsosetoutfortherefreshmentofthespiritofsmallpoxwho,itis
hoped,willtaketheclayfiguresandsparethelivingfolkandtomakeassurancedoublysuretheroad
intothetownisbarricadedagainsthim.

Withtheseexamplesbeforeuswemaysurmisethatthewoolleneffigies,whichatthefestivalofthe
CompitaliamightbeseenhangingatthedoorsofallthehousesinancientRome,werenotsubstitutesfor
humanvictimswhohadformerlybeensacrificedatthisseason,butrathervicariousofferingspresented
totheMotherorGrandmotherofGhosts,inthehopethatonherroundsthroughthecityshewould
acceptormistaketheeffigiesfortheinmatesofthehouseandsosparethelivingforanotheryear.Itis
possiblethatthepuppetsmadeofrushes,whichinthemonthofMaythepontiffsandVestalVirgins
annuallythrewintotheTiberfromtheoldSublicianbridgeatRome,hadoriginallythesame
significancethatis,theymayhavebeendesignedtopurgethecityfromdemoniacinfluencebydiverting
theattentionofthedemonsfromhumanbeingstothepuppetsandthentopplingthewholeuncannycrew,
neckandcrop,intotheriver,whichwouldsoonsweepthemfarouttosea.Inpreciselythesamewaythe
nativesofOldCalabarusedperiodicallytoridtheirtownofthedevilswhichinfesteditbyluringthe
unwarydemonsintoanumberoflamentablescarecrows,whichtheyafterwardsflungintotheriver.This
interpretationoftheRomancustomissupportedtosomeextentbytheevidenceofPlutarch,whospeaks
oftheceremonyasthegreatestofpurifications.

LI.HomeopathicMagicofaFleshDiet
THEPRACTICEofkillingagodhasnowbeentracedamongstpeopleswhohavereachedthe
agriculturalstageofsociety.Wehaveseenthatthespiritofthecorn,orofothercultivatedplants,is
commonlyrepresentedeitherinhumanorinanimalform,andthatinsomeplacesacustomhasprevailed
ofkillingannuallyeitherthehumanortheanimalrepresentativeofthegod.Onereasonforthuskilling
thecornspiritinthepersonofhisrepresentativehasbeengivenimplicitlyinanearlierpartofthiswork:
wemaysupposethattheintentionwastoguardhimorher(forthecornspiritisoftenfeminine)fromthe
enfeeblementofoldagebytransferringthespirit,whilestillhaleandhearty,tothepersonofayouthful
andvigoroussuccessor.Apartfromthedesirabilityofrenewinghisdivineenergies,thedeathofthe
cornspiritmayhavebeendeemedinevitableunderthesicklesortheknivesofthereapers,andhis
worshippersmayaccordinglyhavefeltboundtoacquiesceinthesadnecessity.But,further,wehave
foundawidespreadcustomofeatingthegodsacramentally,eitherintheshapeofthemanoranimalwho
representsthegod,orintheshapeofbreadmadeinhumanoranimalform.Thereasonsforthus
partakingofthebodyofthegodare,fromtheprimitivestandpoint,simpleenough.Thesavage
commonlybelievesthatbyeatingthefleshofananimalormanheacquiresnotonlythephysical,but
eventhemoralandintellectualqualitieswhichwerecharacteristicofthatanimalormansowhenthe
creatureisdeemeddivine,oursimplesavagenaturallyexpectstoabsorbaportionofitsdivinityalong
withitsmaterialsubstance.Itmaybewelltoillustratebyinstancesthiscommonfaithintheacquisition
ofvirtuesorvicesofmanykindsthroughthemediumofanimalfood,evenwhenthereisnopretencethat
theviandsconsistofthebodyorbloodofagod.Thedoctrineformspartofthewidelyramifiedsystemof
sympatheticorhomoeopathicmagic.
Thus,forexample,theCreeks,Cherokee,andkindredtribesofNorthAmericanIndiansbelievethat
natureispossestofsuchapropertyastotransfuseintomenandanimalsthequalities,eitherofthefood
theyuse,orofthoseobjectsthatarepresentedtotheirsenseshewhofeedsonvenisonis,accordingto
theirphysicalsystem,swifterandmoresagaciousthanthemanwholivesonthefleshoftheclumsybear,
orhelplessdunghillfowls,theslowfootedtamecattle,ortheheavywallowingswine.Thisisthereason
thatseveraloftheiroldmenrecommend,andsay,thatformerlytheirgreatestchieftainsobserveda
constantruleintheirdiet,andseldomateofanyanimalofagrossquality,orheavymotionofbody,
fancyingitconveyedadullnessthroughthewholesystem,anddisabledthemfromexertingthemselves
withpropervigourintheirmartial,civil,andreligiousduties.TheZaparoIndiansofEcuadorwill,
unlessfromnecessity,inmostcasesnoteatanyheavymeats,suchastapirandpeccary,butconfine
themselvestobirds,monkeys,deer,fish,etc.,principallybecausetheyarguethattheheaviermeatsmake
themunwieldy,liketheanimalswhosupplytheflesh,impedingtheiragility,andunfittingthemforthe

chase.SimilarlysomeoftheBrazilianIndianswouldeatnobeast,bird,orfishthatran,flew,orswam
slowly,lestbypartakingofitsfleshtheyshouldlosetheirabilityandbeunabletoescapefromtheir
enemies.TheCaribsabstainedfromthefleshofpigslestitshouldcausethemtohavesmalleyeslike
pigsandtheyrefusedtopartakeoftortoisesfromafearthatiftheydidsotheywouldbecomeheavyand
stupidliketheanimal.AmongtheFansofWestAfricamenintheprimeoflifenevereattortoisesfora
similarreasontheyimaginethatiftheydidso,theirvigourandfleetnessoffootwouldbegone.Butold
menmayeattortoisesfreely,becausehavingalreadylostthepowerofrunningtheycantakenoharm
fromthefleshoftheslowfootedcreature.
Whilemanysavagesthusfeartoeatthefleshofslowfootedanimalslesttheyshouldthemselvesbecome
slowfooted,theBushmenofSouthAfricapurposelyatethefleshofsuchcreatures,andthereasonwhich
theygavefordoingsoexhibitsacuriousrefinementofsavagephilosophy.Theyimaginedthatthegame
whichtheypursuedwouldbeinfluencedsympatheticallybythefoodinthebodyofthehunter,sothatif
hehadeatenofswiftfootedanimals,thequarrywouldbeswiftfootedalsoandwouldescapehim
whereasifhehadeatenofslowfootedanimals,thequarrywouldalsobeslowfooted,andhewouldbe
abletoovertakeandkillit.Forthatreasonhuntersofgemsbokparticularlyavoidedeatingthefleshofthe
swiftandagilespringbokindeedtheywouldnoteventouchitwiththeirhands,becausetheybelieved
thespringboktobeaverylivelycreaturewhichdidnotgotosleepatnight,andtheythoughtthatifthey
atespringbok,thegemsbokwhichtheyhuntedwouldlikewisenotbewillingtogotosleep,evenatnight.
How,then,couldtheycatchit?
TheNamaquasabstainfromeatingthefleshofhares,becausetheythinkitwouldmakethemfaint
heartedasahare.Buttheyeatthefleshofthelion,ordrinkthebloodoftheleopardorlion,togetthe
courageandstrengthofthesebeasts.TheBushmenwillnotgivetheirchildrenajackalshearttoeat,lest
itshouldmakethemtimidlikethejackalbuttheygivethemaleopardshearttoeattomakethembrave
liketheleopard.WhenaWagogomanofEastAfricakillsalion,heeatstheheartinordertobecome
bravelikealionbuthethinksthattoeattheheartofahenwouldmakehimtimid.Whenaserious
diseasehasattackedaZulukraal,themedicinemantakestheboneofaveryolddog,ortheboneofan
oldcow,bull,orotherveryoldanimal,andadministersittothehealthyaswellastothesickpeople,in
orderthattheymaylivetobeasoldastheanimalofwhosebonetheyhavepartaken.Sotorestorethe
agedAesontoyouth,thewitchMedeainfusedintohisveinsadecoctionoftheliverofthelonglived
deerandtheheadofacrowthathadoutlivedninegenerationsofmen.
AmongtheDyaksofNorthWestBorneoyoungmenandwarriorsmaynoteatvenison,becauseitwould
makethemastimidasdeerbutthewomenandveryoldmenarefreetoeatit.However,amongthe
Kayansofthesameregion,whosharethesameviewastotheilleffectofeatingvenison,menwill
partakeofthedangerousviandprovideditiscookedintheopenair,forthenthetimidspiritoftheanimal
issupposedtoescapeatonceintothejungleandnottoenterintotheeater.TheAinobelievethatthe
heartofthewaterouselisexceedinglywise,andthatinspeechthebirdismosteloquent.Therefore
wheneverheiskilled,heshouldbeatoncetornopenandhisheartwrenchedoutandswallowedbeforeit
hastimetogrowcoldorsufferdamageofanykind.Ifamanswallowsitthus,hewillbecomeveryfluent
andwise,andwillbeabletoarguedownallhisadversaries.InNorthernIndiapeoplefancythatifyou
eattheeyeballsofanowlyouwillbeablelikeanowltoseeinthedark.
WhentheKansasIndiansweregoingtowar,afeastusedtobeheldinthechiefshut,andtheprincipal
dishwasdogsflesh,because,saidtheIndians,theanimalwhoissobravethathewilllethimselfbecut
inpiecesindefenceofhismaster,mustneedsinspirevalour.MenoftheBuruandAruIslands,East
Indies,eatthefleshofdogsinordertobeboldandnimbleinwar.AmongstthePapuansofthePort
MoresbyandMotumotudistricts,NewGuinea,youngladseatstrongpig,wallaby,andlargefish,in
ordertoacquirethestrengthoftheanimalorfish.SomeofthenativesofNorthernAustraliafancythat
byeatingthefleshofthekangaroooremutheyareenabledtojumporrunfasterthanbefore.TheMiris

ofAssamprizetigersfleshasfoodformenitgivesthemstrengthandcourage.Butitisnotsuitedfor
womenitwouldmakethemtoostrongminded.InCoreathebonesoftigersfetchahigherpricethan
thoseofleopardsasameansofinspiringcourage.AChinamaninSeoulboughtandateawholetigerto
makehimselfbraveandfierce.InNorselegend,Ingiald,sonofKingAunund,wastimidinhisyouth,but
aftereatingtheheartofawolfhebecameveryboldHialtogainedstrengthandcouragebyeatingthe
heartofabearanddrinkingitsblood.
InMoroccolethargicpatientsaregivenantstoswallow,andtoeatlionsfleshwillmakeacowardbrave
butpeopleabstainfromeatingtheheartsoffowls,lesttherebytheyshouldberenderedtimid.Whena
childislateinlearningtospeak,theTurksofCentralAsiawillgiveitthetonguesofcertainbirdstoeat.
ANorthAmericanIndianthoughtthatbrandymustbeadecoctionofheartsandtongues,because,said
he,afterdrinkingitIfearnothing,andItalkwonderfully.InJavathereisatinyearthwormwhichnow
andthenuttersashrillsoundlikethatofthealarumofasmallclock.Hencewhenapublicdancinggirl
hasscreamedherselfhoarseintheexerciseofhercalling,theleaderofthetroopmakeshereatsomeof
theseworms,inthebeliefthatthusshewillregainhervoiceandwill,afterswallowingthem,beableto
screamasshrillyasever.ThepeopleofDarfur,inCentralAfrica,thinkthattheliveristheseatofthe
soul,andthatamanmayenlargehissoulbyeatingtheliverofananimal.Wheneverananimaliskilled
itsliveristakenoutandeaten,butthepeoplearemostcarefulnottotouchitwiththeirhands,asitis
consideredsacreditiscutupinsmallpiecesandeatenraw,thebitsbeingconveyedtothemouthonthe
pointofaknife,orthesharppointofastick.Anyonewhomayaccidentallytouchtheliverisstrictly
forbiddentopartakeofit,whichprohibitionisregardedasagreatmisfortuneforhim.Womenarenot
allowedtoeatliver,becausetheyhavenosoul.
Again,thefleshandbloodofdeadmenarecommonlyeatenanddrunktoinspirebravery,wisdom,or
otherqualitiesforwhichthementhemselveswereremarkable,orwhicharesupposedtohavetheir
specialseatintheparticularparteaten.ThusamongthemountaintribesofSouthEasternAfricathereare
ceremoniesbywhichtheyouthsareformedintoguildsorlodges,andamongtheritesofinitiationthere
isonewhichisintendedtoinfusecourage,intelligence,andotherqualitiesintothenovices.Wheneveran
enemywhohasbehavedwithconspicuousbraveryiskilled,hisliver,whichisconsideredtheseatof
valourhisears,whicharesupposedtobetheseatofintelligencetheskinofhisforehead,whichis
regardedastheseatofperseverancehistesticles,whichareheldtobetheseatofstrengthandother
members,whichareviewedastheseatofothervirtues,arecutfromhisbodyandbakedtocinders.The
ashesarecarefullykeptinthehornofabull,and,duringtheceremoniesobservedatcircumcision,are
mixedwithotheringredientsintoakindofpaste,whichisadministeredbythetribalpriesttotheyouths.
Bythismeansthestrength,valour,intelligence,andothervirtuesoftheslainarebelievedtobeimparted
totheeaters.WhenBasutosofthemountainshavekilledaverybravefoe,theyimmediatelycutouthis
heartandeatit,becausethisissupposedtogivethemhiscourageandstrengthinbattle.WhenSir
CharlesMCarthywaskilledbytheAshanteesin1824,itissaidthathisheartwasdevouredbythe
chiefsoftheAshanteearmy,whohopedbythismeanstoimbibehiscourage.Hisfleshwasdriedand
parcelledoutamongthelowerofficersforthesamepurpose,andhisboneswerelongkeptatCoomassie
asnationalfetishes.TheNaurasIndiansofNewGranadaatetheheartsofSpaniardswhentheyhadthe
opportunity,hopingtherebytomakethemselvesasdauntlessasthedreadedCastilianchivalry.The
SiouxIndiansusedtoreducetopowdertheheartofavaliantenemyandswallowthepowder,hoping
thustoappropriatethedeadmansvalour.
Butwhilethehumanheartisthuscommonlyeatenforthesakeofimbuingtheeaterwiththequalitiesof
itsoriginalowner,itisnot,aswehavealreadyseen,theonlypartofthebodywhichisconsumedforthis
purpose.ThuswarriorsoftheTheddoraandNgarigotribesofSouthEasternAustraliausedtoeatthe
handsandfeetoftheirslainenemies,believingthatinthiswaytheyacquiredsomeofthequalitiesand
courageofthedead.TheKamilaroiofNewSouthWalesatetheliveraswellastheheartofabraveman
togethiscourage.InTonquinalsothereisapopularsuperstitionthattheliverofabravemanmakes

braveanywhopartakeofit.WithalikeintenttheChineseswallowthebileofnotoriousbanditswho
havebeenexecuted.TheDyaksofSarawakusedtoeatthepalmsofthehandsandthefleshoftheknees
oftheslaininordertosteadytheirownhandsandstrengthentheirownknees.TheTolalaki,notorious
headhuntersofCentralCelebes,drinkthebloodandeatthebrainsoftheirvictimsthattheymaybecome
brave.TheItalonesofthePhilippineIslandsdrinkthebloodoftheirslainenemies,andeatpartofthe
backoftheirheadsandoftheirentrailsrawtoacquiretheircourage.ForthesamereasontheEfugaos,
anothertribeofthePhilippines,suckthebrainsoftheirfoes.InlikemannertheKaiofGermanNew
Guineaeatthebrainsoftheenemiestheykillinordertoacquiretheirstrength.AmongtheKimbundaof
WesternAfrica,whenanewkingsucceedstothethrone,abraveprisonerofwariskilledinorderthat
thekingandnoblesmayeathisflesh,andsoacquirehisstrengthandcourage.ThenotoriousZuluchief
Matuanadrankthegallofthirtychiefs,whosepeoplehehaddestroyed,inthebeliefthatitwouldmake
himstrong.ItisaZulufancythatbyeatingthecentreoftheforeheadandtheeyebrowofanenemythey
acquirethepoweroflookingsteadfastlyatafoe.Beforeeverywarlikeexpeditionthepeopleof
MinahassainCelebesusedtotakethelocksofhairofaslainfoeanddabbletheminboilingwaterto
extractthecouragethisinfusionofbraverywasthendrunkbythewarriors.InNewZealandthechief
wasanatua[god],buttherewerepowerfulandpowerlessgodseachnaturallysoughttomakehimself
oneoftheformertheplanthereforeadoptedwastoincorporatethespiritsofotherswiththeirownthus,
whenawarriorslewachief,heimmediatelygougedouthiseyesandswallowedthem,theatuatonga,or
divinity,beingsupposedtoresideinthatorganthushenotonlykilledthebody,butalsopossessed
himselfofthesoulofhisenemy,andconsequentlythemorechiefsheslewthegreaterdidhisdivinity
become.
Itisnoweasytounderstandwhyasavageshoulddesiretopartakeofthefleshofananimalorman
whomheregardsasdivine.Byeatingthebodyofthegodhesharesinthegodsattributesandpowers.
Andwhenthegodisacorngod,thecornishisproperbodywhenheisavinegod,thejuiceofthegrape
ishisbloodandsobyeatingthebreadanddrinkingthewinetheworshipperpartakesoftherealbody
andbloodofhisgod.ThusthedrinkingofwineintheritesofavinegodlikeDionysusisnotanactof
revelry,itisasolemnsacrament.Yetatimecomeswhenreasonablemenfindithardtounderstandhow
anyoneinhissensescansupposethatbyeatingbreadordrinkingwineheconsumesthebodyorblood
ofadeity.WhenwecallcornCeresandwineBacchus,saysCicero,weuseacommonfigureof
speechbutdoyouimaginethatanybodyissoinsaneastobelievethatthethinghefeedsuponisagod?

LII.KillingtheDivineAnimal
1.KillingtheSacredBuzzard
INTHEPRECEDINGchapterswesawthatmanycommunitieswhichhaveprogressedsofarasto
subsistmainlybyagriculturehavebeeninthehabitofkillingandeatingtheirfarinaceousdeitieseitherin
theirproperformofcorn,rice,andsoforth,orintheborrowedshapesofanimalsandmen.Itremainsto
showthathuntingandpastoraltribes,aswellasagriculturalpeoples,havebeeninthehabitofkillingthe
beingswhomtheyworship.Amongtheworshipfulbeingsorgods,ifindeedtheydeservetobedignified
bythatname,whomhuntersandshepherdsadoreandkillareanimalspureandsimple,notanimals
regardedasembodimentsofothersupernaturalbeings.OurfirstexampleisdrawnfromtheIndiansof
California,wholivinginafertilecountryunderasereneandtemperatesky,neverthelessranknearthe
bottomofthesavagescale.TheAcagchememtribeadoredthegreatbuzzard,andonceayearthey
celebratedagreatfestivalcalledPanesorbirdfeastinitshonour.Thedayselectedforthefestivalwas
madeknowntothepublicontheeveningbeforeitscelebrationandpreparationswereatoncemadefor
theerectionofaspecialtemple(vanquech),whichseemstohavebeenacircularorovalenclosureof
stakeswiththestuffedskinofacoyoteorprairiewolfsetuponahurdletorepresentthegod
Chinigchinich.Whenthetemplewasready,thebirdwascarriedintoitinsolemnprocessionandlaidon

analtarerectedforthepurpose.Thenalltheyoungwomen,whethermarriedorsingle,begantorunto
andfro,asifdistracted,someinonedirectionandsomeinanother,whiletheeldersofbothsexes
remainedsilentspectatorsofthescene,andthecaptains,trickedoutinpaintandfeathers,dancedround
theiradoredbird.Theseceremoniesbeingconcluded,theyseizeduponthebirdandcarriedittothe
principaltemple,alltheassemblyunitinginthegranddisplay,andthecaptainsdancingandsingingat
theheadoftheprocession.Arrivedatthetemple,theykilledthebirdwithoutlosingadropofitsblood.
Theskinwasremovedentireandpreservedwiththefeathersasarelicorforthepurposeofmakingthe
festalgarmentorpaelt.Thecarcasewasburiedinaholeinthetemple,andtheoldwomengathered
roundthegraveweepingandmoaningbitterly,whiletheythrewvariouskindsofseedsorpiecesoffood
onit,cryingout,Whydidyourunaway?Wouldyounothavebeenbetterwithus?youwouldhave
madepinole(akindofgruel)aswedo,andifyouhadnotrunaway,youwouldnothavebecomea
Panes,andsoon.Whenthisceremonywasconcluded,thedancingwasresumedandkeptupforthree
daysandnights.TheysaidthatthePaneswasawomanwhohadrunofftothemountainsandtherebeen
changedintoabirdbythegodChinigchinich.Theybelievedthatthoughtheysacrificedthebird
annually,shecametolifeagainandreturnedtoherhomeinthemountains.Moreover,theythoughtthat
asoftenasthebirdwaskilled,itbecamemultipliedbecauseeveryyearallthedifferentCapitanes
celebratedthesamefeastofPanes,andwerefirmintheopinionthatthebirdssacrificedwerebutone
andthesamefemale.
TheunityinmultiplicitythuspostulatedbytheCaliforniansisverynoticeableandhelpstoexplaintheir
motiveforkillingthedivinebird.Thenotionofthelifeofaspeciesasdistinctfromthatofanindividual,
easyandobviousasitseemstous,appearstobeonewhichtheCaliforniansavagecannotgrasp.Heis
unabletoconceivethelifeofthespeciesotherwisethanasanindividuallife,andthereforeasexposedto
thesamedangersandcalamitieswhichmenaceandfinallydestroythelifeoftheindividual.Apparently
heimaginesthataspecieslefttoitselfwillgrowoldanddielikeanindividual,andthatthereforesome
stepmustbetakentosavefromextinctiontheparticularspecieswhichheregardsasdivine.Theonly
meanshecanthinkoftoavertthecatastropheistokillamemberofthespeciesinwhoseveinsthetideof
lifeisstillrunningstrongandhasnotyetstagnatedamongthefensofoldage.Thelifethusdivertedfrom
onechannelwillflow,hefancies,morefreshlyandfreelyinanewoneinotherwords,theslainanimal
willreviveandenteronanewtermoflifewithallthespringandenergyofyouth.Tousthisreasoningis
transparentlyabsurd,butsotooisthecustom.Asimilarconfusion,itmaybenoted,betweenthe
individuallifeandthelifeofthespecieswasmadebytheSamoans.Eachfamilyhadforitsgoda
particularspeciesofanimalyetthedeathofoneoftheseanimals,forexampleanowl,wasnotthedeath
ofthegod,hewassupposedtobeyetalive,andincarnateinalltheowlsinexistence.
2.KillingtheSacredRam
THERUDECalifornianritewhichwehavejustconsideredhasacloseparallelinthereligionofancient
Egypt.TheThebansandallotherEgyptianswhoworshippedtheThebangodAmmonheldramstobe
sacred,andwouldnotsacrificethem.ButonceayearatthefestivalofAmmontheykilledaram,skinned
it,andclothedtheimageofthegodintheskin.Thentheymournedovertheramandburieditinasacred
tomb.ThecustomwasexplainedbyastorythatZeushadonceexhibitedhimselftoHerculescladinthe
fleeceandwearingtheheadofaram.OfcoursetheraminthiscasewassimplythebeastgodofThebes,
asthewolfwasthebeastgodofLycopolis,andthegoatwasthebeastgodofMendes.Inotherwords,
theramwasAmmonhimself.Onthemonuments,itistrue,Ammonappearsinsemihumanformwith
thebodyofamanandtheheadofaram.Butthisonlyshowsthathewasintheusualchrysalisstate
throughwhichbeastgodsregularlypassbeforetheyemergeasfullblownanthropomorphicgods.The
ram,therefore,waskilled,notasasacrificetoAmmon,butasthegodhimself,whoseidentitywiththe
beastisplainlyshownbythecustomofclothinghisimageintheskinoftheslainram.Thereasonfor
thuskillingtheramgodannuallymayhavebeenthatwhichIhaveassignedforthegeneralcustomof

killingagodandforthespecialCaliforniancustomofkillingthedivinebuzzard.AsappliedtoEgypt,
thisexplanationissupportedbytheanalogyofthebullgodApis,whowasnotsufferedtooutlivea
certaintermofyears.Theintentionofthusputtingalimittothelifeofthehumangodwas,asIhave
argued,tosecurehimfromtheweaknessandfrailtyofage.Thesamereasoningwouldexplainthe
customprobablyanolderoneofputtingthebeastgodtodeathannually,aswasdonewiththeramof
Thebes.
OnepointintheThebanritualtheapplicationoftheskintotheimageofthegoddeservesparticular
attention.Ifthegodwasatfirstthelivingram,hisrepresentationbyanimagemusthaveoriginatedlater.
Buthowdiditoriginate?Oneanswertothisquestionisperhapsfurnishedbythepracticeofpreserving
theskinoftheanimalwhichisslainasdivine.TheCalifornians,aswehaveseen,preservedtheskinof
thebuzzardandtheskinofthegoat,whichiskilledontheharvestfieldasarepresentativeofthecorn
spirit,iskeptforvarioussuperstitiouspurposes.Theskininfactwaskeptasatokenormemorialofthe
god,orratherascontaininginitapartofthedivinelife,andithadonlytobestuffedorstretchedupona
frametobecomearegularimageofhim.Atfirstanimageofthiskindwouldberenewedannually,the
newimagebeingprovidedbytheskinoftheslainanimal.Butfromannualimagestopermanentimages
thetransitioniseasy.WehaveseenthattheoldercustomofcuttinganewMaytreeeveryyearwas
supersededbythepracticeofmaintainingapermanentMaypole,whichwas,however,annuallydecked
withfreshleavesandflowers,andevensurmountedeachyearbyafreshyoungtree.Similarlywhenthe
stuffedskin,asarepresentativeofthegod,wasreplacedbyapermanentimageofhiminwood,stone,or
metal,thepermanentimagewasannuallycladinthefreshskinoftheslainanimal.Whenthisstagehad
beenreached,thecustomofkillingtheramcamenaturallytobeinterpretedasasacrificeofferedtothe
image,andwasexplainedbyastorylikethatofAmmonandHercules.
3.KillingtheSacredSerpent
WESTAFRICAappearstofurnishanotherexampleoftheannualkillingofasacredanimalandthe
preservationofitsskin.ThenegroesofIssapoo,intheislandofFernandoPo,regardthecobracapellaas
theirguardiandeity,whocandothemgoodorill,bestowrichesorinflictdiseaseanddeath.Theskinof
oneofthesereptilesishungtaildownwardsfromabranchofthehighesttreeinthepublicsquare,and
theplacingofitonthetreeisanannualceremony.Assoonastheceremonyisover,allchildrenborn
withinthepastyeararecarriedoutandtheirhandsmadetotouchthetailoftheserpentsskin.Thelatter
customisclearlyawayofplacingtheinfantsundertheprotectionofthetribalgod.Similarlyin
SenegambiaapythonisexpectedtovisiteverychildofthePythonclanwithineightdaysafterbirthand
thePsylli,aSnakeclanofancientAfrica,usedtoexposetheirinfantstosnakesinthebeliefthatthe
snakeswouldnotharmtruebornchildrenoftheclan.
4.KillingtheSacredTurtles
INTHECALIFORNIAN,Egyptian,andFernandoPocustomstheworshipoftheanimalseemstohave
norelationtoagriculture,andmaythereforebepresumedtodatefromthehuntingorpastoralstageof
society.Thesamemaybesaidofthefollowingcustom,thoughtheZuniIndiansofNewMexico,who
practiseit,arenowsettledinwalledvillagesortownsofapeculiartype,andpractiseagricultureandthe
artsofpotteryandweaving.ButtheZunicustomismarkedbycertainfeatureswhichappeartoplaceitin
asomewhatdifferentclassfromtheprecedingcases.Itmaybewellthereforetodescribeitatfulllength
inthewordsofaneyewitness.
Withmidsummertheheatbecameintense.Mybrother[i.e.adoptedIndianbrother]andIsat,dayafter
day,inthecoolunderroomsofourhouse,thelatter[sic]busywithhisquaintforgeandcrude
appliances,workingMexicancoinsoverintobangles,girdles,earrings,buttons,andwhatnot,for

savageornament.Thoughhistoolswerewonderfullyrude,theworkheturnedoutbydintofcombined
patienceandingenuitywasremarkablybeautiful.OnedayasIsatwatchinghim,aprocessionoffifty
menwenthastilydownthehill,andoffwestwardovertheplain.Theyweresolemnlyledbyapainted
andshellbedeckedpriest,andfollowedbythetorchbearingShuluwitsiorGodofFire.Aftertheyhad
vanished,Iaskedoldbrotherwhatitallmeant.
Theyaregoing,saidhe,tothecityofKakaandthehomeofourothers.
Fourdaysafter,towardssunset,costumedandmaskedinthebeautifulparaphernaliaoftheKakokshi,
orGoodDance,theyreturnedinfileupthesamepathway,eachbearinginhisarmsabasketfilledwith
living,squirmingturtles,whichheregardedandcarriedastenderlyasamotherwouldherinfant.Some
ofthewretchedreptileswerecarefullywrappedinsoftblankets,theirheadsandforefeetprotruding,
and,mountedonthebacksoftheplumebedeckedpilgrims,madeludicrousbutsolemncaricaturesof
littlechildreninthesameposition.WhileIwasatsupperupstairsthatevening,thegovernorsbrotherin
lawcamein.Hewaswelcomedbythefamilyasifamessengerfromheaven.Heboreinhistremulous
fingersoneofthemuchabusedandrebelliousturtles.Paintstilladheredtohishandsandbarefeet,which
ledmetoinferthathehadformedoneofthesacredembassy.
SoyouwenttoKathluellon,didyou?Iasked.
Ee,repliedthewearyman,inavoicehuskywithlongchanting,ashesank,almostexhausted,ona
rollofskinswhichhadbeenplacedforhim,andtenderlylaidtheturtleonthefloor.Nosoonerdidthe
creaturefinditselfatlibertythanitmadeoffasfastasitslamelegswouldtakeit.Ofoneaccord,the
familyforsookdish,spoon,anddrinkingcup,andgrabbingfromasacredmealbowlwholehandfulsof
thecontents,hurriedlyfollowedtheturtleabouttheroom,intodarkcorners,aroundwaterjars,behind
thegrindingtroughs,andoutintothemiddleoftheflooragain,prayingandscatteringmealonitsback
astheywent.Atlast,strangetosay,itapproachedthefootsoremanwhohadbroughtit.
Ha!heexclaimedwithemotionseeitcomestomeagainah,whatgreatfavoursthefathersofall
grantmethisday,and,passinghishandgentlyoverthesprawlinganimal,heinhaledfromhispalm
deeplyandlong,atthesametimeinvokingthefavourofthegods.Thenheleanedhischinuponhis
hand,andwithlarge,wistfuleyesregardedhisuglycaptiveasitsprawledabout,blinkingitsmeal
bedimmedeyes,andclawingthesmoothfloorinmemoryofitsnativeelement.AtthisjunctureI
venturedaquestion:
Whydoyounotlethimgo,orgivehimsomewater?
Slowlythemanturnedhiseyestowardme,anoddmixtureofpain,indignation,andpityonhisface,
whiletheworshipfulfamilystaredatmewithholyhorror.
Pooryoungerbrother!hesaidatlast,knowyounothowpreciousitis?Itdie?ItwillnotdieItell
you,itcannotdie.
Butitwilldieifyoudontfeeditandgiveitwater.
Itellyouitcannotdieitwillonlychangehousestomorrow,andgobacktothehomeofitsbrothers.
Ah,well!Howshouldyouknow?hemused.Turningtotheblindedturtleagain:Ah!mypoordearlost
childorparent,mysisterorbrothertohavebeen!Whoknowswhich?Maybemyowngreatgrandfather
ormother!Andwiththishefelltoweepingmostpathetically,and,tremulouswithsobs,whichwere
echoedbythewomenandchildren,heburiedhisfaceinhishands.Filledwithsympathyforhisgrief,
howevermistaken,Iraisedtheturtletomylipsandkisseditscoldshellthendepositingitonthefloor,
hastilyleftthegriefstrickenfamilytotheirsorrows.Nextday,withprayersandtenderbeseechings,

plumes,andofferings,thepoorturtlewaskilled,anditsfleshandboneswereremovedanddepositedin
thelittleriver,thatitmightreturnoncemoretoeternallifeamongitscomradesinthedarkwatersofthe
lakeofthedead.Theshell,carefullyscrapedanddried,wasmadeintoadancerattle,and,coveredbya
pieceofbuckskin,itstillhangsfromthesmokestainedraftersofmybrothershouse.OnceaNavajo
triedtobuyitforaladleloadedwithindignantreproaches,hewasturnedcutofthehouse.Wereanyone
toventurethesuggestionthattheturtlenolongerlived,hisremarkwouldcauseafloodoftears,andhe
wouldberemindedthatithadonlychangedhousesandgonetoliveforeverinthehomeofourlost
others.
Inthiscustomwefindexpressedintheclearestwayabeliefinthetransmigrationofhumansoulsintothe
bodiesofturtles.ThetheoryoftransmigrationisheldbytheMoquiIndians,whobelongtothesamerace
astheZunis.TheMoquisaredividedintototemclanstheBearclan,Deerclan,Wolfclan,Hareclan,
andsoontheybelievethattheancestorsoftheclanswerebears,deer,wolves,hares,andsoforthand
thatatdeaththemembersofeachclanbecomebears,deer,andsoonaccordingtotheparticularclanto
whichtheybelonged.TheZuniarealsodividedintoclans,thetotemsofwhichagreecloselywiththose
oftheMoquis,andoneoftheirtotemsistheturtle.Thustheirbeliefintransmigrationintotheturtleis
probablyoneoftheregulararticlesoftheirtotemfaith.Whatthenisthemeaningofkillingaturtlein
whichthesoulofakinsmanisbelievedtobepresent?Apparentlytheobjectistokeepupa
communicationwiththeotherworldinwhichthesoulsofthedepartedarebelievedtobeassembledin
theformofturtles.Itisacommonbeliefthatthespiritsofthedeadreturnoccasionallytotheirold
homesandaccordinglytheunseenvisitorsarewelcomedandfeastedbytheliving,andthensentupon
theirway.IntheZuniceremonythedeadarefetchedhomeintheformofturtles,andthekillingofthe
turtlesisthewayofsendingbackthesoulstothespiritland.Thusthegeneralexplanationgivenaboveof
thecustomofkillingagodseemsinapplicabletotheZunicustom,thetruemeaningofwhichis
somewhatobscure.Noristheobscuritywhichhangsoverthesubjectentirelydissipatedbyalaterand
fulleraccountwhichwepossessoftheceremony.Fromitwelearnthattheceremonyformspartofthe
elaborateritualwhichtheseIndiansobserveatthemidsummersolsticeforthepurposeofensuringan
abundantsupplyofrainforthecrops.Envoysaredespatchedtobringtheirotherselves,thetortoises,
fromthesacredlakeKothluwalawa,towhichthesoulsofthedeadarebelievedtorepair.Whenthe
creatureshavethusbeensolemnlybroughttoZuni,theyareplacedinabowlofwateranddancesare
performedbesidethembymenincostume,whopersonategodsandgoddesses.Aftertheceremonialthe
tortoisesaretakenhomebythosewhocaughtthemandarehungbytheirneckstotherafterstill
morning,whentheyarethrownintopotsofboilingwater.Theeggsareconsideredagreatdelicacy.The
meatisseldomtouchedexceptasamedicine,whichiscurativeforcutaneousdiseases.Partofthemeatis
depositedintheriverwithkhakwa(whiteshellbeads)andturquoisebeadsasofferingstoCouncilof
theGods.Thisaccountatalleventsconfirmstheinferencethatthetortoisesaresupposedtobe
reincarnationsofthehumandead,fortheyarecalledtheotherselvesoftheZuniindeed,whatelse
shouldtheybethanthesoulsofthedeadinthebodiesoftortoisesseeingthattheycomefromthe
hauntedlake?Astheprincipalobjectoftheprayersutteredandofthedancesperformedatthese
midsummerceremoniesappearstobetoprocurerainforthecrops,itmaybethattheintentionof
bringingthetortoisestoZunianddancingbeforethemistointercedewiththeancestralspirit,incarnate
intheanimals,thattheymaybepleasedtoexerttheirpoweroverthewatersofheavenforthebenefitof
theirlivingdescendants.
5.KillingtheSacredBear
DOUBTalsohangsatfirstsightoverthemeaningofthebearsacrificeofferedbytheAinoorAinu,a
primitivepeoplewhoarefoundintheJapaneseislandofYezoorYesso,aswellasinSaghalienandthe
southernoftheKurileIslands.ItisnotquiteeasytodefinetheattitudeoftheAinotowardsthebear.On
theonehandtheygiveitthenameofkamuiorgodbutastheyapplythesamewordtostrangers,it

maymeannomorethanabeingsupposedtobeendowedwithsuperhuman,oratalleventsextraordinary,
powers.Again,itissaidthatthebearistheirchiefdivinityinthereligionoftheAinothebearplaysa
chiefpartamongsttheanimalsitisespeciallythebearwhichreceivesanidolatrousvenerationthey
worshipitaftertheirfashionthereisnodoubtthatthiswildbeastinspiresmoreofthefeelingwhich
promptsworshipthantheinanimateforcesofnature,andtheAinomaybedistinguishedasbear
worshippers.Yet,ontheotherhand,theykillthebearwhenevertheycaninbygoneyearstheAinu
consideredbearhuntingthemostmanlyandusefulwayinwhichapersoncouldpossiblyspendhis
timethemenspendtheautumn,winter,andspringinhuntingdeerandbears.Partoftheirtributeor
taxesispaidinskins,andtheysubsistonthedriedmeatbearsfleshisindeedoneoftheirstaplefoods
theyeatitbothfreshandsaltedandtheskinsofbearsfurnishthemwithclothing.Infact,theworshipof
whichwritersonthissubjectspeakappearstobepaidchieflytothedeadanimal.Thus,althoughtheykill
abearwhenevertheycan,intheprocessofdissectingthecarcasstheyendeavortoconciliatethedeity,
whoserepresentativetheyhaveslain,bymakingelaborateobeisancesanddeprecatorysalutations
whenabearhasbeenkilledtheAinusitdownandadmireit,maketheirsalaamstoit,worshipit,and
offerpresentsofinaowhenabearistrappedorwoundedbyanarrow,thehuntersgothroughan
apologeticorpropitiatoryceremony.Theskullsofslainbearsreceiveaplaceofhonourintheirhuts,or
aresetuponsacredpostsoutsidethehuts,andaretreatedwithmuchrespect:libationsofmilletbeer,and
ofsake,anintoxicatingliquor,areofferedtothemandtheyareaddressedasdivinepreserversor
preciousdivinities.Theskullsoffoxesarealsofastenedtothesacredpostsoutsidethehutstheyare
regardedascharmsagainstevilspirits,andareconsultedasoracles.Yetitisexpresslysaid,Thelivefox
isreveredjustaslittleasthebearrathertheyavoiditasmuchaspossible,consideringitawilyanimal.
Thebearcanhardly,therefore,bedescribedasasacredanimaloftheAino,noryetasatotemforthey
donotcallthemselvesbears,andtheykillandeattheanimalfreely.However,theyhavealegendofa
womanwhohadasonbyabearandmanyofthemwhodwellinthemountainspridethemselveson
beingdescendedfromabear.SuchpeoplearecalledDescendantsofthebear(KimunKamuisanikiri),
andintheprideoftheirhearttheywillsay,Asforme,IamachildofthegodofthemountainsIam
descendedfromthedivineonewhorulesinthemountains,meaningbythegodofthemountainsno
otherthanthebear.Itisthereforepossiblethat,asourprincipalauthority,theRev.J.Batchelor,believes,
thebearmayhavebeenthetotemofanAinoclanbutevenifthatweresoitwouldnotexplainthe
respectshownfortheanimalbythewholeAinopeople.
ButitisthebearfestivaloftheAinowhichconcernsushere.Towardstheendofwinterabearcubis
caughtandbroughtintothevillage.Ifitisverysmall,itissuckledbyanAinowoman,butshouldthere
benowomanabletosuckleit,thelittleanimalisfedfromthehandorthemouth.Duringthedayitplays
aboutinthehutwiththechildrenandistreatedwithgreataffection.Butwhenthecubgrowsbigenough
topainpeoplebyhuggingorscratchingthem,heisshutupinastrongwoodencage,wherehestays
generallyfortwoorthreeyears,fedonfishandmilletporridge,tillitistimeforhimtobekilledand
eaten.Butitisapeculiarlystrikingfactthattheyoungbearisnotkeptmerelytofurnishagoodmeal
ratherheisregardedandhonouredasafetish,orevenasasortofhigherbeing.InYezothefestivalis
generallycelebratedinSeptemberorOctober.BeforeittakesplacetheAinoapologisetotheirgods,
allegingthattheyhavetreatedthebearkindlyaslongastheycould,nowtheycanfeedhimnolonger,
andareobligedtokillhim.Amanwhogivesabearfeastinviteshisrelationsandfriendsinasmall
villagenearlythewholecommunitytakespartinthefeastindeed,guestsfromdistantvillagesare
invitedandgenerallycome,alluredbytheprospectofgettingdrunkfornothing.Theformofinvitation
runssomewhatasfollows:I,soandso,amabouttosacrificethedearlittledivinethingwhoresides
amongthemountains.Myfriendsandmasters,comeyetothefeastwewillthenuniteinthegreat
pleasureofsendingthegodaway.Come.Whenallthepeopleareassembledinfrontofthecage,an
oratorchosenforthepurposeaddressesthebearandtellsitthattheyareabouttosenditforthtoits
ancestors.Hecravespardonforwhattheyareabouttodotoit,hopesitwillnotbeangry,andcomfortsit
byassuringtheanimalthatmanyofthesacredwhittledsticks(inao)andplentyofcakesandwinewillbe
sentwithitonthelongjourney.OnespeechofthissortwhichMr.Batchelorheardranasfollows:O

thoudivineone,thouwastsentintotheworldforustohunt.Othoupreciouslittledivinity,weworship
theeprayhearourprayer.Wehavenourishedtheeandbroughttheeupwithadealofpainsandtrouble,
allbecausewelovetheeso.Now,asthouhastgrownbig,weareabouttosendtheetothyfatherand
mother.Whenthoucomesttothempleasespeakwellofus,andtellthemhowkindwehavebeenplease
cometousagainandwewillsacrificethee.Havingbeensecuredwithropes,thebearisthenletoutof
thecageandassailedwithashowerofbluntarrowsinordertoarouseittofury.Whenithasspentitself
invainstruggles,itistieduptoastake,gaggedandstrangled,itsneckbeingplacedbetweentwopoles,
whicharethenviolentlycompressed,allthepeopleeagerlyhelpingtosqueezetheanimaltodeath.An
arrowisalsodischargedintothebeastsheartbyagoodmarksman,butsoasnottoshedblood,forthey
thinkthatitwouldbeveryunluckyifanyofthebloodweretodripontheground.However,themen
sometimesdrinkthewarmbloodofthebearthatthecourageandothervirtuesitpossessesmaypass
intothemandsometimestheybesmearthemselvesandtheirclotheswiththebloodinordertoensure
successinhunting.Whentheanimalhasbeenstrangledtodeath,itisskinnedanditsheadiscutoffand
setintheeastwindowofthehouse,whereapieceofitsownfleshisplacedunderitssnout,togetherwith
acupofitsownmeatboiled,somemilletdumplings,anddriedfish.Prayersarethenaddressedtothe
deadanimalamongstotherthingsitissometimesinvited,aftergoingawaytoitsfatherandmother,to
returnintotheworldinorderthatitmayagainberearedforsacrifice.Whenthebearissupposedtohave
finishedeatingitsownflesh,themanwhopresidesatthefeasttakesthecupcontainingtheboiledmeat,
salutesit,anddividesthecontentsbetweenallthecompanypresent:everyperson,youngandoldalike,
musttastealittle.Thecupiscalledthecupofofferingbecauseithasjustbeenofferedtothedead
bear.Whentherestofthefleshhasbeencooked,itissharedoutinlikemanneramongallthepeople,
everybodypartakingofatleastamorselnottopartakeofthefeastwouldbeequivalentto
excommunication,itwouldbetoplacetherecreantoutsidethepaleofAinofellowship.Formerlyevery
particleofthebear,exceptthebones,hadtobeeatenupatthebanquet,butthisruleisnowrelaxed.The
head,onbeingdetachedfromtheskin,issetuponalongpolebesidethesacredwands(inao)outsideof
thehouse,whereitremainstillnothingbutthebarewhiteskullisleft.Skullssosetupareworshipped
notonlyatthetimeofthefestival,butveryoftenaslongastheylast.TheAinoassuredMr.Batchelor
thattheyreallydobelievethespiritsoftheworshipfulanimalstoresideintheskullsthatiswhythey
addressthemasdivinepreserversandpreciousdivinities.
TheceremonyofkillingthebearwaswitnessedbyDr.B.ScheubeonthetenthofAugustatKunnui,
whichisavillageonVolcanoBayintheislandofYezoorYesso.Ashisdescriptionoftheritecontains
someinterestingparticularsnotmentionedintheforegoingaccount,itmaybeworthwhiletosummarize
it.
OnenteringthehuthefoundaboutthirtyAinopresent,men,women,andchildren,alldressedintheir
best.Themasterofthehousefirstofferedalibationonthefireplacetothegodofthefire,andtheguests
followedhisexample.Thenalibationwasofferedtothehousegodinhissacredcornerofthehut.
Meanwhilethehousewife,whohadnursedthebear,satbyherself,silentandsad,burstingnowandthen
intotears.Hergriefwasobviouslyunaffected,anditdeepenedasthefestivalwenton.Next,themaster
ofthehouseandsomeoftheguestswentoutofthehutandofferedlibationsbeforethebearscage.A
fewdropswerepresentedtothebearinasaucer,whichheatonceupset.Thenthewomenandgirls
dancedroundthecage,theirfacesturnedtowardsit,theirkneesslightlybent,risingandhoppingontheir
toes.Astheydancedtheyclappedtheirhandsandsangamonotonoussong.Thehousewifeandafewold
women,whomighthavenursedmanybears,dancedtearfully,stretchingouttheirarmstothebear,and
addressingitintermsofendearment.Theyoungfolkswerelessaffectedtheylaughedaswellassang.
Disturbedbythenoise,thebearbegantorushabouthiscageandhowllamentably.Nextlibationswere
offeredattheinao(inabos)orsacredwandswhichstandoutsideofanAinohut.Thesewandsareabouta
coupleoffeethigh,andarewhittledatthetopintospiralshavings.Fivenewwandswithbambooleaves
attachedtothemhadbeensetupforthefestival.Thisisregularlydonewhenabeariskilledtheleaves
meanthattheanimalmaycometolifeagain.Thenthebearwasletoutofhiscage,aropewasthrown

roundhisneck,andhewasledaboutintheneighbourhoodofthehut.Whilethiswasbeingdonethe
men,headedbyachief,shotatthebeastwitharrowstippedwithwoodenbuttons.Dr.Scheubehadtodo
soalso.Thenthebearwastakenbeforethesacredwands,astickwasputinhismouth,ninemenknelton
himandpressedhisneckagainstabeam.Infiveminutestheanimalhadexpiredwithoututteringa
sound.Meantimethewomenandgirlshadtakenpostbehindthemen,wheretheydanced,lamenting,and
beatingthemenwhowerekillingthebear.Thebearscarcasewasnextplacedonthematbeforethe
sacredwandsandaswordandquiver,takenfromthewands,werehungroundthebeastsneck.Beinga
shebear,itwasalsoadornedwithanecklaceandearrings.Thenfoodanddrinkwereofferedtoit,inthe
shapeofmilletbroth,milletcakes,andapotofsake.Themennowsatdownonmatsbeforethedead
bear,offeredlibationstoit,anddrankdeep.Meanwhilethewomenandgirlshadlaidasideallmarksof
sorrow,anddancedmerrily,nonemoremerrilythantheoldwomen.Whenthemirthwasatitsheight
twoyoungAino,whohadletthebearoutofhiscage,mountedtheroofofthehutandthrewcakesof
milletamongthecompany,whoallscrambledforthemwithoutdistinctionofageorsex.Thebearwas
nextskinnedanddisembowelled,andthetrunkseveredfromthehead,towhichtheskinwasleft
hanging.Theblood,caughtincups,waseagerlyswallowedbythemen.Noneofthewomenorchildren
appearedtodrinktheblood,thoughcustomdidnotforbidthemtodoso.Theliverwascutinsmall
piecesandeatenraw,withsalt,thewomenandchildrengettingtheirshare.Thefleshandtherestofthe
vitalsweretakenintothehousetobekepttillthenextdaybutone,andthentobedividedamongthe
personswhohadbeenpresentatthefeast.BloodandliverwereofferedtoDr.Scheube.Whilethebear
wasbeingdisembowelled,thewomenandgirlsdancedthesamedancewhichtheyhaddancedatthe
beginningnot,however,roundthecage,butinfrontofthesacredwands.Atthisdancetheoldwomen,
whohadbeenmerryamomentbefore,againshedtearsfreely.Afterthebrainhadbeenextractedfrom
thebearsheadandswallowedwithsalt,theskull,detachedfromtheskin,washungonapolebesidethe
sacredwands.Thestickwithwhichthebearhadbeengaggedwasalsofastenedtothepole,andsowere
theswordandquiverwhichhadbeenhungonthecarcase.Thelatterwereremovedinaboutanhour,but
therestremainedstanding.Thewholecompany,menandwomen,dancednoisilybeforethepoleand
anotherdrinkingbout,inwhichthewomenjoined,closedthefestival.
PerhapsthefirstpublishedaccountofthebearfeastoftheAinoisonewhichwasgiventotheworldbya
Japanesewriterin1652.IthasbeentranslatedintoFrenchandrunsthus:Whentheyfindayoungbear,
theybringithome,andthewifesucklesit.Whenitisgrowntheyfeeditwithfishandfowlandkillitin
winterforthesakeoftheliver,whichtheyesteemanantidotetopoison,theworms,colic,anddisorders
ofthestomach.Itisofaverybittertaste,andisgoodfornothingifthebearhasbeenkilledinsummer.
ThisbutcherybeginsinthefirstJapanesemonth.Forthispurposetheyputtheanimalsheadbetween
twolongpoles,whicharesqueezedtogetherbyfiftyorsixtypeople,bothmenandwomen.Whenthe
bearisdeadtheyeathisflesh,keeptheliverasamedicine,andselltheskin,whichisblackand
commonlysixfeetlong,butthelongestmeasuretwelvefeet.Assoonasheisskinned,thepersonswho
nourishedthebeastbegintobewailhimafterwardstheymakelittlecakestoregalethosewhohelped
them.
TheAinoofSaghalienrearbearcubsandkillthemwithsimilarceremonies.Wearetoldthattheydonot
lookuponthebearasagodbutonlyasamessengerwhomtheydespatchwithvariouscommissionsto
thegodoftheforest.Theanimaliskeptforabouttwoyearsinacage,andthenkilledatafestival,which
alwaystakesplaceinwinterandatnight.Thedaybeforethesacrificeisdevotedtolamentation,old
womenrelievingeachotherinthedutyofweepingandgroaninginfrontofthebearscage.Thenabout
themiddleofthenightorveryearlyinthemorninganoratormakesalongspeechtothebeast,
remindinghimhowtheyhavetakencareofhim,andfedhimwell,andbathedhimintheriver,andmade
himwarmandcomfortable.Now,heproceeds,weareholdingagreatfestivalinyourhonour.Benot
afraid.Wewillnothurtyou.Wewillonlykillyouandsendyoutothegodoftheforestwholovesyou.
Weareabouttoofferyouagooddinner,thebestyouhaveevereatenamongus,andwewillallweepfor
youtogether.TheAinowhowillkillyouisthebestshotamongus.Thereheis,heweepsandasksyour

forgivenessyouwillfeelalmostnothing,itwillbedonesoquickly.Wecannotfeedyoualways,asyou
willunderstand.Wehavedoneenoughforyouitisnowyourturntosacrificeyourselfforus.Youwill
askGodtosendus,forthewinter,plentyofottersandsables,andforthesummer,sealsandfishin
abundance.Donotforgetourmessages,weloveyoumuch,andourchildrenwillneverforgetyou.
Whenthebearhaspartakenofhislastmealamidthegeneralemotionofthespectators,theoldwomen
weepingafreshandthemenutteringstifledcries,heisstrapped,notwithoutdifficultyanddanger,and
beingletoutofthecageisledonleashordragged,accordingtothestateofhistemper,thriceroundhis
cage,thenroundhismastershouse,andlastlyroundthehouseoftheorator.Thereuponheistieduptoa
tree,whichisdeckedwithsacredwhittledsticks(inao)oftheusualsortandtheoratoragainaddresses
himinalongharangue,whichsometimeslaststillthedayisbeginningtobreak.Remember,hecries,
remember!Iremindyouofyourwholelifeandoftheserviceswehaverenderedyou.Itisnowforyou
todoyourduty.DonotforgetwhatIhaveaskedofyou.Youwilltellthegodstogiveusriches,thatour
huntersmayreturnfromtheforestladenwithrarefursandanimalsgoodtoeatthatourfishersmayfind
troopsofsealsontheshoreandinthesea,andthattheirnetsmaycrackundertheweightofthefish.We
havenohopebutinyou.Theevilspiritslaughatus,andtoooftentheyareunfavourableandmalignant
tous,buttheywillbowbeforeyou.Wehavegivenyoufoodandjoyandhealthnowwekillyouin
orderthatyoumayinreturnsendrichestousandtoourchildren.Tothisdiscoursethebear,moreand
moresurlyandagitated,listenswithoutconvictionroundandroundthetreehepacesandhowls
lamentably,till,justasthefirstbeamsoftherisingsunlightupthescene,anarcherspeedsanarrowto
hisheart.Nosoonerhashedoneso,thanthemarksmanthrowsawayhisbowandflingshimselfonthe
ground,andtheoldmenandwomendothesame,weepingandsobbing.Thentheyofferthedeadbeasta
repastofriceandwildpotatoes,andhavingspokentohimintermsofpityandthankedhimforwhathe
hasdoneandsuffered,theycutoffhisheadandpawsandkeepthemassacredthings.Abanquetonthe
fleshandbloodofthebearfollows.Womenwereformerlyexcludedfromit,butnowtheysharewiththe
men.Thebloodisdrunkwarmbyallpresentthefleshisboiled,customforbidsittoberoasted.Andas
therelicsofthebearmaynotenterthehousebythedoor,andAinohousesinSaghalienhaveno
windows,amangetsupontheroofandletstheflesh,thehead,andtheskindownthroughthesmoke
hole.Riceandwildpotatoesarethenofferedtothehead,andapipe,tobacco,andmatchesare
consideratelyplacedbesideit.Customrequiresthattheguestsshouldeatupthewholeanimalbefore
theydeparttheuseofsaltandpepperatthemealisforbiddenandnomorselofthefleshmaybegiven
tothedogs.Whenthebanquetisover,theheadiscarriedawayintothedepthoftheforestanddeposited
onaheapofbearsskulls,thebleachedandmoulderingrelicsofsimilarfestivalsinthepast.
TheGilyaks,aTunguzianpeopleofEasternSiberia,holdabearfestivalofthesamesortonceayearin
January.Thebearistheobjectofthemostrefinedsolicitudeofanentirevillageandplaysthechiefpart
intheirreligiousceremonies.Anoldshebearisshotandhercubisreared,butnotsuckled,inthe
village.Whenthebearisbigenoughheistakenfromhiscageanddraggedthroughthevillage.Butfirst
theyleadhimtothebankoftheriver,forthisisbelievedtoensureabundanceoffishtoeachfamily.He
isthentakenintoeveryhouseinthevillage,wherefish,brandy,andsoforthareofferedtohim.Some
peopleprostratethemselvesbeforethebeast.Hisentranceintoahouseissupposedtobringablessing
andifhesnuffsatthefoodofferedtohim,thisalsoisablessing.Neverthelesstheyteaseandworry,poke
andtickletheanimalcontinually,sothatheissurlyandsnappish.Afterbeingthustakentoeveryhouse,
heistiedtoapegandshotdeadwitharrows.Hisheadisthencutoff,deckedwithshavings,andplaced
onthetablewherethefeastissetout.Heretheybegpardonofthebeastandworshiphim.Thenhisflesh
isroastedandeateninspecialvesselsofwoodfinelycarved.Theydonoteatthefleshrawnordrinkthe
blood,astheAinodo.Thebrainandentrailsareeatenlastandtheskull,stilldeckedwithshavings,is
placedonatreenearthehouse.Thenthepeoplesingandbothsexesdanceinranks,asbears.
OneofthesebearfestivalswaswitnessedbytheRussiantravellerL.vonSchrenckandhiscompanions
attheGilyakvillageofTebachinJanuary1856.Fromhisdetailedreportoftheceremonywemaygather
someparticularswhicharenotnoticedinthebrieferaccountswhichIhavejustsummarised.Thebear,he

tellsus,playsagreatpartinthelifeofallthepeoplesinhabitingtheregionoftheAmoorandSiberiaas
farasKamtchatka,butamongnoneofthemishisimportancegreaterthanamongtheGilyaks.The
immensesizewhichtheanimalattainsinthevalleyoftheAmoor,hisferocitywhettedbyhunger,and
thefrequencyofhisappearance,allcombinetomakehimthemostdreadedbeastofpreyinthecountry.
Nowonder,therefore,thatthefancyoftheGilyaksisbusiedwithhimandsurroundshim,bothinlife
andindeath,withasortofhaloofsuperstitiousfear.Thus,forexample,itisthoughtthatifaGilyakfalls
incombatwithabear,hissoultransmigratesintothebodyofthebeast.Neverthelesshisfleshhasan
irresistibleattractionfortheGilyakpalate,especiallywhentheanimalhasbeenkeptincaptivityfor
sometimeandfattenedonfish,whichgivestheflesh,intheopinionoftheGilyaks,apeculiarlydelicious
flavour.Butinordertoenjoythisdaintywithimpunitytheydeemitneedfultoperformalongseriesof
ceremonies,ofwhichtheintentionistodeludethelivingbearbyashowofrespect,andtoappeasethe
angerofthedeadanimalbythehomagepaidtohisdepartedspirit.Themarksofrespectbeginassoonas
thebeastiscaptured.Heisbroughthomeintriumphandkeptinacage,whereallthevillagerstakeitin
turnstofeedhim.Foralthoughhemayhavebeencapturedorpurchasedbyoneman,hebelongsina
mannertothewholevillage.Hisfleshwillfurnishacommonfeast,andhenceallmustcontributeto
supporthiminhislife.Thelengthoftimeheiskeptincaptivitydependsonhisage.Oldbearsarekept
onlyafewmonthscubsarekepttilltheyarefullgrown.Athicklayeroffatonthecaptivebeargives
thesignalforthefestival,whichisalwaysheldinwinter,generallyinDecemberbutsometimesin
JanuaryorFebruary.AtthefestivalwitnessedbytheRussiantravellers,whichlastedagoodmanydays,
threebearswerekilledandeaten.Morethanoncetheanimalswereledaboutinprocessionand
compelledtoentereveryhouseinthevillage,wheretheywerefedasamarkofhonour,andtoshowthat
theywerewelcomeguests.Butbeforethebeastssetoutonthisroundofvisits,theGilyaksplayedat
skippingropeinpresence,andperhaps,asL.vonSchrenckinclinedtobelieve,inhonouroftheanimals.
Thenightbeforetheywerekilled,thethreebearswereledbymoonlightalongwayontheiceofthe
frozenriver.Thatnightnooneinthevillagemightsleep.Nextday,aftertheanimalshadbeenagainled
downthesteepbanktotheriver,andconductedthriceroundtheholeintheicefromwhichthewomenof
thevillagedrewtheirwater,theyweretakentoanappointedplacenotfarfromthevillage,andshotto
deathwitharrows.Theplaceofsacrificeorexecutionwasmarkedasholybybeingsurroundedwith
whittledsticks,fromthetopsofwhichshavingshungincurls.SuchsticksarewiththeGilyaks,aswith
theAino,theregularsymbolsthataccompanyallreligiousceremonies.
Whenthehousehasbeenarrangedanddecoratedfortheirreception,theskinsofthebears,withtheir
headsattachedtothem,arebroughtintoit,not,however,bythedoor,butthroughawindow,andthen
hungonasortofscaffoldoppositethehearthonwhichthefleshistobecooked.Theboilingofthe
bearsfleshamongtheGilyaksisdoneonlybytheoldestmen,whosehighprivilegeitiswomenand
children,youngmenandboyshavenopartinit.Thetaskisperformedslowlyanddeliberately,witha
certainsolemnity.OntheoccasiondescribedbytheRussiantravellersthekettlewasfirstofall
surroundedwithathickwreathofshavings,andthenfilledwithsnow,fortheuseofwatertocookbears
fleshisforbidden.Meanwhilealargewoodentrough,richlyadornedwitharabesquesandcarvingsofall
sorts,washungimmediatelyunderthesnoutsofthebearsononesideofthetroughwascarvedinrelief
abear,ontheothersideatoad.Whenthecarcaseswerebeingcutup,eachlegwaslaidonthegroundin
frontofthebears,asiftoasktheirleave,beforebeingplacedinthekettleandtheboiledfleshwas
fishedoutofthekettlewithanironhook,andsetinthetroughbeforethebears,inorderthattheymight
bethefirsttotasteoftheirownflesh.Asfast,too,asthefatwascutinstripsitwashungupinfrontof
thebears,andafterwardslaidinasmallwoodentroughonthegroundbeforethem.Lastofalltheinner
organsofthebeastswerecutupandplacedinsmallvessels.Atthesametimethewomenmadebandages
outofparticolouredrags,andaftersunsetthesebandagesweretiedroundthebearssnoutsjustbelow
theeyesinordertodrythetearsthatflowedfromthem.
Assoonastheceremonyofwipingawaypoorbruinstearshadbeenperformed,theassembledGilyaks
settoworkinearnesttodevourhisflesh.Thebrothobtainedbyboilingthemeathadalreadybeen

partakenof.Thewoodenbowls,platters,andspoonsoutofwhichtheGilyakseatthebrothandfleshof
thebearsontheseoccasionsarealwaysmadespeciallyforthepurposeatthefestivalandonlythenthey
areelaboratelyornamentedwithcarvedfiguresofbearsandotherdevicesthatrefertotheanimalorthe
festival,andthepeoplehaveastrongsuperstitiousscrupleagainstpartingwiththem.Aftertheboneshad
beenpickedcleantheywereputbackinthekettleinwhichthefleshhadbeenboiled.Andwhenthe
festalmealwasover,anoldmantookhisstandatthedoorofthehousewithabranchoffirinhishand,
withwhich,asthepeoplepassedout,hegavealightblowtoeveryonewhohadeatenofthebearsflesh
orfat,perhapsasapunishmentfortheirtreatmentoftheworshipfulanimal.Intheafternoonthewomen
performedastrangedance.Onlyonewomandancedatatime,throwingtheupperpartofherbodyinto
theoddestpostures,whilesheheldinherhandsabranchoffirorakindofwoodencastanets.Theother
womenmeanwhileplayedanaccompanimentbydrummingonthebeamsofthehousewithclubs.Von
Schrenkbelievedthatafterthefleshofthebearhasbeeneatenthebonesandtheskullaresolemnly
carriedoutbytheoldestpeopletoaplaceintheforestnotfarfromthevillage.Thereallthebonesexcept
theskullareburied.Afterthatayoungtreeisfelledafewinchesabovetheground,itsstumpcleft,and
theskullwedgedintothecleft.Whenthegrassgrowsoverthespot,theskulldisappearsfromview,and
thatistheendofthebear.
AnotherdescriptionofthebearfestivalsoftheGilyakshasbeengivenusbyMr.LeoSternberg.Itagrees
substantiallywiththeforegoingaccounts,butafewparticularsinitmaybenoted.AccordingtoMr.
Sternberg,thefestivalisusuallyheldinhonourofadeceasedrelation:thenextofkineitherbuysor
catchesabearcubandnurturesitfortwoorthreeyearstillitisreadyforthesacrifice.Onlycertain
distinguishedguests(Narchen)areprivilegedtopartakeofthebearsflesh,butthehostandmembersof
hisclaneatabrothmadefromthefleshgreatquantitiesofthisbrotharepreparedandconsumedonthe
occasion.Theguestsofhonour(Narchen)mustbelongtotheclanintowhichthehostsdaughtersand
theotherwomenofhisclanaremarried:oneoftheseguests,usuallythehostssoninlaw,isentrusted
withthedutyofshootingthebeardeadwithanarrow.Theskin,head,andfleshoftheslainbearare
broughtintothehousenotthroughthedoorbutthroughthesmokeholeaquiverfullofarrowsislaid
undertheheadandbesideitaredepositedtobacco,sugar,andotherfood.Thesoulofthebearis
supposedtocarryoffthesoulsofthesethingswithitonthefarjourney.Aspecialvesselisusedfor
cookingthebearsflesh,andthefiremustbekindledbyasacredapparatusofflintandsteel,which
belongstotheclanandishandeddownfromgenerationtogeneration,butwhichisneverusedtolight
firesexceptonthesesolemnoccasions.Ofallthemanyviandscookedfortheconsumptionofthe
assembledpeopleaportionisplacedinaspecialvesselandsetbeforethebearshead:thisiscalled
feedingthehead.Afterthebearhasbeenkilled,dogsaresacrificedincouplesofmaleandfemale.
Beforebeingthrottled,theyarefedandinvitedtogototheirlordonthehighestmountain,tochange
theirskins,andtoreturnnextyearintheformofbears.Thesoulofthedeadbeardepartstothesame
lord,whoisalsolordoftheprimaevalforestitgoesawayladenwiththeofferingsthathavebeenmade
toit,andattendedbythesoulsofthedogsandalsobythesoulsofthesacredwhittledsticks,which
figureprominentlyatthefestival.
TheGoldi,neighboursoftheGilyaks,treatthebearinmuchthesameway.Theyhuntandkillitbut
sometimestheycapturealivebearandkeephiminacage,feedinghimwellandcallinghimtheirson
andbrother.Thenatagreatfestivalheistakenfromhiscage,paradedaboutwithmarkedconsideration,
andafterwardskilledandeaten.Theskull,jawbones,andearsarethensuspendedonatree,asan
antidoteagainstevilspiritsbutthefleshiseatenandmuchrelished,fortheybelievethatallwhopartake
ofitacquireazestforthechase,andbecomecourageous.
TheOrotchis,anotherTunguzianpeopleoftheregionoftheAmoor,holdbearfestivalsofthesame
generalcharacter.Anyonewhocatchesabearcubconsidersithisboundendutytorearitinacagefor
aboutthreeyears,inorderattheendofthattimetokillitpubliclyandeatthefleshwithhisfriends.The
feastsbeingpublic,thoughorganisedbyindividuals,thepeopletrytohaveoneineachOrotchivillage

everyyearinturn.Whenthebearistakenoutofhiscage,heisledaboutbymeansofropestoallthe
huts,accompaniedbypeoplearmedwithlances,bows,andarrows.Ateachhutthebearandbearleaders
aretreatedtosomethinggoodtoeatanddrink.Thisgoesonforseveraldaysuntilallthehuts,notonlyin
thatvillagebutalsointhenext,havebeenvisited.Thedaysaregivenuptosportandnoisyjollity.Then
thebearistiedtoatreeorwoodenpillarandshottodeathbythearrowsofthecrowd,afterwhichits
fleshisroastedandeaten.AmongtheOrotchisoftheTundjaRiverwomentakepartinthebearfeasts,
whileamongtheOrotchisoftheRiverVithewomenwillnoteventouchbearsflesh.
Inthetreatmentofthecaptivebearbythesetribestherearefeatureswhichcanhardlybedistinguished
fromworship.Such,forexample,aretheprayersofferedtoitbothaliveanddeadtheofferingsoffood,
includingportionsofitsownflesh,laidbeforetheanimalsskullandtheGilyakcustomofleadingthe
livingbeasttotheriverinordertoensureasupplyoffish,andofconductinghimfromhousetohousein
orderthateveryfamilymayreceivehisblessing,justasinEuropeaMaytreeorapersonal
representativeofthetreespiritusedtobetakenfromdoortodoorinspringforthesakeofdiffusing
amongallandsundrythefreshenergiesofrevivingnature.Again,thesolemnparticipationinhisflesh
andblood,andparticularlytheAinocustomofsharingthecontentsofthecupwhichhadbeen
consecratedbybeingsetbeforethedeadbeast,arestronglysuggestiveofasacrament,andthesuggestion
isconfirmedbytheGilyakpracticeofreservingspecialvesselstoholdthefleshandcookingitonafire
kindledbyasacredapparatuswhichisneveremployedexceptonthesereligiousoccasions.Indeedour
principalauthorityonAinoreligion,theRev.JohnBatchelor,franklydescribesasworshipthe
ceremoniousrespectwhichtheAinopaytothebear,andheaffirmsthattheanimalisundoubtedlyoneof
theirgods.CertainlytheAinoappeartoapplytheirnameforgod(kamui)freelytothebearbut,asMr.
Batchelorhimselfpointsout,thatwordisusedwithmanydifferentshadesofmeaningandisappliedtoa
greatvarietyofobjects,sothatfromitsapplicationtothebearwecannotsafelyarguethattheanimalis
actuallyregardedasadeity.IndeedweareexpresslytoldthattheAinoofSaghaliendonotconsiderthe
beartobeagodbutonlyamessengertothegods,andthemessagewithwhichtheychargetheanimalat
itsdeathbearsoutthestatement.ApparentlytheGilyaksalsolookonthebearinthelightofanenvoy
despatchedwithpresentstotheLordoftheMountain,onwhomthewelfareofthepeopledepends.At
thesametimetheytreattheanimalasabeingofahigherorderthanman,infactasaminordeity,whose
presenceinthevillage,solongasheiskeptandfed,diffusesblessings,especiallybykeepingatbaythe
swarmsofevilspiritswhoareconstantlylyinginwaitforpeople,stealingtheirgoodsanddestroying
theirbodiesbysicknessanddisease.Moreover,bypartakingoftheflesh,blood,orbrothofthebear,the
Gilyaks,theAino,andtheGoldiareallofopinionthattheyacquiresomeportionoftheanimalsmighty
powers,particularlyhiscourageandstrength.Nowonder,therefore,thattheyshouldtreatsogreata
benefactorwithmarksofthehighestrespectandaffection.
SomelightmaybethrownontheambiguousattitudeoftheAinotobearsbycomparingthesimilar
treatmentwhichtheyaccordtoothercreatures.Forexample,theyregardtheeagleowlasagooddeity
whobyhishootingwarnsmenofthreatenedevilanddefendsthemagainstithenceheisloved,trusted,
anddevoutlyworshippedasadivinemediatorbetweenmenandtheCreator.Thevariousnamesapplied
tohimaresignificantbothofhisdivinityandofhismediatorship.Wheneveranopportunityoffers,one
ofthesedivinebirdsiscapturedandkeptinacage,whereheisgreetedwiththeendearingtitlesof
BelovedgodandDearlittledivinity.Neverthelessthetimecomeswhenthedearlittledivinityis
throttledandsentawayinhiscapacityofmediatortotakeamessagetothesuperiorgodsortothe
Creatorhimself.Thefollowingistheformofprayeraddressedtotheeagleowlwhenitisabouttobe
sacrificed:Beloveddeity,wehavebroughtyouupbecausewelovedyou,andnowweareabouttosend
youtoyourfather.Weherewithofferyoufood,inao,wine,andcakestakethemtoyourparent,andhe
willbeverypleased.Whenyoucometohimsay,IhavelivedalongtimeamongtheAinu,wherean
AinufatherandanAinumotherrearedme.Inowcometothee.Ihavebroughtavarietyofgoodthings.I
sawwhilelivinginAinulandagreatdealofdistress.Iobservedthatsomeofthepeoplewerepossessed
bydemons,somewerewoundedbywildanimals,somewerehurtbylandslides,otherssuffered

shipwreck,andmanywereattackedbydisease.Thepeopleareingreatstraits.Myfather,hearme,and
hastentolookupontheAinuandhelpthem.Ifyoudothis,yourfatherwillhelpus.
Again,theAinokeepeaglesincages,worshipthemasdivinities,andaskthemtodefendthepeoplefrom
evil.Yettheyofferthebirdinsacrifice,andwhentheyareabouttodosotheypraytohim,saying:O
preciousdivinity,Othoudivinebird,praylistentomywords.Thoudostnotbelongtothisworld,forthy
homeiswiththeCreatorandhisgoldeneagles.Thisbeingso,Ipresenttheewiththeseinaoandcakes
andotherpreciousthings.Dothourideupontheinaoandascendtothyhomeinthegloriousheavens.
Whenthouarrivest,assemblethedeitiesofthyownkindtogetherandthankthemforusforhaving
governedtheworld.Dothoucomeagain,Ibeseechthee,andruleoverus.Omypreciousone,gothou
quietly.Oncemore,theAinoreverehawks,keepthemincages,andoffertheminsacrifice.Atthetime
ofkillingoneofthemthefollowingprayershouldbeaddressedtothebird:Odivinehawk,thouartan
experthunter,pleasecausethyclevernesstodescendonme.Ifahawkiswelltreatedincaptivityand
prayedtoafterthisfashionwhenheisabouttobekilled,hewillsurelysendhelptothehunter.
ThustheAinohopestoprofitinvariouswaysbyslaughteringthecreatures,which,nevertheless,he
treatsasdivine.Heexpectsthemtocarrymessagesforhimtotheirkindredortothegodsintheupper
worldhehopestopartakeoftheirvirtuesbyswallowingpartsoftheirbodiesorinotherwaysand
apparentlyhelooksforwardtotheirbodilyresurrectioninthisworld,whichwillenablehimagainto
catchandkillthem,andagaintoreapallthebenefitswhichhehasalreadyderivedfromtheirslaughter.
Forintheprayersaddressedtotheworshipfulbearandtheworshipfuleaglebeforetheyareknockedon
theheadthecreaturesareinvitedtocomeagain,whichseemsclearlytopointtoafaithintheirfuture
resurrection.Ifanydoubtcouldexistonthishead,itwouldbedispelledbytheevidenceofMr.
Batchelor,whotellsusthattheAinoarefirmlyconvincedthatthespiritsofbirdsandanimalskilledin
huntingorofferedinsacrificecomeandliveagainupontheearthclothedwithabodyandtheybelieve,
further,thattheyappearhereforthespecialbenefitofmen,particularlyAinuhunters.TheAino,Mr.
Batchelortellsus,confessedlyslaysandeatsthebeastthatanothermaycomeinitsplaceandbetreated
inlikemannerandatthetimeofsacrificingthecreaturesprayersaresaidtothemwhichforma
requestthattheywillcomeagainandfurnishviandsforanotherfeast,asifitwereanhonourtothemto
bethuskilledandeaten,andapleasureaswell.Indeedsuchisthepeoplesidea.Theselast
observations,asthecontextshows,referespeciallytothesacrificeofbears.
ThusamongthebenefitswhichtheAinoanticipatesfromtheslaughteroftheworshipfulanimalsnotthe
leastsubstantialisthatofgorginghimselfontheirfleshandblood,bothonthepresentandonmanya
similaroccasionhereafterandthatpleasingprospectagainisderivedfromhisfirmfaithinthespiritual
immortalityandbodilyresurrectionofthedeadanimals.Alikefaithissharedbymanysavagehuntersin
manypartsoftheworldandhasgivenrisetoavarietyofquaintcustoms,someofwhichwillbe
describedpresently.Meantimeitisnotunimportanttoobservethatthesolemnfestivalsatwhichthe
Aino,theGilyaks,andothertribesslaughterthetamecagedbearswithdemonstrationsofrespectand
sorrow,areprobablynothingbutanextensionorglorificationofsimilarriteswhichthehunterperforms
overanywildbearwhichhechancestokillintheforest.IndeedwithregardtotheGilyaksweare
expresslyinformedthatthisisthecase.IfwewouldunderstandthemeaningoftheGilyakritual,says
Mr.Sternberg,wemustaboveallrememberthatthebearfestivalsarenot,asisusuallybutfalsely
assumed,celebratedonlyatthekillingofahousebearbutareheldoneveryoccasionwhenaGilyak
succeedsinslaughteringabearinthechase.Itistruethatinsuchcasesthefestivalassumesless
imposingdimensions,butinitsessenceitremainsthesame.Whentheheadandskinofabearkilledin
theforestarebroughtintothevillage,theyareaccordedatriumphalreceptionwithmusicandsolemn
ceremonial.Theheadislaidonaconsecratedscaffold,fed,andtreatedwithofferings,justasatthe
killingofahousebearandtheguestsofhonour(Narchen)arealsoassembled.So,too,dogsare
sacrificed,andthebonesofthebeararepreservedinthesameplaceandwiththesamemarksofrespect
asthebonesofahousebear.Hencethegreatwinterfestivalisonlyanextensionoftheritewhichis

observedattheslaughterofeverybear.
Thustheapparentcontradictioninthepracticeofthesetribes,whovenerateandalmostdeifytheanimals
whichtheyhabituallyhunt,kill,andeat,isnotsoflagrantasatfirstsightitappearstous:thepeoplehave
reasons,andsomeverypracticalreasons,foractingastheydo.Forthesavageisbynomeanssoillogical
andunpracticalastosuperficialobserversheisapttoseemhehasthoughtdeeplyonthequestions
whichimmediatelyconcernhim,hereasonsaboutthem,andthoughhisconclusionsoftendivergevery
widelyfromours,weoughtnottodenyhimthecreditofpatientandprolongedmeditationonsome
fundamentalproblemsofhumanexistence.Inthepresentcase,ifhetreatsbearsingeneralascreatures
whollysubservienttohumanneedsandyetsinglesoutcertainindividualsofthespeciesforhomage
whichalmostamountstodeification,wemustnothastilysethimdownasirrationalandinconsistent,but
mustendeavourtoplaceourselvesathispointofview,toseethingsasheseesthem,andtodivest
ourselvesoftheprepossessionswhichtingesodeeplyourownviewsoftheworld.Ifwedoso,weshall
probablydiscoverthat,howeverabsurdhisconductmayappeartous,thesavageneverthelessgenerally
actsonatrainofreasoningwhichseemstohiminharmonywiththefactsofhislimitedexperience.This
Iproposetoillustrateinthefollowingchapter,whereIshallattempttoshowthatthesolemnceremonial
ofthebearfestivalamongtheAinosandothertribesofNortheasternAsiaisonlyaparticularlystriking
exampleoftherespectwhichontheprinciplesofhisrudephilosophythesavagehabituallypaystothe
animalswhichhekillsandeats.

LIII.ThePropitiationofWildAnimalsByHunters
THEEXPLANATIONoflifebythetheoryofanindwellingandpracticallyimmortalsoulisonewhich
thesavagedoesnotconfinetohumanbeingsbutextendstotheanimatecreationingeneral.Insodoing
heismoreliberalandperhapsmorelogicalthanthecivilisedman,whocommonlydeniestoanimalsthat
privilegeofimmortalitywhichheclaimsforhimself.Thesavageisnotsoproudhecommonlybelieves
thatanimalsareendowedwithfeelingsandintelligencelikethoseofmen,andthat,likemen,they
possesssoulswhichsurvivethedeathoftheirbodieseithertowanderaboutasdisembodiedspiritsorto
bebornagaininanimalform.
Thustothesavage,whoregardsalllivingcreaturesaspracticallyonafootingofequalitywithman,the
actofkillingandeatingananimalmustwearaverydifferentaspectfromthatwhichthesameact
presentstous,whoregardtheintelligenceofanimalsasfarinferiortoourownanddenythemthe
possessionofimmortalsouls.Henceontheprinciplesofhisrudephilosophytheprimitivehunterwho
slaysananimalbelieveshimselfexposedtothevengeanceeitherofitsdisembodiedspiritorofallthe
otheranimalsofthesamespecies,whomheconsidersasknittogether,likemen,bythetiesofkinand
theobligationsofthebloodfeud,andthereforeasboundtoresenttheinjurydonetooneoftheirnumber.
Accordinglythesavagemakesitaruletosparethelifeofthoseanimalswhichhehasnopressingmotive
forkilling,atleastsuchfierceanddangerousanimalsasarelikelytoexactabloodyvengeanceforthe
slaughterofoneoftheirkind.Crocodilesareanimalsofthissort.Theyareonlyfoundinhotcountries,
where,asarule,foodisabundantandprimitivemanhasthereforelittlereasontokillthemforthesakeof
theirtoughandunpalatableflesh.Henceitisacustomwithsomesavagestosparecrocodiles,orrather
onlytokilltheminobediencetothelawofbloodfeud,thatis,asaretaliationfortheslaughterofmenby
crocodiles.Forexample,theDyaksofBorneowillnotkillacrocodileunlessacrocodilehasfirstkilleda
man.Forwhy,saythey,shouldtheycommitanactofaggression,whenheandhiskindredcansoeasily
repaythem?Butshouldthealligatortakeahumanlife,revengebecomesasacreddutyoftheliving
relatives,whowilltrapthemaneaterinthespiritofanofficerofjusticepursuingacriminal.Others,
eventhen,hangback,reluctanttoembroilthemselvesinaquarrelwhichdoesnotconcernthem.The
maneatingalligatorissupposedtobepursuedbyarighteousNemesisandwheneveroneiscaughtthey
haveaprofoundconvictionthatitmustbetheguiltyone,orhisaccomplice.

LiketheDyaks,thenativesofMadagascarneverkillacrocodileexceptinretaliationforoneoftheir
friendswhohasbeendestroyedbyacrocodile.Theybelievethatthewantondestructionofoneofthese
reptileswillbefollowedbythelossofhumanlife,inaccordancewiththeprincipleoflextalionis.The
peoplewholivenearthelakeItasyinMadagascarmakeayearlyproclamationtothecrocodiles,
announcingthattheywillrevengethedeathofsomeoftheirfriendsbykillingasmanycrocodilesin
return,andwarningallwelldisposedcrocodilestokeepoutoftheway,astheyhavenoquarrelwith
them,butonlywiththeirevilmindedrelationswhohavetakenhumanlife.VarioustribesofMadagascar
believethemselvestobedescendedfromcrocodiles,andaccordinglytheyviewthescalyreptileas,toall
intentsandpurposes,amanandabrother.Ifoneoftheanimalsshouldsofarforgethimselfastodevour
oneofhishumankinsfolk,thechiefofthetribe,orinhisabsenceanoldmanfamiliarwiththetribal
customs,repairsattheheadofthepeopletotheedgeofthewater,andsummonsthefamilyoftheculprit
todeliverhimuptothearmofjustice.Ahookisthenbaitedandcastintotheriverorlake.Nextdaythe
guiltybrother,oroneofhisfamily,isdraggedashore,andafterhiscrimehasbeenclearlybroughthome
tohimbyastrictinterrogation,heissentencedtodeathandexecuted.Theclaimsofjusticebeingthus
satisfiedandthemajestyofthelawfullyvindicated,thedeceasedcrocodileislamentedandburiedlikea
kinsmanamoundisraisedoverhisrelicsandastonemarkstheplaceofhishead.
Again,thetigerisanotherofthosedangerousbeastswhomthesavagepreferstoleavealone,lestby
killingoneofthespeciesheshouldexcitethehostilityoftherest.Noconsiderationwillinducea
Sumatrantocatchorwoundatigerexceptinselfdefenceorimmediatelyafteratigerhasdestroyeda
friendorrelation.WhenaEuropeanhassettrapsfortigers,thepeopleoftheneighbourhoodhavebeen
knowntogobynighttotheplaceandexplaintotheanimalsthatthetrapsarenotsetbythemnorwith
theirconsent.TheinhabitantsofthehillsnearRajamahall,inBengal,areveryaversetokillingatiger,
unlessoneoftheirkinsfolkhasbeencarriedoffbyoneofthebeasts.Inthatcasetheygooutforthe
purposeofhuntingandslayingatigerandwhentheyhavesucceededtheylaytheirbowsandarrowson
thecarcaseandinvokeGod,declaringthattheyslewtheanimalinretaliationforthelossofakinsman.
Vengeancehavingbeenthustaken,theyswearnottoattackanothertigerexceptundersimilar
provocation.
TheIndiansofCarolinawouldnotmolestsnakeswhentheycameuponthem,butwouldpassbyonthe
othersideofthepath,believingthatiftheyweretokillaserpent,thereptileskindredwoulddestroy
someoftheirbrethren,friends,orrelationsinreturn.SotheSeminoleIndianssparedtherattlesnake,
becausetheyfearedthatthesoulofthedeadrattlesnakewouldinciteitskinsfolktotakevengeance.The
Cherokeeregardtherattlesnakeasthechiefofthesnaketribeandfearandrespecthimaccordingly.Few
Cherokeewillventuretokillarattlesnake,unlesstheycannothelpit,andeventhentheymustatonefor
thecrimebycravingpardonofthesnakesghosteitherintheirownpersonorthroughthemediationofa
priest,accordingtoasetformula.Iftheseprecautionsareneglected,thekinsfolkofthedeadsnakewill
sendoneoftheirnumberasanavengerofblood,whowilltrackdownthemurdererandstinghimto
death.NoordinaryCherokeedarestokillawolf,ifhecanpossiblyhelpitforhebelievesthatthe
kindredoftheslainbeastwouldsurelyavengeitsdeath,andthattheweaponwithwhichthedeedhad
beendonewouldbequiteuselessforthefuture,unlessitwerecleanedandexorcisedbyamedicineman.
However,certainpersonswhoknowtheproperritesofatonementforsuchacrimecankillwolveswith
impunity,andtheyaresometimeshiredtodosobypeoplewhohavesufferedfromtheraidsofthe
wolvesontheircattleorfishtraps.InJebelNuba,adistrictoftheEasternSudan,itisforbiddentotouch
thenestsorremovetheyoungofaspeciesofblackbirds,resemblingourblackbirds,becausethepeople
believethattheparentbirdswouldavengethewrongbycausingastormywindtoblow,whichwould
destroytheharvest.
Butthesavageclearlycannotaffordtospareallanimals.Hemusteithereatsomeofthemorstarve,and
whenthequestionthuscomestobewhetherheortheanimalmustperish,heisforcedtoovercomehis
superstitiousscruplesandtakethelifeofthebeast.Atthesametimehedoesallhecantoappeasehis

victimsandtheirkinsfolk.Evenintheactofkillingthemhetestifieshisrespectforthem,endeavoursto
excuseorevenconcealhisshareinprocuringtheirdeath,andpromisesthattheirremainswillbe
honourablytreated.Bythusrobbingdeathofitsterrors,hehopestoreconcilehisvictimstotheirfateand
toinducetheirfellowstocomeandbekilledalso.Forexample,itwasaprinciplewiththeKamtchatkans
nevertokillalandorseaanimalwithoutfirstmakingexcusestoitandbeggingthattheanimalwould
nottakeitill.Alsotheyoffereditcedarnutsandsoforth,tomakeitthinkthatitwasnotavictimbuta
guestatafeast.Theybelievedthatthishinderedotheranimalsofthesamespeciesfromgrowingshy.For
instance,aftertheyhadkilledabearandfeastedonitsflesh,thehostwouldbringthebearsheadbefore
thecompany,wrapitingrass,andpresentitwithavarietyoftrifles.Thenhewouldlaytheblameofthe
bearsdeathontheRussians,andbidthebeastwreakhiswrathuponthem.Alsohewouldaskthebearto
informtheotherbearshowwellhehadbeentreated,thattheytoomightcomewithoutfear.Seals,sea
lions,andotheranimalsweretreatedbytheKamtchatkanswiththesameceremoniousrespect.
Moreover,theyusedtoinsertsprigsofaplantresemblingbearswortinthemouthsoftheanimalsthey
killedafterwhichtheywouldexhortthegrinningskullstohavenofearbuttogoandtellittotheir
fellows,thattheyalsomightcomeandbecaughtandsopartakeofthissplendidhospitality.Whenthe
Ostiakshavehuntedandkilledabear,theycutoffitsheadandhangitonatree.Thentheygatherround
inacircleandpayitdivinehonours.Nexttheyruntowardsthecarcaseutteringlamentationsandsaying,
Whokilledyou?ItwastheRussians.Whocutoffyourhead?ItwasaRussianaxe.Whoskinnedyou?
ItwasaknifemadebyaRussian.Theyexplain,too,thatthefeatherswhichspedthearrowonitsflight
camefromthewingofastrangebird,andthattheydidnothingbutletthearrowgo.Theydoallthis
becausetheybelievethatthewanderingghostoftheslainbearwouldattackthemonthefirst
opportunity,iftheydidnotthusappeaseit.Ortheystufftheskinoftheslainbearwithhayandafter
celebratingtheirvictorywithsongsofmockeryandinsult,afterspittingonandkickingit,theysetitup
onitshindlegs,andthen,foraconsiderabletime,theybestowonitallthevenerationduetoaguardian
god.WhenapartyofKoryakhavekilledabearorawolf,theyskinthebeastanddressoneof
themselvesintheskin.Thentheydanceroundtheskincladman,sayingthatitwasnottheywhokilled
theanimal,butsomeoneelse,generallyaRussian.Whentheykillafoxtheyskinit,wrapthebodyin
grass,andbidhimgotellhiscompanionshowhospitablyhehasbeenreceived,andhowhehasreceived
anewcloakinsteadofhisoldone.AfulleraccountoftheKoryakceremoniesisgivenbyamorerecent
writer.Hetellsusthatwhenadeadbearisbroughttothehouse,thewomencomeouttomeetit,dancing
withfirebrands.Thebearskinistakenoffalongwiththeheadandoneofthewomenputsontheskin,
dancesinit,andentreatsthebearnottobeangry,buttobekindtothepeople.Atthesametimethey
offermeatonawoodenplattertothedeadbeast,saying,Eat,friend.Afterwardsaceremonyis
performedforthepurposeofsendingthedeadbear,orratherhisspirit,awaybacktohishome.Heis
providedwithprovisionsforthejourneyintheshapeofpuddingsorreindeerfleshpackedinagrassbag.
Hisskinisstuffedwithgrassandcarriedroundthehouse,afterwhichheissupposedtodeparttowards
therisingsun.Theintentionoftheceremoniesistoprotectthepeoplefromthewrathoftheslainbear
andhiskinsfolk,andsotoensuresuccessinfuturebearhunts.TheFinnsusedtotrytopersuadeaslain
bearthathehadnotbeenkilledbythem,buthadfallenfromatree,ormethisdeathinsomeotherway
moreover,theyheldafuneralfestivalinhishonour,atthecloseofwhichbardsexpatiatedonthehomage
thathadbeenpaidtohim,urginghimtoreporttotheotherbearsthehighconsiderationwithwhichhe
hadbeentreated,inorderthattheyalso,followinghisexample,mightcomeandbeslain.Whenthe
Lappshadsucceededinkillingabearwithimpunity,theythankedhimfornothurtingthemandfornot
breakingtheclubsandspearswhichhadgivenhimhisdeathwoundsandtheyprayedthathewouldnot
visithisdeathuponthembysendingstormsorinanyotherway.Hisfleshthenfurnishedafeast.
Thereverenceofhuntersforthebearwhomtheyregularlykillandeatmaythusbetracedallalongthe
northernregionoftheOldWorldfromBeringsStraitstoLappland.Itreappearsinsimilarformsin
NorthAmerica.WiththeAmericanIndiansabearhuntwasanimportanteventforwhichtheyprepared
bylongfastsandpurgations.Beforesettingouttheyofferedexpiatorysacrificestothesoulsofbears
slaininprevioushunts,andbesoughtthemtobefavourabletothehunters.Whenabearwaskilledthe

hunterlithispipe,andputtingthemouthofitbetweenthebearslips,blewintothebowl,fillingthe
beastsmouthwithsmoke.Thenhebeggedthebearnottobeangryathavingbeenkilled,andnotto
thwarthimafterwardsinthechase.Thecarcasewasroastedwholeandeatennotamorseloftheflesh
mightbeleftover.Thehead,paintedredandblue,washungonapostandaddressedbyorators,who
heapedpraiseonthedeadbeast.WhenmenoftheBearclanintheOttawatribekilledabear,theymade
himafeastofhisownflesh,andaddressedhimthus:Cherishusnogrudgebecausewehavekilledyou.
Youhavesenseyouseethatourchildrenarehungry.Theyloveyouandwishtotakeyouintotheir
bodies.Isitnotglorioustobeeatenbythechildrenofachief?AmongsttheNootkaIndiansofBritish
Columbia,whenabearhadbeenkilled,itwasbroughtinandseatedbeforetheheadchiefinanupright
posture,withachiefsbonnet,wroughtinfigures,onitshead,anditsfurpowderedoverwithwhite
down.Atrayofprovisionswasthensetbeforeit,anditwasinvitedbywordsandgesturestoeat.After
thattheanimalwasskinned,boiled,andeaten.
Alikerespectistestifiedforotherdangerouscreaturesbythehunterswhoregularlytrapandkillthem.
WhenCaffrehuntersareintheactofshoweringspearsonanelephant,theycallout,Dontkillus,great
captaindontstrikeortreaduponus,mightychief.Whenheisdeadtheymaketheirexcusestohim,
pretendingthathisdeathwasapureaccident.Asamarkofrespecttheyburyhistrunkwithmuchsolemn
ceremonyfortheysaythattheelephantisagreatlordhistrunkishishand.BeforetheAmaxosa
Caffresattackanelephanttheyshouttotheanimalandbeghimtopardonthemfortheslaughtertheyare
abouttoperpetrate,professinggreatsubmissiontohispersonandexplainingclearlytheneedtheyhave
ofhistuskstoenablethemtoprocurebeadsandsupplytheirwants.Whentheyhavekilledhimtheybury
intheground,alongwiththeendofhistrunk,afewofthearticlestheyhaveobtainedfortheivory,thus
hopingtoavertsomemishapthatwouldotherwisebefallthem.AmongstsometribesofEasternAfrica,
whenalioniskilled,thecarcaseisbroughtbeforetheking,whodoeshomagetoitbyprostratinghimself
onthegroundandrubbinghisfaceonthemuzzleofthebeast.InsomepartsofWesternAfricaifanegro
killsaleopardheisboundfastandbroughtbeforethechiefsforhavingkilledoneoftheirpeers.The
mandefendshimselfonthepleathattheleopardischiefoftheforestandthereforeastranger.Heisthen
setatlibertyandrewarded.Butthedeadleopard,adornedwithachiefsbonnet,issetupinthevillage,
wherenightlydancesareheldinitshonour.TheBagandagreatlyfeartheghostsofbuffaloeswhichthey
havekilled,andtheyalwaysappeasethesedangerousspirits.Onnoaccountwilltheybringtheheadofa
slainbuffalointoavillageorintoagardenofplantains:theyalwayseatthefleshoftheheadintheopen
country.Afterwardstheyplacetheskullinasmallhutbuiltforthepurpose,wheretheypouroutbeeras
anofferingandpraytotheghosttostaywhereheisandnottoharmthem.
Anotherformidablebeastwhoselifethesavagehuntertakeswithjoy,yetwithfearandtrembling,isthe
whale.AftertheslaughterofawhalethemaritimeKoryakofNortheasternSiberiaholdacommunal
festival,theessentialpartofwhichisbasedontheconceptionthatthewhalekilledhascomeonavisit
tothevillagethatitisstayingforsometime,duringwhichitistreatedwithgreatrespectthatitthen
returnstotheseatorepeatitsvisitthefollowingyearthatitwillinduceitsrelativestocomealong,
tellingthemofthehospitablereceptionthathasbeenaccordedtoit.AccordingtotheKoryakideas,the
whales,likeallotheranimals,constituteonetribe,orratherfamily,ofrelatedindividuals,wholivein
villagesliketheKoryak.Theyavengethemurderofoneoftheirnumber,andaregratefulforkindnesses
thattheymayhavereceived.WhentheinhabitantsoftheIsleofSt.Mary,tothenorthofMadagascar,
goawhaling,theysingleouttheyoungwhalesforattackandhumblybegthemotherspardon,stating
thenecessitythatdrivesthemtokillherprogeny,andrequestingthatshewillbepleasedtogobelow
whilethedeedisdoing,thathermaternalfeelingsmaynotbeoutragedbywitnessingwhatmustcause
hersomuchuneasiness.AnAjumbahunterhavingkilledafemalehippopotamusonLakeAzyingoin
WestAfrica,theanimalwasdecapitatedanditsquartersandbowelsremoved.Thenthehunter,naked,
steppedintothehollowoftheribs,andkneelingdowninthebloodypoolwashedhiswholebodywith
thebloodandexcretionsoftheanimal,whileheprayedtothesoulofthehippopotamusnottobearhima
grudgeforhavingkilledherandsoblightedherhopesoffuturematernityandhefurtherentreatedthe

ghostnottostirupotherhippopotamusestoavengeherdeathbybuttingatandcapsizinghiscanoe.
Theounce,aleopardlikecreature,isdreadedforitsdepredationsbytheIndiansofBrazil.Whenthey
havecaughtoneoftheseanimalsinasnare,theykillitandcarrythebodyhometothevillage.Therethe
womendeckthecarcasewithfeathersofmanycolours,putbraceletsonitslegs,andweepoverit,
saying,Ipraytheenottotakevengeanceonourlittleonesforhavingbeencaughtandkilledthrough
thineownignorance.Foritwasnotwewhodeceivedthee,itwasthyself.Ourhusbandsonlysetthetrap
tocatchanimalsthataregoodtoeattheyneverthoughttotaketheeinit.Therefore,letnotthysoul
counselthyfellowstoavengethydeathonourlittleones!WhenaBlackfootIndianhascaughteaglesin
atrapandkilledthem,hetakesthemhometoaspeciallodge,calledtheeagleslodge,whichhasbeen
preparedfortheirreceptionoutsideofthecamp.Herehesetsthebirdsinarowontheground,and
proppinguptheirheadsonastick,putsapieceofdriedmeatineachoftheirmouthsinorderthatthe
spiritsofthedeadeaglesmaygoandtelltheothereagleshowwelltheyarebeingtreatedbytheIndians.
SowhenIndianhuntersoftheOrinocoregionhavekilledananimal,theyopenitsmouthandpourintoit
afewdropsoftheliquortheygenerallycarrywiththem,inorderthatthesoulofthedeadbeastmay
informitsfellowsofthewelcomeithasmetwith,andthattheytoo,cheeredbytheprospectofthesame
kindreception,maycomewithalacritytobekilled.WhenaTetonIndianisonajourney,andhemeetsa
greyspideroraspiderwithyellowlegs,hekillsit,becausesomeevilwouldbefallhimifhedidnot.But
heisverycarefulnottoletthespiderknowthathekillsit,forifthespiderknew,hissoulwouldgoand
telltheotherspiders,andoneofthemwouldbesuretoavengethedeathofhisrelation.Soincrushing
theinsect,theIndiansays,OGrandfatherSpider,theThunderbeingskillyou.Andthespideris
crushedatonceandbelieveswhatistoldhim.Hissoulprobablyrunsandtellstheotherspidersthatthe
Thunderbeingshavekilledhimbutnoharmcomesofthat.Forwhatcangreyoryellowleggedspiders
dototheThunderbeings?
Butitisnotmerelydangerouscreatureswithwhomthesavagedesirestokeepongoodterms.Itistrue
thattherespectwhichhepaystowildbeastsisinsomemeasureproportionedtotheirstrengthand
ferocity.ThusthesavageStiensofCambodia,believingthatallanimalshavesoulswhichroamabout
aftertheirdeath,begananimalspardonwhentheykillit,lestitssoulshouldcomeandtormentthem.
Alsotheyofferitsacrifices,butthesesacrificesareproportionedtothesizeandstrengthoftheanimal.
Theceremonieswhichtheyobserveatthedeathofanelephantareconductedwithmuchpompandlast
sevendays.SimilardistinctionsaredrawnbyNorthAmericanIndians.Thebear,thebuffalo,andthe
beaveraremanidos[divinities]whichfurnishfood.Thebearisformidable,andgoodtoeat.Theyrender
ceremoniestohim,begginghimtoallowhimselftobeeaten,althoughtheyknowhehasnofancyforit.
Wekillyou,butyouarenotannihilated.Hisheadandpawsareobjectsofhomage.Otheranimalsare
treatedsimilarlyfromsimilarreasons.Manyoftheanimalmanidos,notbeingdangerous,areoften
treatedwithcontempttheterrapin,theweasel,polecat,etc.Thedistinctionisinstructive.Animals
whicharefeared,oraregoodtoeat,orboth,aretreatedwithceremoniousrespectthosewhichare
neitherformidablenorgoodtoeataredespised.Wehavehadexamplesofreverencepaidtoanimals
whicharebothfearedandeaten.Itremainstoprovethatsimilarrespectisshowntoanimalswhich,
withoutbeingfeared,areeithereatenorvaluedfortheirskins.
WhenSiberiansablehuntershavecaughtasable,nooneisallowedtoseeit,andtheythinkthatifgood
orevilbespokenofthecapturedsablenomoresableswillbecaught.Ahunterhasbeenknownto
expresshisbeliefthatthesablescouldhearwhatwassaidofthemasfaroffasMoscow.Hesaidthatthe
chiefreasonwhythesablehuntwasnowsounproductivewasthatsomelivesableshadbeensentto
Moscow.Theretheyhadbeenviewedwithastonishmentasstrangeanimals,andthesablescannotabide
that.Another,thoughminor,causeofthediminishedtakeofsableswas,healleged,thattheworldisnow
muchworsethanitusedtobe,sothatnowadaysahunterwillsometimeshidethesablewhichhehasgot
insteadofputtingitintothecommonstock.Thisalso,saidhe,thesablescannotabide.Alaskanhunters
preservethebonesofsablesandbeaversoutofreachofthedogsforayearandthenburythemcarefully,

lestthespiritswholookafterthebeaversandsablesshouldconsiderthattheyareregardedwith
contempt,andhencenomoreshouldbekilledortrapped.TheCanadianIndianswereequallyparticular
nottolettheirdogsgnawthebones,oratleastcertainofthebones,ofbeavers.Theytookthegreatest
painstocollectandpreservethesebones,and,whenthebeaverhadbeencaughtinanet,theythrewthem
intotheriver.ToaJesuitwhoarguedthatthebeaverscouldnotpossiblyknowwhatbecameoftheir
bones,theIndiansreplied,Youknownothingaboutcatchingbeaversandyetyouwillbepratingabout
it.Beforethebeaverisstonedead,hissoultakesaturninthehutofthemanwhoiskillinghimand
makesacarefulnoteofwhatisdonewithhisbones.Ifthebonesaregiventothedogs,theotherbeavers
wouldgetwordofitandwouldnotletthemselvesbecaught.Whereas,iftheirbonesarethrownintothe
fireorariver,theyarequitesatisfiedanditisparticularlygratifyingtothenetwhichcaughtthem.
BeforehuntingthebeavertheyofferedasolemnprayertotheGreatBeaver,andpresentedhimwith
tobaccoandwhenthechasewasover,anoratorpronouncedafuneralorationoverthedeadbeavers.He
praisedtheirspiritandwisdom.Youwillhearnomore,saidhe,thevoiceofthechieftainswho
commandedyouandwhomyouchosefromamongallthewarriorbeaverstogiveyoulaws.Your
language,whichthemedicinemenunderstandperfectly,willbeheardnomoreatthebottomofthelake.
Youwillfightnomorebattleswiththeotters,yourcruelfoes.No,beavers!Butyourskinsshallserveto
buyarmswewillcarryyoursmokedhamstoourchildrenwewillkeepthedogsfromeatingyour
bones,whicharesohard.
Theelan,deer,andelkweretreatedbytheAmericanIndianswiththesamepunctiliousrespect,andfor
thesamereason.Theirbonesmightnotbegiventothedogsnorthrownintothefire,normighttheirfat
bedroppeduponthefire,becausethesoulsofthedeadanimalswerebelievedtoseewhatwasdoneto
theirbodiesandtotellittotheotherbeasts,livinganddead.Hence,iftheirbodieswereillused,the
animalsofthatspecieswouldnotallowthemselvestobetaken,neitherinthisworldnorintheworldto
come.AmongtheChiquitesofParaguayasickmanwouldbeaskedbythemedicinemanwhetherhe
hadnotthrownawaysomeofthefleshofthedeerorturtle,andifheansweredyes,themedicineman
wouldsay,Thatiswhatiskillingyou.Thesoulofthedeerorturtlehasenteredintoyourbodyto
avengethewrongyoudidit.TheCanadianIndianswouldnoteattheembryosoftheelk,unlessatthe
closeofthehuntingseasonotherwisethemotherelkswouldbeshyandrefusetobecaught.
IntheTimorlautislandsoftheIndianArchipelagotheskullsofalltheturtleswhichafishermanhas
caughtarehungupunderhishouse.Beforehegoesouttocatchanother,headdresseshimselftotheskull
ofthelastturtlethathekilled,andhavinginsertedbetelbetweenitsjaws,hepraysthespiritofthedead
animaltoenticeitskinsfolkintheseatocomeandbecaught.InthePosodistrictofCentralCelebes
hunterskeepthejawbonesofdeerandwildpigswhichtheyhavekilledandhangthemupintheirhouses
nearthefire.Thentheysaytothejawbones,Yecryafteryourcomrades,thatyourgrandfathers,or
nephews,orchildrenmaynotgoaway.Theirnotionisthatthesoulsofthedeaddeerandpigstarrynear
theirjawbonesandattractthesoulsoflivingdeerandpigs,whicharethusdrawnintothetoilsofthe
hunter.Thusthewilysavageemploysdeadanimalsasdecoystolurelivinganimalstotheirdoom.
TheLenguaIndiansoftheGranChacolovetohunttheostrich,butwhentheyhavekilledoneofthese
birdsandarebringinghomethecarcasetothevillage,theytakestepstooutwittheresentfulghostof
theirvictim.Theythinkthatwhenthefirstnaturalshockofdeathispassed,theghostoftheostrichpulls
himselftogetherandmakesafterhisbody.Actingonthissagecalculation,theIndianspluckfeathers
fromthebreastofthebirdandstrewthematintervalsalongthetrack.Ateverybunchoffeathersthe
ghoststopstoconsider,Isthisthewholeofmybodyoronlyapartofit?Thedoubtgiveshimpause,
andwhenatlasthehasmadeuphismindfullyatallthebunches,andhasfurtherwastedvaluabletime
bythezigzagcoursewhichheinvariablypursuesingoingfromonetoanother,thehuntersaresafeat
home,andthebilkedghostmaystalkinvainroundaboutthevillage,whichheistootimidtoenter.
TheEsquimauxaboutBeringStraitbelievethatthesoulsofdeadseabeasts,suchasseals,walrus,and

whales,remainattachedtotheirbladders,andthatbyreturningthebladderstotheseatheycancausethe
soulstobereincarnatedinfreshbodiesandsomultiplythegamewhichthehunterspursueandkill.
Actingonthisbeliefeveryhuntercarefullyremovesandpreservesthebladdersofalltheseabeaststhat
hekillsandatasolemnfestivalheldonceayearinwinterthesebladders,containingthesoulsofallthe
seabeaststhathavebeenkilledthroughouttheyear,arehonouredwithdancesandofferingsoffoodin
thepublicassemblyroom,afterwhichtheyaretakenoutontheiceandthrustthroughholesintothe
waterforthesimpleEsquimauximaginethatthesoulsoftheanimals,inhighgoodhumouratthekind
treatmenttheyhaveexperienced,willthereafterbebornagainasseals,walrus,andwhales,andinthat
formwillflockwillinglytobeagainspeared,harpooned,orotherwisedonetodeathbythehunters.
Forlikereasons,atribewhichdependsforitssubsistence,chieflyorinpart,uponfishingiscarefulto
treatthefishwitheverymarkofhonourandrespect.TheIndiansofPeruadoredthefishthatthey
caughtingreatestabundancefortheysaidthatthefirstfishthatwasmadeintheworldabove(forso
theynamedHeaven)gavebirthtoallotherfishofthatspecies,andtookcaretosendthemplentyofits
childrentosustaintheirtribe.Forthisreasontheyworshippedsardinesinoneregion,wheretheykilled
moreofthemthanofanyotherfishinothers,theskateinothers,thedogfishinothers,thegoldenfish
foritsbeautyinothers,thecrawfishinothers,forwantoflargergods,thecrabs,wheretheyhadno
otherfish,orwheretheyknewnothowtocatchandkillthem.Inshort,theyhadwhateverfishwasmost
serviceabletothemastheirgods.TheKwakiutlIndiansofBritishColumbiathinkthatwhenasalmonis
killeditssoulreturnstothesalmoncountry.Hencetheytakecaretothrowthebonesandoffalintothe
sea,inorderthatthesoulmayreanimatethemattheresurrectionofthesalmon.Whereasiftheyburned
thebonesthesoulwouldbelost,andsoitwouldbequiteimpossibleforthatsalmontorisefromthe
dead.InlikemannertheOttawaIndiansofCanada,believingthatthesoulsofdeadfishpassedintoother
bodiesoffish,neverburnedfishbones,forfearofdispleasingthesoulsofthefish,whowouldcomeno
moretothenets.TheHuronsalsorefrainedfromthrowingfishbonesintothefire,lestthesoulsofthe
fishshouldgoandwarntheotherfishnottoletthemselvesbecaught,sincetheHuronswouldburntheir
bones.Moreover,theyhadmenwhopreachedtothefishandpersuadedthemtocomeandbecaught.A
goodpreacherwasmuchsoughtafter,fortheythoughtthattheexhortationsofaclevermanhadagreat
effectindrawingthefishtothenets.IntheHuronfishingvillagewheretheFrenchmissionarySagard
stayed,thepreachertothefishpridedhimselfverymuchonhiseloquence,whichwasofafloridorder.
Everyeveningaftersupper,havingseenthatallthepeoplewereintheirplacesandthatastrictsilence
wasobserved,hepreachedtothefish.HistextwasthattheHuronsdidnotburnfishbones.Then
enlargingonthisthemewithextraordinaryunction,heexhortedandconjuredandinvitedandimplored
thefishtocomeandbecaughtandtobeofgoodcourageandtofearnothing,foritwasalltoservetheir
friendswhohonouredthemanddidnotburntheirbones.ThenativesoftheDukeofYorkIsland
annuallydecorateacanoewithflowersandferns,ladeit,oraresupposedtoladeit,withshellmoney,
andsetitadrifttocompensatethefishfortheirfellowswhohavebeencaughtandeaten.Itisespecially
necessarytotreatthefirstfishcaughtwithconsiderationinordertoconciliatetherestofthefish,whose
conductmaybesupposedtobeinfluencedbythereceptiongiventothoseoftheirkindwhichwerethe
firsttobetaken.AccordinglytheMaorisalwaysputbackintotheseathefirstfishcaught,withaprayer
thatitmaytemptotherfishtocomeandbecaught.
Stillmorestringentaretheprecautionstakenwhenthefisharethefirstoftheseason.Onsalmonrivers,
whenthefishbegintorunupthestreaminspring,theyarereceivedwithmuchdeferencebytribeswho,
liketheIndiansofthePacificCoastofNorthAmerica,subsistlargelyuponafishdiet.InBritish
ColumbiatheIndiansusedtogoouttomeetthefirstfishastheycameuptheriver:Theypaidcourtto
them,andwouldaddressthemthus:Youfish,youfishyouareallchiefs,youareyouareallchiefs.
AmongsttheTlingitofAlaskathefirsthalibutoftheseasoniscarefullyhandledandaddressedasa
chief,andafestivalisgiveninhishonour,afterwhichthefishinggoeson.Inspring,whenthewinds
blowsoftfromthesouthandthesalmonbegintorunuptheKlamathriver,theKaroksofCalifornia
danceforsalmon,toensureagoodcatch.OneoftheIndians,calledtheKareyaorGodman,retiresto

themountainsandfastsfortendays.Onhisreturnthepeopleflee,whilehegoestotheriver,takesthe
firstsalmonofthecatch,eatssomeofit,andwiththerestkindlesthesacredfireinthesweatinghouse.
NoIndianmaytakeasalmonbeforethisdanceisheld,norfortendaysafterit,evenifhisfamilyare
starving.TheKaroksalsobelievethatafishermanwilltakenosalmonifthepolesofwhichhis
spearingboothismadeweregatheredontheriverside,wherethesalmonmighthaveseenthem.The
polesmustbebroughtfromthetopofthehighestmountain.Thefishermanwillalsolabourinvainifhe
usesthesamepolesasecondyearinboothsorweirs,becausetheoldsalmonwillhavetoldtheyoung
onesaboutthem.ThereisafavouritefishoftheAinowhichappearsintheirriversaboutMayandJune.
Theyprepareforthefishingbyobservingrulesofceremonialpurity,andwhentheyhavegoneoutto
fish,thewomenathomemustkeepstrictsilenceorthefishwouldhearthemanddisappear.Whenthe
firstfishiscaughtheisbroughthomeandpassedthroughasmallopeningattheendofthehut,butnot
throughthedoorforifhewerepassedthroughthedoor,theotherfishwouldcertainlyseehimand
disappear.Thismaypartlyexplainthecustomobservedbyothersavagesofbringinggameincertain
casesintotheirhuts,notbythedoor,butbythewindow,thesmokehole,orbyaspecialopeningatthe
backofthehut.
Withsomesavagesaspecialreasonforrespectingthebonesofgame,andgenerallyoftheanimalswhich
theyeat,isabeliefthat,ifthebonesarepreserved,theywillincourseoftimebereclothedwithflesh,
andthustheanimalwillcometolifeagain.Itis,therefore,clearlyfortheinterestofthehuntertoleave
thebonesintactsincetodestroythemwouldbetodiminishthefuturesupplyofgame.Manyofthe
MinnetareeIndiansbelievethatthebonesofthosebisonswhichtheyhaveslainanddivestedofflesh
riseagainclothedwithrenewedflesh,andquickenedwithlife,andbecomefat,andfitforslaughterthe
succeedingJune.HenceonthewesternprairiesofAmerica,theskullsofbuffaloesmaybeseen
arrangedincirclesandsymmetricalpiles,awaitingtheresurrection.Afterfeastingonadog,theDacotas
carefullycollectthebones,scrape,wash,andburythem,partly,asitissaid,totestifytothedog
species,thatinfeastingupononeoftheirnumbernodisrespectwasmeanttothespeciesitself,andpartly
alsofromabeliefthatthebonesoftheanimalwillriseandreproduceanother.Insacrificingananimal
theLappsregularlyputasidethebones,eyes,ears,heart,lungs,sexualparts(iftheanimalwasamale),
andamorseloffleshfromeachlimb.Then,aftereatingtheremainderoftheflesh,theylaidthebones
andtherestinanatomicalorderinacoffinandburiedthemwiththeusualrites,believingthatthegodto
whomtheanimalwassacrificedwouldreclothetheboneswithfleshandrestoretheanimaltolifein
JabmeAimo,thesubterraneanworldofthedead.Sometimes,asafterfeastingonabear,theyseemto
havecontentedthemselveswiththusburyingthebones.ThustheLappsexpectedtheresurrectionofthe
slainanimaltotakeplaceinanotherworld,resemblinginthisrespecttheKamtchatkans,whobelieved
thateverycreature,downtothesmallestfly,wouldrisefromthedeadandliveunderground.Onthe
otherhand,theNorthAmericanIndianslookedfortheresurrectionoftheanimalsinthepresentworld.
Thehabit,observedespeciallybyMongolianpeoples,ofstuffingtheskinofasacrificedanimal,or
stretchingitonaframework,pointsrathertoabeliefinaresurrectionofthelattersort.Theobjection
commonlyentertainedbyprimitivepeoplestobreakthebonesoftheanimalswhichtheyhaveeatenor
sacrificedmaybebasedeitheronabeliefintheresurrectionoftheanimals,oronafearofintimidating
othercreaturesofthesamespeciesandoffendingtheghostsoftheslainanimals.ThereluctanceofNorth
AmericanIndiansandEsquimauxtoletdogsgnawthebonesofanimalsisperhapsonlyaprecautionto
preventthebonesfrombeingbroken.
Butafteralltheresurrectionofdeadgamemayhaveitsinconveniences,andaccordinglysomehunters
takestepstopreventitbyhamstringingtheanimalsoastopreventitoritsghostfromgettingupand
runningaway.ThisisthemotiveallegedforthepracticebyKouihuntersinLaostheythinkthatthe
spellswhichtheyutterinthechasemaylosetheirmagicalvirtue,andthattheslaughteredanimalmay
consequentlycometolifeagainandescape.Topreventthatcatastrophetheythereforehamstringthe
beastassoonastheyhavebutcheredit.WhenanEsquimauofAlaskahaskilledafox,hecarefullycuts
thetendonsofalltheanimalslegsinordertopreventtheghostfromreanimatingthebodyandwalking

about.Buthamstringingthecarcaseisnottheonlymeasurewhichtheprudentsavageadoptsforthesake
ofdisablingtheghostofhisvictim.Inolddays,whentheAinowentouthuntingandkilledafoxfirst,
theytookcaretotieitsmouthuptightlyinordertopreventtheghostoftheanimalfromsallyingforth
andwarningitsfellowsagainsttheapproachofthehunter.TheGilyaksoftheAmoorRiverputoutthe
eyesofthesealstheyhavekilled,lesttheghostsoftheslainanimalsshouldknowtheirslayersand
avengetheirdeathbyspoilingthesealhunt.
Besidestheanimalswhichprimitivemandreadsfortheirstrengthandferocity,andthosewhichhe
reveresonaccountofthebenefitswhichheexpectsfromthem,thereisanotherclassofcreatureswhich
hesometimesdeemsitnecessarytoconciliatebyworshipandsacrifice.Thesearetheverminthatinfest
hiscropsandhiscattle.Toridhimselfofthesedeadlyfoesthefarmerhasrecoursetomanysuperstitious
devices,ofwhich,thoughsomearemeanttodestroyorintimidatethevermin,othersaimatpropitiating
themandpersuadingthembyfairmeanstosparethefruitsoftheearthandtheherds.ThusEsthonian
peasants,intheislandofOesel,standingreataweoftheweevil,aninsectwhichisexceedingly
destructivetothegrain.Theygiveitafinename,andifachildisabouttokillaweeviltheysay,Dont
doitthemorewehurthim,themorehehurtsus.Iftheyfindaweeviltheyburyitintheearthinstead
ofkillingit.Someevenputtheweevilunderastoneinthefieldandoffercorntoit.Theythinkthatthus
itisappeasedanddoeslessharm.AmongsttheSaxonsofTransylvania,inordertokeepsparrowsfrom
thecorn,thesowerbeginsbythrowingthefirsthandfulofseedbackwardsoverhishead,saying,Thatis
foryou,sparrows.Toguardthecornagainsttheattacksofleaffliesheshutshiseyesandscattersthree
handfulsofoatsindifferentdirections.Havingmadethisofferingtotheleafflieshefeelssurethatthey
willsparethecorn.ATransylvanianwayofsecuringthecropsagainstallbirds,beasts,andinsects,is
this:afterhehasfinishedsowing,thesowergoesoncemorefromendtoendofthefieldimitatingthe
gestureofsowing,butwithanemptyhand.Ashedoessohesays,IsowthisfortheanimalsIsowitfor
everythingthatfliesandcreeps,thatwalksandstands,thatsingsandsprings,inthenameofGodthe
Father,etc.ThefollowingisaGermanwayoffreeingagardenfromcaterpillars.Aftersunsetorat
midnightthemistressofthehouse,oranotherfemalememberofthefamily,walksallroundthegarden
draggingabroomafterher.Shemaynotlookbehindher,andmustkeepmurmuring,Goodevening,
MotherCaterpillar,youshallcomewithyourhusbandtochurch.Thegardengateisleftopentillthe
followingmorning.
Sometimesindealingwithverminthefarmeraimsathittingahappymeanbetweenexcessiverigouron
theonehandandweakindulgenceontheotherkindbutfirm,hetempersseveritywithmercy.An
ancientGreektreatiseonfarmingadvisesthehusbandmanwhowouldridhislandsofmicetoactthus:
Takeasheetofpaperandwriteonitasfollows:Iadjureyou,yemiceherepresent,thatyeneither
injuremenorsufferanothermousetodoso.Igiveyouyonderfield(hereyouspecifythefield)butif
everIcatchyouhereagain,bytheMotheroftheGodsIwillrendyouinsevenpieces.Writethis,and
stickthepaperonanunhewnstoneinthefieldbeforesunrise,takingcaretokeepthewrittensideup.In
theArdennestheysaythattogetridofratsyoushouldrepeatthefollowingwords:Eratverbum,apud
Deumvestrum.Maleratsandfemalerats,Iconjureyou,bythegreatGod,togooutofmyhouse,outof
allmyhabitations,andtobetakeyourselvestosuchandsuchaplace,theretoendyourdays.Decretis,
reversisetdesembarassisvirgopotens,clemens,justitiae.Thenwritethesamewordsonpiecesof
paper,foldthemup,andplaceoneofthemunderthedoorbywhichtheratsaretogoforth,andtheother
ontheroadwhichtheyaretotake.Thisexorcismshouldbeperformedatsunrise.Someyearsagoan
Americanfarmerwasreportedtohavewrittenacivillettertotherats,tellingthemthathiscropswere
short,thathecouldnotaffordtokeepthemthroughthewinter,thathehadbeenverykindtothem,and
thatfortheirowngoodhethoughttheyhadbetterleavehimandgotosomeofhisneighbourswhohad
moregrain.Thisdocumenthepinnedtoapostinhisbarnfortheratstoread.
Sometimesthedesiredobjectissupposedtobeattainedbytreatingwithhighdistinctiononeortwo
chosenindividualsoftheobnoxiousspecies,whiletherestarepursuedwithrelentlessrigour.IntheEast

IndianislandofBali,themicewhichravagethericefieldsarecaughtingreatnumbers,andburnedin
thesamewaythatcorpsesareburned.Buttwoofthecapturedmiceareallowedtolive,andreceivea
littlepacketofwhitelinen.Thenthepeoplebowdownbeforethem,asbeforegods,andletthemgo.
WhenthefarmsoftheSeaDyaksorIbansofSarawakaremuchpesteredbybirdsandinsects,theycatch
aspecimenofeachkindofvermin(onesparrow,onegrasshopper,andsoon),puttheminatinyboatof
barkwellstockedwithprovisions,andthenallowthelittlevesselwithitsobnoxiouspassengerstofloat
downtheriver.Ifthatdoesnotdrivethepestsaway,theDyaksresorttowhattheydeemamoreeffectual
modeofaccomplishingthesamepurpose.Theymakeaclaycrocodileaslargeaslifeandsetitupinthe
fields,wheretheyofferitfood,ricespirit,andcloth,andsacrificeafowlandapigbeforeit.Mollifiedby
theseattentions,theferociousanimalverysoongobblesupallthecreaturesthatdevourthecrops.In
Albania,ifthefieldsorvineyardsareravagedbylocustsorbeetles,someofthewomenwillassemble
withdishevelledhair,catchafewoftheinsects,andmarchwiththeminafuneralprocessiontoaspring
orstream,inwhichtheydrownthecreatures.Thenoneofthewomensings,Olocustsandbeetleswho
haveleftusbereaved,andthedirgeistakenupandrepeatedbyallthewomeninchorus.Thusby
celebratingtheobsequiesofafewlocustsandbeetles,theyhopetobringaboutthedeathofthemall.
WhencaterpillarsinvadedavineyardorfieldinSyria,thevirginsweregathered,andoneofthe
caterpillarswastakenandagirlmadeitsmother.Thentheybewailedandburiedit.Thereafterthey
conductedthemothertotheplacewherethecaterpillarswere,consolingher,inorderthatallthe
caterpillarsmightleavethegarden.

LIV.TypesofAnimalSacrament
1.TheEgyptianandtheAinoTypesofSacrament
WEarenowperhapsinapositiontounderstandtheambiguousbehaviouroftheAinoandGilyaks
towardsthebear.Ithasbeenshownthatthesharplineofdemarcationwhichwedrawbetweenmankind
andtheloweranimalsdoesnotexistforthesavage.Tohimmanyoftheotheranimalsappearashis
equalsorevenhissuperiors,notmerelyinbruteforcebutinintelligenceandifchoiceornecessityleads
himtotaketheirlives,hefeelsbound,outofregardtohisownsafety,todoitinawaywhichwillbeas
inoffensiveaspossiblenotmerelytothelivinganimal,buttoitsdepartedspiritandtoalltheother
animalsofthesamespecies,whichwouldresentanaffrontputupononeoftheirkindmuchasatribeof
savageswouldrevengeaninjuryorinsultofferedtoatribesman.Wehaveseenthatamongthemany
devicesbywhichthesavageseekstoatoneforthewrongdonebyhimtohisanimalvictimsoneisto
showmarkeddeferencetoafewchosenindividualsofthespecies,forsuchbehaviourisapparently
regardedasentitlinghimtoexterminatewithimpunityalltherestofthespeciesuponwhichhecanlay
hands.Thisprincipleperhapsexplainstheattitude,atfirstsightpuzzlingandcontradictory,oftheAino
towardsthebear.Thefleshandskinofthebearregularlyaffordthemfoodandclothingbutsincethe
bearisanintelligentandpowerfulanimal,itisnecessarytooffersomesatisfactionoratonementtothe
bearspeciesforthelosswhichitsustainsinthedeathofsomanyofitsmembers.Thissatisfactionor
atonementismadebyrearingyoungbears,treatingthem,solongastheylive,withrespect,andkilling
themwithextraordinarymarksofsorrowanddevotion.Sotheotherbearsareappeased,anddonot
resenttheslaughteroftheirkindbyattackingtheslayersordesertingthecountry,whichwoulddeprive
theAinoofoneoftheirmeansofsubsistence.
Thustheprimitiveworshipofanimalsconformstotwotypes,whichareinsomerespectstheconverseof
eachother.Ontheonehand,animalsareworshipped,andarethereforeneitherkillednoreaten.Onthe
otherhand,animalsareworshippedbecausetheyarehabituallykilledandeaten.Inbothtypesofworship
theanimalisreveredonaccountofsomebenefit,positiveornegative,whichthesavagehopestoreceive
fromit.Intheformerworshipthebenefitcomeseitherinthepositiveshapeofprotection,advice,and
helpwhichtheanimalaffordstheman,orinthenegativeshapeofabstinencefrominjurieswhichitisin

thepoweroftheanimaltoinflict.Inthelatterworshipthebenefittakesthematerialformoftheanimals
fleshandskin.Thetwotypesofworshipareinsomemeasureantithetical:intheone,theanimalisnot
eatenbecauseitisreveredintheother,itisreveredbecauseitiseaten.Butbothmaybepractisedbythe
samepeople,asweseeinthecaseoftheNorthAmericanIndians,who,whiletheyapparentlyrevereand
sparetheirtotemanimals,alsoreveretheanimalsandfishuponwhichtheysubsist.Theaboriginesof
Australiahavetotemisminthemostprimitiveformknowntousbutthereisnoclearevidencethatthey
attempt,liketheNorthAmericanIndians,toconciliatetheanimalswhichtheykillandeat.Themeans
whichtheAustraliansadopttosecureaplentifulsupplyofgameappeartobeprimarilybased,noton
conciliation,butonsympatheticmagic,aprincipletowhichtheNorthAmericanIndiansalsoresortfor
thesamepurpose.Hence,astheAustraliansundoubtedlyrepresentaruderandearlierstageofhuman
progressthantheAmericanIndians,itwouldseemthatbeforehuntersthinkofworshippingthegameas
ameansofensuringanabundantsupplyofit,theyseektoattainthesameendbysympatheticmagic.
This,again,wouldshowwhatthereisgoodreasonforbelievingthatsympatheticmagicisoneofthe
earliestmeansbywhichmanendeavourstoadapttheagenciesofnaturetohisneeds.
Correspondingtothetwodistincttypesofanimalworship,therearetwodistincttypesofthecustomof
killingtheanimalgod.Ontheonehand,whenthereveredanimalishabituallyspared,itisnevertheless
killedandsometimeseatenonrareandsolemnoccasions.Examplesofthiscustomhavebeenalready
givenandanexplanationofthemoffered.Ontheotherhand,whenthereveredanimalishabitually
killed,theslaughterofanyoneofthespeciesinvolvesthekillingofthegod,andisatonedforonthespot
byapologiesandsacrifices,especiallywhentheanimalisapowerfulanddangerousoneand,inaddition
tothisordinaryandeverydayatonement,thereisaspecialannualatonement,atwhichaselectindividual
ofthespeciesisslainwithextraordinarymarksofrespectanddevotion.Clearlythetwotypesof
sacramentalkillingtheEgyptianandtheAinotypes,aswemaycallthemfordistinctionareliableto
beconfoundedbyanobserverand,beforewecansaytowhichtypeanyparticularexamplebelongs,itis
necessarytoascertainwhethertheanimalsacramentallyslainbelongstoaspecieswhichishabitually
spared,ortoonewhichishabituallykilledbythetribe.Intheformercasetheexamplebelongstothe
Egyptiantypeofsacrament,inthelattertotheAinotype.
Thepracticeofpastoraltribesappearstofurnishexamplesofbothtypesofsacrament.Pastoraltribes,
saysAdolfBastian,beingsometimesobligedtoselltheirherdstostrangerswhomayhandlethebones
disrespectfully,seektoavertthedangerwhichsuchasacrilegewouldentailbyconsecratingoneofthe
herdasanobjectofworship,eatingitsacramentallyinthefamilycirclewithcloseddoors,and
afterwardstreatingtheboneswithalltheceremoniousrespectwhich,strictlyspeaking,shouldbe
accordedtoeveryheadofcattle,butwhich,beingpunctuallypaidtotherepresentativeanimal,isdeemed
tobepaidtoall.Suchfamilymealsarefoundamongvariouspeoples,especiallythoseoftheCaucasus.
WhenamongsttheAbchasestheshepherdsinspringeattheircommonmealwiththeirloinsgirtandtheir
stavesintheirhands,thismaybelookeduponbothasasacramentandasanoathofmutualhelpand
support.Forthestrongestofalloathsisthatwhichisaccompaniedwiththeeatingofasacredsubstance,
sincetheperjuredpersoncannotpossiblyescapetheavenginggodwhomhehastakenintohisbodyand
assimilated.ThiskindofsacramentisoftheAinoorexpiatorytype,sinceitismeanttoatonetothe
speciesforthepossibleillusageofindividuals.Anexpiation,similarinprinciplebutdifferentindetails,
isofferedbytheKalmuckstothesheep,whosefleshisoneoftheirstaplefoods.RichKalmucksarein
thehabitofconsecratingawhiteramunderthetitleoftheramofheavenortheramofthespirit.The
animalisnevershornandneversoldbutwhenitgrowsoldanditsownerwishestoconsecrateanew
one,theoldrammustbekilledandeatenatafeasttowhichtheneighboursareinvited.Onaluckyday,
generallyinautumnwhenthesheeparefat,asorcererkillstheoldram,aftersprinklingitwithmilk.Its
fleshiseatentheskeleton,withaportionofthefat,isburnedonaturfaltarandtheskin,withthehead
andfeet,ishungup.
AnexampleofasacramentoftheEgyptiantypeisfurnishedbytheTodas,apastoralpeopleofSouthern

India,whosubsistlargelyuponthemilkoftheirbuffaloes.Amongstthemthebuffaloistoacertain
degreeheldsacredandistreatedwithgreatkindness,evenwithadegreeofadoration,bythepeople.
Theynevereatthefleshofthecowbuffalo,andasaruleabstainfromthefleshofthemale.Buttothe
latterrulethereisasingleexception.Onceayearalltheadultmalesofthevillagejoinintheceremony
ofkillingandeatingaveryyoungmalecalfseeminglyunderamonthold.Theytaketheanimalinto
thedarkrecessesofthevillagewood,whereitiskilledwithaclubmadefromthesacredtreeofthe
Todas(theMillingtonia).Asacredfirehavingbeenmadebytherubbingofsticks,thefleshofthecalfis
roastedontheembersofcertaintrees,andiseatenbythemenalone,womenbeingexcludedfromthe
assembly.ThisistheonlyoccasiononwhichtheTodaseatbuffaloflesh.TheMadiorMorutribeof
CentralAfrica,whosechiefwealthistheircattle,thoughtheyalsopractiseagriculture,appeartokilla
lambsacramentallyoncertainsolemnoccasions.ThecustomisthusdescribedbyDr.Felkin:A
remarkablecustomisobservedatstatedtimesonceayear,Iamledtobelieve.Ihavenotbeenableto
ascertainwhatexactmeaningisattachedtoit.Itappears,however,torelievethepeoplesminds,for
beforehandtheyevincemuchsadness,andseemveryjoyfulwhentheceremonyisdulyaccomplished.
Thefollowingiswhattakesplace:Alargeconcourseofpeopleofallagesassemble,andsitdownround
acircleofstones,whichiserectedbythesideofaroad(reallyanarrowpath).Averychoicelambis
thenfetchedbyaboy,wholeadsitfourtimesroundtheassembledpeople.Asitpassestheypluckoff
littlebitsofitsfleeceandplacethemintheirhair,orontosomeotherpartoftheirbody.Thelambis
thenleduptothestones,andtherekilledbyamanbelongingtoakindofpriestlyorder,whotakessome
ofthebloodandsprinklesitfourtimesoverthepeople.Hethenappliesitindividually.Onthechildren
hemakesasmallringofbloodoverthelowerendofthebreastbone,onwomenandgirlshemakesa
markabovethebreasts,andthemenhetouchesoneachshoulder.Hethenproceedstoexplainthe
ceremony,andtoexhortthepeopletoshowkindness.Whenthisdiscourse,whichisattimesofgreat
length,isover,thepeoplerise,eachplacesaleafonorbythecircleofstones,andthentheydepartwith
signsofgreatjoy.Thelambsskullishungonatreenearthestones,anditsfleshiseatenbythepoor.
Thisceremonyisobservedonasmallscaleatothertimes.Ifafamilyisinanygreattrouble,through
illnessorbereavement,theirfriendsandneighbourscometogetherandalambiskilledthisisthoughtto
avertfurtherevil.Thesamecustomprevailsatthegraveofdepartedfriends,andalsoonjoyful
occasions,suchasthereturnofasonhomeafteraveryprolongedabsence.Thesorrowthusmanifested
bythepeopleattheannualslaughterofthelambseemstoshowthatthelambslainisasacredordivine
animal,whosedeathismournedbyhisworshippers,justasthedeathofthesacredbuzzardwasmourned
bytheCaliforniansandthedeathoftheThebanrambytheEgyptians.Thesmearingeachofthe
worshipperswiththebloodofthelambisaformofcommunionwiththedivinitythevehicleofthe
divinelifeisappliedexternallyinsteadofbeingtakeninternally,aswhenthebloodisdrunkortheflesh
eaten.
2.ProcessionswithSacredAnimals
THEFORMofcommunioninwhichthesacredanimalistakenfromhousetohouse,thatallmayenjoya
shareofitsdivineinfluence,hasbeenexemplifiedbytheGilyakcustomofpromenadingthebear
throughthevillagebeforeitisslain.Asimilarformofcommunionwiththesacredsnakeisobservedby
aSnaketribeinthePunjaub.OnceayearinthemonthofSeptemberthesnakeisworshippedbyall
castesandreligionsforninedaysonly.AttheendofAugusttheMirasans,especiallythoseoftheSnake
tribe,makeasnakeofdoughwhichtheypaintblackandred,andplaceonawinnowingbasket.This
baskettheycarryroundthevillage,andonenteringanyhousetheysay:Godbewithyouall!Mayevery
illbefar!Mayourpatrons(Guggas)wordthrive!Thentheypresentthebasketwiththesnake,saying:
Asmallcakeofflour:alittlebitofbutter:ifyouobeythesnake,youandyoursshallthrive!Strictly
speaking,acakeandbuttershouldbegiven,butitisseldomdone.Everyone,however,givessomething,
generallyahandfulofdoughorsomecorn.Inhouseswherethereisanewbrideorwhenceabridehas
gone,orwhereasonhasbeenborn,itisusualtogivearupeeandaquarter,orsomecloth.Sometimes

thebearersofthesnakealsosing:
Givethesnakeapieceofcloth,andhewillsendalivelybride!
Wheneveryhousehasbeenthusvisited,thedoughsnakeisburiedandasmallgraveiserectedoverit.
ThitherduringtheninedaysofSeptemberthewomencometoworship.Theybringabasinofcurds,a
smallportionofwhichtheyofferatthesnakesgrave,kneelingonthegroundandtouchingtheearth
withtheirforeheads.Thentheygohomeanddividetherestofthecurdsamongthechildren.Herethe
doughsnakeisclearlyasubstituteforarealsnake.Indeed,indistrictswheresnakesaboundtheworship
isoffered,notatthegraveofthedoughsnake,butinthejungleswheresnakesareknowntobe.Besides
thisyearlyworship,performedbyallthepeople,themembersoftheSnaketribeworshipinthesame
wayeverymorningafteranewmoon.TheSnaketribeisnotuncommoninthePunjaub.Membersofit
willnotkillasnake,andtheysaythatitsbitedoesnothurtthem.Iftheyfindadeadsnake,theyput
clothesonitandgiveitaregularfuneral.
CeremoniescloselyanalogoustothisIndianworshipofthesnakehavesurvivedinEuropeintorecent
times,anddoubtlessdatefromaveryprimitivepaganism.Thebestknownexampleisthehuntingofthe
wren.BymanyEuropeanpeoplestheancientGreeksandRomans,themodernItalians,Spaniards,
French,Germans,Dutch,Danes,Swedes,English,andWelshthewrenhasbeendesignatedtheking,
thelittleking,thekingofbirds,thehedgeking,andsoforth,andhasbeenreckonedamongstthosebirds
whichitisextremelyunluckytokill.InEnglanditissupposedthatifanyonekillsawrenorharriesits
nest,hewillinfalliblybreakaboneormeetwithsomedreadfulmisfortunewithintheyearsometimesit
isthoughtthatthecowswillgivebloodymilk.InScotlandthewreniscalledtheLadyofHeavens
hen,andboyssay:
Malisons,malisons,mairthanten,
ThatharrytheLadyeofHeavenshen!
AtSaintDonan,inBrittany,peoplebelievethatifchildrentouchtheyoungwrensinthenest,theywill
sufferfromthefireofSt.Lawrence,thatis,frompimplesontheface,legs,andsoon.Inotherpartsof
Franceitisthoughtthatifapersonkillsawrenorharriesitsnest,hishousewillbestruckbylightning,
orthatthefingerswithwhichhedidthedeedwillshrivelupanddropoff,oratleastbemaimed,orthat
hiscattlewillsufferintheirfeet.
Notwithstandingsuchbeliefs,thecustomofannuallykillingthewrenhasprevailedwidelybothinthis
countryandinFrance.IntheIsleofMandowntotheeighteenthcenturythecustomwasobservedon
ChristmasEve,orratherChristmasmorning.OnthetwentyfourthofDecember,towardsevening,allthe
servantsgotaholidaytheydidnotgotobedallnight,butrambledabouttillthebellsranginallthe
churchesatmidnight.Whenprayerswereover,theywenttohuntthewren,andhavingfoundoneof
thesebirdstheykilleditandfastenedittothetopofalongpolewithitswingsextended.Thusthey
carrieditinprocessiontoeveryhousechantingthefollowingrhyme:
WehuntedthewrenforRobintheBobbin,
WehuntedthewrenforJackoftheCan,
WehuntedthewrenforRobintheBobbin,
Wehuntedthewrenforeveryone.
Whentheyhadgonefromhousetohouseandcollectedallthemoneytheycould,theylaidthewrenona
bierandcarrieditinprocessiontotheparishchurchyard,wheretheymadeagraveandburieditwith
theutmostsolemnity,singingdirgesoverherintheMankslanguage,whichtheycallherknellafter
whichChristmasbegins.Theburialover,thecompanyoutsidethechurchyardformedacircleand

dancedtomusic.
AwriteroftheeighteenthcenturysaysthatinIrelandthewrenisstillhuntedandkilledbythepeasants
onChristmasDay,andonthefollowing(St.StephensDay)heiscarriedabout,hungbytheleg,inthe
centreoftwohoops,crossingeachotheratrightangles,andaprocessionmadeineveryvillage,ofmen,
women,andchildren,singinganIrishcatch,importinghimtobethekingofallbirds.Downtothe
presenttimethehuntingofthewrenstilltakesplaceinpartsofLeinsterandConnaught.OnChristmas
DayorSt.StephensDaytheboyshuntandkillthewren,fastenitinthemiddleofamassofhollyand
ivyonthetopofabroomstick,andonSt.StephensDaygoaboutwithitfromhousetohouse,singing:
Thewren,thewren,thekingofallbirds,
St.StephensDaywascaughtinthefurze
Althoughheislittle,hisfamilysgreat,
Iprayyou,goodlandlady,giveusatreat.
Moneyorfood(bread,butter,eggs,etc.)weregiventhem,uponwhichtheyfeastedintheevening.
Inthefirsthalfofthenineteenthcenturysimilarcustomswerestillobservedinvariouspartsofthesouth
ofFrance.ThusatCarcassone,everyyearonthefirstSundayofDecembertheyoungpeopleofthestreet
SaintJeanusedtogooutofthetownarmedwithsticks,withwhichtheybeatthebushes,lookingfor
wrens.ThefirsttostrikedownoneofthesebirdswasproclaimedKing.Thentheyreturnedtothetownin
procession,headedbytheKing,whocarriedthewrenonapole.Ontheeveningofthelastdayofthe
yeartheKingandallwhohadhuntedthewrenmarchedthroughthestreetsofthetowntothelightof
torches,withdrumsbeatingandfifesplayinginfrontofthem.Atthedoorofeveryhousetheystopped,
andoneofthemwrotewithchalkonthedoorviveleroi!withthenumberoftheyearwhichwasaboutto
begin.OnthemorningofTwelfthDaytheKingagainmarchedinprocessionwithgreatpomp,wearinga
crownandabluemantleandcarryingasceptre.Infrontofhimwasbornethewrenfastenedtothetopof
apole,whichwasadornedwithaverdantwreathofolive,ofoak,andsometimesofmistletoegrownon
anoak.AfterhearinghighmassintheparishchurchofSt.Vincent,surroundedbyhisofficersand
guards,theKingvisitedthebishop,themayor,themagistrates,andthechiefinhabitants,collecting
moneytodefraytheexpensesoftheroyalbanquetwhichtookplaceintheeveningandwoundupwitha
dance.
Theparallelismbetweenthiscustomofhuntingthewrenandsomeofthosewhichwehaveconsidered,
especiallytheGilyakprocessionwiththebear,andtheIndianonewiththesnake,seemstoocloseto
allowustodoubtthattheyallbelongtothesamecircleofideas.Theworshipfulanimaliskilledwith
specialsolemnityonceayearandbeforeorimmediatelyafterdeathheispromenadedfromdoorto
door,thateachofhisworshippersmayreceiveaportionofthedivinevirtuesthataresupposedto
emanatefromthedeadordyinggod.Religiousprocessionsofthissortmusthavehadagreatplaceinthe
ritualofEuropeanpeoplesinprehistorictimes,ifwemayjudgefromthenumeroustracesofthemwhich
havesurvivedinfolkcustom.Forexample,onthelastdayoftheyear,orHogmanayasitwascalled,it
usedtobecustomaryintheHighlandsofScotlandforamantodresshimselfupinacowshideandthus
attiredtogofromhousetohouse,attendedbyyoungfellows,eachofthemarmedwithastaff,towhicha
bitofrawhidewastied.Roundeveryhousethehidecladmanusedtorunthricedeiseal,thatis,
accordingtothecourseofthesun,soastokeepthehouseonhisrighthandwhiletheotherspursued
him,beatingthehidewiththeirstavesandtherebymakingaloudnoiselikethebeatingofadrum.Inthis
disorderlyprocessiontheyalsostruckthewallsofthehouse.Onbeingadmitted,oneoftheparty,
standingwithinthethreshold,pronouncedablessingonthefamilyinthesewords:MayGodblessthe
houseandallthatbelongstoit,cattle,stones,andtimber!Inplentyofmeat,ofbedandbodyclothes,and
healthofmenmayiteverabound!Theneachofthepartysingedinthefirealittlebitofthehidewhich
wastiedtohisstaffandhavingdonesoheappliedthesingedhidetothenoseofeverypersonandof

everydomesticanimalbelongingtothehouse.Thiswasimaginedtosecurethemfromdiseasesandother
misfortunes,particularlyfromwitchcraft,throughouttheensuingyear.Thewholeceremonywascalled
calluinnbecauseofthegreatnoisemadeinbeatingthehide.ItwasobservedintheHebrides,including
St.Kilda,downtothesecondhalfoftheeighteenthcenturyatleast,anditseemstohavesurvivedwell
intothenineteenthcentury.

LV.TheTransferenceofEvil
1.TheTransferencetoInanimateObjects
WEhavenowtracedthepracticeofkillingagodamongpeoplesinthehunting,pastoral,andagricultural
stagesofsocietyandIhaveattemptedtoexplainthemotiveswhichledmentoadoptsocuriousa
custom.Oneaspectofthecustomstillremainstobenoticed.Theaccumulatedmisfortunesandsinsof
thewholepeoplearesometimeslaiduponthedyinggod,whoissupposedtobearthemawayforever,
leavingthepeopleinnocentandhappy.Thenotionthatwecantransferourguiltandsufferingstosome
otherbeingwhowillbearthemforusisfamiliartothesavagemind.Itarisesfromaveryobvious
confusionbetweenthephysicalandthemental,betweenthematerialandtheimmaterial.Becauseitis
possibletoshiftaloadofwood,stones,orwhatnot,fromourownbacktothebackofanother,the
savagefanciesthatitisequallypossibletoshifttheburdenofhispainsandsorrowstoanother,whowill
suffertheminhisstead.Uponthisideaheacts,andtheresultisanendlessnumberofveryunamiable
devicesforpalmingoffuponsomeoneelsethetroublewhichamanshrinksfrombearinghimself.In
short,theprincipleofvicarioussufferingiscommonlyunderstoodandpractisedbyraceswhostandona
lowlevelofsocialandintellectualculture.InthefollowingpagesIshallillustratethetheoryandthe
practiceastheyarefoundamongsavagesinalltheirnakedsimplicity,undisguisedbytherefinementsof
metaphysicsandthesubtletiesoftheology.
Thedevicestowhichthecunningandselfishsavageresortsforthesakeofeasinghimselfattheexpense
ofhisneighbouraremanifoldonlyafewtypicalexamplesoutofamultitudecanbecited.Attheoutset
itistobeobservedthattheevilofwhichamanseekstoridhimselfneednotbetransferredtoapersonit
mayequallywellbetransferredtoananimalorathing,thoughinthelastcasethethingisoftenonlya
vehicletoconveythetroubletothefirstpersonwhotouchesit.InsomeoftheEastIndianislandsthey
thinkthatepilepsycanbecuredbystrikingthepatientonthefacewiththeleavesofcertaintreesand
thenthrowingthemaway.Thediseaseisbelievedtohavepassedintotheleaves,andtohavebeen
thrownawaywiththem.TocuretoothachesomeoftheAustralianblacksapplyaheatedspearthrowerto
thecheek.Thespearthroweristhencastaway,andthetoothachegoeswithitintheshapeofablack
stonecalledkarriitch.Stonesofthiskindarefoundinoldmoundsandsandhills.Theyarecarefully
collectedandthrowninthedirectionofenemiesinordertogivethemtoothache.TheBahima,apastoral
peopleofUganda,oftensufferfromdeepseatedabscesses:theircureforthisistotransferthediseaseto
someotherpersonbyobtainingherbsfromthemedicineman,rubbingthemovertheplacewherethe
swellingis,andburyingthemintheroadwherepeoplecontinuallypassthefirstpersonwhostepsover
theseburiedherbscontractsthedisease,andtheoriginalpatientrecovers.
Sometimesincaseofsicknessthemaladyistransferredtoaneffigyasapreliminarytopassingitontoa
humanbeing.ThusamongtheBagandathemedicinemanwouldsometimesmakeamodelofhispatient
inclaythenarelativeofthesickmanwouldrubtheimageoverthesufferersbodyandeitherburyitin
theroad\??\itinthegrassbythewayside.Thefirstpersonwhosteppedovertheimageorpassedbyit
wouldcatchthedisease.Sometimestheeffigywasmadeoutofaplantainflowertiedupsoastolook
likeapersonitwasusedinthesamewayastheclayfigure.Buttheuseofimagesforthismaleficent
purposewasacapitalcrimeanypersoncaughtintheactofburyingoneoftheminthepublicroad
wouldsurelyhavebeenputtodeath.

InthewesterndistrictoftheislandofTimor,whenmenorwomenaremakinglongandtiringjourneys,
theyfanthemselveswithleafybranches,whichtheyafterwardsthrowawayonparticularspotswhere
theirforefathersdidthesamebeforethem.Thefatiguewhichtheyfeltisthussupposedtohavepassed
intotheleavesandtobeleftbehind.Othersusestonesinsteadofleaves.SimilarlyintheBabar
Archipelagotiredpeoplewillstrikethemselveswithstones,believingthattheythustransfertothestones
thewearinesswhichtheyfeltintheirownbodies.Theythenthrowawaythestonesinplaceswhichare
speciallysetapartforthepurpose.Alikebeliefandpracticeinmanydistantpartsoftheworldhave
givenrisetothosecairnsorheapsofsticksandleaveswhichtravellersoftenobservebesidethepath,and
towhicheverypassingnativeaddshiscontributionintheshapeofastone,orstick,orleaf.Thusinthe
SolomonandBanksIslandsthenativesarewonttothrowsticks,stones,orleavesuponaheapataplace
ofsteepdescent,orwhereadifficultpathbegins,saying,Theregoesmyfatigue.Theactisnota
religiousrite,forthethingthrownontheheapisnotanofferingtospiritualpowers,andthewordswhich
accompanytheactarenotaprayer.Itisnothingbutamagicalceremonyforgettingridoffatigue,which
thesimplesavagefancieshecanembodyinastick,leaf,orstone,andsocastitfromhim.
2.TheTransferencetoAnimals
ANIMALSareoftenemployedasavehicleforcarryingawayortransferringtheevil.WhenaMoorhas
aheadachehewillsometimestakealamboragoatandbeatittillitfallsdown,believingthatthe
headachewillthusbetransferredtotheanimal.InMoroccomostwealthyMoorskeepawildboarin
theirstables,inorderthatthejinnandevilspiritsmaybedivertedfromthehorsesandenterintotheboar.
AmongsttheCaffresofSouthAfrica,whenotherremedieshavefailed,nativessometimesadoptthe
customoftakingagoatintothepresenceofasickman,andconfessthesinsofthekraalovertheanimal.
Sometimesafewdropsofbloodfromthesickmanareallowedtofallontheheadofthegoat,whichis
turnedoutintoanuninhabitedpartoftheveldt.Thesicknessissupposedtobetransferredtotheanimal,
andtobecomelostinthedesert.InArabia,whentheplagueisraging,thepeoplewillsometimesleada
camelthroughallthequartersofthetowninorderthattheanimalmaytakethepestilenceonitself.Then
theystrangleitinasacredplaceandimaginethattheyhaveridthemselvesofthecamelandoftheplague
atoneblow.ItissaidthatwhensmallpoxisragingthesavagesofFormosawilldrivethedemonof
diseaseintoasow,thencutofftheanimalsearsandburnthemorit,believingthatinthiswaytheyrid
themselvesoftheplague.
AmongsttheMalagasythevehicleforcarryingawayevilsiscalledafaditra.Thefaditraisanything
selectedbythesikidy[diviningboard]forthepurposeoftakingawayanyhurtfulevilsordiseasesthat
mightproveinjurioustoanindividualshappiness,peace,orprosperity.Thefaditramaybeeitherashes,
cutmoney,asheep,apumpkin,oranythingelsethesikidymaychoosetodirect.Aftertheparticular
articleisappointed,thepriestcountsuponitalltheevilsthatmayproveinjurioustothepersonforwhom
itismade,andwhichhethenchargesthefaditratotakeawayforever.Ifthefaditrabeashes,itisblown,
tobecarriedawaybythewind.Ifitbecutmoney,itisthrowntothebottomofdeepwater,orwhereit
canneverbefound.Ifitbeasheep,itiscarriedawaytoadistanceontheshouldersofaman,whoruns
withallhismight,mumblingashegoes,asifinthegreatestrageagainstthefaditra,fortheevilsitis
bearingaway.Ifitbeapumpkin,itiscarriedontheshoulderstoalittledistance,andtheredashedupon
thegroundwitheveryappearanceoffuryandindignation.AMalagasywasinformedbyadivinerthat
hewasdoomedtoabloodydeath,butthatpossiblyhemightaverthisfatebyperformingacertainrite.
Carryingasmallvesselfullofblooduponhishead,hewastomountuponthebackofabullockwhile
thusmounted,hewastospilltheblooduponthebullockshead,andthensendtheanimalawayintothe
wilderness,whenceitmightneverreturn.
TheBataksofSumatrahaveaceremonywhichtheycallmakingthecursetoflyaway.Whenawoman
ischildless,asacrificeisofferedtothegodsofthreegrasshoppers,representingaheadofcattle,a

buffalo,andahorse.Thenaswallowissetfree,withaprayerthatthecursemayfalluponthebirdand
flyawaywithit.Theentranceintoahouseofananimalwhichdoesnotgenerallyseektosharethe
abodeofmanisregardedbytheMalaysasominousofmisfortune.Ifawildbirdfliesintoahouse,it
mustbecarefullycaughtandsmearedwithoil,andmustthenbereleasedintheopenair,aformulabeing
recitedinwhichitisbiddentoflyawaywithalltheillluckandmisfortunesoftheoccupier.Inantiquity
Greekwomenseemtohavedonethesamewithswallowswhichtheycaughtinthehouse:theypoured
oilonthemandletthemflyaway,apparentlyforthepurposeofremovingillluckfromthehousehold.
TheHuzulsoftheCarpathiansimaginethattheycantransferfrecklestothefirstswallowtheyseein
springbywashingtheirfaceinflowingwaterandsaying,Swallow,swallow,takemyfreckles,andgive
merosycheeks.
AmongtheBadagasoftheNeilgherryHillsinSouthernIndia,whenadeathhastakenplace,thesinsof
thedeceasedarelaiduponabuffalocalf.Forthispurposethepeoplegatherroundthecorpseandcarryit
outsideofthevillage.Thereanelderofthetribe,standingattheheadofthecorpse,recitesorchantsa
longlistofsinssuchasanyBadagamaycommit,andthepeoplerepeatthelastwordofeachlineafter
him.Theconfessionofsinsisthricerepeated.Byaconventionalmodeofexpression,thesumtotalof
sinsamanmaydoissaidtobethirteenhundred.Admittingthatthedeceasedhascommittedthemall,the
performercriesaloud,StaynottheirflighttoGodspurefeet.Ashecloses,thewholeassemblychants
aloudStaynottheirflight.Againtheperformerentersintodetails,andcries,Hekilledthecrawling
snake.Itisasin.Inamomentthelastwordiscaughtup,andallthepeoplecryItisasin.Asthey
shout,theperformerlayshishanduponthecalf.Thesinistransferredtothecalf.Thusthewhole
catalogueisgonethroughinthisimpressiveway.Butthisisnotenough.AsthelastshoutLetallbe
welldiesaway,theperformergivesplacetoanother,andagainconfessionismade,andallthepeople
shoutItisasin.Athirdtimeitisdone.Then,stillinsolemnsilence,thecalfisletloose.Likethe
Jewishscapegoat,itmayneverbeusedforsecularwork.AtaBadagafuneralwitnessedbytheRev.A.
C.Claytonthebuffalocalfwasledthriceroundthebier,andthedeadmanshandwaslaidonitshead.
Bythisact,thecalfwassupposedtoreceiveallthesinsofthedeceased.Itwasthendrivenawaytoa
greatdistance,thatitmightcontaminatenoone,anditwassaidthatitwouldneverbesold,butlookedon
asadedicatedsacredanimal.Theideaofthisceremonyis,thatthesinsofthedeceasedenterthecalf,or
thatthetaskofhisabsolutionislaidonit.Theysaythatthecalfverysoondisappears,andthatitisnever
heardof.
3.TheTransferencetoMen
AGAIN,mensometimesplaythepartofscapegoatbydivertingtothemselvestheevilsthatthreaten
others.WhenaCingaleseisdangerouslyill,andthephysicianscandonothing,adevildanceriscalled
in,whobymakingofferingstothedevils,anddancinginthemasksappropriatetothem,conjuresthese
demonsofdisease,oneaftertheother,outofthesickmansbodyandintohisown.Havingthus
successfullyextractedthecauseofthemalady,theartfuldancerliesdownonabier,andshammingdeath
iscarriedtoanopenplaceoutsidethevillage.Here,beinglefttohimself,hesooncomestolifeagain,
andhastensbacktoclaimhisreward.In1590aScotchwhichofthenameofAgnesSampsonwas
convictedofcuringacertainRobertKersofadiseaselaiduponhimbyawestlandwarlockwhenhe
wasatDumfries,whilksicknessshetookuponherself,andkeptthesamewithgreatgroaningand
tormenttillthemorn,atwhilktimetherewasagreatdinheardinthehouse.Thenoisewasmadebythe
witchinhereffortstoshiftthedisease,bymeansofclothes,fromherselftoacatordog.Unfortunately
theattemptpartlymiscarried.ThediseasemissedtheanimalandhitAlexanderDouglasofDalkeith,who
dwinedanddiedofit,whiletheoriginalpatient,RobertKers,wasmadewhole.
InonepartofNewZealandanexpiationforsinwasfelttobenecessaryaservicewasperformedover
anindividual,bywhichallthesinsofthetribeweresupposedtobetransferredtohim,afernstalkwas

previouslytiedtohisperson,withwhichhejumpedintotheriver,andthereunbinding,allowedittofloat
awaytothesea,bearingtheirsinswithit.IngreatemergenciesthesinsoftheRajahofManipurusedto
betransferredtosomebodyelse,usuallytoacriminal,whoearnedhispardonbyhisvicarioussufferings.
ToeffectthetransferencetheRajahandhiswife,cladinfinerobes,bathedonascaffolderectedinthe
bazaar,whilethecriminalcrouchedbeneathit.Withthewaterwhichdrippedfromthemonhimtheirsins
alsowerewashedawayandfellonthehumanscapegoat.TocompletethetransferencetheRajahandhis
wifemadeovertheirfinerobestotheirsubstitute,whiletheythemselves,cladinnewraiment,mixed
withthepeopletillevening.InTravancore,whenaRajahisnearhisend,theyseekoutaholyBrahman,
whoconsentstotakeuponhimselfthesinsofthedyingmaninconsiderationofthesumoftenthousand
rupees.Thuspreparedtoimmolatehimselfonthealtarofduty,thesaintisintroducedintothechamber
ofdeath,andcloselyembracesthedyingRajah,sayingtohim,OKing,Iundertaketobearallyoursins
anddiseases.MayyourHighnesslivelongandreignhappily.Havingthustakentohimselfthesinsof
thesufferer,heissentawayfromthecountryandnevermoreallowedtoreturn.AtUtchKurganin
TurkestanMr.Schuylersawanoldmanwhowassaidtogethislivingbytakingonhimselfthesinsof
thedead,andthenceforthdevotinghislifetoprayerfortheirsouls.
InUganda,whenanarmyhadreturnedfromwar,andthegodswarnedthekingbytheiroraclesthat
someevilhadattacheditselftothesoldiers,itwascustomarytopickoutawomanslavefromthe
captives,togetherwithacow,agoat,afowl,andadogfromthebooty,andtosendthembackundera
strongguardtothebordersofthecountryfromwhichtheyhadcome.Theretheirlimbswerebrokenand
theywerelefttodiefortheyweretoocrippledtocrawlbacktoUganda.Inordertoensurethe
transferenceoftheeviltothesesubstitutes,bunchesofgrasswererubbedoverthepeopleandcattleand
thentiedtothevictims.Afterthatthearmywaspronouncedcleanandwasallowedtoreturntothe
capital.SoonhisaccessionanewkingofUgandausedtowoundamanandsendhimawayasa
scapegoattoBunyorotocarryawayanyuncleanlinessthatmightattachtothekingorqueen.
4.TheTransferenceofEvilinEurope
THEEXAMPLESofthetransferenceofevilhithertoadducedhavebeenmostlydrawnfromthecustoms
ofsavageorbarbarouspeoples.Butsimilarattemptstoshifttheburdenofdisease,misfortune,andsin
fromonesselftoanotherperson,ortoananimalorthing,havebeencommonalsoamongthecivilised
nationsofEurope,bothinancientandmoderntimes.ARomancureforfeverwastoparethepatients
nails,andsticktheparingswithwaxonaneighboursdoorbeforesunrisethefeverthenpassedfromthe
sickmantohisneighbour.SimilardevicesmusthavebeenresortedtobytheGreeksforinlayingdown
lawsforhisidealstate,Platothinksittoomuchtoexpectthatmenshouldnotbealarmedatfinding
certainwaxfiguresadheringtotheirdoorsortothetombstonesoftheirparents,orlyingatcrossroads.
InthefourthcenturyofoureraMarcellusofBordeauxprescribedacureforwarts,whichhasstillagreat
vogueamongthesuperstitiousinvariouspartsofEurope.Youaretotouchyourwartswithasmanylittle
stonesasyouhavewartsthenwrapthestonesinanivyleaf,andthrowthemawayinathoroughfare.
Whoeverpicksthemupwillgetthewarts,andyouwillberidofthem.PeopleintheOrkneyIslandswill
sometimeswashasickman,andthenthrowthewaterdownatagateway,inthebeliefthatthesickness
willleavethepatientandbetransferredtothefirstpersonwhopassesthroughthegate.ABavariancure
forfeveristowriteuponapieceofpaper,Fever,stayaway,Iamnotathome,andtoputthepaperin
somebodyspocket.Thelatterthencatchesthefever,andthepatientisridofit.ABohemianprescription
forthesamemaladyisthis.Takeanemptypot,gowithittoacrossroad,throwitdown,andrunaway.
Thefirstpersonwhokicksagainstthepotwillcatchyourfever,andyouwillbecured.
OfteninEurope,asamongsavages,anattemptismadetotransferapainormaladyfromamantoan
animal.Gravewritersofantiquityrecommendedthat,ifamanbestungbyascorpion,heshouldsitupon
anasswithhisfacetothetail,orwhisperintheanimalsear,Ascorpionhasstungmeineithercase,

theythought,thepainwouldbetransferredfromthemantotheass.Manycuresofthissortarerecorded
byMarcellus.Forexample,hetellsusthatthefollowingisaremedyfortoothache.Standingbooted
undertheopenskyontheground,youcatchafrogbythehead,spitintoitsmouth,askittocarryaway
theache,andthenletitgo.Buttheceremonymustbeperformedonaluckydayandataluckyhour.In
Cheshiretheailmentknownasaphthaorthrush,whichaffectsthemouthorthroatofinfants,isnot
uncommonlytreatedinmuchthesamemanner.Ayoungfrogisheldforafewmomentswithitshead
insidethemouthofthesufferer,whomitissupposedtorelievebytakingthemaladytoitself.Iassure
you,saidanoldwomanwhohadoftensuperintendedsuchacure,weusedtohearthepoorfrog
whoopingandcoughing,mortalbad,fordaysafteritwouldhavemadeyourheartachetohearthepoor
creaturecoughingasitdidaboutthegarden.ANorthamptonshire,Devonshire,andWelshcurefora
coughistoputahairofthepatientsheadbetweentwoslicesofbutteredbreadandgivethesandwichto
adog.Theanimalwillthereuponcatchthecoughandthepatientwillloseit.Sometimesanailmentis
transferredtoananimalbysharingfoodwithit.ThusinOldenburg,ifyouaresickofafeveryouseta
bowlofsweetmilkbeforeadogandsay,Goodluck,youhound!mayyoubesickandIbesound!
Thenwhenthedoghaslappedsomeofthemilk,youtakeaswigatthebowlandthenthedogmustlap
again,andthenyoumustswigagainandwhenyouandthedoghavedoneitthethirdtime,hewillhave
thefeverandyouwillbequitofit.
ABohemiancureforfeveristogooutintotheforestbeforethesunisupandlookforasnipesnest.
Whenyouhavefoundit,takeoutoneoftheyoungbirdsandkeepitbesideyouforthreedays.Thengo
backintothewoodandsetthesnipefree.Thefeverwillleaveyouatonce.Thesnipehastakenitaway.
SoinVedictimestheHindoosofoldsentconsumptionawaywithabluejay.Theysaid,O
consumption,flyaway,flyawaywiththebluejay!Withthewildrushofthestormandthewhirlwind,
oh,vanishaway!InthevillageofLlandeglainWalesthereisachurchdedicatedtothevirginmartyrSt.
Tecla,wherethefallingsicknessis,orusedtobe,curedbybeingtransferredtoafowl.Thepatientfirst
washedhislimbsinasacredwellhardby,droppedfourpenceintoitasanoffering,walkedthriceround
thewell,andthricerepeatedtheLordsprayer.Thenthefowl,whichwasacockorahenaccordingas
thepatientwasamanorawoman,wasputintoabasketandcarriedroundfirstthewellandafterwards
thechurch.Nextthesuffererenteredthechurchandlaydownunderthecommuniontabletillbreakof
day.Afterthatheofferedsixpenceanddeparted,leavingthefowlinthechurch.Ifthebirddied,the
sicknesswassupposedtohavebeentransferredtoitfromthemanorwoman,whowasnowridofthe
disorder.Aslateas1855theoldparishclerkofthevillagerememberedquitewelltohaveseenthebirds
staggeringaboutfromtheeffectsofthefitswhichhadbeentransferredtothem.
Oftenthesuffererseekstoshifthisburdenofsicknessorilllucktosomeinanimateobject.InAthens
thereisalittlechapelofSt.JohntheBaptistbuiltagainstanancientcolumn.Feverpatientsresortthither,
andbyattachingawaxedthreadtotheinnersideofthecolumnbelievethattheytransferthefeverfrom
themselvestothepillar.IntheMarkofBrandenburgtheysaythatifyousufferfromgiddinessyou
shouldstripyourselfnakedandrunthriceroundaflaxfieldaftersunsetinthatwaytheflaxwillgetthe
giddinessandyouwillberidofit.
ButperhapsthethingmostcommonlyemployedinEuropeasareceptacleforsicknessandtroubleofall
sortsisatreeorbush.ABulgariancureforfeveristorunthricearoundawillowtreeatsunrise,crying,
Thefevershallshakethee,andthesunshallwarmme.IntheGreekislandofKarpathosthepriestties
aredthreadroundtheneckofasickperson.Nextmorningthefriendsofthepatientremovethethread
andgoouttothehillside,wheretheytiethethreadtoatree,thinkingthattheythustransferthesickness
tothetree.ItaliansattempttocurefeverinlikemannerbytetheringittoatreeThesufferertiesathread
roundhisleftwristatnight,andhangsthethreadonatreenextmorning.Thefeveristhusbelievedtobe
tieduptothetree,andthepatienttoberidofitbuthemustbecarefulnottopassbythattreeagain,
otherwisethefeverwouldbreakloosefromitsbondsandattackhimafresh.AFlemishcurefortheague
istogoearlyinthemorningtoanoldwillow,tiethreeknotsinoneofitsbranches,say,Goodmorrow,

OldOne,Igivetheethecoldgoodmorrow,OldOne,thenturnandrunawaywithoutlookinground.In
Sonnenberg,ifyouwouldridyourselfofgoutyoushouldgotoayoungfirtreeandtieaknotinoneof
itstwigs,saying,Godgreetthee,noblefir.Ibringtheemygout.HerewillItieaknotandbindmygout
intoit.Inthename,etc.
Anotherwayoftransferringgoutfromamantoatreeisthis.Parethenailsofthesufferersfingersand
clipsomehairsfromhislegs.Boreaholeinanoak,stuffthenailsandhairinthehole,stopupthehole
again,andsmearitwithcowsdung.If,forthreemonthsthereafter,thepatientisfreeofgout,youmay
besuretheoakhasitinhisstead.InCheshireifyouwouldberidofwarts,youhaveonlytorubthem
withapieceofbacon,cutaslitinthebarkofanashtree,andslipthebaconunderthebark.Soonthe
wartswilldisappearfromyourhand,onlyhowevertoreappearintheshapeofroughexcrescencesor
knobsonthebarkofthetree.AtBerkhampstead,inHertfordshire,thereusedtobecertainoaktrees
whichwerelongcelebratedforthecureofague.Thetransferenceofthemaladytothetreewassimple
butpainful.Alockofthesufferershairwaspeggedintoanoakthenbyasuddenwrenchhelefthishair
andhisaguebehindhiminthetree.

LVI.ThePublicExpulsionofEvils
1.TheOmnipresenceofDemons
INTHEFOREGOINGchaptertheprimitiveprincipleofthetransferenceofillstoanotherperson,
animal,orthingwasexplainedandillustrated.Butsimilarmeanshavebeenadoptedtofreeawhole
communityfromdiverseevilsthatafflictit.Suchattemptstodismissatoncetheaccumulatedsorrowsof
apeoplearebynomeansrareorexceptionalonthecontrarytheyhavebeenmadeinmanylands,and
frombeingoccasionaltheytendtobecomeperiodicandannual.
Itneedssomeeffortonourparttorealisetheframeofmindwhichpromptstheseattempts.Bredina
philosophywhichstripsnatureofpersonalityandreducesittotheunknowncauseofanorderlyseriesof
impressionsonoursenses,wefindithardtoputourselvesintheplaceofthesavage,towhomthesame
impressionsappearintheguiseofspiritsorthehandiworkofspirits.Foragesthearmyofspirits,onceso
near,hasbeenrecedingfartherandfartherfromus,banishedbythemagicwandofsciencefromhearth
andhome,fromruinedcellandiviedtower,fromhauntedgladeandlonelymere,fromtherivenmurky
cloudthatbelchesforththelightning,andfromthosefairercloudsthatpillowthesilverymoonorfret
withflakesofburningredthegoldeneve.Thespiritsaregoneevenfromtheirlaststrongholdinthesky,
whosebluearchnolongerpasses,exceptwithchildren,forthescreenthathidesfrommortaleyesthe
gloriesofthecelestialworld.Onlyinpoetsdreamsorimpassionedflightsoforatoryisitgiventocatch
aglimpseofthelastflutterofthestandardsoftheretreatinghost,tohearthebeatoftheirinvisiblewings,
thesoundoftheirmockinglaughter,ortheswellofangelmusicdyingawayinthedistance.Far
otherwiseisitwiththesavage.Tohisimaginationtheworldstillteemswiththosemotleybeingswhoma
moresoberphilosophyhasdiscarded.Fairiesandgoblins,ghostsanddemons,stillhoverabouthimboth
wakingandsleeping.Theydoghisfootsteps,dazzlehissenses,enterintohim,harassanddeceiveand
tormenthiminathousandfreakishandmischievousways.Themishapsthatbefallhim,thelosseshe
sustains,thepainshehastoendure,hecommonlysetsdown,ifnottothemagicofhisenemies,tothe
spiteorangerorcapriceofthespirits.Theirconstantpresencewearieshim,theirsleeplessmalignity
exasperateshimhelongswithanunspeakablelongingtoberidofthemaltogether,andfromtimeto
time,driventobay,hispatienceutterlyexhausted,heturnsfiercelyonhispersecutorsandmakesa
desperateefforttochasethewholepackofthemfromtheland,tocleartheairoftheirswarming
multitudes,thathemaybreathemorefreelyandgoonhiswayunmolested,atleastforatime.Thusit
comesaboutthattheendeavourofprimitivepeopletomakeacleansweepofalltheirtroublesgenerally
takestheformofagrandhuntingoutandexpulsionofdevilsorghosts.Theythinkthatiftheycanonly

shakeoffthesetheiraccursedtormentors,theywillmakeafreshstartinlife,happyandinnocentthe
talesofEdenandtheoldpoeticgoldenagewillcometrueagain.
2.TheOccasionalExpulsionofEvils
WEcanthereforeunderstandwhythosegeneralclearancesofevil,towhichfromtimetotimethesavage
resorts,shouldcommonlytaketheformofaforcibleexpulsionofdevils.Intheseevilspiritsprimitive
manseesthecauseofmanyifnotofmostofhistroubles,andhefanciesthatifhecanonlydeliver
himselffromthem,thingswillgobetterwithhim.Thepublicattemptstoexpeltheaccumulatedillsofa
wholecommunitymaybedividedintotwoclasses,accordingastheexpelledevilsareimmaterialand
invisibleorareembodiedinamaterialvehicleorscapegoat.Theformermaybecalledthedirector
immediateexpulsionofevilsthelattertheindirectormediateexpulsion,ortheexpulsionbyscapegoat.
Webeginwithexamplesoftheformer.
IntheislandofRook,betweenNewGuineaandNewBritain,whenanymisfortunehashappened,allthe
peopleruntogether,scream,curse,howl,andbeattheairwithstickstodriveawaythedevil,whois
supposedtobetheauthorofthemishap.Fromthespotwherethemishaptookplacetheydrivehimstep
bysteptothesea,andonreachingtheshoretheyredoubletheirshoutsandblowsinordertoexpelhim
fromtheisland.HegenerallyretirestotheseaortotheislandofLottin.ThenativesofNewBritain
ascribesickness,drought,thefailureofcrops,andinshortallmisfortunes,totheinfluenceofwicked
spirits.Soattimeswhenmanypeoplesickenanddie,asatthebeginningoftherainyseason,allthe
inhabitantsofadistrict,armedwithbranchesandclubs,gooutbymoonlighttothefields,wherethey
beatandstamponthegroundwithwildhowlstillmorning,believingthatthisdrivesawaythedevilsand
forthesamepurposetheyrushthroughthevillagewithburningtorches.ThenativesofNewCaledonia
aresaidtobelievethatallevilsarecausedbyapowerfulandmalignantspirithenceinordertorid
themselvesofhimtheywillfromtimetotimedigagreatpit,roundwhichthewholetribegathers.After
cursingthedemon,theyfillupthepitwithearth,andtrampleonthetopwithloudshouts.Thistheycall
buryingtheevilspirit.AmongtheDieritribeofCentralAustralia,whenaseriousillnessoccurs,the
medicinemenexpelCootchieorthedevilbybeatingthegroundinandoutsideofthecampwiththe
stuffedtailofakangaroo,untiltheyhavechasedthedemonawaytosomedistancefromthecamp.
Whenavillagehasbeenvisitedbyaseriesofdisastersorasevereepidemic,theinhabitantsof
MinahassainCelebeslaytheblameuponthedevilswhoareinfestingthevillageandwhomustbe
expelledfromit.Accordingly,earlyonemorningallthepeople,men,women,andchildren,quittheir
homes,carryingtheirhouseholdgoodswiththem,andtakeuptheirquartersintemporaryhutswhich
havebeenerectedoutsidethevillage.Heretheyspendseveraldays,offeringsacrificesandpreparingfor
thefinalceremony.Atlastthemen,somewearingmasks,otherswiththeirfacesblackened,andsoon,
butallarmedwithswords,guns,pikes,orbrooms,stealcautiouslyandsilentlybacktothedeserted
village.Then,atasignalfromthepriest,theyrushfuriouslyupanddownthestreetsandintoandunder
thehouses(whichareraisedonpilesabovetheground),yellingandstrikingonwalls,doors,and
windows,todriveawaythedevils.Next,thepriestsandtherestofthepeoplecomewiththeholyfireand
marchninetimesroundeachhouseandthriceroundtheladderthatleadsuptoit,carryingthefirewith
them.Thentheytakethefireintothekitchen,whereitmustburnforthreedayscontinuously.Thedevils
arenowdrivenaway,andgreatandgeneralisthejoy.
TheAlfoorsofHalmaheraattributeepidemicstothedevilwhocomesfromothervillagestocarrythem
off.So,inordertoridthevillageofthedisease,thesorcererdrivesawaythedevil.Fromallthevillagers
hereceivesacostlygarmentandplacesitonfourvessels,whichhetakestotheforestandleavesatthe
spotwherethedevilissupposedtobe.Thenwithmockingwordshebidsthedemonabandontheplace.
IntheKeiIslandstothesouthwestofNewGuinea,theevilspirits,whoarequitedistinctfromthesouls

ofthedead,formamightyhost.Almosteverytreeandeverycaveisthelodgingplaceofoneofthese
fiends,whoaremoreoverextremelyirascibleandapttoflyoutonthesmallestprovocation.They
manifesttheirdispleasurebysendingsicknessandothercalamities.Henceintimesofpublicmisfortune,
aswhenanepidemicisraging,andallotherremedieshavefailed,thewholepopulationgoforthwiththe
priestattheirheadtoaplaceatsomedistancefromthevillage.Hereatsunsettheyerectacoupleof
poleswithacrossbarbetweenthem,towhichtheyattachbagsofrice,woodenmodelsofpivotguns,
gongs,bracelets,andsoon.Then,wheneverybodyhastakenhisplaceatthepolesandadeathlike
silencereigns,thepriestliftsuphisvoiceandaddressesthespiritsintheirownlanguageasfollows:Ho!
ho!ho!yeevilspiritswhodwellinthetrees,yeevilspiritswholiveinthegrottoes,yeevilspiritswho
lodgeintheearth,wegiveyouthesepivotguns,thesegongs,etc.Letthesicknessceaseandnotsomany
peopledieofit.Theneverybodyrunshomeasfastastheirlegscancarrythem.
IntheislandofNias,whenamanisseriouslyillandotherremedieshavebeentriedinvain,thesorcerer
proceedstoexorcisethedevilwhoiscausingtheillness.Apoleissetupinfrontofthehouse,andfrom
thetopofthepolearopeofpalmleavesisstretchedtotheroofofthehouse.Thenthesorcerermounts
theroofwithapig,whichhekillsandallowstorollfromtherooftotheground.Thedevil,anxioustoget
thepig,letshimselfdownhastilyfromtheroofbytheropeofpalmleaves,andagoodspirit,invokedby
thesorcerer,preventshimfromclimbingupagain.Ifthisremedyfails,itisbelievedthatotherdevils
muststillbelurkinginthehouse.Soageneralhuntismadeafterthem.Allthedoorsandwindowsinthe
houseareclosed,exceptasingledormerwindowintheroof.Themen,shutupinthehouse,hewand
slashwiththeirswordsrightandlefttotheclashofgongsandtherubadubofdrums.Terrifiedatthis
onslaught,thedevilsescapebythedormerwindow,andslidingdowntheropeofpalmleavestake
themselvesoff.Asallthedoorsandwindows,excepttheoneintheroof,areshut,thedevilscannotget
intothehouseagain.Inthecaseofanepidemic,theproceedingsaresimilar.Allthegatesofthevillage,
exceptone,areclosedeveryvoiceisraised,everygonganddrumbeaten,everyswordbrandished.Thus
thedevilsaredrivenoutandthelastgateisshutbehindthem.Foreightdaysthereafterthevillageisina
stateofsiege,noonebeingallowedtoenterit.
WhencholerahasbrokenoutinaBurmesevillagetheablebodiedmenscrambleontheroofsandlay
aboutthemwithbamboosandbilletsofwood,whilealltherestofthepopulation,oldandyoung,stand
belowandthumpdrums,blowtrumpets,yell,scream,beatfloors,walls,tinpans,everythingtomakea
din.Thisuproar,repeatedonthreesuccessivenights,isthoughttobeveryeffectiveindrivingawaythe
cholerademons.WhensmallpoxfirstappearedamongsttheKumisofSouthEasternIndia,theythought
itwasadevilcomefromAracan.Thevillageswereplacedinastateofsiege,noonebeingallowedto
leaveorenterthem.Amonkeywaskilledbybeingdashedontheground,anditsbodywashungatthe
villagegate.Itsblood,mixedwithsmallriverpebbles,wassprinkledonthehouses,thethresholdof
everyhousewassweptwiththemonkeystail,andthefiendwasadjuredtodepart.
WhenanepidemicisragingontheGoldCoastofWestAfrica,thepeoplewillsometimesturnout,armed
withclubsandtorches,todrivetheevilspiritsaway.Atagivensignalthewholepopulationbeginwith
frightfulyellstobeatineverycornerofthehouses,thenrushlikemadintothestreetswavingtorchesand
strikingfranticallyintheemptyair.Theuproargoesontillsomebodyreportsthatthecowedanddaunted
demonshavemadegoodtheirescapebyagateofthetownorvillagethepeoplestreamoutafterthem,
pursuethemforsomedistanceintotheforest,andwarnthemnevertoreturn.Theexpulsionofthedevils
isfollowedbyageneralmassacreofallthecocksinthevillageortown,lestbytheirunseasonable
crowingtheyshouldbetraytothebanisheddemonsthedirectiontheymusttaketoreturntotheirold
homes.WhensicknesswasprevalentinaHuronvillage,andallotherremedieshadbeentriedinvain,
theIndianshadrecoursetotheceremonycalledLonouyroya,whichistheprincipalinventionandmost
propermeans,sotheysay,toexpelfromthetownorvillagethedevilsandevilspiritswhichcause,
induce,andimportallthemaladiesandinfirmitieswhichtheysufferinbodyandmind.Accordingly,
oneeveningthemenwouldbegintorushlikemadmenaboutthevillage,breakingandupsetting

whatevertheycameacrossinthewigwams.Theythrewfireandburningbrandsaboutthestreets,andall
nightlongtheyranhowlingandsingingwithoutcessation.Thentheyalldreamedofsomething,aknife,
dog,skin,orwhateveritmightbe,andwhenmorningcametheywentfromwigwamtowigwamasking
forpresents.Thesetheyreceivedsilently,tilltheparticularthingwasgiventhemwhichtheyhad
dreamedabout.Onreceivingittheyutteredacryofjoyandrushedfromthehut,amidthe
congratulationsofallpresent.Thehealthofthosewhoreceivedwhattheyhaddreamedofwasbelieved
tobeassuredwhereasthosewhodidnotgetwhattheyhadsettheirheartsuponregardedtheirfateas
sealed.
Sometimes,insteadofchasingthedemonofdiseasefromtheirhomes,savagesprefertoleavehimin
peaceablepossession,whiletheythemselvestaketoflightandattempttopreventhimfromfollowingin
theirtracks.ThuswhenthePatagonianswereattackedbysmallpox,whichtheyattributedtothe
machinationsofanevilspirit,theyusedtoabandontheirsickandflee,slashingtheairwiththeir
weaponsandthrowingwateraboutinordertokeepoffthedreadfulpursuerandwhenafterseveraldays
marchtheyreachedaplacewheretheyhopedtobebeyondhisreach,theyusedbywayofprecautionto
plantalltheircuttingweaponswiththesharpedgesturnedtowardsthequarterfromwhichtheyhad
come,asiftheywererepellingachargeofcavalry.Similarly,whentheLulesorTonocotesIndiansofthe
GranChacowereattackedbyanepidemic,theyregularlysoughttoevadeitbyflight,butinsodoing
theyalwaysfollowedasinuous,notastraight,coursebecausetheysaidthatwhenthediseasemadeafter
themhewouldbesoexhaustedbytheturningsandwindingsoftheroutethathewouldneverbeableto
comeupwiththem.WhentheIndiansofNewMexicoweredecimatedbysmallpoxorotherinfectious
disease,theyusedtoshifttheirquarterseveryday,retreatingintothemostsequesteredpartsofthe
mountainsandchoosingthethorniestthicketstheycouldfind,inthehopethatthesmallpoxwouldbetoo
afraidofscratchinghimselfonthethornstofollowthem.WhensomeChinsonavisittoRangoonwere
attackedbycholera,theywentaboutwithdrawnswordstoscareawaythedemon,andtheyspenttheday
hidingunderbushessothathemightnotbeabletofindthem.
3.ThePeriodicExpulsionofEvils
THEEXPULSIONofevils,frombeingoccasional,tendstobecomeperiodic.Itcomestobethought
desirabletohaveageneralriddanceofevilspiritsatfixedtimes,usuallyonceayear,inorderthatthe
peoplemaymakeafreshstartinlife,freedfromallthemalignantinfluenceswhichhavebeenlong
accumulatingaboutthem.SomeoftheAustralianblacksannuallyexpelledtheghostsofthedeadfrom
theirterritory.TheceremonywaswitnessedbytheRev.W.RidleyonthebanksoftheRiverBarwan.A
chorusoftwenty,oldandyoung,weresingingandbeatingtimewithboomerangs.Suddenly,from
underasheetofbarkdartedamanwithhisbodywhitenedbypipeclay,hisheadandfacecolouredwith
linesofredandyellow,andatuftoffeathersfixedbymeansofasticktwofeetabovethecrownofhis
head.Hestoodtwentyminutesperfectlystill,gazingupwards.Anaboriginalwhostoodbytoldmehe
waslookingfortheghostsofdeadmen.Atlasthebegantomoveveryslowly,andsoonrushedtoandfro
atfullspeed,flourishingabranchasiftodriveawaysomefoesinvisibletous.WhenIthoughtthis
pantomimemustbealmostover,tenmore,similarlyadorned,suddenlyappearedfrombehindthetrees,
andthewholepartyjoinedinabriskconflictwiththeirmysteriousassailants.Atlast,aftersomerapid
evolutionsinwhichtheyputforthalltheirstrength,theyrestedfromtheexcitingtoilwhichtheyhadkept
upallnightandforsomehoursaftersunrisetheyseemedsatisfiedthattheghostsweredrivenawayfor
twelvemonths.Theywereperformingthesameceremonyateverystationalongtheriver,andIamtold
itisanannualcustom.
Certainseasonsoftheyearmarkthemselvesnaturallyoutasappropriatemomentsforageneral
expulsionofdevils.SuchamomentoccurstowardsthecloseofanArcticwinter,whenthesunreappears
onthehorizonafteranabsenceofweeksormonths.Accordingly,atPointBarrow,themostnortherly

extremityofAlaska,andnearlyofAmerica,theEsquimauxchoosethemomentofthesuns
reappearancetohuntthemischievousspiritTuafromeveryhouse.Theceremonywaswitnessedby
themembersoftheUnitedStatesPolarExpedition,whowinteredatPointBarrow.Afirewasbuiltin
frontofthecouncilhouse,andanoldwomanwaspostedattheentrancetoeveryhouse.Themen
gatheredroundthecouncilhousewhiletheyoungwomenandgirlsdrovethespiritoutofeveryhouse
withtheirknives,stabbingviciouslyunderthebunkanddeerskins,andcallinguponTuatobegone.
Whentheythoughthehadbeendrivenoutofeveryholeandcorner,theythrusthimdownthroughthe
holeinthefloorandchasedhimintotheopenairwithloudcriesandfranticgestures.Meanwhiletheold
womanattheentranceofthehousemadepasseswithalongknifeintheairtokeephimfromreturning.
Eachpartydrovethespirittowardsthefireandinvitedhimtogointoit.Allwerebythistimedrawnup
inasemicircleroundthefire,whenseveraloftheleadingmenmadespecificchargesagainstthespirit
andeachafterhisspeechbrushedhisclothesviolently,callingonthespirittoleavehimandgointothe
fire.Twomennowsteppedforwardwithriflesloadedwithblankcartridges,whileathirdbroughta
vesselofurineandflungitontheflames.Atthesametimeoneofthemenfiredashotintothefireand
asthecloudofsteamroseitreceivedtheothershot,whichwassupposedtofinishTunaforthetime
being.
Inlateautumn,whenstormsrageoverthelandandbreaktheicyfettersbywhichthefrozenseaisasyet
butslightlybound,whentheloosenedfloesaredrivenagainsteachotherandbreakwithloudcrashes,
andwhenthecakesoficearepiledinwilddisorderoneuponanother,theEsquimauxofBaffinLand
fancytheyhearthevoicesofthespiritswhopeoplethemischiefladenair.Thentheghostsofthedead
knockwildlyatthehuts,whichtheycannotenter,andwoetothehaplesswightwhomtheycatchhe
soonsickensanddies.Thenthephantomofahugehairlessdogpursuestherealdogs,whichexpirein
convulsionsandcrampsatsightofhim.Allthecountlessspiritsofevilareabroadstrivingtobring
sicknessanddeath,foulweatherandfailureinhuntingontheEsquimaux.Mostdreadedofallthese
spectralvisitantsareSedna,mistressofthenetherworld,andherfather,towhosesharedeadEsquimaux
fall.Whiletheotherspiritsfilltheairandthewater,sherisesfromunderground.Itisthenabusyseason
forthewizards.Ineveryhouseyoumayhearthemsingingandpraying,whiletheyconjurethespirits,
seatedinamysticgloomatthebackofthehut,whichisdimlylitbyalampburninglow.Thehardest
taskofallistodriveawaySedna,andthisisreservedforthemostpowerfulenchanter.Aropeiscoiled
onthefloorofalargehutinsuchawayastoleaveasmallopeningatthetop,whichrepresentsthe
breathingholeofaseal.Twoenchantersstandbesideit,oneofthemgraspingaspearasifhewere
watchingasealholeinwinter,theotherholdingtheharpoonline.Athirdsorcerersitsatthebackofthe
hutchantingamagicsongtolureSednatothespot.Nowsheisheardapproachingunderthefloorofthe
hut,breathingheavilynowsheemergesattheholenowsheisharpoonedandsinksawayinangryhaste,
draggingtheharpoonwithher,whilethetwomenholdontothelinewithalltheirmight.Thestruggleis
severe,butatlastbyadesperatewrenchshetearsherselfawayandreturnstoherdwellinginAdlivun.
Whentheharpoonisdrawnupoutoftheholeitisfoundtobesplashedwithblood,whichtheenchanters
proudlyexhibitasaproofoftheirprowess.ThusSednaandtheotherevilspiritsareatlastdrivenaway,
andnextdayagreatfestivaliscelebratedbyoldandyounginhonouroftheevent.Buttheymuststillbe
cautious,forthewoundedSednaisfuriousandwillseizeanyoneshemayfindoutsideofhishutsothey
allwearamuletsonthetopoftheirhoodstoprotectthemselvesagainsther.Theseamuletsconsistof
piecesofthefirstgarmentsthattheyworeafterbirth.
TheIroquoisinauguratedthenewyearinJanuary,February,orMarch(thetimevaried)withafestival
ofdreamslikethatwhichtheHuronsobservedonspecialoccasions.Thewholeceremonieslasted
severaldays,orevenweeks,andformedakindofsaturnalia.Menandwomen,variouslydisguised,went
fromwigwamtowigwamsmashingandthrowingdownwhatevertheycameacross.Itwasatimeof
generallicensethepeopleweresupposedtobeoutoftheirsenses,andthereforenottoberesponsiblefor
whattheydid.Accordingly,manyseizedtheopportunityofpayingoffoldscoresbybelabouring

obnoxiouspersons,drenchingthemwithicecoldwater,andcoveringthemwithfilthorhotashes.Others
seizedburningbrandsorcoalsandflungthemattheheadsofthefirstpersonstheymet.Theonlywayof
escapingfromthesepersecutorswastoguesswhattheyhaddreamedof.Ononedayofthefestivalthe
ceremonyofdrivingawayevilspiritsfromthevillagetookplace.Menclothedintheskinsofwild
beasts,theirfacescoveredwithhideousmasks,andtheirhandswiththeshellofthetortoise,wentfrom
huttohutmakingfrightfulnoisesineveryhuttheytookthefuelfromthefireandscatteredtheembers
andashesaboutthefloorwiththeirhands.Thegeneralconfessionofsinswhichprecededthefestival
wasprobablyapreparationforthepublicexpulsionofevilinfluencesitwasawayofstrippingthe
peopleoftheirmoralburdens,thatthesemightbecollectedandcastout.
InSeptembertheIncasofPerucelebratedafestivalcalledSitua,theobjectofwhichwastobanishfrom
thecapitalanditsvicinityalldiseaseandtrouble.ThefestivalfellinSeptemberbecausetherainsbegin
aboutthistime,andwiththefirstrainstherewasgenerallymuchsickness.Asapreparationforthe
festivalthepeoplefastedonthefirstdayofthemoonaftertheautumnalequinox.Havingfastedduring
theday,andthenightbeingcome,theybakedacoarsepasteofmaize.Thispastewasmadeoftwosorts.
Onewaskneadedwiththebloodofchildrenagedfromfivetotenyears,thebloodbeingobtainedby
bleedingthechildrenbetweentheeyebrows.Thesetwokindsofpastewerebakedseparately,because
theywerefordifferentuses.Eachfamilyassembledatthehouseoftheeldestbrothertocelebratethe
feastandthosewhohadnoelderbrotherwenttothehouseoftheirnextrelationofgreaterage.Onthe
samenightallwhohadfastedduringthedaywashedtheirbodies,andtakingalittleoftheblood
kneadedpaste,rubbeditovertheirhead,face,breast,shoulders,armsandlegs.Theydidthisinorderthat
thepastemighttakeawayalltheirinfirmities.Afterthistheheadofthefamilyanointedthethreshold
withthesamepaste,andleftitthereasatokenthattheinmatesofthehousehadperformedtheir
ablutionsandcleansedtheirbodies.MeantimetheHighPriestperformedthesameceremoniesinthe
templeoftheSun.AssoonastheSunrose,allthepeopleworshippedandbesoughthimtodriveallevils
outofthecity,andthentheybroketheirfastwiththepastethathadbeenkneadedwithoutblood.When
theyhadpaidtheirworshipandbrokentheirfast,whichtheydidatastatedhour,inorderthatallmight
adoretheSunasoneman,anIncaofthebloodroyalcameforthfromthefortress,asamessengerofthe
Sun,richlydressed,withhismantlegirdedroundhisbody,andalanceinhishand.Thelancewasdecked
withfeathersofmanyhues,extendingfromthebladetothesocket,andfastenedwithringsofgold.He
randownthehillfromthefortressbrandishinghislance,tillhereachedthecentreofthegreatsquare,
wherestoodthegoldenurn,likeafountain,thatwasusedforthesacrificeofthefermentedjuiceofthe
maize.HerefourotherIncasofthebloodroyalawaitedhim,eachwithalanceinhishand,andhis
mantlegirdeduptorun.Themessengertouchedtheirfourlanceswithhislance,andtoldthemthatthe
Sunbadethem,ashismessengers,drivetheevilsoutofthecity.ThefourIncasthenseparatedandran
downthefourroyalroadswhichledoutofthecitytothefourquartersoftheworld.Whiletheyran,all
thepeople,greatandsmall,cametothedoorsoftheirhouses,andwithgreatshoutsofjoyandgladness
shooktheirclothes,asiftheywereshakingoffdust,whiletheycried,Lettheevilsbegone.Howgreatly
desiredhasthisfestivalbeenbyus.OCreatorofallthings,permitustoreachanotheryear,thatwemay
seeanotherfeastlikethis.Aftertheyhadshakentheirclothes,theypassedtheirhandsovertheirheads,
faces,arms,andlegs,asifintheactofwashing.Allthiswasdonetodrivetheevilsoutoftheirhouses,
thatthemessengersoftheSunmightbanishthemfromthecityanditwasdonenotonlyinthestreets
throughwhichtheIncasran,butgenerallyinallquartersofthecity.Moreover,theyalldanced,theInca
himselfamongstthem,andbathedintheriversandfountains,sayingthattheirmaladieswouldcomeout
ofthem.Thentheytookgreattorchesofstraw,boundroundwithcords.Thesetheylighted,andpassed
fromonetotheother,strikingeachotherwiththem,andsaying,Letallharmgoaway.Meanwhilethe
runnersranwiththeirlancesforaquarterofaleagueoutsidethecity,wheretheyfoundfourotherIncas
ready,whoreceivedthelancesfromtheirhandsandranwiththem.Thusthelanceswerecarriedby
relaysofrunnersforadistanceoffiveorsixleagues,attheendofwhichtherunnerswashedthemselves
andtheirweaponsinrivers,andsetupthelances,insignofaboundarywithinwhichthebanishedevils
mightnotreturn.

ThenegroesofGuineaannuallybanishthedevilfromalltheirtownswithmuchceremonyatatimeset
apartforthepurpose.AtAxim,ontheGoldCoast,thisannualexpulsionisprecededbyafeastofeight
days,duringwhichmirthandjollity,skipping,dancing,andsingingprevail,andaperfectlampooning
libertyisallowed,andscandalsohighlyexalted,thattheymayfreelysingofallthefaults,villanies,and
fraudsoftheirsuperiorsaswellasinferiors,withoutpunishment,orsomuchastheleastinterruption.
Ontheeighthdaytheyhuntoutthedevilwithadismalcry,runningafterhimandpeltinghimwith
sticks,stones,andwhatevercomestohand.Whentheyhavedrivenhimfarenoughoutofthetown,they
allreturn.Inthiswayheisexpelledfrommorethanahundredtownsatthesametime.Tomakesurethat
hedoesnotreturntotheirhouses,thewomenwashandscouralltheirwoodenandearthenvessels,to
freethemfromalluncleannessandthedevil.
AtCapeCoastCastle,ontheGoldCoast,theceremonywaswitnessedontheninthofOctober,1844,by
anEnglishman,whohasdescribeditasfollows:Tonighttheannualcustomofdrivingtheevilspirit,
Abonsam,outofthetownhastakenplace.Assoonastheeightoclockgunfiredinthefortthepeople
beganfiringmusketsintheirhouses,turningalltheirfurnitureoutofdoors,beatingaboutineverycorner
oftheroomswithsticks,etc.,andscreamingasloudlyaspossible,inordertofrightenthedevil.Being
drivenoutofthehouses,astheyimagine,theysalliedforthintothestreets,throwinglightedtorches
about,shouting,screaming,beatingstickstogether,rattlingoldpans,makingthemosthorridnoise,in
ordertodrivehimoutofthetownintothesea.Thecustomisprecededbyfourweeksdeadsilenceno
gunisallowedtobefired,nodrumtobebeaten,nopalavertobemadebetweenmanandman.If,during
theseweeks,twonativesshoulddisagreeandmakeanoiseinthetown,theyareimmediatelytaken
beforethekingandfinedheavily.Ifadogorpig,sheeporgoatbefoundatlargeinthestreet,itmaybe
killed,ortakenbyanyone,theformerownernotbeingallowedtodemandanycompensation.This
silenceisdesignedtodeceiveAbonsam,that,beingoffhisguard,hemaybetakenbysurprise,and
frightenedoutoftheplace.Ifanyonedieduringthesilence,hisrelativesarenotallowedtoweepuntil
thefourweekshavebeencompleted.
Sometimesthedateoftheannualexpulsionofdevilsisfixedwithreferencetotheagriculturalseasons.
ThusamongtheHosofTogoland,inWestAfrica,theexpulsionisperformedannuallybeforethepeople
partakeofthenewyams.Thechiefssummonthepriestsandmagiciansandtellthemthatthepeopleare
nowtoeatthenewyamsandbemerry,thereforetheymustcleansethetownandremovetheevils.
Accordinglytheevilspirits,witches,andalltheillsthatinfestthepeopleareconjuredintobundlesof
leavesandcreepers,fastenedtopoles,whicharecarriedawayandsetupintheearthonvariousroads
outsidethetown.Duringthefollowingnightnofiremaybelitandnofoodeaten.Nextmorningthe
womensweepouttheirhearthsandhouses,anddepositthesweepingsonbrokenwoodenplates.Then
thepeoplepray,saying,Allyesicknessesthatareinourbodyandplagueus,wearecometodayto
throwyouout.ThereupontheyrunasfastastheycaninthedirectionofMountAdaklu,smitingtheir
mouthsandscreaming,Outtoday!Outtoday!Thatwhichkillsanybody,outtoday!Yeevilspirits,
outtoday!andallthatcausesourheadstoache,outtoday!AnloandAdakluaretheplaceswhitherall
illshallbetakeitself!WhentheyhavecometoacertaintreeonMountAdaklu,theythroweverything
awayandreturnhome.
AtKiriwina,inSouthEasternNewGuinea,whenthenewyamshadbeenharvested,thepeoplefeasted
anddancedformanydays,andagreatdealofproperty,suchasarmlets,nativemoney,andsoforth,was
displayedconspicuouslyonaplatformerectedforthepurpose.Whenthefestivitieswereover,allthe
peoplegatheredtogetherandexpelledthespiritsfromthevillagebyshouting,beatingthepostsofthe
houses,andoverturningeverythingunderwhichawilyspiritmightbesupposedtolurk.Theexplanation
whichthepeoplegavetoamissionarywasthattheyhadentertainedandfeastedthespiritsandprovided
themwithriches,anditwasnowtimeforthemtotaketheirdeparture.Hadtheynotseenthedances,and
heardthesongs,andgorgedthemselvesonthesoulsoftheyams,andappropriatedthesoulsofthe
moneyandalltheotherfinethingssetoutontheplatform?Whatmorecouldthespiritswant?Soout

theymustgo.
AmongtheHosofNorthEasternIndiathegreatfestivaloftheyearistheharvesthome,heldinJanuary,
whenthegranariesarefullofgrain,andthepeople,tousetheirownexpression,arefullofdevilry.
Theyhaveastrangenotionthatatthisperiod,menandwomenaresooverchargedwithvicious
propensities,thatitisabsolutelynecessaryforthesafetyofthepersontoletoffsteambyallowingfora
timefullventtothepassions.Theceremoniesopenwithasacrificetothevillagegodofthreefowls,a
cockandtwohens,oneofwhichmustbeblack.Alongwiththemareofferedflowersofthepalastree
(Buteafrondosa),breadmadefromriceflour,andsesamumseeds.Theseofferingsarepresentedbythe
villagepriest,whopraysthatduringtheyearabouttobegintheyandtheirchildrenmaybepreserved
fromallmisfortuneandsickness,andthattheymayhaveseasonablerainandgoodcrops.Prayerisalso
madeinsomeplacesforthesoulsofthedead.Atthistimeanevilspiritissupposedtoinfesttheplace,
andtogetridofitmen,women,andchildrengoinprocessionroundandthrougheverypartofthe
villagewithsticksintheirhands,asifbeatingforgame,singingawildchant,andshoutingvociferously,
tilltheyfeelassuredthattheevilspiritmusthavefled.Thentheygivethemselvesuptofeastingand
drinkingricebeer,tilltheyareinafitstateforthewilddebauchwhichfollows.Thefestivalnow
becomesasaturnale,duringwhichservantsforgettheirdutytotheirmasters,childrentheirreverence
forparents,mentheirrespectforwomen,andwomenallnotionsofmodesty,delicacy,andgentleness
theybecomeragingbacchantes.UsuallytheHosarequietandreservedinmanner,decorousandgentle
towomen.Butduringthisfestivaltheirnaturesappeartoundergoatemporarychange.Sonsand
daughtersreviletheirparentsingrosslanguage,andparentstheirchildrenmenandwomenbecome
almostlikeanimalsintheindulgenceoftheiramorouspropensities.TheMundaris,kinsmenand
neighboursoftheHos,keepthefestivalinmuchthesamemanner.TheresemblancetoaSaturnaleis
verycomplete,asatthisfestivalthefarmlabourersarefeastedbytheirmasters,andallowedtheutmost
freedomofspeechinaddressingthem.Itisthefestivaloftheharvesthometheterminationofoneyears
toil,andaslightrespitefromitbeforetheycommenceagain.
AmongstsomeoftheHindooKooshtribes,asamongtheHosandMundaris,theexpulsionofdevils
takesplaceafterharvest.Whenthelastcropofautumnhasbeengotin,itisthoughtnecessarytodrive
awayevilspiritsfromthegranaries.Akindofporridgeiseaten,andtheheadofthefamilytakeshis
matchlockandfiresitintothefloor.Then,goingoutside,hesetstoworkloadingandfiringtillhis
powderhornisexhausted,whileallhisneighboursaresimilarlyemployed.Thenextdayisspentin
rejoicings.InChitralthisfestivaliscalleddevildriving.OntheotherhandtheKhondsofIndiaexpel
thedevilsatseedtimeinsteadofatharvest.AtthistimetheyworshipPitteriPennu,thegodofincrease
andofgainineveryshape.Onthefirstdayofthefestivalarudecarismadeofabasketsetuponafew
sticks,tieduponthebamboorollersforwheels.Thepriesttakesthiscarfirsttothehouseofthelineal
headofthetribe,towhomprecedenceisgiveninallceremoniesconnectedwithagriculture.Herehe
receivesalittleofeachkindofseedandsomefeathers.Hethentakesthecartoalltheotherhousesinthe
village,eachofwhichcontributesthesamethings.Lastly,thecarisconductedtoafieldwithoutthe
village,attendedbyalltheyoungmen,whobeateachotherandstriketheairviolentlywithlongsticks.
Theseedthuscarriedoutiscalledtheshareoftheevilspirits,spoilersoftheseed.Theseare
consideredtobedrivenoutwiththecarandwhenitanditscontentsareabandonedtothem,theyare
heldtohavenoexcuseforinterferingwiththerestoftheseedcorn.
ThepeopleofBali,anislandtotheeastofJava,haveperiodicalexpulsionsofdevilsuponagreatscale.
Generallythetimechosenfortheexpulsionisthedayofthedarkmoonintheninthmonth.Whenthe
demonshavebeenlongunmolestedthecountryissaidtobewarm,andthepriestissuesorderstoexpel
thembyforce,lestthewholeofBalishouldberendereduninhabitable.Onthedayappointedthepeople
ofthevillageordistrictassembleattheprincipaltemple.Hereatacrossroadofferingsaresetoutforthe
devils.Afterprayershavebeenrecitedbythepriests,theblastofahornsummonsthedevilstopartakeof
themealwhichhasbeenpreparedforthem.Atthesametimeanumberofmenstepforwardandlight

theirtorchesattheholylampwhichburnsbeforethechiefpriest.Immediatelyafterwards,followedby
thebystanders,theyspreadinalldirectionsandmarchthroughthestreetsandlanescrying,Depart!go
away!Wherevertheypass,thepeoplewhohavestayedathomehasten,byadeafeningclatterondoors,
beams,riceblocks,andsoforth,totaketheirshareintheexpulsionofdevils.Thuschasedfromthe
houses,thefiendsfleetothebanquetwhichhasbeensetoutforthembutherethepriestreceivesthem
withcurseswhichfinallydrivethemfromthedistrict.Whenthelastdevilhastakenhisdeparture,the
uproarissucceededbyadeadsilence,whichlastsduringthenextdayalso.Thedevils,itisthought,are
anxioustoreturntotheiroldhomes,andinordertomakethemthinkthatBaliisnotBalibutsomedesert
island,noonemaystirfromhisownabodefortwentyfourhours.Evenordinaryhouseholdwork,
includingcooking,isdiscontinued.Onlythewatchmenmayshowthemselvesinthestreets.Wreathsof
thornsandleavesarehungatalltheentrancestowarnstrangersfromentering.Nottillthethirddayis
thisstateofsiegeraised,andeventhenitisforbiddentoworkatthericefieldsortobuyandsellinthe
market.Mostpeoplestillstayathome,whilingawaythetimewithcardsanddice.
InTonquinatheckydaworgeneralexpulsionofmaleyolentspiritscommonlytookplaceonceayear,
especiallyiftherewasagreatmortalityamongstmen,theelephantsorhorsesofthegeneralsstable,or
thecattleofthecountry,thecauseofwhichtheyattributetothemaliciousspiritsofsuchmenashave
beenputtodeathfortreason,rebellion,andconspiringthedeathoftheking,general,orprinces,andthat
inrevengeofthepunishmenttheyhavesuffered,theyarebenttodestroyeverythingandcommithorrible
violence.Topreventwhichtheirsuperstitionhassuggestedtothemtheinstitutionofthistheckydaw,asa
propermeanstodrivethedevilaway,andpurgethecountryofevilspirits.Thedayappointedforthe
ceremonywasgenerallythetwentyfifthofFebruary,onemonthafterthebeginningofthenewyear,
whichfellonthetwentyfifthofJanuary.Theintermediatemonthwasaseasonoffeasting,merry
makingofallkinds,andgenerallicence.Duringthewholemonththegreatsealwaskeptshutupina
box,facedownwards,andthelawwas,asitwere,laidasleep.Allcourtsofjusticewerecloseddebtors
couldnotbeseizedsmallcrimes,suchaspettylarceny,fighting,andassault,escapedwithimpunity
onlytreasonandmurderweretakenaccountofandthemalefactorsdetainedtillthegreatsealshould
comeintooperationagain.Atthecloseofthesaturnaliathewickedspiritsweredrivenaway.Great
massesoftroopsandartilleryhavingbeendrawnupwithflyingcoloursandallthepompofwar,the
generalbeginneththentooffermeatofferingstothecriminaldevilsandmalevolentspirits(foritisusual
andcustomarylikewiseamongstthemtofeastthecondemnedbeforetheirexecution),invitingthemto
eatanddrink,whenpresentlyheaccusestheminastrangelanguage,bycharactersandfigures,etc.,of
manyoffencesandcrimescommittedbythem,astotheirhavingdisquietedtheland,killedhiselephants
andhorses,etc.,forallwhichtheyjustlydeservetobechastisedandbanishedthecountry.Whereupon
threegreatgunsarefiredasthelastsignaluponwhichalltheartilleryandmusquetsaredischarged,that,
bytheirmostterriblenoisethedevilsmaybedrivenawayandtheyaresoblindastobelieveforcertain,
thattheyreallyandeffectuallyputthemtoflight.
InCambodiatheexpulsionofevilspiritstookplaceinMarch.Bitsofbrokenstatuesandstones,
consideredastheabodeofthedemons,werecollectedandbroughttothecapital.Hereasmanyelephants
werecollectedascouldbegottogether.Ontheeveningofthefullmoonvolleysofmusketrywerefired
andtheelephantschargedfuriouslytoputthedevilstoflight.Theceremonywasperformedonthree
successivedays.InSiamthebanishmentofdemonsisannuallycarriedintoeffectonthelastdayofthe
oldyear.Asignalgunisfiredfromthepalaceitisansweredfromthenextstation,andsoonfrom
stationtostation,tillthefiringhasreachedtheoutergateofthecity.Thusthedemonsaredrivenoutstep
bystep.Assoonasthisisdoneaconsecratedropeisfastenedroundthecircuitofthecitywallsto
preventthebanisheddemonsfromreturning.Theropeismadeoftoughcouchgrassandispaintedin
alternatestripesofred,yellow,andblue.
Annualexpulsionsofdemons,witches,orevilinfluencesappeartohavebeencommonamongthe
heathenofEurope,ifwemayjudgefromtherelicsofsuchcustomsamongtheirdescendantsatthe

presentday.ThusamongtheheathenWotyaks,aFinnishpeopleofEasternRussia,alltheyounggirlsof
thevillageassembleonthelastdayoftheyearoronNewYearsDay,armedwithsticks,theendsof
whicharesplitinnineplaces.Withthesetheybeateverycornerofthehouseandyard,saying,Weare
drivingSatanoutofthevillage.Afterwardsthesticksarethrownintotheriverbelowthevillage,andas
theyfloatdownstreamSatangoeswiththemtothenextvillage,fromwhichhemustbedrivenoutin
turn.Insomevillagestheexpulsionismanagedotherwise.Theunmarriedmenreceivefromeveryhouse
inthevillagegroats,flesh,andbrandy.Thesetheytaketothefields,lightafireunderafirtree,boilthe
groats,andeatofthefoodtheyhavebroughtwiththem,afterpronouncingthewords,Goawayintothe
wilderness,comenotintothehouse.Thentheyreturntothevillageandentereveryhousewherethere
areyoungwomen.Theytakeholdoftheyoungwomenandthrowthemintothesnow,saying,Maythe
spiritsofdiseaseleaveyou.Theremainsofthegroatsandtheotherfoodarethendistributedamongall
thehousesinproportiontotheamountthateachcontributed,andeachfamilyconsumesitsshare.
AccordingtoaWotyakoftheMalmyzdistricttheyoungmenthrowintothesnowwhomevertheyfindin
thehouses,andthisiscalleddrivingoutSatanmoreover,someoftheboiledgroatsarecastintothe
firewiththewords,Ogod,afflictusnotwithsicknessandpestilence,giveusnotupasapreytothe
spiritsofthewood.ButthemostantiqueformoftheceremonyisthatobservedbytheWotyaksofthe
KasanGovernment.FirstofallasacrificeisofferedtotheDevilatnoon.Thenallthemenassembleon
horsebackinthecentreofthevillage,anddecidewithwhichhousetheyshallbegin.Whenthisquestion,
whichoftengivesrisetohotdisputes,issettled,theytethertheirhorsestothepaling,andarmthemselves
withwhips,clubsoflimewoodandbundlesoflightedtwigs.Thelightedtwigsarebelievedtohavethe
greatestterrorsforSatan.Thusarmed,theyproceedwithfrightfulcriestobeateverycornerofthehouse
andyard,thenshutthedoor,andspitattheejectedfiend.Sotheygofromhousetohouse,tilltheDevil
hasbeendrivenfromeveryone.Thentheymounttheirhorsesandrideoutofthevillage,yellingwildly
andbrandishingtheirclubsineverydirection.Outsideofthevillagetheyflingawaytheclubsandspit
oncemoreattheDevil.TheCheremiss,anotherFinnishpeopleofEasternRussia,chaseSatanfromtheir
dwellingsbybeatingthewallswithcudgelsoflimewood.Forthesamepurposetheyfireguns,stabthe
groundwithknives,andinsertburningchipsofwoodinthecrevices.Alsotheyleapoverbonfires,
shakingouttheirgarmentsastheydosoandinsomedistrictstheyblowonlongtrumpetsoflimetree
barktofrightenhimaway.Whenhehasfledtothewood,theypeltthetreeswithsomeofthecheese
cakesandeggswhichfurnishedthefeast.
InChristianEuropetheoldheathencustomofexpellingthepowersofevilatcertaintimesoftheyear
hassurvivedtomoderntimes.ThusinsomevillagesofCalabriathemonthofMarchisinauguratedwith
theexpulsionofthewitches.Ittakesplaceatnighttothesoundofthechurchbells,thepeoplerunning
aboutthestreetsandcrying,Marchiscome.TheysaythatthewitchesroamaboutinMarch,andthe
ceremonyisrepeatedeveryFridayeveningduringthemonth.Often,asmighthavebeenanticipated,the
ancientpaganritehasattacheditselftochurchfestivals.InAlbaniaonEasterEvetheyoungpeoplelight
torchesofresinouswoodandmarchinprocession,swingingthem,throughthevillage.Atlasttheythrow
thetorchesintotheriver,crying,Ha,Kore!wethrowyouintotheriver,likethesetorches,thatyoumay
neverreturn.SilesianpeasantsbelievethatonGoodFridaythewitchesgotheirroundsandhavegreat
powerformischief.HenceaboutOels,nearStrehlitz,thepeopleonthatdayarmthemselveswithold
broomsanddrivethewitchesfromhouseandhome,fromfarmyardandcattlestall,makingagreat
uproarandclatterastheydoso.
InCentralEuropethefavouritetimeforexpellingthewitchesis,orwas,WalpurgisNight,theEveof
MayDay,whenthebalefulpowersofthesemischievousbeingsweresupposedtobeattheirheight.In
theTyrol,forexample,asinotherplaces,theexpulsionofthepowersofevilatthisseasongoesbythe
nameofBurningouttheWitches.IttakesplaceonMayDay,butpeoplehavebeenbusywiththeir
preparationsfordaysbefore.OnaThursdayatmidnightbundlesaremadeupofresinoussplinters,black
andredspottedhemlock,caperspurge,rosemary,andtwigsofthesloe.Thesearekeptandburnedon
MayDaybymenwhomustfirsthavereceivedplenaryabsolutionfromtheChurch.Onthelastthree

daysofAprilallthehousesarecleansedandfumigatedwithjuniperberriesandrue.OnMayDay,when
theeveningbellhasrungandthetwilightisfalling,theceremonyofBurningouttheWitchesbegins.
Menandboysmakearacketwithwhips,bells,pots,andpansthewomencarrycensersthedogsare
unchainedandrunbarkingandyelpingabout.Assoonasthechurchbellsbegintoring,thebundlesof
twigs,fastenedonpoles,aresetonfireandtheincenseisignited.Thenallthehousebellsanddinner
bellsarerung,potsandpansareclashed,dogsbark,everyonemustmakeanoise.Andamidthishubbub
allscreamatthepitchoftheirvoices:
Witchflee,fleefromhere,oritwillgoillwiththee.
Thentheyrunseventimesroundthehouses,theyards,andthevillage.Sothewitchesaresmokedoutof
theirlurkingplacesanddrivenaway.ThecustomofexpellingthewitchesonWalpurgisNightisstill,or
wasdowntorecentyears,observedinmanypartsofBavariaandamongtheGermansofBohemia.Thus
intheBhmerwaldMountainsalltheyoungfellowsofthevillageassembleaftersunsetonsome
height,especiallyatacrossroad,andcrackwhipsforawhileinunisonwithalltheirstrength.This
drivesawaythewitchesforsofarasthesoundofthewhipsisheard,thesemaleficentbeingscandono
harm.Insomeplaces,whiletheyoungmenarecrackingtheirwhips,theherdsmenwindtheirhorns,and
thelongdrawnnotes,heardfaroffinthesilenceofnight,areveryeffectualforbanningthewitches.
AnotherwitchingtimeistheperiodoftwelvedaysbetweenChristmasandEpiphany.Henceinsome
partsofSilesiathepeopleburnpineresinallnightlongbetweenChristmasandtheNewYearinorder
thatthepungentsmokemaydrivewitchesandevilspiritsfarawayfromhouseandhomesteadandon
ChristmasEveandNewYearsEvetheyfireshotsoverfieldsandmeadows,intoshrubsandtrees,and
wrapstrawroundthefruittrees,topreventthespiritsfromdoingthemharm.OnNewYearsEve,which
isSaintSylvestersDay,Bohemianlads,armedwithguns,formthemselvesintocirclesandfirethrice
intotheair.ThisiscalledShootingtheWitchesandissupposedtofrightenthewitchesaway.Thelast
ofthemystictwelvedaysisEpiphanyorTwelfthNight,andithasbeenselectedasaproperseasonfor
theexpulsionofthepowersofevilinvariouspartsofEurope.ThusatBrunnen,ontheLakeofLucerne,
boysgoaboutinprocessiononTwelfthNightcarryingtorchesandmakingagreatnoisewithhorns,
bells,whips,andsoforthtofrightenawaytwofemalespiritsofthewood,StrudeliandStrtteli.The
peoplethinkthatiftheydonotmakeenoughnoise,therewillbelittlefruitthatyear.Again,in
Labruguire,acantonofSouthernFrance,ontheeveofTwelfthDaythepeoplerunthroughthestreets,
janglingbells,clatteringkettles,anddoingeverythingtomakeadiscordantnoise.Thenbythelightof
torchesandblazingfaggotstheysetupaprodigioushueandcry,anearsplittinguproar,hopingthereby
tochaseallthewanderingghostsanddevilsfromthetown.

LVII.PublicScapegoats
1.TheExpulsionofEmbodiedEvils
THUSfarwehavedealtwiththatclassofthegeneralexpulsionofevilswhichIhavecalleddirector
immediate.Inthisclasstheevilsareinvisible,atleasttocommoneyes,andthemodeofdeliverance
consistsforthemostpartinbeatingtheemptyairandraisingsuchahubbubasmayscarethe
mischievousspiritsandputthemtoflight.Itremainstoillustratethesecondclassofexpulsions,inwhich
theevilinfluencesareembodiedinavisibleformorareatleastsupposedtobeloadeduponamaterial
medium,whichactsasavehicletodrawthemofffromthepeople,village,ortown.
ThePomosofCaliforniacelebrateanexpulsionofdevilseverysevenyears,atwhichthedevilsare
representedbydisguisedmen.Twentyorthirtymenarraythemselvesinharlequinrigandbarbaric
paint,andputvesselsofpitchontheirheadsthentheysecretlygooutintothesurroundingmountains.

Thesearetopersonifythedevils.Aheraldgoesuptothetopoftheassemblyhouse,andmakesaspeech
tothemultitude.Atasignalagreeduponintheeveningthemasqueraderscomeinfromthemountains,
withthevesselsofpitchflamingontheirheads,andwithallthefrightfulaccessoriesofnoise,motion,
andcostumewhichthesavagemindcandeviseinrepresentationofdemons.Theterrifiedwomenand
childrenfleeforlife,themenhuddletheminsideacircle,and,ontheprincipleoffightingthedevilwith
fire,theyswingblazingfirebrandsintheair,yell,whoop,andmakefranticdashesatthemaraudingand
bloodthirstydevils,socreatingaterrificspectacle,andstrikinggreatfearintotheheartsoftheassembled
hundredsofwomen,whoarescreamingandfaintingandclingingtotheirvalorousprotectors.Finallythe
devilssucceedingettingintotheassemblyhouse,andthebravestofthemenenterandholdaparleywith
them.Asaconclusionofthewholefarce,themensummoncourage,thedevilsareexpelledfromthe
assemblyhouse,andwithaprodigiousrowandracketofshamfightingarechasedawayintothe
mountains.Inspring,assoonasthewillowleaveswerefullgrownonthebanksoftheriver,the
MandanIndianscelebratedtheirgreatannualfestival,oneofthefeaturesofwhichwastheexpulsionof
thedevil.Aman,paintedblacktorepresentthedevil,enteredthevillagefromtheprairie,chasedand
frightenedthewomen,andactedthepartofabuffalobullinthebuffalodance,theobjectofwhichwas
toensureaplentifulsupplyofbuffaloesduringtheensuingyear.Finallyhewaschasedfromthevillage,
thewomenpursuinghimwithhissesandgibes,beatinghimwithsticks,andpeltinghimwithdirt.
SomeofthenativetribesofCentralQueenslandbelieveinanoxiousbeingcalledMolonga,whoprowls
unseenandwouldkillmenandviolatewomenifcertainceremonieswerenotperformed.These
ceremonieslastforfivenightsandconsistofdances,inwhichonlymen,fantasticallypaintedand
adorned,takepart.OnthefifthnightMolongahimself,personifiedbyamantrickedoutwithredochre
andfeathersandcarryingalongfeathertippedspear,rushesforthfromthedarknessatthespectatorsand
makesasifhewouldrunthemthrough.Greatistheexcitement,loudaretheshrieksandshouts,butafter
anotherfeignedattackthedemonvanishesinthegloom.Onthelastnightoftheyearthepalaceofthe
KingsofCambodiaispurgedofdevils.Menpaintedasfiendsarechasedbyelephantsaboutthepalace
courts.Whentheyhavebeenexpelled,aconsecratedthreadofcottonisstretchedroundthepalaceto
keepthemout.InMunzerabad,adistrictofMysoreinSouthernIndia,whencholeraorsmallpoxhas
brokenoutinaparish,theinhabitantsassembleandconjurethedemonofthediseaseintoawooden
image,whichtheycarry,generallyatmidnight,intothenextparish.Theinhabitantsofthatparishinlike
mannerpasstheimageontotheirneighbours,andthusthedemonisexpelledfromonevillageafter
another,untilhecomestothebankofariverintowhichheisfinallythrown.
Oftener,however,theexpelleddemonsarenotrepresentedatall,butareunderstoodtobepresent
invisiblyinthematerialandvisiblevehiclewhichconveysthemaway.Here,again,itwillbeconvenient
todistinguishbetweenoccasionalandperiodicalexpulsions.Webeginwiththeformer.
2.TheOccasionalExpulsionofEvilsinaMaterialVehicle

THEVEHICLEwhichconveysawaythedemonsmaybeofvariouskinds.Acommononeisalittleship
orboat.Thus,inthesoutherndistrictoftheislandofCeram,whenawholevillagesuffersfromsickness,
asmallshipismadeandfilledwithrice,tobacco,eggs,andsoforth,whichhavebeencontributedbyall
thepeople.Alittlesailishoistedontheship.Whenallisready,amancallsoutinaveryloudvoice,O
allyesicknesses,yesmallpoxes,agues,measles,etc.,whohavevisitedussolongandwastedusso
sorely,butwhonowceasetoplagueus,wehavemadereadythisshipforyou,andwehavefurnished
youwithprovendersufficientforthevoyage.Yeshallhavenolackoffoodnorofbetelleavesnorof
arecanutsnoroftobacco.Depart,andsailawayfromusdirectlynevercomenearusagainbutgotoa
landwhichisfarfromhere.Letallthetidesandwindswaftyouspeedilythither,andsoconveyyou

thitherthatforthetimetocomewemaylivesoundandwell,andthatwemayneverseethesunriseon
youagain.Thentenortwelvemencarrythevesseltotheshore,andletitdriftawaywiththeland
breeze,feelingconvincedthattheyarefreefromsicknessforever,oratleasttillthenexttime.If
sicknessattacksthemagain,theyaresureitisnotthesamesickness,butadifferentone,whichindue
timetheydismissinthesamemanner.Whenthedemonladenbarkislosttosight,thebearersreturnto
thevillage,whereuponamancriesout,Thesicknessesarenowgone,vanished,expelled,andsailed
away.Atthisallthepeoplecomerunningoutoftheirhouses,passingthewordfromonetotheother
withgreatjoy,beatingongongsandontinklinginstruments.
SimilarceremoniesarecommonlyresortedtoinotherEastIndianislands.ThusinTimorlaut,tomislead
thedemonswhoarecausingsickness,asmallproa,containingtheimageofamanandprovisionedfora
longvoyage,isallowedtodriftawaywithwindandtide.Asitisbeinglaunched,thepeoplecry,O
sickness,gofromhereturnbackwhatdoyouhereinthispoorland?Threedaysafterthisceremonya
pigiskilled,andpartofthefleshisofferedtoDudilaa,wholivesinthesun.Oneoftheoldestmensays,
Oldsir,Ibeseechyoumakewellthegrandchildren,children,women,andmen,thatwemaybeableto
eatporkandriceandtodrinkpalmwine.Iwillkeepmypromise.Eatyourshare,andmakeallthepeople
inthevillagewell.Iftheproaisstrandedatanyinhabitedspot,thesicknesswillbreakoutthere.Hence
astrandedproaexcitesmuchalarmamongstthecoastpopulation,andtheyimmediatelyburnit,because
demonsflyfromfire.IntheislandofBurutheproawhichcarriesawaythedemonsofdiseaseisabout
twentyfeetlong,riggedoutwithsails,oars,anchor,andsoon,andwellstockedwithprovisions.Fora
dayandanightthepeoplebeatgongsanddrums,andrushabouttofrightenthedemons.Nextmorning
tenstalwartyoungmenstrikethepeoplewithbranches,whichhavebeenpreviouslydippedinanearthen
potofwater.Assoonastheyhavedoneso,theyrundowntothebeach,putthebranchesonboardthe
proa,launchanotherboatingreathaste,andtowthediseaseburdenedbarkfarouttosea.Theretheycast
itoff,andoneofthemcallsout,GrandfatherSmallpox,goawaygowillinglyawaygovisitanother
landwehavemadeyoufoodreadyforthevoyage,wehavenownothingmoretogive.Whentheyhave
landed,allthepeoplebathetogetherinthesea.Inthisceremonythereasonforstrikingthepeoplewith
thebranchesisclearlytoridthemofthediseasedemons,whicharethensupposedtobetransferredto
thebranches.Hencethehastewithwhichthebranchesaredepositedintheproaandtowedawaytosea.
SointheinlanddistrictsofCeram,whensmallpoxorothersicknessisraging,theprieststrikesallthe
houseswithconsecratedbranches,whicharethenthrownintotheriver,tobecarrieddowntothesea
exactlyasamongsttheWotyaksofRussiathestickswhichhavebeenusedforexpellingthedevilsfrom
thevillagearethrownintotheriver,thatthecurrentmaysweepthebalefulburdenaway.Theplanof
puttingpuppetsintheboattorepresentsickpersons,inordertolurethedemonsafterthem,isnot
uncommon.Forexample,mostofthepagantribesonthecoastofBorneoseektodriveawayepidemic
diseaseasfollows.Theycarveoneormoreroughhumanimagesfromthepithofthesagopalmand
placethemonasmallraftorboatorfullriggedMalayshiptogetherwithriceandotherfood.Theboatis
deckedwithblossomsofthearecapalmandwithribbonsmadefromitsleaves,andthusadornedthe
littlecraftisallowedtofloatouttoseawiththeebbtide,bearing,asthepeoplefondlythinkorhope,the
sicknessawaywithit.
Oftenthevehiclewhichcarriesawaythecollecteddemonsorillsofawholecommunityisananimalor
scapegoat.IntheCentralProvincesofIndia,whencholerabreaksoutinavillage,everyoneretiresafter
sunsettohishouse.Theprieststhenparadethestreets,takingfromtheroofofeachhouseastraw,which
isburntwithanofferingofrice,ghee,andturmeric,atsomeshrinetotheeastofthevillage.Chickens
daubedwithvermilionaredrivenawayinthedirectionofthesmoke,andarebelievedtocarrythe
diseasewiththem.Iftheyfail,goatsaretried,andlastofallpigs.WhencholeraragesamongtheBhars,
Mallans,andKurmisofIndia,theytakeagoatorabuffaloineithercasetheanimalmustbeafemale,
andasblackaspossiblethenhavingtiedsomegrain,cloves,andredleadinayellowclothonitsback
theyturnitoutofthevillage.Theanimalisconductedbeyondtheboundaryandnotallowedtoreturn.
Sometimesthebuffaloismarkedwitharedpigmentanddriventothenextvillage,wherehecarriesthe

plaguewithhim.
AmongsttheDinkas,apastoralpeopleoftheWhiteNile,eachfamilypossessesasacredcow.Whenthe
countryisthreatenedwithwar,famine,oranyotherpubliccalamity,thechiefsofthevillagerequirea
particularfamilytosurrendertheirsacredcowtoserveasascapegoat.Theanimalisdrivenbythe
womentothebrinkoftheriverandacrossittotheotherbank,theretowanderinthewildernessandfall
apreytoraveningbeasts.Thenthewomenreturninsilenceandwithoutlookingbehindthemwerethey
tocastabackwardglance,theyimaginethattheceremonywouldhavenoeffect.In1857,whenthe
AymaraIndiansofBoliviaandPeruweresufferingfromaplague,theyloadedablackllamawiththe
clothesoftheplaguestrickenpeople,sprinkledbrandyontheclothes,andthenturnedtheanimalloose
onthemountains,hopingthatitwouldcarrythepestawaywithit.
Occasionallythescapegoatisaman.Forexample,fromtimetotimethegodsusedtowarntheKingof
UgandathathisfoestheBanyorowereworkingmagicagainsthimandhispeopletomakethemdieof
disease.ToavertsuchacatastrophethekingwouldsendascapegoattothefrontierofBunyoro,theland
oftheenemy.Thescapegoatconsistedofeitheramanandaboyorawomanandherchild,chosen
becauseofsomemarkorbodilydefect,whichthegodshadnotedandbywhichthevictimsweretobe
recognised.Withthehumanvictimsweresentacow,agoat,afowl,andadogandastrongguard
escortedthemtothelandwhichthegodhadindicated.Therethelimbsofthevictimswerebrokenand
theywerelefttodiealingeringdeathintheenemyscountry,beingtoocrippledtocrawlbackto
Uganda.Thediseaseorplaguewasthoughttohavebeenthustransferredtothevictimsandtohavebeen
conveyedbackintheirpersonstothelandfromwhichitcame.
SomeoftheaboriginaltribesofChina,asaprotectionagainstpestilence,selectamanofgreatmuscular
strengthtoactthepartofscapegoat.Havingbesmearedhisfacewithpaint,heperformsmanyanticswith
theviewofenticingallpestilentialandnoxiousinfluencestoattachthemselvestohimonly.Heis
assistedbyapriest.Finallythescapegoat,hotlypursuedbymenandwomenbeatinggongsandtom
toms,isdrivenwithgreathasteoutofthetownorvillage.InthePunjaubacureforthemurrainistohire
amanoftheChamarcaste,turnhisfaceawayfromthevillage,brandhimwitharedhotsickle,andlet
himgooutintothejungletakingthemurrainwithhim.Hemustnotlookback.
3.ThePeriodicExpulsionofEvilsinaMaterialVehicle

THEMEDIATEexpulsionofevilsbymeansofascapegoatorothermaterialvehicle,liketheimmediate
expulsionofthemininvisibleform,tendstobecomeperiodic,andforalikereason.Thuseveryyear,
generallyinMarch,thepeopleofLeti,Moa,andLakor,islandsoftheIndianArchipelago,sendawayall
theirdiseasestosea.Theymakeaproaaboutsixfeetlong,rigitwithsails,oars,rudder,andothergear,
andeveryfamilydepositsinitssomerice,fruit,afowl,twoeggs,insectsthatravagethefields,andso
on.Thentheyletitdriftawaytosea,saying,Takeawayfromhereallkindsofsickness,takethemto
otherislands,tootherlands,distributetheminplacesthatlieeastward,wherethesunrises.TheBiajas
ofBorneoannuallysendtoseaalittlebarkladenwiththesinsandmisfortunesofthepeople.Thecrew
ofanyshipthatfallsinwiththeillomenedbarkatseawillsufferallthesorrowswithwhichitisladen.
AlikecustomisannuallyobservedbytheDusunsoftheTuarandistrictinBritishNorthBorneo.The
ceremonyisthemostimportantofthewholeyear.Itsaimistobringgoodlucktothevillageduringthe
ensuingyearbysolemnlyexpellingalltheevilspiritsthatmayhavecollectedinoraboutthehouses
throughoutthelasttwelvemonths.Thetaskofroutingoutthedemonsandbanishingthemdevolves
chieflyonwomen.Dressedintheirfinestarray,theygoinprocessionthroughthevillage.Oneofthem
carriesasmallsuckingpiginabasketonherbackandallofthembearwands,withwhichtheybelabour
thelittlepigattheappropriatemomentitssquealshelptoattractthevagrantspirits.Ateveryhousethe

womendanceandsing,clashingcastanetsorcymbalsofbrassandjinglingbunchesoflittlebrassbellsin
bothhands.Whentheperformancehasbeenrepeatedateveryhouseinthevillage,theprocessiondefiles
downtotheriver,andalltheevilspirits,whichtheperformershavechasedfromthehouses,followthem
totheedgeofthewater.Therearafthasbeenmadereadyandmooredtothebank.Itcontainsofferings
offood,cloth,cookingpots,andswordsandthedeckiscrowdedwithfiguresofmen,women,animals,
andbirds,allmadeoutoftheleavesofthesagopalm.Theevilspiritsnowembarkontheraft,andwhen
theyareallaboard,itispushedoffandallowedtofloatdownwiththecurrent,carryingthedemonswith
it.Shouldtheraftrunagroundnearthevillage,itisshovedoffwithallspeed,lesttheinvisible
passengersshouldseizetheopportunityoflandingandreturningtothevillage.Finally,thesufferingsof
thelittlepig,whosesquealsservedtodecoythedemonsfromtheirlurkingplaces,areterminatedby
death,foritiskilledanditscarcasethrownaway.
Everyyear,atthebeginningofthedryseason,theNicobarIslanderscarrythemodelofashipthrough
theirvillages.Thedevilsarechasedoutofthehuts,anddrivenonboardthelittleship,whichisthen
launchedandsufferedtosailawaywiththewind.Theceremonyhasbeendescribedbyacatechist,who
witnesseditatCarNicobarinJuly1897.Forthreedaysthepeoplewerebusypreparingtwoverylarge
floatingcars,shapedlikecanoes,fittedwithsails,andloadedwithcertainleaves,whichpossessedthe
valuablepropertyofexpellingdevils.Whiletheyoungpeoplewerethusengaged,theexorcistsandthe
elderssatinahousesingingsongsbyturnsbutoftentheywouldcomeforth,pacethebeacharmedwith
rods,andforbidthedeviltoenterthevillage.Thefourthdayofthesolemnityboreanamewhichmeans
ExpellingtheDevilbySails.Intheeveningallthevillagersassembled,thewomenbringingbasketsof
ashesandbunchesofdevilexpellingleaves.Theseleaveswerethendistributedtoeverybody,oldand
young.Whenallwasready,abandofrobustmen,attendedbyaguardofexorcists,carriedoneofthe
carsdowntotheseaontherightsideofthevillagegraveyard,andsetitfloatinginthewater.Assoonas
theyhadreturned,anotherbandofmencarriedtheothercartothebeachandfloateditsimilarlyinthe
seatotheleftofthegraveyard.Thedemonladenbarksbeingnowlaunched,thewomenthrewashes
fromtheshore,andthewholecrowdshouted,saying,Flyaway,devil,flyaway,nevercomeagain!
Thewindandthetidebeingfavourable,thecanoessailedquicklyawayandthatnightallthepeople
feastedtogetherwithgreatjoy,becausethedevilhaddepartedinthedirectionofChowra.Asimilar
expulsionofdevilstakesplaceonceayearinotherNicobarvillagesbuttheceremoniesareheldat
differenttimesindifferentplaces.
AmongstmanyoftheaboriginaltribesofChina,agreatfestivaliscelebratedinthethirdmonthofevery
year.Itisheldbywayofageneralrejoicingoverwhatthepeoplebelievetobeatotalannihilationofthe
illsofthepasttwelvemonths.Thedestructionissupposedtobeeffectedinthefollowingway.Alarge
earthenwarejarfilledwithgunpowder,stones,andbitsofironisburiedintheearth.Atrainof
gunpowder,communicatingwiththejar,isthenlaidandamatchbeingapplied,thejaranditscontents
areblownup.Thestonesandbitsofironrepresenttheillsanddisastersofthepastyear,andthe
dispersionofthembytheexplosionisbelievedtoremovetheillsanddisastersthemselves.Thefestival
isattendedwithmuchrevellinganddrunkenness.
AtOldCalabaronthecoastofGuinea,thedevilsandghostsare,orusedtobe,publiclyexpelledoncein
twoyears.Amongthespiritsthusdrivenfromtheirhauntsarethesoulsofallthepeoplewhodiedsince
thelastlustrationofthetown.Aboutthreeweeksoramonthbeforetheexpulsion,whichaccordingto
oneaccounttakesplaceinthemonthofNovember,rudeeffigiesrepresentingmenandanimals,suchas
crocodiles,leopards,elephants,bullocks,andbirds,aremadeofwickerworkorwood,andbeinghung
withstripsofclothandbedizenedwithgewgaws,aresetbeforethedoorofeveryhouse.Aboutthree
oclockinthemorningofthedayappointedfortheceremonythewholepopulationturnsoutintothe
streets,andproceedswithadeafeninguproarandinastateofthewildestexcitementtodrivealllurking
devilsandghostsintotheeffigies,inorderthattheymaybebanishedwiththemfromtheabodesofmen.
Forthispurposebandsofpeopleroamthroughthestreetsknockingondoors,firingguns,beatingdrums,

blowingonhorns,ringingbells,clatteringpotsandpans,shoutingandhallooingwithmightandmain,in
shortmakingallthenoiseitispossibleforthemtoraise.Thehubbubgoesontilltheapproachofdawn,
whenitgraduallysubsidesandceasesaltogetheratsunrise.Bythistimethehouseshavebeenthoroughly
swept,andallthefrightenedspiritsaresupposedtohavehuddledintotheeffigiesortheirfluttering
drapery.Inthesewickerfiguresarealsodepositedthesweepingsofthehousesandtheashesof
yesterdaysfires.Thenthedemonladenimagesarehastilysnatchedup,carriedintumultuousprocession
downtothebrinkoftheriver,andthrownintothewatertothetuckofdrums.Theebbtidebearsthem
awayseaward,andthusthetownissweptcleanofghostsanddevilsforanothertwoyears.
SimilarannualexpulsionsofembodiedevilsarenotunknowninEurope.OntheeveningofEaster
SundaythegypsiesofSouthernEuropetakeawoodenvessellikeabandbox,whichrestscradlewiseon
twocrosspiecesofwood.Inthistheyplaceherbsandsimples,togetherwiththedriedcarcaseofasnake,
orlizard,whicheverypersonpresentmustfirsthavetouchedwithhisfingers.Thevesselisthenwraptin
whiteandredwool,carriedbytheoldestmanfromtenttotent,andfinallythrownintorunningwater,
not,however,beforeeverymemberofthebandhasspatintoitonce,andthesorceresshasutteredsome
spellsoverit.Theybelievethatbyperformingthisceremonytheydispelalltheillnessesthatwould
otherwisehaveafflictedtheminthecourseoftheyearandthatifanyonefindsthevesselandopensit
outofcuriosity,heandhiswillbevisitedbyallthemaladieswhichtheothershaveescaped.
Thescapegoatbymeansofwhichtheaccumulatedillsofawholeyeararepubliclyexpelledis
sometimesananimal.Forexample,amongtheGarosofAssam,besidesthesacrificesforindividual
casesofillness,therearecertainceremonieswhichareobservedonceayearbyawholecommunityor
village,andareintendedtosafeguarditsmembersfromdangersoftheforest,andfromsicknessand
mishapduringthecomingtwelvemonths.TheprincipaloftheseistheAsongtataceremony.Closetothe
outskirtsofeverybigvillageanumberofstonesmaybenoticedstuckintotheground,apparently
withoutorderormethod.Theseareknownbythenameofasong,andonthemisofferedthesacrifice
whichtheAsongtatademands.Thesacrificeofagoattakesplace,andamonthlater,thatofalangur
(Entellusmonkey)orabambooratisconsiderednecessary.Theanimalchosenhasaropefastenedround
itsneckandisledbytwomen,oneoneachsideofit,toeveryhouseinthevillage.Itistakeninsideeach
houseinturn,theassembledvillagers,meanwhile,beatingthewallsfromtheoutside,tofrightenand
driveoutanyevilspiritswhichmayhavetakenuptheirresidencewithin.Theroundofthevillagehaving
beenmadeinthismanner,themonkeyorratisledtotheoutskirtsofthevillage,killedbyablowofa
dao,whichdisembowelsit,andthencrucifiedonbamboossetupintheground.Roundthecrucified
animallong,sharpbamboostakesareplaced,whichformchevauxdefriseroundaboutit.These
commemoratethedayswhensuchdefencessurroundedthevillagesonallsidestokeepoffhuman
enemies,andtheyarenowasymboltowardoffsicknessanddangerstolifefromthewildanimalsofthe
forest.Thelangurrequiredforthepurposeishunteddownsomedaysbefore,butshoulditbefound
impossibletocatchone,abrownmonkeymaytakeitsplaceahulockmaynotbeused.Herethe
crucifiedapeorratisthepublicscapegoat,whichbyitsvicarioussufferingsanddeathrelievesthe
peoplefromallsicknessandmishapinthecomingyear.
Again,ononedayoftheyeartheBhotiyasofJuhar,intheWesternHimalayas,takeadog,intoxicate
himwithspiritsandbhangorhemp,andhavingfedhimwithsweetmeats,leadhimroundthevillageand
lethimloose.Theythenchaseandkillhimwithsticksandstones,andbelievethat,whentheyhavedone
so,nodiseaseormisfortunewillvisitthevillageduringtheyear.InsomepartsofBreadalbaneitwas
formerlythecustomonNewYearsDaytotakeadogtothedoor,givehimabitofbread,anddrivehim
out,saying,Getaway,youdog!Whateverdeathofmenorlossofcattlewouldhappeninthishouseto
theendofthepresentyear,mayitalllightonyourhead!OntheDayofAtonement,whichwasthetenth
dayoftheseventhmonth,theJewishhighpriestlaidbothhishandsontheheadofalivegoat,confessed
overitalltheiniquitiesoftheChildrenofIsrael,and,havingtherebytransferredthesinsofthepeopleto
thebeast,sentitawayintothewilderness.

Thescapegoatuponwhomthesinsofthepeopleareperiodicallylaid,mayalsobeahumanbeing.At
Onitsha,ontheNiger,twohumanbeingsusedtobeannuallysacrificedtotakeawaythesinsoftheland.
Thevictimswerepurchasedbypublicsubscription.Allpersonswho,duringthepastyear,hadfalleninto
grosssins,suchasincendiarism,theft,adultery,witchcraft,andsoforth,wereexpectedtocontribute28
ngugas,oralittleover2.Themoneythuscollectedwastakenintotheinteriorofthecountryand
expendedinthepurchaseoftwosicklypersonstobeofferedasasacrificeforalltheseabominable
crimesoneforthelandandonefortheriver.Amanfromaneighbouringtownwashiredtoputthem
todeath.OnthetwentyseventhofFebruary1858theRev.J.C.Taylorwitnessedthesacrificeofoneof
thesevictims.Thesuffererwasawoman,aboutnineteenortwentyyearsofage.Theydraggedheralive
alongtheground,facedownwards,fromthekingshousetotheriver,adistanceoftwomiles,thecrowds
whoaccompaniedhercrying,Wickedness!wickedness!Theintentionwastotakeawaytheiniquities
oftheland.Thebodywasdraggedalonginamercilessmanner,asiftheweightofalltheirwickedness
wasthuscarriedaway.Similarcustomsaresaidtobestillsecretlypractisedeveryyearbymanytribes
inthedeltaoftheNigerinspiteofthevigilanceoftheBritishGovernment.AmongtheYorubanegroes
ofWestAfricathehumanvictimchosenforsacrifice,andwhomaybeeitherafreebornoraslave,a
personofnobleorwealthyparentage,oroneofhumblebirth,is,afterhehasbeenchosenandmarkedout
forthepurpose,calledanOluwo.Heisalwayswellfedandnourishedandsuppliedwithwhateverhe
shoulddesireduringtheperiodofhisconfinement.Whentheoccasionarrivesforhimtobesacrificed
andofferedup,heiscommonlyledaboutandparadedthroughthestreetsofthetownorcityofthe
Sovereignwhowouldsacrificehimforthewellbeingofhisgovernmentandofeveryfamilyand
individualunderit,inorderthathemightcarryoffthesin,guilt,misfortuneanddeathofallwithout
exception.Ashesandchalkwouldbeemployedtohidehisidentitybytheonebeingfreelythrownover
hishead,andhisfacepaintedwiththelatter,whilstindividualswouldoftenrushoutoftheirhousesto
laytheirhandsuponhimthattheymightthustransfertohimtheirsin,guilt,trouble,anddeath.This
paradeover,heistakentoaninnersanctuaryandbeheaded.Hislastwordsordyinggroansarethesignal
foranoutburstofjoyamongthepeopleassembledoutside,whobelievethatthesacrificehasbeen
acceptedandthedivinewrathappeased.
InSiamitusedtobethecustomononedayoftheyeartosingleoutawomanbrokendownby
debauchery,andcarryheronalitterthroughallthestreetstothemusicofdrumsandhautboys.Themob
insultedherandpeltedherwithdirtandafterhavingcarriedherthroughthewholecity,theythrewher
onadunghillorahedgeofthornsoutsidetheramparts,forbiddingherevertoenterthewallsagain.They
believedthatthewomanthusdrewuponherselfallthemaligninfluencesoftheairandofevilspirits.
TheBataksofSumatraoffereitheraredhorseorabuffaloasapublicsacrificetopurifythelandand
obtainthefavourofthegods.Formerly,itissaid,amanwasboundtothesamestakeasthebuffalo,and
whentheykilledtheanimal,themanwasdrivenawaynoonemightreceivehim,conversewithhim,or
givehimfood.Doubtlesshewassupposedtocarryawaythesinsandmisfortunesofthepeople.
Sometimesthescapegoatisadivineanimal.ThepeopleofMalabarsharetheHindooreverenceforthe
cow,tokillandeatwhichtheyesteemtobeacrimeasheinousashomicideorwilfulmurder.
NeverthelesstheBramanstransferthesinsofthepeopleintooneormoreCows,whicharethencarryd
away,boththeCowsandtheSinswherewiththeseBeastsarecharged,towhatplacetheBramanshall
appoint.WhentheancientEgyptianssacrificedabull,theyinvokeduponitsheadalltheevilsthatmight
otherwisebefallthemselvesandthelandofEgypt,andthereupontheyeithersoldthebullsheadtothe
Greeksorcastitintotheriver.Now,itcannotbesaidthatinthetimesknowntoustheEgyptians
worshippedbullsingeneral,fortheyseemtohavecommonlykilledandeatenthem.Butagoodmany
circumstancespointtotheconclusionthatoriginallyallcattle,bullsaswellascows,wereheldsacredby
theEgyptians.Fornotonlywereallcowsesteemedholybythemandneversacrificed,butevenbulls
mightnotbesacrificedunlesstheyhadcertainnaturalmarksapriestexaminedeverybullbeforeitwas
sacrificedifithadthepropermarks,heputhissealontheanimalintokenthatitmightbesacrificed
andifamansacrificedabullwhichhadnotbeensealed,hewasputtodeath.Moreover,theworshipof

theblackbullsApisandMnevis,especiallytheformer,playedanimportantpartinEgyptianreligionall
bullsthatdiedanaturaldeathwerecarefullyburiedinthesuburbsofthecities,andtheirboneswere
afterwardscollectedfromallpartsofEgyptandinterredinasinglespotandatthesacrificeofabullin
thegreatritesofIsisalltheworshippersbeattheirbreastsandmourned.Onthewhole,then,weare
perhapsentitledtoinferthatbullswereoriginally,ascowswerealways,esteemedsacredbythe
Egyptians,andthattheslainbulluponwhoseheadtheylaidthemisfortunesofthepeoplewasoncea
divinescapegoat.ItseemsnotimprobablethatthelambannuallyslainbytheMadisofCentralAfricaisa
divinescapegoat,andthesamesuppositionmaypartlyexplaintheZunisacrificeoftheturtle.
Lastly,thescapegoatmaybeadivineman.Thus,inNovembertheGondsofIndiaworshipGhansyam
Deo,theprotectorofthecrops,andatthefestivalthegodhimselfissaidtodescendontheheadofoneof
theworshippers,whoissuddenlyseizedwithakindoffitand,afterstaggeringabout,rushesoffintothe
jungle,whereitisbelievedthat,iflefttohimself,hewoulddiemad.However,theybringhimback,but
hedoesnotrecoverhissensesforoneortwodays.Thepeoplethinkthatonemanisthussingledoutasa
scapegoatforthesinsoftherestofthevillage.InthetempleoftheMoontheAlbaniansoftheEastern
Caucasuskeptanumberofsacredslaves,ofwhommanywereinspiredandprophesied.Whenoneof
thesemenexhibitedmorethanusualsymptomsofinspirationorinsanity,andwanderedsolitaryupand
downthewoods,liketheGondinthejungle,thehighpriesthadhimboundwithasacredchainand
maintainedhiminluxuryforayear.Attheendoftheyearhewasanointedwithunguentsandledforth
tobesacrificed.Amanwhosebusinessitwastoslaythesehumanvictimsandtowhompracticehad
givendexterity,advancedfromthecrowdandthrustasacredspearintothevictimsside,piercinghis
heart.Fromthemannerinwhichtheslainmanfell,omensweredrawnastothewelfareofthe
commonwealth.Thenthebodywascarriedtoacertainspotwhereallthepeoplestooduponitasa
purificatoryceremony.Thislastcircumstanceclearlyindicatesthatthesinsofthepeoplewere
transferredtothevictim,justastheJewishpriesttransferredthesinsofthepeopletothescapegoatby
layinghishandsontheanimalsheadandsincethemanwasbelievedtobepossessedbythedivine
spirit,wehavehereanundoubtedexampleofamangodslaintotakeawaythesinsandmisfortunesof
thepeople.
InTibettheceremonyofthescapegoatpresentssomeremarkablefeatures.TheTibetannewyearbegins
withthenewmoonwhichappearsaboutthefifteenthofFebruary.Fortwentythreedaysafterwardsthe
governmentofLhasa,thecapital,istakenoutofthehandsoftheordinaryrulersandentrustedtothe
monkoftheDebangmonasterywhoofferstopaythehighestsumfortheprivilege.Thesuccessful
bidderiscalledtheJalno,andheannounceshisaccessiontopowerinperson,goingthroughthestreetsof
Lhasawithasilverstickinhishand.Monksfromalltheneighbouringmonasteriesandtemplesassemble
topayhimhomage.TheJalnoexerciseshisauthorityinthemostarbitrarymannerforhisownbenefit,as
allthefineswhichheexactsarehisbypurchase.Theprofithemakesisabouttentimestheamountof
thepurchasemoney.Hismengoaboutthestreetsinordertodiscoveranyconductonthepartofthe
inhabitantsthatcanbefoundfaultwith.EveryhouseinLhasaistaxedatthistime,andtheslightest
offenceispunishedwithunsparingrigourbyfines.ThisseverityoftheJalnodrivesallworkingclasses
outofthecitytillthetwentythreedaysareover.Butifthelaitygoout,theclergycomein.Allthe
Buddhistmonasteriesofthecountryformilesroundaboutopentheirgatesanddisgorgetheirinmates.
AlltheroadsthatleaddownintoLhasafromtheneighbouringmountainsarefullofmonkshurryingto
thecapital,someonfoot,someonhorseback,someridingassesorlowingoxen,allcarryingtheirprayer
booksandculinaryutensils.Insuchmultitudesdotheycomethatthestreetsandsquaresofthecityare
encumberedwiththeirswarms,andincarnadinedwiththeirredcloaks.Thedisorderandconfusionare
indescribable.Bandsoftheholymentraversethestreetschantingprayers,orutteringwildcries.They
meet,theyjostle,theyquarrel,theyfightbloodynoses,blackeyes,andbrokenheadsarefreelygiven
andreceived.Alldaylong,too,frombeforethepeepofdawntillafterdarknesshasfallen,thesered
cloakedmonksholdservicesinthedimincenseladenairofthegreatMachindranathtemple,the
cathedralofLhasaandthithertheycrowdthriceadaytoreceivetheirdolesofteaandsoupandmoney.

Thecathedralisavastbuilding,standinginthecentreofthecity,andsurroundedbybazaarsandshops.
Theidolsinitarerichlyinlaidwithgoldandpreciousstones.
TwentyfourdaysaftertheJalnohasceasedtohaveauthority,heassumesitagain,andfortendaysacts
inthesamearbitrarymannerasbefore.Onthefirstofthetendaysthepriestsagainassembleatthe
cathedral,praytothegodstopreventsicknessandotherevilsamongthepeople,and,asapeace
offering,sacrificeoneman.Themanisnotkilledpurposely,buttheceremonyheundergoesoftenproves
fatal.Grainisthrownagainsthishead,andhisfaceispaintedhalfwhite,halfblack.Thusgrotesquely
disguised,andcarryingacoatofskinonhisarm,heiscalledtheKingoftheYears,andsitsdailyinthe
marketplace,wherehehelpshimselftowhateverhelikesandgoesaboutshakingablackyakstailover
thepeople,whothustransfertheirbadlucktohim.Onthetenthday,allthetroopsinLhasamarchtothe
greattempleandforminlinebeforeit.TheKingoftheYearsisbroughtforthfromthetempleand
receivessmalldonationsfromtheassembledmultitude.HethenridiculestheJalno,sayingtohim,What
weperceivethroughthefivesensesisnoillusion.Allyouteachisuntrue,andthelike.TheJalno,who
representstheGrandLamaforthetimebeing,conteststhesehereticalopinionsthedisputewaxeswarm,
andatlastbothagreetodecidethequestionsatissuebyacastofthedice,theJalnoofferingtochange
placeswiththescapegoatshouldthethrowbeagainsthim.IftheKingoftheYearswins,muchevilis
prognosticatedbutiftheJalnowins,thereisgreatrejoicing,foritprovesthathisadversaryhasbeen
acceptedbythegodsasavictimtobearallthesinsofthepeopleofLhasa.Fortune,however,always
favourstheJalno,whothrowssixeswithunvaryingsuccess,whilehisopponentturnsuponlyones.Nor
isthissoextraordinaryasatfirstsightitmightappearfortheJalnosdicearemarkedwithnothingbut
sixesandhisadversaryswithnothingbutones.WhenheseesthefingerofProvidencethusplainly
pointedagainsthim,theKingoftheYearsisterrifiedandfleesawayuponawhitehorse,withawhite
dog,awhitebird,salt,andsoforth,whichhaveallbeenprovidedforhimbythegovernment.Hisfaceis
stillpaintedhalfwhiteandhalfblack,andhestillwearshisleatherncoat.Thewholepopulacepursues
him,hooting,yelling,andfiringblankshotsinvolleysafterhim.Thusdrivenoutofthecity,heis
detainedforsevendaysinthegreatchamberofhorrorsattheSamyasmonastery,surroundedby
monstrousandterrificimagesofdevilsandskinsofhugeserpentsandwildbeasts.Thencehegoesaway
intothemountainsofChetang,wherehehastoremainanoutcastforseveralmonthsorayearina
narrowden.Ifhediesbeforethetimeisout,thepeoplesayitisanauspiciousomenbutifhesurvives,
hemayreturntoLhasaandplaythepartofscapegoatoveragainthefollowingyear.
Thisquaintceremonial,stillannuallyobservedinthesecludedcapitalofBuddhismtheRomeofAsia
isinterestingbecauseitexhibits,inaclearlymarkedreligiousstratification,aseriesofdivine
redeemersthemselvesredeemed,ofvicarioussacrificesvicariouslyatonedfor,ofgodsundergoinga
processoffossilisation,who,whiletheyretaintheprivileges,havedisburdenedthemselvesofthepains
andpenaltiesofdivinity.IntheJalnowemaywithoutunduestrainingdiscernasuccessorofthose
temporarykings,thosemortalgods,whopurchaseashortleaseofpowerandgloryatthepriceoftheir
lives.ThatheisthetemporarysubstituteoftheGrandLamaiscertainthatheis,orwasonce,liableto
actasscapegoatforthepeopleismadenearlycertainbyhisoffertochangeplaceswiththereal
scapegoattheKingoftheYearsifthearbitramentofthediceshouldgoagainsthim.Itistruethatthe
conditionsunderwhichthequestionisnowputtothehazardhavereducedtheoffertoanidleform.But
suchformsarenomeremushroomgrowths,springingupofthemselvesinanight.Iftheyarenow
lifelessformalities,emptyhusksdevoidofsignificance,wemaybesurethattheyoncehadalifeanda
meaningifatthepresentdaytheyareblindalleysleadingnowhere,wemaybecertainthatinformer
daystheywerepathsthatledsomewhere,ifonlytodeath.Thatdeathwasthegoaltowhichofoldthe
Tibetanscapegoatpassedafterhisbriefperiodoflicenceinthemarketplace,isaconjecturethathas
muchtocommendit.Analogysuggestsittheblankshotsfiredafterhim,thestatementthatthe
ceremonyoftenprovesfatal,thebeliefthathisdeathisahappyomen,allconfirmit.Weneednot
wonderthenthattheJalno,afterpayingsodeartoactasdeputydeityforafewweeks,shouldhave
preferredtodiebydeputyratherthaninhisownpersonwhenhistimewasup.Thepainfulbutnecessary

dutywasaccordinglylaidonsomepoordevil,somesocialoutcast,somewretchwithwhomtheworld
hadgonehard,whoreadilyagreedtothrowawayhislifeattheendofafewdaysifonlyhemighthave
hisflinginthemeantime.ForobservethatwhilethetimeallowedtotheoriginaldeputytheJalno
wasmeasuredbyweeks,thetimeallowedtothedeputysdeputywascutdowntodays,tendays
accordingtooneauthority,sevendaysaccordingtoanother.Soshortaropewasdoubtlessthoughtalong
enoughtetherforsoblackorsicklyasheepsofewsandsinthehourglass,slippingsofastaway,
sufficedforonewhohadwastedsomanypreciousyears.Henceinthejackpuddingwhonow
masqueradeswithmotleycountenanceinthemarketplaceofLhasa,sweepingupmisfortunewitha
blackyakstail,wemayfairlyseethesubstituteofasubstitute,thevicarofavicar,theproxyonwhose
backtheheavyburdenwaslaidwhenithadbeenliftedfromnoblershoulders.Buttheclue,ifwehave
followeditaright,doesnotstopattheJalnoitleadsstraightbacktothepopeofLhasahimself,the
GrandLama,ofwhomtheJalnoismerelythetemporaryvicar.Theanalogyofmanycustomsinmany
landspointstotheconclusionthat,ifthishumandivinitystoopstoresignhisghostlypowerforatime
intothehandsofasubstitute,itis,orratherwasonce,fornootherreasonthanthatthesubstitutemight
dieinhisstead.Thusthroughthemistofagesunilluminedbythelampofhistory,thetragicfigureofthe
popeofBuddhismGodsvicaronearthforAsialoomsdimandsadasthemangodwhoborehis
peoplessorrows,theGoodShepherdwholaiddownhislifeforthesheep.
4.OnScapegoatsinGeneral
THEFOREGOINGsurveyofthecustomofpubliclyexpellingtheaccumulatedevilsofavillageortown
orcountrysuggestsafewgeneralobservations.
Inthefirstplace,itwillnotbedisputedthatwhatIhavecalledtheimmediateandthemediateexpulsions
ofevilareidenticalinintentioninotherwords,thatwhethertheevilsareconceivedofasinvisibleoras
embodiedinamaterialform,isacircumstanceentirelysubordinatetothemainobjectoftheceremony,
whichissimplytoeffectatotalclearanceofalltheillsthathavebeeninfestingapeople.Ifanylinkwere
wantingtoconnectthetwokindsofexpulsion,itwouldbefurnishedbysuchapracticeasthatofsending
theevilsawayinalitteroraboat.Forhere,ontheonehand,theevilsareinvisibleandintangibleand,
ontheotherhand,thereisavisibleandtangiblevehicletoconveythemaway.Andascapegoatis
nothingmorethansuchavehicle.
Inthesecondplace,whenageneralclearanceofevilsisresortedtoperiodically,theintervalbetweenthe
celebrationsoftheceremonyiscommonlyayear,andthetimeofyearwhentheceremonytakesplace
usuallycoincideswithsomewellmarkedchangeofseason,suchasthebeginningorendofwinterinthe
arcticandtemperatezones,andthebeginningorendoftherainyseasoninthetropics.Theincreased
mortalitywhichsuchclimaticchangesareapttoproduce,especiallyamongstillfed,illclothed,andill
housedsavages,issetdownbyprimitivemantotheagencyofdemons,whomustaccordinglybe
expelled.Hence,inthetropicalregionsofNewBritainandPeru,thedevilsareorweredrivenoutatthe
beginningoftherainyseasonhence,onthedrearycoastsofBaffinLand,theyarebanishedatthe
approachofthebitterArcticwinter.Whenatribehastakentohusbandry,thetimeforthegeneral
expulsionofdevilsisnaturallymadetoagreewithoneofthegreatepochsoftheagriculturalyear,as
sowing,orharvestbut,astheseepochsthemselvesnaturallycoincidewithchangesofseason,itdoesnot
followthatthetransitionfromthehuntingorpastoraltotheagriculturallifeinvolvesanyalterationinthe
timeofcelebratingthisgreatannualrite.SomeoftheagriculturalcommunitiesofIndiaandtheHindoo
Koosh,aswehaveseen,holdtheirgeneralclearanceofdemonsatharvest,othersatsowingtime.But,at
whateverseasonoftheyearitisheld,thegeneralexpulsionofdevilscommonlymarksthebeginningof
thenewyear.For,beforeenteringonanewyear,peopleareanxioustoridthemselvesofthetroublesthat
haveharassedtheminthepasthenceitcomesaboutthatinsomanycommunitiesthebeginningofthe
newyearisinauguratedwithasolemnandpublicbanishmentofevilspirits.

Inthethirdplace,itistobeobservedthatthispublicandperiodicexpulsionofdevilsiscommonly
precededorfollowedbyaperiodofgenerallicense,duringwhichtheordinaryrestraintsofsocietyare
thrownaside,andalloffences,shortofthegravest,areallowedtopassunpunished.InGuineaand
Tonquintheperiodoflicenseprecedesthepublicexpulsionofdemonsandthesuspensionofthe
ordinarygovernmentinLhasaprevioustotheexpulsionofthescapegoatisperhapsarelicofasimilar
periodofuniversallicense.AmongsttheHosofIndiatheperiodoflicensefollowstheexpulsionofthe
devil.AmongsttheIroquoisithardlyappearswhetheritprecededorfollowedthebanishmentofevils.In
anycase,theextraordinaryrelaxationofallordinaryrulesofconductonsuchoccasionsisdoubtlessto
beexplainedbythegeneralclearanceofevilswhichprecedesorfollowsit.Ontheonehand,whena
generalriddanceofevilandabsolutionfromallsinisinimmediateprospect,menareencouragedtogive
thereintotheirpassions,trustingthatthecomingceremonywillwipeoutthescorewhichtheyare
runningupsofast.Ontheotherhand,whentheceremonyhasjusttakenplace,mensmindsarefreed
fromtheoppressivesense,underwhichtheygenerallylabour,ofanatmospheresurchargedwithdevils
andinthefirstrevulsionofjoytheyoverleapthelimitscommonlyimposedbycustomandmorality.
Whentheceremonytakesplaceatharvesttime,theelationoffeelingwhichitexcitesisfurther
stimulatedbythestateofphysicalwellbeingproducedbyanabundantsupplyoffood.
Fourthly,theemploymentofadivinemanoranimalasascapegoatisespeciallytobenotedindeed,we
areheredirectlyconcernedwiththecustomofbanishingevilsonlyinsofarastheseevilsarebelievedto
betransferredtoagodwhoisafterwardsslain.Itmaybesuspectedthatthecustomofemployinga
divinemanoranimalasapublicscapegoatismuchmorewidelydiffusedthanappearsfromthe
examplescited.For,ashasalreadybeenpointedout,thecustomofkillingagoddatesfromsoearlya
periodofhumanhistorythatinlaterages,evenwhenthecustomcontinuestobepractised,itisliableto
bemisinterpreted.Thedivinecharacteroftheanimalormanisforgotten,andhecomestoberegarded
merelyasanordinaryvictim.Thisisespeciallylikelytobethecasewhenitisadivinemanwhois
killed.Forwhenanationbecomescivilised,ifitdoesnotdrophumansacrificesaltogether,itatleast
selectsasvictimsonlysuchwretchesaswouldbeputtodeathatanyrate.Thusthekillingofagodmay
sometimescometobeconfoundedwiththeexecutionofacriminal.
Ifweaskwhyadyinggodshouldbechosentotakeuponhimselfandcarryawaythesinsandsorrowsof
thepeople,itmaybesuggestedthatinthepracticeofusingthedivinityasascapegoatwehavea
combinationoftwocustomswhichwereatonetimedistinctandindependent.Ontheonehandwehave
seenthatithasbeencustomarytokillthehumanoranimalgodinordertosavehisdivinelifefrombeing
weakenedbytheinroadsofage.Ontheotherhandwehaveseenthatithasbeencustomarytohavea
generalexpulsionofevilsandsinsonceayear.Now,ifitoccurredtopeopletocombinethesetwo
customs,theresultwouldbetheemploymentofthedyinggodasascapegoat.Hewaskilled,not
originallytotakeawaysin,buttosavethedivinelifefromthedegeneracyofoldagebut,sincehehadto
bekilledatanyrate,peoplemayhavethoughtthattheymightaswellseizetheopportunitytolayupon
himtheburdenoftheirsufferingsandsins,inorderthathemightbearitawaywithhimtotheunknown
worldbeyondthegrave.
Theuseofthedivinityasascapegoatclearsuptheambiguitywhich,aswesaw,appearstohangabout
theEuropeanfolkcustomofcarryingoutDeath.Groundshavebeenshownforbelievingthatinthis
ceremonythesocalledDeathwasoriginallythespiritofvegetation,whowasannuallyslaininspring,in
orderthathemightcometolifeagainwithallthevigourofyouth.But,asIpointedout,therearecertain
featuresintheceremonywhicharenotexplicableonthishypothesisalone.Sucharethemarksofjoy
withwhichtheeffigyofDeathiscarriedouttobeburiedorburnt,andthefearandabhorrenceofit
manifestedbythebearers.ButthesefeaturesbecomeatonceintelligibleifwesupposethattheDeath
wasnotmerelythedyinggodofvegetation,butalsoapublicscapegoat,uponwhomwerelaidallthe
evilsthathadafflictedthepeopleduringthepastyear.Joyonsuchanoccasionisnaturaland
appropriateandifthedyinggodappearstobetheobjectofthatfearandabhorrencewhichareproperly

duenottohimself,buttothesinsandmisfortuneswithwhichheisladen,thisarisesmerelyfromthe
difficultyofdistinguishing,oratleastofmarkingthedistinction,betweenthebearerandtheburden.
Whentheburdenisofabalefulcharacter,thebearerofitwillbefearedandshunnedjustasmuchasifhe
werehimselfinstinctwiththosedangerouspropertiesofwhich,asithappens,heisonlythevehicle.
SimilarlywehaveseenthatdiseaseladenandsinladenboatsaredreadedandshunnedbyEastIndian
peoples.Again,theviewthatinthesepopularcustomstheDeathisascapegoataswellasa
representativeofthedivinespiritofvegetationderivessomesupportfromthecircumstancethatits
expulsionisalwayscelebratedinspringandchieflybySlavonicpeoples.FortheSlavonicyearbeganin
springandthus,inoneofitsaspects,theceremonyofcarryingoutDeathwouldbeanexampleofthe
widespreadcustomofexpellingtheaccumulatedevilsoftheoldyearbeforeenteringonanewone.

LVIII.HumanScapegoatsinClassicalAntiquity
1.TheHumanScapegoatinAncientRome
WEarenowpreparedtonoticetheuseofthehumanscapegoatinclassicalantiquity.Everyyearonthe
fourteenthofMarchamancladinskinswasledinprocessionthroughthestreetsofRome,beatenwith
longwhiterods,anddrivenoutofthecity.HewascalledMamuriusVeturius,thatis,theoldMars,and
astheceremonytookplaceonthedayprecedingthefirstfullmoonoftheoldRomanyear(whichbegan
onthefirstofMarch),theskincladmanmusthaverepresentedtheMarsofthepastyear,whowas
drivenoutatthebeginningofanewone.NowMarswasoriginallynotagodofwarbutofvegetation.
ForitwastoMarsthattheRomanhusbandmanprayedfortheprosperityofhiscornandhisvines,his
fruittreesandhiscopsesitwastoMarsthatthepriestlycollegeoftheArvalBrothers,whosebusinessit
wastosacrificeforthegrowthofthecrops,addressedtheirpetitionsalmostexclusivelyanditwasto
Mars,aswesaw,thatahorsewassacrificedinOctobertosecureanabundantharvest.Moreover,itwas
toMars,underhistitleofMarsofthewoods(MarsSilvanus),thatfarmersofferedsacrificeforthe
welfareoftheircattle.Wehavealreadyseenthatcattlearecommonlysupposedtobeunderthespecial
patronageoftreegods.Oncemore,theconsecrationofthevernalmonthofMarchtoMarsseemsto
pointhimoutasthedeityofthesproutingvegetation.ThustheRomancustomofexpellingtheoldMars
atthebeginningofthenewyearinspringisidenticalwiththeSlavoniccustomofcarryingoutDeath,
iftheviewheretakenofthelattercustomiscorrect.ThesimilarityoftheRomanandSlavoniccustoms
hasbeenalreadyremarkedbyscholars,whoappear,however,tohavetakenMamuriusVeturiusandthe
correspondingfiguresintheSlavonicceremoniestoberepresentativesoftheoldyearratherthanofthe
oldgodofvegetation.Itispossiblethatceremoniesofthiskindmayhavecometobethusinterpretedin
latertimesevenbythepeoplewhopractisedthem.Butthepersonificationofaperiodoftimeistoo
abstractanideatobeprimitive.However,intheRoman,asintheSlavonic,ceremony,therepresentative
ofthegodappearstohavebeentreatednotonlyasadeityofvegetationbutalsoasascapegoat.His
expulsionimpliesthisforthereisnoreasonwhythegodofvegetation,assuch,shouldbeexpelledthe
city.Butitisotherwiseifheisalsoascapegoatitthenbecomesnecessarytodrivehimbeyondthe
boundaries,thathemaycarryhissorrowfulburdenawaytootherlands.And,infact,MamuriusVeturius
appearstohavebeendrivenawaytothelandoftheOscans,theenemiesofRome.
2.TheHumanScapegoatinAncientGreece
THEANCIENTGreekswerealsofamiliarwiththeuseofahumanscapegoat.InPlutarchsnativetown
ofChaeroneaaceremonyofthiskindwasperformedbythechiefmagistrateattheTownHall,andby
eachhouseholderathisownhome.Itwascalledtheexpulsionofhunger.Aslavewasbeatenwithrods
oftheagnuscastus,andturnedoutofdoorswiththewords,Outwithhunger,andinwithwealthand
health.WhenPlutarchheldtheofficeofchiefmagistrateofhisnativetownheperformedthisceremony

attheTownHall,andhehasrecordedthediscussiontowhichthecustomafterwardsgaverise.
ButincivilisedGreecethecustomofthescapegoattookdarkerformsthantheinnocentriteoverwhich
theamiableandpiousPlutarchpresided.WheneverMarseilles,oneofthebusiestandmostbrilliantof
Greekcolonies,wasravagedbyaplague,amanofthepoorerclassesusedtoofferhimselfasa
scapegoat.Forawholeyearhewasmaintainedatthepublicexpense,beingfedonchoiceandpurefood.
Attheexpiryoftheyearhewasdressedinsacredgarments,deckedwithholybranches,andledthrough
thewholecity,whileprayerswereutteredthatalltheevilsofthepeoplemightfallonhishead.Hewas
thencastoutofthecityorstonedtodeathbythepeopleoutsideofthewalls.TheAtheniansregularly
maintainedanumberofdegradedanduselessbeingsatthepublicexpenseandwhenanycalamity,such
asplague,drought,orfamine,befellthecity,theysacrificedtwooftheseoutcastscapegoats.Oneofthe
victimswassacrificedforthemenandtheotherforthewomen.Theformerworeroundhisneckastring
ofblack,thelatterastringofwhitefigs.Sometimes,itseems,thevictimslainonbehalfofthewomen
wasawoman.Theywereledaboutthecityandthensacrificed,apparentlybybeingstonedtodeath
outsidethecity.Butsuchsacrificeswerenotconfinedtoextraordinaryoccasionsofpubliccalamityit
appearsthateveryyear,atthefestivaloftheThargeliainMay,twovictims,oneforthemenandonefor
thewomen,wereledoutofAthensandstonedtodeath.ThecityofAbderainThracewaspublicly
purifiedonceayear,andoneoftheburghers,setapartforthepurpose,wasstonedtodeathasa
scapegoatorvicarioussacrificeforthelifeofalltheotherssixdaysbeforehisexecutionhewas
excommunicated,inorderthathealonemightbearthesinsofallthepeople.
FromtheLoversLeap,awhitebluffatthesouthernendoftheirisland,theLeucadiansusedannuallyto
hurlacriminalintotheseaasascapegoat.Buttolightenhisfalltheyfastenedlivebirdsandfeathersto
him,andaflotillaofsmallboatswaitedbelowtocatchhimandconveyhimbeyondtheboundary.
Probablythesehumaneprecautionswereamitigationofanearliercustomofflingingthescapegoatinto
theseatodrown.TheLeucadianceremonytookplaceatthetimeofasacrificetoApollo,whohada
templeorsanctuaryonthespot.Elsewhereitwascustomarytocastayoungmaneveryyearintothesea,
withtheprayer,Bethououroffscouring.Thisceremonywassupposedtoridthepeopleoftheevilsby
whichtheywerebeset,oraccordingtoasomewhatdifferentinterpretationitredeemedthembypaying
thedebttheyowedtotheseagod.AspractisedbytheGreeksofAsiaMinorinthesixthcenturybefore
ourera,thecustomofthescapegoatwasasfollows.Whenacitysufferedfromplague,famine,orother
publiccalamity,anuglyordeformedpersonwaschosentotakeuponhimselfalltheevilswhichafflicted
thecommunity.Hewasbroughttoasuitableplace,wheredriedfigs,abarleyloaf,andcheesewereput
intohishand.Theseheate.Thenhewasbeatenseventimesuponhisgenitalorganswithsquillsand
branchesofthewildfigandotherwildtrees,whiletheflutesplayedaparticulartune.Afterwardshewas
burnedonapyrebuiltofthewoodofforesttreesandhisasheswerecastintothesea.Asimilarcustom
appearstohavebeenannuallycelebratedbytheAsiaticGreeksattheharvestfestivaloftheThargelia.
Intheritualjustdescribedthescourgingofthevictimwithsquills,branchesofthewildfig,andsoforth,
cannothavebeenintendedtoaggravatehissufferings,otherwiseanystickwouldhavebeengoodenough
tobeathimwith.ThetruemeaningofthispartoftheceremonyhasbeenexplainedbyW.Mannhardt.He
pointsoutthattheancientsattributedtosquillsamagicalpowerofavertingevilinfluences,andthat
accordinglytheyhungthemupatthedoorsoftheirhousesandmadeuseoftheminpurificatoryrites.
HencetheArcadiancustomofwhippingtheimageofPanwithsquillsatafestival,orwheneverthe
huntersreturnedemptyhanded,musthavebeenmeant,nottopunishthegod,buttopurifyhimfromthe
harmfulinfluenceswhichwereimpedinghimintheexerciseofhisdivinefunctionsasagodwhoshould
supplythehunterwithgame.Similarlytheobjectofbeatingthehumanscapegoatonthegenitalorgans
withsquillsandsoon,musthavebeentoreleasehisreproductiveenergiesfromanyrestraintorspell
underwhichtheymightbelaidbydemoniacalorothermalignantagencyandastheThargeliaatwhich
hewasannuallysacrificedwasanearlyharvestfestivalcelebratedinMay,wemustrecogniseinhima
representativeofthecreativeandfertilisinggodofvegetation.Therepresentativeofthegodwas

annuallyslainforthepurposeIhaveindicated,thatofmaintainingthedivinelifeinperpetualvigour,
untaintedbytheweaknessofageandbeforehewasputtodeathitwasnotunnaturaltostimulatehis
reproductivepowersinorderthatthesemightbetransmittedinfullactivitytohissuccessor,thenewgod
ornewembodimentoftheoldgod,whowasdoubtlesssupposedimmediatelytotaketheplaceoftheone
slain.Similarreasoningwouldleadtoasimilartreatmentofthescapegoatonspecialoccasions,suchas
droughtorfamine.Ifthecropsdidnotanswertotheexpectationofthehusbandman,thiswouldbe
attributedtosomefailureinthegenerativepowersofthegodwhosefunctionitwastoproducethefruits
oftheearth.Itmightbethoughtthathewasunderaspellorwasgrowingoldandfeeble.Accordinglyhe
wasslaininthepersonofhisrepresentative,withalltheceremoniesalreadydescribed,inorderthat,born
youngagain,hemightinfusehisownyouthfulvigourintothestagnantenergiesofnature.Onthesame
principlewecanunderstandwhyMamuriusVeturiuswasbeatenwithrods,whytheslaveatthe
Chaeroneanceremonywasbeatenwiththeagnuscastus(atreetowhichmagicalpropertieswere
ascribed),whytheeffigyofDeathinsomepartsofEuropeisassailedwithsticksandstones,andwhyat
Babylonthecriminalwhoplayedthegodscourgedbeforehewascrucified.Thepurposeofthescourging
wasnottointensifytheagonyofthedivinesufferer,butonthecontrarytodispelanymalignant
influencesbywhichatthesuprememomenthemightconceivablybebeset.
ThusfarIhaveassumedthatthehumanvictimsattheThargeliarepresentedthespiritsofvegetationin
general,butithasbeenwellremarkedbyMr.W.R.Patonthatthesepoorwretchesseemtohave
masqueradedasthespiritsoffigtreesinparticular.Hepointsoutthattheprocessofcaprification,asitis
called,thatis,theartificialfertilisationofthecultivatedfigtreesbyhangingstringsofwildfigsamong
theboughs,takesplaceinGreeceandAsiaMinorinJuneaboutamonthafterthedateoftheThargelia,
andhesuggeststhatthehangingoftheblackandwhitefigsroundthenecksofthetwohumanvictims,
oneofwhomrepresentedthemenandtheotherthewomen,mayhavebeenadirectimitationofthe
processofcaprificationdesigned,ontheprincipleofimitativemagic,toassistthefertilisationofthefig
trees.Andsincecaprificationisinfactamarriageofthemalefigtreewiththefemalefigtree,Mr.Paton
furthersupposesthatthelovesofthetreesmay,onthesameprincipleofimitativemagic,havebeen
simulatedbyamockorevenarealmarriagebetweenthetwohumanvictims,oneofwhomappears
sometimestohavebeenawoman.Onthisviewthepracticeofbeatingthehumanvictimsontheir
genitalswithbranchesofwildfigtreesandwithsquillswasacharmintendedtostimulatethegenerative
powersofthemanandwomanwhoforthetimebeingpersonatedthemaleandthefemalefigtrees
respectively,andwhobytheirunioninmarriage,whetherrealorpretended,werebelievedtohelpthe
treestobearfruit.
TheinterpretationwhichIhaveadoptedofthecustomofbeatingthehumanscapegoatwithcertainplants
issupportedbymanyanalogies.ThusamongtheKaiofGermanNewGuinea,whenamanwishesto
makehisbananashootsbearfruitquickly,hebeatsthemwithastickcutfromabananatreewhichhas
alreadybornefruit.Hereitisobviousthatfruitfulnessisbelievedtoinhereinastickcutfromafruitful
treeandtobeimpartedbycontacttotheyoungbananaplants.SimilarlyinNewCaledoniaamanwill
beathistaroplantslightlywithabranch,sayingashedoesso,Ibeatthistarothatitmaygrow,after
whichheplantsthebranchinthegroundattheendofthefield.AmongtheIndiansofBrazilatthemouth
oftheAmazon,whenamanwishestoincreasethesizeofhisgenerativeorgan,hestrikesitwiththefruit
ofawhiteaquaticplantcalledaninga,whichgrowsluxuriantlyonthebanksoftheriver.Thefruit,which
isinedible,resemblesabanana,andisclearlychosenforthispurposeonaccountofitsshape.The
ceremonyshouldbeperformedthreedaysbeforeorafterthenewmoon.InthecountyofBekes,in
Hungary,barrenwomenarefertilisedbybeingstruckwithastickwhichhasfirstbeenusedtoseparate
pairingdogs.Hereafertilisingvirtueisclearlysupposedtobeinherentinthestickandtobeconveyed
bycontacttothewomen.TheToradjasofCentralCelebesthinkthattheplantDracaenaterminalishasa
strongsoul,becausewhenitislopped,itsoongrowsupagain.Hencewhenamanisill,hisfriendswill
sometimesbeathimonthecrownoftheheadwithDracaenaleavesinordertostrengthenhisweaksoul
withthestrongsouloftheplant.

Theseanalogies,accordingly,supporttheinterpretationwhich,followingmypredecessorsW.Mannhardt
andMr.W.R.Paton,IhavegivenofthebeatinginflictedonthehumanvictimsattheGreekharvest
festivaloftheThargelia.Thatbeating,beingadministeredtothegenerativeorgansofthevictimsby
freshgreenplantsandbranches,ismostnaturallyexplainedasacharmtoincreasethereproductive
energiesofthemenorwomeneitherbycommunicatingtothemthefruitfulnessoftheplantsand
branches,orbyriddingthemofthemaleficentinfluencesandthisinterpretationisconfirmedbythe
observationthatthetwovictimsrepresentedthetwosexes,oneofthemstandingforthemeningeneral
andtheotherforthewomen.Theseasonoftheyearwhentheceremonywasperformed,namelythetime
ofthecornharvest,tallieswellwiththetheorythattheritehadanagriculturalsignificance.Further,that
itwasaboveallintendedtofertilisethefigtreesisstronglysuggestedbythestringsofblackandwhite
figswhichwerehungroundthenecksofthevictims,aswellasbytheblowswhichweregiventheir
genitalorganswiththebranchesofawildfigtreesincethisprocedurecloselyresemblestheprocedure
whichancientandmodernhusbandmeninGreeklandshaveregularlyresortedtoforthepurposeof
actuallyfertilisingtheirfigtrees.Whenwerememberwhatanimportantparttheartificialfertilisationof
thedatepalmtreeappearstohaveplayedofoldnotonlyinthehusbandrybutinthereligionof
Mesopotamia,thereseemsnoreasontodoubtthattheartificialfertilisationofthefigtreemayinlike
mannerhavevindicatedforitselfaplaceinthesolemnritualofGreekreligion.
Iftheseconsiderationsarejust,wemustapparentlyconcludethatwhilethehumanvictimsatthe
Thargeliacertainlyappearinlaterclassicaltimestohavefiguredchieflyaspublicscapegoats,who
carriedawaywiththemthesins,misfortunes,andsorrowsofthewholepeople,atanearliertimethey
mayhavebeenlookedonasembodimentsofvegetation,perhapsofthecornbutparticularlyofthefig
treesandthatthebeatingwhichtheyreceivedandthedeathwhichtheydiedwereintendedprimarilyto
braceandrefreshthepowersofvegetationthenbeginningtodroopandlanguishunderthetorridheatof
theGreeksummer.
TheviewheretakenoftheGreekscapegoat,ifitiscorrect,obviatesanobjectionwhichmightotherwise
bebroughtagainstthemainargumentofthisbook.TothetheorythatthepriestofAriciawasslainasa
representativeofthespiritofthegrove,itmighthavebeenobjectedthatsuchacustomhasnoanalogyin
classicalantiquity.Butreasonshavenowbeengivenforbelievingthatthehumanbeingperiodicallyand
occasionallyslainbytheAsiaticGreekswasregularlytreatedasanembodimentofadivinityof
vegetation.ProbablythepersonswhomtheAthenianskepttobesacrificedweresimilarlytreatedas
divine.Thattheyweresocialoutcastsdidnotmatter.Ontheprimitiveviewamanisnotchosentobethe
mouthpieceorembodimentofagodonaccountofhishighmoralqualitiesorsocialrank.Thedivine
afflatusdescendsequallyonthegoodandthebad,theloftyandthelowly.IfthenthecivilisedGreeksof
AsiaandAthenshabituallysacrificedmenwhomtheyregardedasincarnategods,therecanbeno
inherentimprobabilityinthesuppositionthatatthedawnofhistoryasimilarcustomwasobservedbythe
semibarbarousLatinsintheAricianGrove.
Buttoclinchtheargument,itisclearlydesirabletoprovethatthecustomofputtingtodeathahuman
representativeofagodwasknownandpractisedinancientItalyelsewherethanintheAricianGrove.
ThisproofInowproposetoadduce.
3.TheRomanSaturnalia
WEhaveseenthatmanypeopleshavebeenusedtoobserveanannualperiodoflicense,whenthe
customaryrestraintsoflawandmoralityarethrownaside,whenthewholepopulationgivethemselves
uptoextravagantmirthandjollity,andwhenthedarkerpassionsfindaventwhichwouldneverbe
allowedtheminthemorestaidandsobercourseofordinarylife.Suchoutburstsofthepentupforcesof
humannature,toooftendegeneratingintowildorgiesoflustandcrime,occurmostcommonlyattheend

oftheyear,andarefrequentlyassociated,asIhavehadoccasiontopointout,withoneorotherofthe
agriculturalseasons,especiallywiththetimeofsowingorofharvest.Now,ofalltheseperiodsoflicense
theonewhichisbestknownandwhichinmodernlanguagehasgivenitsnametotherest,isthe
Saturnalia.ThisfamousfestivalfellinDecember,thelastmonthoftheRomanyear,andwaspopularly
supposedtocommemoratethemerryreignofSaturn,thegodofsowingandofhusbandry,wholivedon
earthlongagoasarighteousandbeneficentkingofItaly,drewtherudeandscattereddwellersonthe
mountainstogether,taughtthemtotilltheground,gavethemlaws,andruledinpeace.Hisreignwasthe
fabledGoldenAge:theearthbroughtforthabundantly:nosoundofwarordiscordtroubledthehappy
world:nobalefulloveoflucreworkedlikepoisoninthebloodoftheindustriousandcontented
peasantry.Slaveryandprivatepropertywerealikeunknown:allmenhadallthingsincommon.Atlast
thegoodgod,thekindlyking,vanishedsuddenlybuthismemorywascherishedtodistantages,shrines
wererearedinhishonour,andmanyhillsandhighplacesinItalyborehisname.Yetthebrighttradition
ofhisreignwascrossedbyadarkshadow:hisaltarsaresaidtohavebeenstainedwiththebloodof
humanvictims,forwhomamoremercifulageafterwardssubstitutedeffigies.Ofthisgloomysideofthe
godsreligionthereislittleornotraceinthedescriptionswhichancientwritershaveleftusofthe
Saturnalia.Feastingandrevelryandallthemadpursuitofpleasurearethefeaturesthatseemtohave
especiallymarkedthiscarnivalofantiquity,asitwentonforsevendaysinthestreetsandpublicsquares
andhousesofancientRomefromtheseventeenthtothetwentythirdofDecember.
Butnofeatureofthefestivalismoreremarkable,nothinginitseemstohavestrucktheancients
themselvesmorethanthelicensegrantedtoslavesatthistime.Thedistinctionbetweenthefreeandthe
servileclasseswastemporarilyabolished.Theslavemightrailathismaster,intoxicatehimselflikehis
betters,sitdownattablewiththem,andnotevenawordofreproofwouldbeadministeredtohimfor
conductwhichatanyotherseasonmighthavebeenpunishedwithstripes,imprisonment,ordeath.Nay,
more,mastersactuallychangedplaceswiththeirslavesandwaitedonthemattableandnottilltheserf
haddoneeatinganddrinkingwastheboardclearedanddinnersetforhismaster.Sofarwasthis
inversionofrankscarried,thateachhouseholdbecameforatimeamimicrepublicinwhichthehigh
officesofstateweredischargedbytheslaves,whogavetheirordersandlaiddownthelawasifthey
wereindeedinvestedwithallthedignityoftheconsulship,thepraetorship,andthebench.Likethepale
reflectionofpowerthusaccordedtobondsmenattheSaturnaliawasthemockkingshipforwhich
freemencastlotsatthesameseason.Thepersononwhomthelotfellenjoyedthetitleofking,andissued
commandsofaplayfulandludicrousnaturetohistemporarysubjects.Oneofthemhemightorderto
mixthewine,anothertodrink,anothertosing,anothertodance,anothertospeakinhisowndispraise,
anothertocarryaflutegirlonhisbackroundthehouse.
Now,whenwerememberthatthelibertyallowedtoslavesatthisfestiveseasonwassupposedtobean
imitationofthestateofsocietyinSaturnstime,andthatingeneraltheSaturnaliapassedfornothing
moreorlessthanatemporaryrevivalorrestorationofthereignofthatmerrymonarch,wearetemptedto
surmisethatthemockkingwhopresidedovertherevelsmayhaveoriginallyrepresentedSaturnhimself.
Theconjectureisstronglyconfirmed,ifnotestablished,byaverycuriousandinterestingaccountofthe
wayinwhichtheSaturnaliawascelebratedbytheRomansoldiersstationedontheDanubeinthereign
ofMaximianandDiocletian.TheaccountispreservedinanarrativeofthemartyrdomofSt.Dasius,
whichwasunearthedfromaGreekmanuscriptintheParislibrary,andpublishedbyProfessorFranz
CumontofGhent.Twobrieferdescriptionsoftheeventandofthecustomarecontainedinmanuscripts
atMilanandBerlinoneofthemhadalreadyseenthelightinanobscurevolumeprintedatUrbinoin
1727,butitsimportanceforthehistoryoftheRomanreligion,bothancientandmodern,appearstohave
beenoverlookeduntilProfessorCumontdrewtheattentionofscholarstoallthreenarrativesby
publishingthemtogethersomeyearsago.Accordingtothesenarratives,whichhavealltheappearanceof
beingauthentic,andofwhichthelongestisprobablybasedonofficialdocuments,theRomansoldiersat
DurostoruminLowerMoesiacelebratedtheSaturnaliayearbyyearinthefollowingmanner.Thirtydays
beforethefestivaltheychosebylotfromamongstthemselvesayoungandhandsomeman,whowasthen

clothedinroyalattiretoresembleSaturn.Thusarrayedandattendedbyamultitudeofsoldiershewent
aboutinpublicwithfulllicensetoindulgehispassionsandtotasteofeverypleasure,howeverbaseand
shameful.Butifhisreignwasmerry,itwasshortandendedtragicallyforwhenthethirtydayswereup
andthefestivalofSaturnhadcome,hecuthisownthroatonthealtarofthegodwhomhepersonated.In
theyearA.D.303thelotfellupontheChristiansoldierDasius,butherefusedtoplaythepartofthe
heathengodandsoilhislastdaysbydebauchery.Thethreatsandargumentsofhiscommandingofficer
Bassusfailedtoshakehisconstancy,andaccordinglyhewasbeheaded,astheChristianmartyrologist
recordswithminuteaccuracy,atDurostorumbythesoldierJohnonFridaythetwentiethdayof
November,beingthetwentyfourthdayofthemoon,atthefourthhour.
SincethisnarrativewaspublishedbyProfessorCumont,itshistoricalcharacter,whichhadbeendoubted
ordenied,hasreceivedstrongconfirmationfromaninterestingdiscovery.Inthecryptofthecathedral
whichcrownsthepromontoryofAnconathereispreserved,amongotherremarkableantiquities,awhite
marblesarcophagusbearingaGreekinscription,incharactersoftheageofJustinian,tothefollowing
effect:HereliestheholymartyrDasius,broughtfromDurostorum.Thesarcophaguswastransferredto
thecryptofthecathedralin1848fromthechurchofSanPellegrino,underthehighaltarofwhich,aswe
learnfromaLatininscriptionletintothemasonry,themartyrsbonesstillreposewiththoseoftwoother
saints.HowlongthesarcophaguswasdepositedinthechurchofSanPellegrino,wedonotknowbutit
isrecordedtohavebeenthereintheyear1650.Wemaysupposethatthesaintsrelicsweretransferred
forsafetytoAnconaatsometimeinthetroubledcenturieswhichfollowedhismartyrdom,whenMoesia
wasoccupiedandravagedbysuccessivehordesofbarbarianinvaders.Atalleventsitappearscertain
fromtheindependentandmutuallyconfirmatoryevidenceofthemartyrologyandthemonumentsthat
Dasiuswasnomythicalsaint,butarealman,whosuffereddeathforhisfaithatDurostoruminoneofthe
earlycenturiesoftheChristianera.Findingthenarrativeofthenamelessmartyrologistthusestablished
astotheprincipalfactrecorded,namely,themartyrdomofSt.Dasius,wemayreasonablyaccepthis
testimonyastothemannerandcauseofthemartyrdom,allthemorebecausehisnarrativeisprecise,
circumstantial,andentirelyfreefromthemiraculouselement.AccordinglyIconcludethattheaccount
whichhegivesofthecelebrationoftheSaturnaliaamongtheRomansoldiersistrustworthy.
ThisaccountsetsinanewandluridlighttheofficeoftheKingoftheSaturnalia,theancientLordof
Misrule,whopresidedoverthewinterrevelsatRomeinthetimeofHoraceandTacitus.Itseemsto
provethathisbusinesshadnotalwaysbeenthatofamereharlequinormerryandrewwhoseonlycare
wasthattherevelryshouldrunhighandthefungrowfastandfurious,whilethefireblazedandcrackled
onthehearth,whilethestreetsswarmedwithfestivecrowds,andthroughtheclearfrostyair,farawayto
thenorth,Soracteshowedhiscoronalofsnow.Whenwecomparethiscomicmonarchofthegay,the
civilisedmetropoliswithhisgrimcounterpartoftherudecampontheDanube,andwhenweremember
thelongarrayofsimilarfigures,ludicrousyettragic,whoinotheragesandinotherlands,wearingmock
crownsandwrappedinsceptredpalls,haveplayedtheirlittlepranksforafewbriefhoursordays,then
passedbeforetheirtimetoaviolentdeath,wecanhardlydoubtthatintheKingoftheSaturnaliaat
Rome,asheisdepictedbyclassicalwriters,weseeonlyafeebleemasculatedcopyofthatoriginal,
whosestrongfeatureshavebeenfortunatelypreservedforusbytheobscureauthoroftheMartyrdomof
St.Dasius.Inotherwords,themartyrologistsaccountoftheSaturnaliaagreessocloselywiththe
accountsofsimilarriteselsewherewhichcouldnotpossiblyhavebeenknowntohim,thatthesubstantial
accuracyofhisdescriptionmayberegardedasestablishedandfurther,sincethecustomofputtinga
mockkingtodeathasarepresentativeofagodcannothavegrownoutofapracticeofappointinghimto
presideoveraholidayrevel,whereasthereversemayverywellhavehappened,wearejustifiedin
assumingthatinanearlierandmorebarbarousageitwastheuniversalpracticeinancientItaly,wherever
theworshipofSaturnprevailed,tochooseamanwhoplayedthepartandenjoyedallthetraditionary
privilegesofSaturnforaseason,andthendied,whetherbyhisownoranothershand,whetherbythe
knifeorthefireoronthegallowstree,inthecharacterofthegoodgodwhogavehislifefortheworld.
InRomeitselfandothergreattownsthegrowthofcivilisationhadprobablymitigatedthiscruelcustom

longbeforetheAugustanage,andtransformeditintotheinnocentshapeitwearsinthewritingsofthe
fewclassicalwriterswhobestowapassingnoticeontheholidayKingoftheSaturnalia.Butinremoter
districtstheolderandsternerpracticemaylonghavesurvivedandevenifaftertheunificationofItaly
thebarbaroususagewassuppressedbytheRomangovernment,thememoryofitwouldbehandeddown
bythepeasantsandwouldtendfromtimetotime,asstillhappenswiththelowestformsofsuperstition
amongourselves,toleadtoarecrudescenceofthepractice,especiallyamongtherudesoldieryonthe
outskirtsoftheempireoverwhomtheonceironhandofRomewasbeginningtorelaxitsgrasp.
TheresemblancebetweentheSaturnaliaofancientandtheCarnivalofmodernItalyhasoftenbeen
remarkedbutinthelightofallthefactsthathavecomebeforeus,wemaywellaskwhetherthe
resemblancedoesnotamounttoidentity.WehaveseenthatinItaly,Spain,andFrance,thatis,inthe
countrieswheretheinfluenceofRomehasbeendeepestandmostlasting,aconspicuousfeatureofthe
Carnivalisaburlesquefigurepersonifyingthefestiveseason,whichafterashortcareerofgloryand
dissipationispubliclyshot,burnt,orotherwisedestroyed,tothefeignedgrieforgenuinedelightofthe
populace.IftheviewheresuggestedoftheCarnivaliscorrect,thisgrotesquepersonageisnootherthan
adirectsuccessoroftheoldKingoftheSaturnalia,themasteroftherevels,therealmanwhopersonated
Saturnand,whentherevelswereover,sufferedarealdeathinhisassumedcharacter.TheKingofthe
BeanonTwelfthNightandthemediaevalBishopofFools,AbbotofUnreason,orLordofMisruleare
figuresofthesamesortandmayperhapshavehadasimilarorigin.Whetherthatwassoornot,wemay
concludewithafairdegreeofprobabilitythatiftheKingoftheWoodatAricialivedanddiedasan
incarnationofasylvandeity,hehadofoldaparallelatRomeinthemenwho,yearbyyear,wereslainin
thecharacterofKingSaturn,thegodofthesownandsproutingseed.

LIX.KillingtheGodinMexico
BYNOPEOPLEdoesthecustomofsacrificingthehumanrepresentativeofagodappeartohavebeen
observedsocommonlyandwithsomuchsolemnityasbytheAztecsofancientMexico.Withtheritual
oftheseremarkablesacrificeswearewellacquainted,forithasbeenfullydescribedbytheSpaniards
whoconqueredMexicointhesixteenthcentury,andwhosecuriositywasnaturallyexcitedbythe
discoveryinthisdistantregionofabarbarousandcruelreligionwhichpresentedmanycuriouspointsof
analogytothedoctrineandritualoftheirownchurch.Theytookacaptive,saystheJesuitAcosta,
suchastheythoughtgoodandaforetheydidsacrificehimuntotheiridols,theygavehimthenameof
theidol,towhomheshouldbesacrificed,andapparelledhimwiththesameornamentsliketheiridol,
saying,thathedidrepresentthesameidol.Andduringthetimethatthisrepresentationlasted,whichwas
forayearinsomefeasts,inotherssixmonths,andinothersless,theyreverencedandworshippedhimin
thesamemannerastheproperidolandinthemeantimehedideat,drink,andwasmerry.Whenhewent
throughthestreets,thepeoplecameforthtoworshiphim,andeveryonebroughthimanalms,with
childrenandsickfolks,thathemightcurethem,andblessthem,sufferinghimtodoallthingsathis
pleasure,onlyhewasaccompaniedwithtenortwelvemenlestheshouldfly.Andhe(totheendhe
mightbereverencedashepassed)sometimessoundeduponasmallflute,thatthepeoplemightprepare
toworshiphim.Thefeastbeingcome,andhegrownfat,theykilledhim,openedhim,andatehim,
makingasolemnsacrificeofhim.
Thisgeneraldescriptionofthecustommaynowbeillustratedbyparticularexamples.Thusatthefestival
calledToxcatl,thegreatestfestivaloftheMexicanyear,ayoungmanwasannuallysacrificedinthe
characterofTezcatlipoca,thegodofgods,afterhavingbeenmaintainedandworshippedasthatgreat
deityinpersonforawholeyear.AccordingtotheoldFranciscanmonkSahagun,ourbestauthorityon
theAztecreligion,thesacrificeofthehumangodfellatEasterorafewdayslater,sothat,ifheisright,it
wouldcorrespondindateaswellasincharactertotheChristianfestivalofthedeathandresurrectionof
theRedeemer.MoreexactlyhetellsusthatthesacrificetookplaceonthefirstdayofthefifthAztec

month,whichaccordingtohimbeganonthetwentythirdortwentyseventhdayofApril.
Atthisfestivalthegreatgoddiedinthepersonofonehumanrepresentativeandcametolifeagaininthe
personofanother,whowasdestinedtoenjoythefatalhonourofdivinityforayearandtoperish,likeall
hispredecessors,attheendofit.Theyoungmansingledoutforthishighdignitywascarefullychosen
fromamongthecaptivesonthegroundofhispersonalbeauty.Hehadtobeofunblemishedbody,slim
asareedandstraightasapillar,neithertootallnortooshort.Ifthroughhighlivinghegrewtoofat,he
wasobligedtoreducehimselfbydrinkingsaltwater.Andinorderthathemightbehaveinhislofty
stationwithbecominggraceanddignityhewascarefullytrainedtocomporthimselflikeagentlemanof
thefirstquality,tospeakcorrectlyandelegantly,toplaytheflute,tosmokecigarsandtosnuffatflowers
withadandifiedair.Hewashonourablylodgedinthetemple,wherethenobleswaitedonhimandpaid
himhomage,bringinghimmeatandservinghimlikeaprince.Thekinghimselfsawtoitthathewas
apparelledingorgeousattire,foralreadyheesteemedhimasagod.Eagledownwasgummedtohis
headandwhitecocksfeatherswerestuckinhishair,whichdroopedtohisgirdle.Awreathofflowers
likeroastedmaizecrownedhisbrows,andagarlandofthesameflowerspassedoverhisshouldersand
underhisarmpits.Goldenornamentshungfromhisnose,goldenarmletsadornedhisarms,goldenbells
jingledonhislegsateverystephetookearringsofturquoisedangledfromhisears,braceletsof
turquoisebedeckedhiswristsnecklacesofshellsencircledhisneckanddependedonhisbreasthewore
amantleofnetwork,androundhismiddlearichwaistcloth.Whenthisbejewelledexquisitelounged
throughthestreetsplayingonhisflute,puffingatacigar,andsmellingatanosegay,thepeoplewhomhe
metthrewthemselvesontheearthbeforehimandprayedtohimwithsighsandtears,takingupthedust
intheirhandsandputtingitintheirmouthsintokenofthedeepesthumiliationandsubjection.Women
cameforthwithchildrenintheirarmsandpresentedthemtohim,salutinghimasagod.Forhepassed
forourLordGodthepeopleacknowledgedhimastheLord.Allwhothusworshippedhimonhis
passagehesalutedgravelyandcourteously.Lestheshouldflee,hewaseverywhereattendedbyaguard
ofeightpagesintheroyallivery,fourofthemwithshavencrownslikethepalaceslaves,andfourof
themwiththeflowinglocksofwarriorsandifhecontrivedtoescape,thecaptainoftheguardhadto
takehisplaceastherepresentativeofthegodandtodieinhisstead.Twentydaysbeforehewastodie,
hiscostumewaschanged,andfourdamselsdelicatelynurturedandbearingthenamesoffourgoddesses
theGoddessofFlowers,theGoddessoftheYoungMaize,theGoddessOurMotheramongthe
Water,andtheGoddessofSaltweregivenhimtobehisbrides,andwiththemheconsorted.During
thelastfivedaysdivinehonourswereshoweredonthedestinedvictim.Thekingremainedinhispalace
whilethewholecourtwentafterthehumangod.Solemnbanquetsanddancesfollowedeachotherin
regularsuccessionandatappointedplaces.Onthelastdaytheyoungman,attendedbyhiswivesand
pages,embarkedinacanoecoveredwitharoyalcanopyandwasferriedacrossthelaketoaspotwherea
littlehillrosefromtheedgeofthewater.ItwascalledtheMountainofParting,becausetherehiswives
badehimalastfarewell.Then,accompaniedonlybyhispages,herepairedtoasmallandlonelytemple
bythewayside.LiketheMexicantemplesingeneral,itwasbuiltintheformofapyramidandasthe
youngmanascendedthestairshebrokeateverysteponeoftheflutesonwhichhehadplayedinthedays
ofhisglory.Onreachingthesummithewasseizedandhelddownbythepriestsonhisbackupona
blockofstone,whileoneofthemcutopenhisbreast,thrusthishandintothewound,andwrenchingout
hishearthelditupinsacrificetothesun.Thebodyofthedeadgodwasnot,likethebodiesofcommon
victims,sentrollingdownthestepsofthetemple,butwascarrieddowntothefoot,wheretheheadwas
cutoffandspittedonapike.Suchwastheregularendofthemanwhopersonatedthegreatestgodofthe
Mexicanpantheon.
Thehonouroflivingforashorttimeinthecharacterofagodanddyingaviolentdeathinthesame
capacitywasnotrestrictedtomeninMexicowomenwereallowed,orrathercompelled,toenjoythe
gloryandtosharethedoomasrepresentativesofgoddesses.ThusatagreatfestivalinSeptember,which
wasprecededbyastrictfastofsevendays,theysanctifiedayoungslavegirloftwelveorthirteenyears,
theprettiesttheycouldfind,torepresenttheMaizeGoddessChicomecohuatl.Theyinvestedherwiththe

ornamentsofthegoddess,puttingamitreonherheadandmaizecobsroundherneckandinherhands,
andfasteningagreenfeatheruprightonthecrownofherheadtoimitateanearofmaize.Thistheydid,
wearetold,inordertosignifythatthemaizewasalmostripeatthetimeofthefestival,butbecauseit
wasstilltendertheychoseagirloftenderyearstoplaythepartoftheMaizeGoddess.Thewholelong
daytheyledthepoorchildinallherfinery,withthegreenplumenoddingonherhead,fromhouseto
housedancingmerrilytocheerpeopleafterthedulnessandprivationsofthefast.
Intheeveningallthepeopleassembledatthetemple,thecourtsofwhichtheylitupbyamultitudeof
lanternsandcandles.Theretheypassedthenightwithoutsleeping,andatmidnight,whilethetrumpets,
flutes,andhornsdiscoursedsolemnmusic,aportableframeworkorpalanquinwasbroughtforth,
bedeckedwithfestoonsofmaizecobsandpeppersandfilledwithseedsofallsorts.Thisthebearersset
downatthedoorofthechamberinwhichthewoodenimageofthegoddessstood.Nowthechamberwas
adornedandwreathed,bothoutsideandinside,withwreathsofmaizecobs,peppers,pumpkins,roses,
andseedsofeverykind,awondertobeholdthewholefloorwascovereddeepwiththeseverdant
offeringsofthepious.Whenthemusicceased,asolemnprocessioncameforthofpriestsanddignitaries,
withflaringlightsandsmokingcensers,leadingintheirmidstthegirlwhoplayedthepartofthe
goddess.Thentheymadehermounttheframework,whereshestooduprightonthemaizeandpeppers
andpumpkinswithwhichitwasstrewed,herhandsrestingontwobannisterstokeepherfromfalling.
Thenthepriestsswungthesmokingcensersroundherthemusicstruckupagain,andwhileitplayed,a
greatdignitaryofthetemplesuddenlysteppeduptoherwitharazorinhishandandadroitlyshoreoff
thegreenfeathersheworeonherhead,togetherwiththehairinwhichitwasfastened,snippingthelock
offbytheroot.Thefeatherandthehairhethenpresentedtothewoodenimageofthegoddesswithgreat
solemnityandelaborateceremonies,weepingandgivingherthanksforthefruitsoftheearthandthe
abundantcropswhichshehadbestowedonthepeoplethatyearandasheweptandprayed,allthe
people,standinginthecourtsofthetemple,weptandprayedwithhim.Whenthatceremonywasover,
thegirldescendedfromtheframeworkandwasescortedtotheplacewhereshewastospendtherestof
thenight.Butallthepeoplekeptwatchinthecourtsofthetemplebythelightoftorchestillbreakof
day.
Themorningbeingcome,andthecourtsofthetemplebeingstillcrowdedbythemultitude,whowould
havedeemeditsacrilegetoquittheprecincts,thepriestsagainbroughtforththedamselattiredinthe
costumeofthegoddess,withthemitreonherheadandthecobsofmaizeaboutherneck.Againshe
mountedtheportableframeworkorpalanquinandstoodonit,supportingherselfbyherhandsonthe
bannisters.Thentheeldersofthetemplelifteditontheirshoulders,andwhilesomeswungburning
censersandothersplayedoninstrumentsorsang,theycarrieditinprocessionthroughthegreat
courtyardtothehallofthegodHuitzilopochtliandthenbacktothechamber,wherestoodthewooden
imageoftheMaizeGoddess,whomthegirlpersonated.Theretheycausedthedamseltodescendfrom
thepalanquinandtostandontheheapsofcornandvegetablesthathadbeenspreadinprofusiononthe
floorofthesacredchamber.Whileshestoodtherealltheeldersandnoblescameinaline,onebehind
theother,carryingsaucersfullofdryandclottedbloodwhichtheyhaddrawnfromtheirearsbywayof
penanceduringthesevendaysfast.Onebyonetheysquattedontheirhaunchesbeforeher,whichwas
theequivalentoffallingontheirkneeswithus,andscrapingthecrustofbloodfromthesaucercastit
downbeforeherasanofferinginreturnforthebenefitswhichshe,astheembodimentoftheMaize
Goddess,hadconferreduponthem.Whenthemenhadthushumblyofferedtheirbloodtothehuman
representativeofthegoddess,thewomen,formingalongline,didsolikewise,eachofthemdroppingon
herhamsbeforethegirlandscrapingherbloodfromthesaucer.Theceremonylastedalongtime,for
greatandsmall,youngandold,allwithoutexceptionhadtopassbeforetheincarnatedeityandmake
theiroffering.Whenitwasover,thepeoplereturnedhomewithgladheartstofeastonfleshandviands
ofeverysortasmerrily,wearetold,asgoodChristiansatEasterpartakeofmeatandothercarnal
merciesafterthelongabstinenceofLent.Andwhentheyhadeatenanddrunktheirfillandrestedafter
thenightwatch,theyreturnedquiterefreshedtothetempletoseetheendofthefestival.Andtheendof

thefestivalwasthis.Themultitudebeingassembled,thepriestssolemnlyincensedthegirlwho
personatedthegoddessthentheythrewheronherbackontheheapofcornandseeds,cutoffherhead,
caughtthegushingbloodinatub,andsprinkledthebloodonthewoodenimageofthegoddess,thewalls
ofthechamber,andtheofferingsofcorn,peppers,pumpkins,seeds,andvegetableswhichcumberedthe
floor.Afterthattheyflayedtheheadlesstrunk,andoneofthepriestsmadeshifttosqueezehimselfinto
thebloodyskin.Havingdonesotheycladhiminalltherobeswhichthegirlhadworntheyputthemitre
onhishead,thenecklaceofgoldenmaizecobsabouthisneck,themaizecobsoffeathersandgoldinhis
handsandthusarrayedtheyledhimforthinpublic,allofthemdancingtothetuckofdrum,whilehe
actedasfugleman,skippingandposturingattheheadoftheprocessionasbrisklyashecouldbe
expectedtodo,incommodedashewasbythetightandclammyskinofthegirlandbyherclothes,which
musthavebeenmuchtoosmallforagrownman.
IntheforegoingcustomtheidentificationoftheyounggirlwiththeMaizeGoddessappearstobe
complete.Thegoldenmaizecobswhichsheworeroundherneck,theartificialmaizecobswhichshe
carriedinherhands,thegreenfeatherwhichwasstuckinherhairinimitation(wearetold)ofagreen
earofmaize,allsetherforthasapersonificationofthecornspiritandweareexpresslyinformedthat
shewasspeciallychosenasayounggirltorepresenttheyoungmaize,whichatthetimeofthefestival
hadnotyetfullyripened.Further,heridentificationwiththecornandthecorngoddesswasclearly
announcedbymakingherstandontheheapsofmaizeandtherereceivethehomageandbloodofferings
ofthewholepeople,whotherebyreturnedherthanksforthebenefitswhichinhercharacterofadivinity
shewassupposedtohaveconferreduponthem.Oncemore,thepracticeofbeheadingheronaheapof
cornandseedsandsprinklingherblood,notonlyontheimageoftheMaizeGoddess,butonthepilesof
maize,peppers,pumpkins,seeds,andvegetables,canseeminglyhavehadnootherobjectbuttoquicken
andstrengthenthecropsofcornandthefruitsoftheearthingeneralbyinfusingintotheir
representativesthebloodoftheCornGoddessherself.TheanalogyofthisMexicansacrifice,the
meaningofwhichappearstobeindisputable,maybeallowedtostrengthentheinterpretationwhichI
havegivenofotherhumansacrificesofferedforthecrops.IftheMexicangirl,whosebloodwas
sprinkledonthemaize,indeedpersonatedtheMaizeGoddess,itbecomesmorethaneverprobablethat
thegirlwhosebloodthePawneessimilarlysprinkledontheseedcornpersonatedinlikemannerthe
femaleSpiritoftheCornandsowiththeotherhumanbeingswhomotherraceshaveslaughteredforthe
sakeofpromotingthegrowthofthecrops.
Lastly,theconcludingactofthesacreddrama,inwhichthebodyofthedeadMaizeGoddesswasflayed
andherskinworn,togetherwithallhersacredinsignia,byamanwhodancedbeforethepeopleinthis
grimattire,seemstobebestexplainedonthehypothesisthatitwasintendedtoensurethatthedivine
deathshouldbeimmediatelyfollowedbythedivineresurrection.Ifthatwasso,wemayinferwithsome
degreeofprobabilitythatthepracticeofkillingahumanrepresentativeofadeityhascommonly,perhaps
always,beenregardedmerelyasameansofperpetuatingthedivineenergiesinthefulnessofyouthful
vigour,untaintedbytheweaknessandfrailtyofage,fromwhichtheymusthavesufferedifthedeityhad
beenallowedtodieanaturaldeath.
TheseMexicanritessufficetoprovethathumansacrificesofthesortIsupposetohaveprevailedat
Ariciawere,asamatteroffact,regularlyofferedbyapeoplewhoselevelofculturewasprobablynot
inferior,ifindeeditwasnotdistinctlysuperior,tothatoccupiedbytheItalianracesattheearlyperiodto
whichtheoriginoftheAricianpriesthoodmustbereferred.Thepositiveandindubitableevidenceofthe
prevalenceofsuchsacrificesinonepartoftheworldmayreasonablybeallowedtostrengthenthe
probabilityoftheirprevalenceinplacesforwhichtheevidenceislessfullandtrustworthy.Takenall
together,thefactswhichwehavepassedinreviewseemtoshowthatthecustomofkillingmenwhom
theirworshippersregardasdivinehasprevailedinmanypartsoftheworld.

LX.BetweenHeavenandEarth

1.NottotouchtheEarth
ATTHEOUTSETofthisbooktwoquestionswereproposedforanswer:WhyhadthepriestofAriciato
slayhispredecessor?Andwhy,beforedoingso,hadhetoplucktheGoldenBough?Ofthesetwo
questionsthefirsthasnowbeenanswered.ThepriestofAricia,ifIamright,wasoneofthosesacred
kingsorhumandivinitiesonwhoselifethewelfareofthecommunityandeventhecourseofnaturein
generalarebelievedtobeintimatelydependent.Itdoesnotappearthatthesubjectsorworshippersof
suchaspiritualpotentateformtothemselvesanyveryclearnotionoftheexactrelationshipinwhichthey
standtohimprobablytheirideasonthepointarevagueandfluctuating,andweshoulderrifwe
attemptedtodefinetherelationshipwithlogicalprecision.Allthatthepeopleknow,orratherimagine,is
thatsomehowtheythemselves,theircattle,andtheircropsaremysteriouslyboundupwiththeirdivine
king,sothataccordingasheiswellorillthecommunityishealthyorsickly,theflocksandherdsthrive
orlanguishwithdisease,andthefieldsyieldanabundantorascantyharvest.Theworstevilwhichthey
canconceiveofisthenaturaldeathoftheirruler,whetherhesuccumbtosicknessoroldage,forinthe
opinionofhisfollowerssuchadeathwouldentailthemostdisastrousconsequencesonthemselvesand
theirpossessionsfatalepidemicswouldsweepawaymanandbeast,theearthwouldrefuseherincrease,
nay,theveryframeofnatureitselfmightbedissolved.Toguardagainstthesecatastrophesitisnecessary
toputthekingtodeathwhileheisstillinthefullbloomofhisdivinemanhood,inorderthathissacred
life,transmittedinunabatedforcetohissuccessor,mayrenewitsyouth,andthusbysuccessive
transmissionsthroughaperpetuallineofvigorousincarnationsmayremaineternallyfreshandyoung,a
pledgeandsecuritythatmenandanimalsshallinlikemannerrenewtheiryouthbyaperpetual
successionofgenerations,andthatseedtimeandharvest,andsummerandwinter,andrainandsunshine
shallneverfail.That,ifmyconjectureisright,waswhythepriestofAricia,theKingoftheWoodat
Nemi,hadregularlytoperishbytheswordofhissuccessor.
Butwehavestilltoask,WhatwastheGoldenBough?andwhyhadeachcandidatefortheArician
priesthoodtopluckitbeforehecouldslaythepriest?ThesequestionsIwillnowtrytoanswer.
Itwillbewelltobeginbynoticingtwoofthoserulesortaboosbywhich,aswehaveseen,thelifeof
divinekingsorpriestsisregulated.ThefirstoftherulestowhichIwouldcallthereadersattentionis
thatthedivinepersonagemaynottouchthegroundwithhisfoot.Thisrulewasobservedbythesupreme
pontiffoftheZapotecsinMexicoheprofanedhissanctityifhesomuchastouchedthegroundwithhis
foot.Montezuma,emperorofMexico,neversetfootonthegroundhewasalwayscarriedonthe
shouldersofnoblemen,andifhelightedanywheretheylaidrichtapestryforhimtowalkupon.Forthe
MikadoofJapantotouchthegroundwithhisfootwasashamefuldegradationindeed,inthesixteenth
century,itwasenoughtodeprivehimofhisoffice.Outsidehispalacehewascarriedonmens
shoulderswithinithewalkedonexquisitelywroughtmats.ThekingandqueenofTahitimightnot
touchthegroundanywherebutwithintheirhereditarydomainsforthegroundonwhichtheytrod
becamesacred.Intravellingfromplacetoplacetheywerecarriedontheshouldersofsacredmen.They
werealwaysaccompaniedbyseveralpairsofthesesanctifiedattendantsandwhenitbecamenecessary
tochangetheirbearers,thekingandqueenvaultedontotheshouldersoftheirnewbearerswithout
lettingtheirfeettouchtheground.ItwasanevilomenifthekingofDosumatouchedtheground,andhe
hadtoperformanexpiatoryceremony.WithinhispalacethekingofPersiawalkedoncarpetsonwhich
nooneelsemighttreadoutsideofithewasneverseenonfootbutonlyinachariotoronhorseback.In
olddaysthekingofSiamneversetfootupontheearth,butwascarriedonathroneofgoldfromplaceto
place.FormerlyneitherthekingsofUganda,northeirmothers,northeirqueensmightwalkonfoot
outsideofthespaciousenclosuresinwhichtheylived.Whenevertheywentforththeywerecarriedon
theshouldersofmenoftheBuffaloclan,severalofwhomaccompaniedanyoftheseroyalpersonageson
ajourneyandtookitinturntobeartheburden.Thekingsatastridethebearersneckwithalegover
eachshoulderandhisfeettuckedunderthebearersarms.Whenoneoftheseroyalcarriersgrewtiredhe

shotthekingontotheshouldersofasecondmanwithoutallowingtheroyalfeettotouchtheground.In
thiswaytheywentatagreatpaceandtravelledlongdistancesinaday,whenthekingwasonajourney.
Thebearershadaspecialhutinthekingsenclosureinordertobeathandthemomenttheywerewanted.
AmongtheBakuba,orratherBushongo,anationinthesouthernregionoftheCongo,downtoafew
yearsagopersonsoftheroyalbloodwereforbiddentotouchthegroundtheymustsitonahide,achair,
orthebackofaslave,whocrouchedonhandsandfeettheirfeetrestedonthefeetofothers.Whenthey
travelledtheywerecarriedonthebacksofmenbutthekingjourneyedinalittersupportedonshafts.
AmongtheIbopeopleaboutAwka,inSouthernNigeria,thepriestoftheEarthhastoobservemany
taboosforexample,hemaynotseeacorpse,andifhemeetsoneontheroadhemusthidehiseyeswith
hiswristlet.Hemustabstainfrommanyfoods,suchaseggs,birdsofallsorts,mutton,dog,bushbuck,
andsoforth.Hemayneitherwearnortouchamask,andnomaskedmanmayenterhishouse.Ifadog
entershishouse,itiskilledandthrownout.AspriestoftheEarthhemaynotsitonthebareground,nor
eatthingsthathavefallenontheground,normayearthbethrownathim.Accordingtoancient
Brahmanicritualakingathisinaugurationtrodonatigersskinandagoldenplatehewasshodwith
shoesofboarsskin,andsolongashelivedthereafterhemightnotstandontheearthwithhisbarefeet.
Butbesidespersonswhoarepermanentlysacredortabooedandarethereforepermanentlyforbiddento
touchthegroundwiththeirfeet,thereareotherswhoenjoythecharacterofsanctityortabooonlyon
certainoccasions,andtowhomaccordinglytheprohibitioninquestiononlyappliesatthedefinite
seasonsduringwhichtheyexhaletheodourofsanctity.ThusamongtheKayansorBahausofCentral
Borneo,whilethepriestessesareengagedintheperformanceofcertainritestheymaynotsteponthe
ground,andboardsarelaidforthemtotreadon.Warriors,again,onthewarpatharesurrounded,soto
say,byanatmosphereoftaboohencesomeIndiansofNorthAmericamightnotsitonthebareground
thewholetimetheywereoutonawarlikeexpedition.InLaosthehuntingofelephantsgivesrisetomany
taboosoneofthemisthatthechiefhuntermaynottouchtheearthwithhisfoot.Accordingly,whenhe
alightsfromhiselephant,theothersspreadacarpetofleavesforhimtostepupon.
Apparentlyholiness,magicalvirtue,taboo,orwhateverwemaycallthatmysteriousqualitywhichis
supposedtopervadesacredortabooedpersons,isconceivedbytheprimitivephilosopherasaphysical
substanceorfluid,withwhichthesacredmanischargedjustasaLeydenjarischargedwithelectricity
andexactlyastheelectricityinthejarcanbedischargedbycontactwithagoodconductor,sothe
holinessormagicalvirtueinthemancanbedischargedanddrainedawaybycontactwiththeearth,
whichonthistheoryservesasanexcellentconductorforthemagicalfluid.Henceinordertopreserve
thechargefromrunningtowaste,thesacredortabooedpersonagemustbecarefullypreventedfrom
touchingthegroundinelectricallanguagehemustbeinsulated,ifheisnottobeemptiedoftheprecious
substanceorfluidwithwhichhe,asavial,isfilledtothebrim.Andinmanycasesapparentlythe
insulationofthetabooedpersonisrecommendedasaprecautionnotmerelyforhisownsakebutforthe
sakeofothersforsincethevirtueofholinessortaboois,sotosay,apowerfulexplosivewhichthe
smallesttouchmaydetonate,itisnecessaryintheinterestofthegeneralsafetytokeepitwithinnarrow
bounds,lestbreakingoutitshouldblast,blight,anddestroywhateveritcomesintocontactwith.
2.NottoseetheSun
THESECONDruletobeherenotedisthatthesunmaynotshineuponthedivineperson.Thisrulewas
observedbothbytheMikadoandbythepontiffoftheZapotecs.Thelatterwaslookeduponasagod
whomtheearthwasnotworthytohold,northesuntoshineupon.TheJapanesewouldnotallowthat
theMikadoshouldexposehissacredpersontotheopenair,andthesunwasnotthoughtworthytoshine
onhishead.TheIndiansofGranada,inSouthAmerica,keptthosewhoweretoberulersor
commanders,whethermenorwomen,lockedupforseveralyearswhentheywerechildren,someof
themsevenyears,andthissoclosethattheywerenottoseethesun,foriftheyshouldhappentoseeit

theyforfeitedtheirlordship,eatingcertainsortsoffoodappointedandthosewhoweretheirkeepersat
certaintimeswentintotheirretreatorprisonandscourgedthemseverely.Thus,forexample,theheirto
thethroneofBogota,whowasnotthesonbutthesisterssonoftheking,hadtoundergoarigorous
trainingfromhisinfancyhelivedincompleteretirementinatemple,wherehemightnotseethesunnor
eatsaltnorconversewithawomanhewassurroundedbyguardswhoobservedhisconductandnoted
allhisactionsifhebrokeasingleoneoftheruleslaiddownforhim,hewasdeemedinfamousand
forfeitedallhisrightstothethrone.So,too,theheirtothekingdomofSogamoso,beforesucceedingto
thecrown,hadtofastforsevenyearsinthetemple,beingshutupinthedarkandnotallowedtoseethe
sunorlight.TheprincewhowastobecomeIncaofPeruhadtofastforamonthwithoutseeinglight.
3.TheSeclusionofGirlsatPuberty
NOWitisremarkablethattheforegoingtworulesnottotouchthegroundandnottoseethesunare
observedeitherseparatelyorconjointlybygirlsatpubertyinmanypartsoftheworld.Thusamongstthe
negroesofLoangogirlsatpubertyareconfinedinseparatehuts,andtheymaynottouchthegroundwith
anypartoftheirbarebody.AmongtheZulusandkindredtribesofSouthAfrica,whenthefirstsignsof
pubertyshowthemselveswhileagirliswalking,gatheringwood,orworkinginthefield,sherunstothe
riverandhidesherselfamongthereedsfortheday,soasnottobeseenbymen.Shecoversherhead
carefullywithherblanketthatthesunmaynotshineonitandshrivelherupintoawitheredskeleton,as
wouldresultfromexposuretothesunsbeams.Afterdarkshereturnstoherhomeandissecludedina
hutforsometime.WiththeAwankonde,atribeatthenorthernendofLakeNyassa,itisarulethatafter
herfirstmenstruationagirlmustbekeptapart,withafewcompanionsofherownsex,inadarkened
house.Theflooriscoveredwithdrybananaleaves,butnofiremaybelitinthehouse,whichiscalled
thehouseoftheAwasungu,thatis,ofmaidenswhohavenohearts.
InNewIrelandgirlsareconfinedforfourorfiveyearsinsmallcages,beingkeptinthedarkandnot
allowedtosetfootontheground.Thecustomhasbeenthusdescribedbyaneyewitness.Iheardfroma
teacheraboutsomestrangecustomconnectedwithsomeoftheyounggirlshere,soIaskedthechiefto
takemetothehousewheretheywere.Thehousewasabouttwentyfivefeetinlength,andstoodina
reedandbambooenclosure,acrosstheentrancetowhichabundleofdriedgrasswassuspendedtoshow
thatitwasstrictlytabu.Insidethehousewerethreeconicalstructuresaboutsevenoreightfeetin
height,andabouttenortwelvefeetincircumferenceatthebottom,andforaboutfourfeetfromthe
ground,atwhichpointtheytaperedofftoapointatthetop.Thesecagesweremadeofthebroadleaves
ofthepandanustree,sewnquiteclosetogethersothatnolightandlittleornoaircouldenter.Onone
sideofeachisanopeningwhichisclosedbyadoubledoorofplaitedcocoanuttreeandpandanustree
leaves.Aboutthreefeetfromthegroundthereisastageofbambooswhichformsthefloor.Ineachof
thesecagesweweretoldtherewasayoungwomanconfined,eachofwhomhadtoremainforatleast
fourorfiveyears,withouteverbeingallowedtogooutsidethehouse.Icouldscarcelycreditthestory
whenIhearditthewholethingseemedtoohorribletobetrue.Ispoketothechief,andtoldhimthatI
wishedtoseetheinsideofthecages,andalsotoseethegirlsthatImightmakethemapresentofafew
beads.Hetoldmethatitwastabu,forbiddenforanymenbuttheirownrelationstolookatthembutI
supposethepromisedbeadsactedasaninducement,andsohesentawayforsomeoldladywhohad
charge,andwhoaloneisallowedtoopenthedoors.Whilewewerewaitingwecouldhearthegirls
talkingtothechiefinaquerulouswayasifobjectingtosomethingorexpressingtheirfears.Theold
womancameatlengthandcertainlyshedidnotseemaverypleasantjailororguardiannordidsheseem
tofavourtherequestofthechieftoallowustoseethegirls,assheregardeduswithanythingbut
pleasantlooks.However,shehadtoundothedoorwhenthechieftoldhertodoso,andthenthegirls
peepedoutatus,and,whentoldtodoso,theyheldouttheirhandsforthebeads.I,however,purposely
satatsomedistanceawayandmerelyheldoutthebeadstothem,asIwishedtodrawthemquiteoutside,
thatImightinspecttheinsideofthecages.Thisdesireofminegaverisetoanotherdifficulty,asthese

girlswerenotallowedtoputtheirfeettothegroundallthetimetheywereconfinedintheseplaces.
However,theywishedtogetthebeads,andsotheoldladyhadtogooutsideandcollectalotofpiecesof
woodandbamboo,whichsheplacedontheground,andthengoingtooneofthegirls,shehelpedher
downandheldherhandasshesteppedfromonepieceofwoodtoanotheruntilshecamenearenoughto
getthebeadsIheldouttoher.Ithenwenttoinspecttheinsideofthecageoutofwhichshehadcome,
butcouldscarelyputmyheadinsideofit,theatmospherewassohotandstifling.Itwascleanand
containednothingbutafewshortlengthsofbambooforholdingwater.Therewasonlyroomforthegirl
tositorliedowninacrouchedpositiononthebambooplatform,andwhenthedoorsareshutitmustbe
nearlyorquitedarkinside.Thegirlsareneverallowedtocomeoutexceptonceadaytobatheinadish
orwoodenbowlplacedclosetoeachcage.Theysaythattheyperspireprofusely.Theyareplacedin
thesestiflingcageswhenquiteyoung,andmustremainthereuntiltheyareyoungwomen,whentheyare
takenoutandhaveeachagreatmarriagefeastprovidedforthem.Oneofthemwasaboutfourteenor
fifteenyearsold,andthechieftoldusthatshehadbeenthereforfiveyears,butwouldsoonbetakenout
now.Theothertwowereabouteightandtenyearsold,andtheyhavetostaythereforseveralyears
longer.
InKabadi,adistrictofBritishNewGuinea,daughtersofchiefs,whentheyareabouttwelveorthirteen
yearsofage,arekeptindoorsfortwoorthreeyears,neverbeingallowed,underanypretence,todescend
fromthehouse,andthehouseissoshadedthatthesuncannotshineonthem.AmongtheYabimand
Bukaua,twoneighbouringandkindredtribesonthecoastofNorthernNewGuinea,agirlatpubertyis
secludedforsomefiveorsixweeksinaninnerpartofthehousebutshemaynotsitonthefloor,lesther
uncleanlinessshouldcleavetoit,soalogofwoodisplacedforhertosquaton.Moreover,shemaynot
touchthegroundwithherfeethenceifsheisobligedtoquitthehouseforashorttime,sheismuffledup
inmatsandwalksontwohalvesofacoconutshell,whicharefastenedlikesandalstoherfeetby
creepingplants.AmongtheOtDanomsofBorneogirlsattheageofeightortenyearsareshutupina
littleroomorcellofthehouse,andcutofffromallintercoursewiththeworldforalongtime.Thecell,
liketherestofthehouse,israisedonpilesabovetheground,andislitbyasinglesmallwindowopening
onalonelyplace,sothatthegirlisinalmosttotaldarkness.Shemaynotleavetheroomonanypretext
whatever,notevenforthemostnecessarypurposes.Noneofherfamilymayseeherallthetimesheis
shutup,butasingleslavewomanisappointedtowaitonher.Duringherlonelyconfinement,which
oftenlastssevenyears,thegirloccupiesherselfinweavingmatsorwithotherhandiwork.Herbodily
growthisstuntedbythelongwantofexercise,andwhen,onattainingwomanhood,sheisbroughtout,
hercomplexionispaleandwaxlike.Sheisnowshownthesun,theearth,thewater,thetrees,andthe
flowers,asifshewerenewlyborn.Thenagreatfeastismade,aslaveiskilled,andthegirlissmeared
withhisblood.InCeramgirlsatpubertywereformerlyshutupbythemselvesinahutwhichwaskept
dark.InYap,oneoftheCarolineIslands,shouldagirlbeovertakenbyherfirstmenstruationonthe
publicroad,shemaynotsitdownontheearth,butmustbegforacoconutshelltoputunderher.Sheis
shutupforseveraldaysinasmallhutatadistancefromherparentshouse,andafterwardssheisbound
tosleepforahundreddaysinoneofthespecialhouseswhichareprovidedfortheuseofmenstruous
women.
IntheislandofMabuiag,TorresStraits,whenthesignsofpubertyappearonagirl,acircleofbushesis
madeinadarkcornerofthehouse.Here,deckedwithshoulderbelts,armlets,legletsjustbelowthe
knees,andanklets,wearingachapletonherhead,andshellornamentsinherears,onherchest,andon
herback,shesquatsinthemidstofthebushes,whicharepiledsohighroundaboutherthatonlyher
headisvisible.Inthisstateofseclusionshemustremainforthreemonths.Allthistimethesunmaynot
shineuponher,butatnightsheisallowedtoslipoutofthehut,andthebushesthathedgeherinarethen
changed.Shemaynotfeedherselforhandlefood,butisfedbyoneortwooldwomen,hermaternal
aunts,whoareespeciallyappointedtolookafterher.Oneofthesewomencooksfoodforherataspecial
fireintheforest.Thegirlisforbiddentoeatturtleorturtleeggsduringtheseasonwhentheturtlesare
breedingbutnovegetablefoodisrefusedher.Noman,notevenherownfather,maycomeintothe

housewhileherseclusionlastsforifherfathersawheratthistimehewouldcertainlyhavebadluckin
hisfishing,andwouldprobablysmashhiscanoetheverynexttimehewentoutinit.Attheendofthe
threemonthssheiscarrieddowntoafreshwatercreekbyherattendants,hangingontotheirshouldersin
suchawaythatherfeetdonottouchtheground,whilethewomenofthetribeformaringroundher,and
thusescorthertothebeach.Arrivedattheshore,sheisstrippedofherornaments,andthebearers
staggerwithherintothecreek,wheretheyimmerseher,andalltheotherwomenjoininsplashingwater
overboththegirlandherbearers.Whentheycomeoutofthewateroneofthetwoattendantsmakesa
heapofgrassforherchargetosquatupon.Theotherrunstothereef,catchesasmallcrab,tearsoffits
claws,andhastensbackwiththemtothecreek.Hereinthemeantimeafirehasbeenkindled,andthe
clawsareroastedatit.Thegirlisthenfedbyherattendantswiththeroastedclaws.Afterthatsheis
freshlydecorated,andthewholepartymarchesbacktothevillageinasinglerank,thegirlwalkinginthe
centrebetweenhertwooldaunts,whoholdherbythewrists.Thehusbandsofherauntsnowreceiveher
andleadherintothehouseofoneofthem,whereallpartakeoffood,andthegirlisallowedoncemoreto
feedherselfintheusualmanner.Adancefollows,inwhichthegirltakesaprominentpart,dancing
betweenthehusbandsofthetwoauntswhohadchargeofherinherretirement.
AmongtheYaraikannatribeofCapeYorkPeninsula,inNorthernQueensland,agirlatpubertyissaidto
livebyherselfforamonthorsixweeksnomanmayseeher,thoughanywomanmay.Shestaysinahut
orshelterspeciallymadeforher,onthefloorofwhichsheliessupine.Shemaynotseethesun,and
towardssunsetshemustkeephereyesshutuntilthesunhasgonedown,otherwiseitisthoughtthather
nosewillbediseased.Duringherseclusionshemayeatnothingthatlivesinsaltwater,orasnakewould
killher.Anoldwomanwaitsuponherandsuppliesherwithroots,yams,andwater.SomeAustralian
tribesarewonttoburytheirgirlsatsuchseasonsmoreorlessdeeplyintheground,perhapsinorderto
hidethemfromthelightofthesun.
AmongtheIndiansofCaliforniaagirlatherfirstmenstruationwasthoughttobepossessedofa
particulardegreeofsupernaturalpower,andthiswasnotalwaysregardedasentirelydefilingor
malevolent.Often,however,therewasastrongfeelingofthepowerofevilinherentinhercondition.Not
onlywasshesecludedfromherfamilyandthecommunity,butanattemptwasmadetosecludetheworld
fromher.Oneoftheinjunctionsmoststronglylaiduponherwasnottolookabouther.Shekeptherhead
bowedandwasforbiddentoseetheworldandthesun.Sometribescoveredherwithablanket.Manyof
thecustomsinthisconnectionresembledthoseoftheNorthPacificCoastmoststrongly,suchasthe
prohibitiontothegirltotouchorscratchherheadwithherhand,aspecialimplementbeingfurnishedher
forthepurpose.Sometimesshecouldeatonlywhenfedandinothercasesfastedaltogether.
AmongtheChinookIndianswhoinhabitedthecoastofWashingtonState,whenachiefsdaughter
attainedtopuberty,shewashiddenforfivedaysfromtheviewofthepeopleshemightnotlookatthem
noratthesky,normightshepickberries.Itwasbelievedthatifsheweretolookatthesky,theweather
wouldbebadthatifshepickedberries,itwouldrainandthatwhenshehunghertowelofcedarbarkon
asprucetree,thetreewitheredupatonce.Shewentoutofthehousebyaseparatedoorandbathedina
creekfarfromthevillage.Shefastedforsomedays,andformanydaysmoreshemightnoteatfresh
food.
AmongsttheAhtorNootkaIndiansofVancouverIsland,whengirlsreachpubertytheyareplacedina
sortofgalleryinthehouseandaretheresurroundedcompletelywithmats,sothatneitherthesunnor
anyfirecanbeseen.Inthiscagetheyremainforseveraldays.Waterisgiventhem,butnofood.The
longeragirlremainsinthisretirementthegreaterhonourisittotheparentsbutsheisdisgracedforlife
ifitisknownthatshehasseenfireorthesunduringthisinitiatoryordeal.Picturesofthemythical
thunderbirdarepaintedonthescreensbehindwhichshehides.Duringherseclusionshemayneither
movenorliedown,butmustalwayssitinasquattingposture.Shemaynottouchherhairwithherhands,
butisallowedtoscratchherheadwithacomborapieceofboneprovidedforthepurpose.Toscratch

herbodyisalsoforbidden,asitisbelievedthateveryscratchwouldleaveascar.Foreightmonthsafter
reachingmaturityshemaynoteatanyfreshfood,particularlysalmonmoreover,shemusteatbyherself,
anduseacupanddishofherown.
IntheTsetsauttribeofBritishColumbiaagirlatpubertywearsalargehatofskinwhichcomesdown
overherfaceandscreensitfromthesun.Itisbelievedthatifsheweretoexposeherfacetothesunorto
thesky,rainwouldfall.Thehatprotectsherfacealsoagainstthefire,whichoughtnottostrikeherskin
toshieldherhandsshewearsmittens.Inhermouthshecarriesthetoothofananimaltopreventherown
teethfrombecominghollow.Forawholeyearshemaynotseebloodunlessherfaceisblackened
otherwiseshewouldgrowblind.Fortwoyearsshewearsthehatandlivesinahutbyherself,although
sheisallowedtoseeotherpeople.Attheendoftwoyearsamantakesthehatfromherheadandthrows
itaway.IntheBilqulaorBellaCoolatribeofBritishColumbia,whenagirlattainspubertyshemuststay
intheshedwhichservesasherbedroom,whereshehasaseparatefireplace.Sheisnotallowedto
descendtothemainpartofthehouse,andmaynotsitbythefireofthefamily.Forfourdayssheis
boundtoremainmotionlessinasittingposture.Shefastsduringtheday,butisallowedalittlefoodand
drinkveryearlyinthemorning.Afterthefourdaysseclusionshemayleaveherroom,butonlythrough
aseparateopeningcutinthefloor,forthehousesareraisedonpiles.Shemaynotyetcomeintothechief
room.Inleavingthehouseshewearsalargehatwhichprotectsherfaceagainsttheraysofthesun.Itis
believedthatifthesunweretoshineonherfacehereyeswouldsuffer.Shemaypickberriesonthehills,
butmaynotcomeneartheriverorseaforawholeyear.Wereshetoeatfreshsalmonshewouldloseher
senses,orhermouthwouldbechangedintoalongbeak.
AmongsttheTlingit(Thlinkeet)orKoloshIndiansofAlaska,whenagirlshowedsignsofwomanhood
sheusedtobeconfinedtoalittlehutorcage,whichwascompletelyblockedupwiththeexceptionofa
smallairhole.Inthisdarkandfilthyabodeshehadtoremainayear,withoutfire,exercise,orassociates.
Onlyhermotherandafemaleslavemightsupplyherwithnourishment.Herfoodwasputinatthelittle
windowshehadtodrinkoutofthewingboneofawhiteheadedeagle.Thetimeofherseclusionwas
afterwardsreducedinsomeplacestosixorthreemonthsorevenless.Shehadtowearasortofhatwith
longflaps,thathergazemightnotpollutetheskyforshewasthoughtunfitforthesuntoshineupon,
anditwasimaginedthatherlookwoulddestroytheluckofahunter,fisher,orgambler,turnthingsto
stone,anddoothermischief.Attheendofherconfinementheroldclotheswereburnt,newoneswere
made,andafeastwasgiven,atwhichaslitwascutinherunderlipparalleltothemouth,andapieceof
woodorshellwasinsertedtokeeptheapertureopen.AmongtheKoniags,anEsquimaupeopleof
Alaska,agirlatpubertywasplacedinasmallhutinwhichshehadtoremainonherhandsandfeetfor
sixmonthsthenthehutwasenlargedalittlesoastoallowhertostraightenherback,butinthisposture
shehadtoremainforsixmonthsmore.Allthistimeshewasregardedasanuncleanbeingwithwhomno
onemightholdintercourse.
Whensymptomsofpubertyappearedonagirlforthefirsttime,theGuaranisofSouthernBrazil,onthe
bordersofParaguay,usedtosewherupinherhammock,leavingonlyasmallopeninginittoallowher
tobreathe.Inthiscondition,wraptupandshroudedlikeacorpse,shewaskeptfortwoorthreedaysor
solongasthesymptomslasted,andduringthistimeshehadtoobserveamostrigorousfast.Afterthat
shewasentrustedtoamatron,whocutthegirlshairandenjoinedhertoabstainmoststrictlyfrom
eatingfleshofanykinduntilherhairshouldbegrownlongenoughtohideherears.Insimilar
circumstancestheChiriguanosofSoutheasternBoliviahoistedthegirlinherhammocktotheroof,
whereshestayedforamonth:thesecondmonththehammockwaslethalfwaydownfromtheroofand
inthethirdmontholdwomen,armedwithsticks,enteredthehutandranaboutstrikingeverythingthey
met,sayingtheywerehuntingthesnakethathadwoundedthegirl.
AmongtheMatacosorMataguayos,anIndiantribeoftheGranChaco,agirlatpubertyhastoremainin
seclusionforsometime.Sheliescoveredupwithbranchesorotherthingsinacornerofthehut,seeing

nooneandspeakingtonoone,andduringthistimeshemayeatneitherfleshnorfish.Meantimeaman
beatsadruminfrontofthehouse.AmongtheYuracares,anIndiantribeofEasternBolivia,whenagirl
perceivesthesignsofpuberty,herfatherconstructsalittlehutofpalmleavesnearthehouse.Inthis
cabinheshutsuphisdaughtersothatshecannotseethelight,andtheresheremainsfastingrigorously
forfourdays.
AmongsttheMacusisofBritishGuiana,whenagirlshowsthefirstsignsofpuberty,sheishungina
hammockatthehighestpointofthehut.Forthefirstfewdaysshemaynotleavethehammockbyday,
butatnightshemustcomedown,lightafire,andspendthenightbesideit,elseshewouldbreakoutin
soresonherneck,throat,andotherpartsofherbody.Solongasthesymptomsareattheirheight,she
mustfastrigorously.Whentheyhaveabated,shemaycomedownandtakeupherabodeinalittle
compartmentthatismadeforherinthedarkestcornerofthehut.Inthemorningshemaycookherfood,
butitmustbeataseparatefireandinavesselofherown.Afterabouttendaysthemagiciancomesand
undoesthespellbymutteringcharmsandbreathingonherandonthemorevaluableofthethingswith
whichshehascomeincontact.Thepotsanddrinkingvesselswhichsheusedarebrokenandthe
fragmentsburied.Afterherfirstbath,thegirlmustsubmittobebeatenbyhermotherwiththinrods
withoututteringacry.Attheendofthesecondperiodsheisagainbeaten,butnotafterwards.Sheisnow
clean,andcanmixagainwithpeople.OtherIndiansofGuiana,afterkeepingthegirlinherhammock
atthetopofthehutforamonth,exposehertocertainlargeants,whosebiteisverypainful.Sometimes,
inadditiontobeingstungwithants,thesuffererhastofastdayandnightsolongassheremainsslungup
onhighinherhammock,sothatwhenshecomesdownsheisreducedtoaskeleton.
WhenaHindoomaidenreachesmaturitysheiskeptinadarkroomforfourdays,andisforbiddentosee
thesun.Sheisregardedasuncleannoonemaytouchher.Herdietisrestrictedtoboiledrice,milk,
sugar,curd,andtamarindwithoutsalt.Onthemorningofthefifthdayshegoestoaneighbouringtank,
accompaniedbyfivewomenwhosehusbandsarealive.Smearedwithturmericwater,theyallbatheand
returnhome,throwingawaythematandotherthingsthatwereintheroom.TheRarhiBrahmansof
Bengalcompelagirlatpubertytolivealone,anddonotallowhertoseethefaceofanymale.Forthree
dayssheremainsshutupinadarkroom,andhastoundergocertainpenances.Fish,flesh,and
sweetmeatsareforbiddenhershemustliveuponriceandghee.AmongtheTiyansofMalabaragirlis
thoughttobepollutedforfourdaysfromthebeginningofherfirstmenstruation.Duringthistimeshe
mustkeeptothenorthsideofthehouse,whereshesleepsonagrassmatofaparticularkind,inaroom
festoonedwithgarlandsofyoungcoconutleaves.Anothergirlkeepshercompanyandsleepswithher,
butshemaynottouchanyotherperson,treeorplant.Further,shemaynotseethesky,andwoebetide
herifshecatchessightofacroworacat!Herdietmustbestrictlyvegetarian,withoutsalt,tamarinds,or
chillies.Sheisarmedagainstevilspiritsbyaknife,whichisplacedonthematorcarriedonherperson.
InCambodiaagirlatpubertyisputtobedunderamosquitocurtain,wheresheshouldstayahundred
days.Usually,however,four,five,ten,ortwentydaysarethoughtenoughandeventhis,inahotclimate
andundertheclosemeshesofthecurtain,issufficientlytrying.Accordingtoanotheraccount,a
Cambodianmaidenatpubertyissaidtoenterintotheshade.Duringherretirement,which,according
totherankandpositionofherfamily,maylastanytimefromafewdaystoseveralyears,shehasto
observeanumberofrules,suchasnottobeseenbyastrangeman,nottoeatfleshorfish,andsoon.She
goesnowhere,noteventothepagoda.Butthisstateofseclusionisdiscontinuedduringeclipsesatsuch
timesshegoesforthandpaysherdevotionstothemonsterwhoissupposedtocauseeclipsesbycatching
theheavenlybodiesbetweenhisteeth.Thispermissiontobreakherruleofretirementandappearabroad
duringaneclipseseemstoshowhowliterallytheinjunctionisinterpretedwhichforbidsmaidens
enteringonwomanhoodtolookuponthesun.
Asuperstitionsowidelydiffusedasthismightbeexpectedtoleavetracesinlegendsandfolktales.And
ithasdoneso.TheoldGreekstoryofDanae,whowasconfinedbyherfatherinasubterraneanchamber

orabrazentower,butimpregnatedbyZeus,whoreachedherintheshapeofashowerofgold,perhaps
belongstothisclassoftales.IthasitscounterpartinthelegendwhichtheKirghizofSiberiatelloftheir
ancestry.AcertainKhanhadafairdaughter,whomhekeptinadarkironhouse,thatnomanmightsee
her.Anoldwomantendedherandwhenthegirlwasgrowntomaidenhoodsheaskedtheoldwoman,
Wheredoyougosooften?Mychild,saidtheolddame,thereisabrightworld.Inthatbrightworld
yourfatherandmotherlive,andallsortsofpeoplelivethere.ThatiswhereIgo.Themaidensaid,
Goodmother,Iwilltellnobody,butshowmethatbrightworld.Sotheoldwomantookthegirloutof
theironhouse.Butwhenshesawthebrightworld,thegirltotteredandfaintedandtheeyeofGodfell
uponher,andsheconceived.Herangryfatherputherinagoldenchestandsentherfloatingaway(fairy
goldcanfloatinfairyland)overthewidesea.TheshowerofgoldintheGreekstory,andtheeyeofGod
intheKirghizlegend,probablystandforsunlightandthesun.Theideathatwomenmaybeimpregnated
bythesunisnotuncommoninlegends,andthereareeventracesofitinmarriagecustoms.
4.ReasonsfortheSeclusionofGirlsatPuberty
THEMOTIVEfortherestraintssocommonlyimposedongirlsatpubertyisthedeeplyengraineddread
whichprimitivemanuniversallyentertainsofmenstruousblood.Hefearsitatalltimesbutespeciallyon
itsfirstappearancehencetherestrictionsunderwhichwomenlieattheirfirstmenstruationareusually
morestringentthanthosewhichtheyhavetoobserveatanysubsequentrecurrenceofthemysterious
flow.Someevidenceofthefearandofthecustomsbasedonithasbeencitedinanearlierpartofthis
workbutastheterror,foritisnothingless,whichthephenomenonperiodicallystrikesintothemindof
thesavagehasdeeplyinfluencedhislifeandinstitutions,itmaybewelltoillustratethesubjectwith
somefurtherexamples.
ThusintheEncounterBaytribeofSouthAustraliathereis,orusedtobe,asuperstitionwhichobligesa
womantoseparateherselffromthecampatthetimeofhermonthlyillness,whenifayoungmanorboy
shouldapproach,shecallsout,andheimmediatelymakesacircuittoavoidher.Ifsheisneglectfulupon
thispoint,sheexposesherselftoscolding,andsometimestoseverebeatingbyherhusbandornearest
relation,becausetheboysaretoldfromtheirinfancy,thatiftheyseethebloodtheywillearlybecome
greyheaded,andtheirstrengthwillfailprematurely.TheDieriofCentralAustraliabelievethatif
womenatthesetimesweretoeatfishorbatheinariver,thefishwouldalldieandthewaterwoulddry
up.TheAruntaofthesameregionforbidmenstruouswomentogathertheirriakurabulbs,whichforma
staplearticleofdietforbothmenandwomen.Theythinkthatwereawomantobreakthisrule,the
supplyofbulbswouldfail.
InsomeAustraliantribestheseclusionofmenstruouswomenwasevenmorerigid,andwasenforcedby
severerpenaltiesthanascoldingorabeating.Thusthereisaregulationrelatingtocampsinthe
Wakelburatribewhichforbidsthewomencomingintotheencampmentbythesamepathasthemen.
Anyviolationofthisrulewouldinalargecampbepunishedwithdeath.Thereasonforthisisthedread
withwhichtheyregardthemenstrualperiodofwomen.Duringsuchatime,awomaniskeptentirely
awayfromthecamp,halfamileatleast.Awomaninsuchaconditionhasboughsofsometreeofher
totemtiedroundherloins,andisconstantlywatchedandguarded,foritisthoughtthatshouldanymale
besounfortunateastoseeawomaninsuchacondition,hewoulddie.Ifsuchawomanweretolet
herselfbeseenbyaman,shewouldprobablybeputtodeath.Whenthewomanhasrecovered,sheis
paintedredandwhite,herheadcoveredwithfeathers,andreturnstothecamp.
InMuralug,oneoftheTorresStraitsIslands,amenstruouswomanmaynoteatanythingthatlivesinthe
sea,elsethenativesbelievethatthefisherieswouldfail.InGalela,tothewestofNewGuinea,womenat
theirmonthlyperiodsmaynotenteratobaccofield,ortheplantswouldbeattackedbydisease.The
MinangkabauersofSumatraarepersuadedthatifawomaninheruncleanstateweretogoneararice

field,thecropwouldbespoiled.
TheBushmenofSouthAfricathinkthat,byaglanceofagirlseyeatthetimewhensheoughttobekept
instrictretirement,menbecomefixedinwhateverpositionstheyhappentooccupy,withwhateverthey
wereholdingintheirhands,andarechangedintotreesthattalk.CattlerearingtribesofSouthAfrica
holdthattheircattlewoulddieifthemilkweredrunkbyamenstruouswomanandtheyfearthesame
disasterifadropofherbloodweretofallonthegroundandtheoxenweretopassoverit.Toprevent
suchacalamitywomeningeneral,notmenstruouswomenonly,areforbiddentoenterthecattle
enclosureandmorethanthat,theymaynotusetheordinarypathsinenteringthevillageorinpassing
fromonehuttoanother.Theyareobligedtomakecircuitoustracksatthebackofthehutsinorderto
avoidthegroundinthemiddleofthevillagewherethecattlestandorliedown.Thesewomenstracks
maybeseenateveryCaffrevillage.AmongtheBaganda,inlikemanner,nomenstruouswomanmight
drinkmilkorcomeintocontactwithanymilkvesselandshemightnottouchanythingthatbelongedto
herhusband,norsitonhismat,norcookhisfood.Ifshetouchedanythingofhisatsuchatimeitwas
deemedequivalenttowishinghimdeadortoactuallyworkingmagicforhisdestruction.Weresheto
handleanyarticleofhis,hewouldsurelyfallillwereshetotouchhisweapons,hewouldcertainlybe
killedinthenextbattle.Further,theBagandawouldnotsufferamenstruouswomantovisitawellifshe
didso,theyfearedthatthewaterwoulddryup,andthatsheherselfwouldfallsickanddie,unlessshe
confessedherfaultandthemedicinemanmadeatonementforher.AmongtheAkikuyuofBritishEast
Africa,ifanewhutisbuiltinavillageandthewifechancestomenstruateinitonthedayshelightsthe
firstfirethere,thehutmustbebrokendownanddemolishedtheverynextday.Thewomanmayonno
accountsleepasecondnightinitthereisacursebothonherandonit.
AccordingtotheTalmud,ifawomanatthebeginningofherperiodpassesbetweentwomen,she
therebykillsoneofthem.PeasantsoftheLebanonthinkthatmenstruouswomenarethecauseormany
misfortunestheirshadowcausesflowerstowitherandtreestoperish,itevenarreststhemovementsof
serpentsifoneofthemmountsahorse,theanimalmightdieoratleastbedisabledforalongtime.
TheGuayquiriesoftheOrinocobelievethatwhenawomanhashercourses,everythinguponwhichshe
stepswilldie,andthatifamantreadsontheplacewhereshehaspassed,hislegswillimmediatelyswell
up.AmongtheBribriIndiansofCostaRicaamarriedwomanatherperiodsusesforplatesonlybanana
leaves,which,whenshehasdonewiththem,shethrowsawayinasequesteredspotforshouldacow
findandeatthem,theanimalwouldwasteawayandperish.Alsoshedrinksonlyoutofaspecialvessel,
becauseanypersonwhoshouldafterwardsdrinkoutofthesamevesselwouldinfalliblypineawayand
die.
AmongmosttribesofNorthAmericanIndiansthecustomwasthatwomenintheircoursesretiredfrom
thecamporthevillageandlivedduringthetimeoftheiruncleannessinspecialhutsorshelterswhich
wereappropriatedtotheiruse.Theretheydweltapart,eatingandsleepingbythemselves,warming
themselvesattheirownfires,andstrictlyabstainingfromallcommunicationswithmen,whoshunned
themjustasiftheywerestrickenwiththeplague.
Thus,totakeexamples,theCreekandkindredIndiansoftheUnitedStatescompelledwomenat
menstruationtoliveinseparatehutsatsomedistancefromthevillage.Therethewomenhadtostay,at
theriskofbeingsurprisedandcutoffbyenemies.Itwasthoughtamosthorridanddangerous
pollutiontogonearthewomenatsuchtimesandthedangerextendedtoenemieswho,iftheyslewthe
women,hadtocleansethemselvesfromthepollutionbymeansofcertainsacredherbsandroots.The
StseelisIndiansofBritishColumbiaimaginedthatifamenstruouswomanweretostepoverabundleof
arrows,thearrowswouldtherebyberendereduselessandmightevencausethedeathoftheirownerand
similarlythatifshepassedinfrontofahunterwhocarriedagun,theweaponwouldnevershootstraight
again.AmongtheChippewaysandotherIndiansoftheHudsonBayTerritory,menstruouswomenare

excludedfromthecamp,andtakeuptheirabodeinhutsofbranches.Theywearlonghoods,which
effectuallyconcealtheheadandbreast.Theymaynottouchthehouseholdfurniturenoranyobjectsused
bymenfortheirtouchissupposedtodefilethem,sothattheirsubsequentusewouldbefollowedby
certainmischieformisfortune,suchasdiseaseordeath.Theymustdrinkoutofaswansbone.They
maynotwalkonthecommonpathsnorcrossthetracksofanimals.Theyareneverpermittedtowalkon
theiceofriversorlakes,ornearthepartwherethemenarehuntingbeaver,orwhereafishingnetisset,
forfearofavertingtheirsuccess.Theyarealsoprohibitedatthosetimesfrompartakingoftheheadof
anyanimal,andevenfromwalkinginorcrossingthetrackwheretheheadofadeer,moose,beaver,and
manyotheranimalshavelatelybeencarried,eitheronasledgeorontheback.Tobeguiltyofaviolation
ofthiscustomisconsideredasofthegreatestimportancebecausetheyfirmlybelievethatitwouldbea
meansofpreventingthehunterfromhavinganequalsuccessinhisfutureexcursions.SotheLapps
forbidwomenatmenstruationtowalkonthatpartoftheshorewherethefishersareinthehabitof
settingouttheirfishandtheEsquimauxofBeringStraitbelievethatifhuntersweretocomenear
womenintheircoursestheywouldcatchnogame.ForalikereasontheCarrierIndianswillnotsuffera
menstruouswomantocrossthetracksofanimalsifneedbe,sheiscarriedoverthem.Theythinkthatif
shewadedinastreamoralake,thefishwoulddie.
AmongstthecivilisednationsofEuropethesuperstitionswhichclusterroundthismysteriousaspectof
womansnaturearenotlessextravagantthanthosewhichprevailamongsavages.Intheoldestexisting
cyclopaediatheNaturalHistoryofPlinythelistofdangersapprehendedfrommenstruationislonger
thananyfurnishedbymerebarbarians.AccordingtoPliny,thetouchofamenstruouswomanturned
winetovinegar,blightedcrops,killedseedlings,blastedgardens,broughtdownthefruitfromtrees,
dimmedmirrors,bluntedrazors,rustedironandbrass(especiallyatthewaningofthemoon),killedbees,
oratleastdrovethemfromtheirhives,causedmarestomiscarry,andsoforth.Similarly,invariousparts
ofEurope,itisstillbelievedthatifawomaninhercoursesentersabrewerythebeerwillturnsourifshe
touchesbeer,wine,vinegar,ormilk,itwillgobadifshemakesjam,itwillnotkeepifshemountsa
mare,itwillmiscarryifshetouchesbuds,theywillwitherifsheclimbsacherrytree,itwilldie.In
Brunswickpeoplethinkthatifamenstruouswomanassistsatthekillingofapig,theporkwillputrefy.
IntheGreekislandofCalymnosawomanatsuchtimesmaynotgotothewelltodrawwater,norcrossa
runningstream,norenterthesea.Herpresenceinaboatissaidtoraisestorms.
Thustheobjectofsecludingwomenatmenstruationistoneutralisethedangerousinfluenceswhichare
supposedtoemanatefromthematsuchtimes.Thatthedangerisbelievedtobeespeciallygreatatthe
firstmenstruationappearsfromtheunusualprecautionstakentoisolategirlsatthiscrisis.Twoofthese
precautionshavebeenillustratedabove,namely,therulesthatthegirlsmaynottouchthegroundnorsee
thesun.Thegeneraleffectoftheserulesistokeephersuspended,sotosay,betweenheavenandearth.
Whetherenvelopedinherhammockandslunguptotheroof,asinSouthAmerica,orraisedabovethe
groundinadarkandnarrowcage,asinNewIreland,shemaybeconsideredtobeoutofthewayof
doingmischief,since,beingshutoffbothfromtheearthandfromthesun,shecanpoisonneitherof
thesegreatsourcesoflifebyherdeadlycontagion.Inshort,sheisrenderedharmlessbybeing,in
electricallanguage,insulated.Buttheprecautionsthustakentoisolateorinsulatethegirlaredictatedby
aregardforherownsafetyaswellasforthesafetyofothers.Foritisthoughtthatsheherselfwould
sufferifsheweretoneglecttheprescribedregimen.ThusZulugirls,aswehaveseen,believethatthey
wouldshriveltoskeletonsifthesunweretoshineonthematpuberty,andtheMacusisimaginethat,ifa
youngwomanweretotransgresstherules,shewouldsufferfromsoresonvariouspartsofherbody.In
short,thegirlisviewedaschargedwithapowerfulforcewhich,ifnotkeptwithinbounds,mayprove
destructivebothtoherselfandtoallwithwhomshecomesincontact.Torepressthisforcewithinthe
limitsnecessaryforthesafetyofallconcernedistheobjectofthetaboosinquestion.
Thesameexplanationappliestotheobservanceofthesamerulesbydivinekingsandpriests.The
uncleanness,asitiscalled,ofgirlsatpubertyandthesanctityofholymendonot,totheprimitivemind,

differmateriallyfromeachother.Theyareonlydifferentmanifestationsofthesamemysteriousenergy
which,likeenergyingeneral,isinitselfneithergoodnorbad,butbecomesbeneficentormaleficent
accordingtoitsapplication.Accordingly,if,likegirlsatpuberty,divinepersonagesmayneithertouch
thegroundnorseethesun,thereasonis,ontheonehand,afearlesttheirdivinitymight,atcontactwith
earthorheaven,dischargeitselfwithfatalviolenceoneitherand,ontheotherhand,anapprehension
thatthedivinebeing,thusdrainedofhisetherealvirtue,mighttherebybeincapacitatedforthefuture
performanceofthosemagicalfunctions,upontheproperdischargeofwhichthesafetyofthepeopleand
evenoftheworldisbelievedtohang.Thustherulesinquestionfallundertheheadofthetabooswhich
weexaminedinanearlierpartofthisbooktheyareintendedtopreservethelifeofthedivinepersonand
withitthelifeofhissubjectsandworshippers.Nowhere,itisthought,canhispreciousyetdangerouslife
beatoncesosafeandsoharmlessaswhenitisneitherinheavennorinearth,but,asfaraspossible,
suspendedbetweenthetwo.

LXI.TheMythofBalder
ADEITYwhoselifemightinasensebesaidtobeneitherinheavennoronearthbutbetweenthetwo,
wastheNorseBalder,thegoodandbeautifulgod,thesonofthegreatgodOdin,andhimselfthewisest,
mildest,bestbelovedofalltheimmortals.Thestoryofhisdeath,asitistoldintheyoungerorprose
Edda,runsthus.OnceonatimeBalderdreamedheavydreamswhichseemedtoforebodehisdeath.
Thereuponthegodsheldacouncilandresolvedtomakehimsecureagainsteverydanger.Sothegoddess
Friggtookanoathfromfireandwater,ironandallmetals,stonesandearth,fromtrees,sicknessesand
poisons,andfromallfourfootedbeasts,birds,andcreepingthings,thattheywouldnothurtBalder.
WhenthiswasdoneBalderwasdeemedinvulnerablesothegodsamusedthemselvesbysettinghimin
theirmidst,whilesomeshotathim,othershewedathim,andothersthrewstonesathim.Butwhatever
theydid,nothingcouldhurthimandatthistheywereallglad.OnlyLoki,themischiefmaker,was
displeased,andhewentintheguiseofanoldwomantoFrigg,whotoldhimthattheweaponsofthegods
couldnotwoundBalder,sinceshehadmadethemallswearnottohurthim.ThenLokiasked,Haveall
thingssworntospareBalder?Sheanswered,EastofWalhallagrowsaplantcalledmistletoeitseemed
tometooyoungtoswear.SoLokiwentandpulledthemistletoeandtookittotheassemblyofthegods.
TherehefoundtheblindgodHotherstandingattheoutsideofthecircle.Lokiaskedhim,Whydoyou
notshootatBalder?Hotheranswered,BecauseIdonotseewherehestandsbesidesIhaveno
weapon.ThensaidLoki,DoliketherestandshowBalderhonour,astheyalldo.Iwillshowyou
wherehestands,anddoyoushootathimwiththistwig.Hothertookthemistletoeandthrewitat
Balder,asLokidirectedhim.ThemistletoestruckBalderandpiercedhimthroughandthrough,andhe
felldowndead.Andthatwasthegreatestmisfortunethateverbefellgodsandmen.Forawhilethegods
stoodspeechless,thentheylifteduptheirvoicesandweptbitterly.TheytookBaldersbodyandbrought
ittotheseashore.TherestoodBaldersshipitwascalledRinghorn,andwasthehugestofallships.The
godswishedtolaunchtheshipandtoburnBaldersbodyonit,buttheshipwouldnotstir.Sotheysent
foragiantesscalledHyrrockin.Shecameridingonawolfandgavetheshipsuchapushthatfireflashed
fromtherollersandalltheearthshook.ThenBaldersbodywastakenandplacedonthefuneralpile
uponhisship.WhenhiswifeNannasawthat,herheartburstforsorrowandshedied.Soshewaslaidon
thefuneralpilewithherhusband,andfirewasputtoit.Baldershorse,too,withallitstrappings,was
burnedonthepile.
Whetherhewasarealormerelyamythicalpersonage,BalderwasworshippedinNorway.Ononeofthe
baysofthebeautifulSogneFiord,whichpenetratesfarintothedepthsofthesolemnNorwegian
mountains,withtheirsombrepineforestsandtheirloftycascadesdissolvingintospraybeforetheyreach
thedarkwaterofthefiordfarbelow,Balderhadagreatsanctuary.ItwascalledBaldersGrove.A
palisadeenclosedthehallowedground,andwithinitstoodaspacioustemplewiththeimagesofmany
gods,butnoneofthemwasworshippedwithsuchdevotionasBalder.Sogreatwastheawewithwhich

theheathenregardedtheplacethatnomanmightharmanotherthere,norstealhiscattle,nordefile
himselfwithwomen.Butwomencaredfortheimagesofthegodsinthetempletheywarmedthemat
thefire,anointedthemwithoil,anddriedthemwithcloths.
WhatevermaybethoughtofanhistoricalkernelunderlyingamythicalhuskinthelegendofBalder,the
detailsofthestorysuggestthatitbelongstothatclassofmythswhichhavebeendramatisedanritual,or,
toputitotherwise,whichhavebeenperformedasmagicalceremoniesforthesakeofproducingthose
naturaleffectswhichtheydescribeinfigurativelanguage.Amythisneversographicandpreciseinits
detailsaswhenitis,sotospeak,thebookofthewordswhicharespokenandactedbytheperformersof
thesacredrite.ThattheNorsestoryofBalderwasamythofthissortwillbecomeprobableifwecan
provethatceremoniesresemblingtheincidentsinthetalehavebeenperformedbyNorsemenandother
Europeanpeoples.Nowthemainincidentsinthetalearetwofirst,thepullingofthemistletoe,and
second,thedeathandburningofthegodandbothofthemmayperhapsbefoundtohavehadtheir
counterpartsinyearlyritesobserved,whetherseparatelyorconjointly,bypeopleinvariouspartsof
Europe.Theseriteswillbedescribedanddiscussedinthefollowingchapters.Weshallbeginwiththe
annualfestivalsoffireandshallreservethepullingofthemistletoeforconsiderationlateron.

LXII.TheFireFestivalsofEurope
1.TheFirefestivalsingeneral
ALLoverEuropethepeasantshavebeenaccustomedfromtimeimmemorialtokindlebonfireson
certaindaysoftheyear,andtodanceroundorleapoverthem.Customsofthiskindcanbetracedback
onhistoricalevidencetotheMiddleAges,andtheiranalogytosimilarcustomsobservedinantiquity
goeswithstronginternalevidencetoprovethattheiroriginmustbesoughtinaperiodlongpriortothe
spreadofChristianity.IndeedtheearliestproofoftheirobservanceinNorthernEuropeisfurnishedby
theattemptsmadebyChristiansynodsintheeighthcenturytoputthemdownasheathenishrites.Not
uncommonlyeffigiesareburnedinthesefires,orapretenceismadeofburningalivingpersoninthem
andtherearegroundsforbelievingthatancientlyhumanbeingswereactuallyburnedontheseoccasions.
Abriefviewofthecustomsinquestionwillbringoutthetracesofhumansacrifice,andwillserveatthe
sametimetothrowlightontheirmeaning.
Theseasonsoftheyearwhenthesebonfiresaremostcommonlylitarespringandmidsummerbutin
someplacestheyarekindledalsoattheendofautumnorduringthecourseofthewinter,particularlyon
HallowEen(thethirtyfirstofOctober),ChristmasDay,andtheEveofTwelfthDay.Spaceforbidsme
todescribeallthesefestivalsatlengthafewspecimensmustservetoillustratetheirgeneralcharacter.
Weshallbeginwiththefirefestivalsofspring,whichusuallyfallonthefirstSundayofLent
(QuadragesimaorInvocavit),EasterEve,andMayDay.
2.TheLentenFires
THECUSTOMofkindlingbonfiresonthefirstSundayinLenthasprevailedinBelgium,thenorthof
France,andmanypartsofGermany.ThusintheBelgianArdennesforaweekorafortnightbeforethe
dayofthegreatfire,asitiscalled,childrengoaboutfromfarmtofarmcollectingfuel.AtGrand
Halleuxanyonewhorefusestheirrequestispursuednextdaybythechildren,whotrytoblackenhis
facewiththeashesoftheextinctfire.Whenthedayhascome,theycutdownbushes,especiallyjuniper
andbroom,andintheeveninggreatbonfiresblazeonalltheheights.Itisacommonsayingthatseven
bonfiresshouldbeseenifthevillageistobesafefromconflagrations.IftheMeusehappenstobefrozen
hardatthetime,bonfiresarelitalsoontheice.AtGrandHalleuxtheysetupapolecalledmakral,or
thewitch,inthemidstofthepile,andthefireiskindledbythemanwhowaslastmarriedinthe

village.IntheneighbourhoodofMorlanwelzastrawmanisburntinthefire.Youngpeopleandchildren
danceandsingroundthebonfires,andleapovertheemberstosecuregoodcropsorahappymarriage
withintheyear,orasameansofguardingthemselvesagainstcolic.InBrabantonthesameSunday,
downtothebeginningofthenineteenthcentury,womenandmendisguisedinfemaleattireusedtogo
withburningtorchestothefields,wheretheydancedandsangcomicsongsforthepurpose,asthey
alleged,ofdrivingawaythewickedsower,whoismentionedintheGospelfortheday.AtPturages,
intheprovinceofHainaut,downtoabout1840thecustomwasobservedunderthenameofEscouvionor
Scouvion.EveryyearonthefirstSundayofLent,whichwascalledtheDayoftheLittleScouvion,young
folksandchildrenusedtorunwithlightedtorchesthroughthegardensandorchards.Astheyranthey
criedatthepitchoftheirvoices:
Bearapples,bearpears,andcherriesallblack
ToScouvion!
Atthesewordsthetorchbearerwhirledhisblazingbrandandhurleditamongthebranchesoftheapple
trees,thepeartrees,andthecherrytrees.ThenextSundaywascalledtheDayoftheGreatScouvion,
andthesameracewithlightedtorchesamongthetreesoftheorchardswasrepeatedintheafternoontill
darknessfell.
IntheFrenchdepartmentoftheArdennesthewholevillageusedtodanceandsingaroundthebonfires
whichwerelightedonthefirstSundayinLent.Here,too,itwasthepersonlastmarried,sometimesa
manandsometimesawoman,whoputthematchtothefire.Thecustomisstillkeptupverycommonly
inthedistrict.Catsusedtobeburntinthefireorroastedtodeathbybeingheldoveritandwhilethey
wereburningtheshepherdsdrovetheirflocksthroughthesmokeandflamesasasuremeansofguarding
themagainstsicknessandwitchcraft.Insomecommunesitwasbelievedthatthelivelierthedanceround
thefire,thebetterwouldbethecropsthatyear.
IntheFrenchprovinceofFrancheComt,tothewestoftheJuraMountains,thefirstSundayofLentis
knownastheSundayoftheFirebrands(Brandons),onaccountofthefireswhichitiscustomaryto
kindleonthatday.OntheSaturdayortheSundaythevillageladsharnessthemselvestoacartanddragit
aboutthestreets,stoppingatthedoorsofthehouseswheretherearegirlsandbeggingforafaggot.When
theyhavegotenough,theycartthefueltoaspotatsomelittledistancefromthevillage,pileitup,and
setitonfire.Allthepeopleoftheparishcomeouttoseethebonfire.Insomevillages,whenthebells
haverungtheAngelus,thesignalfortheobservanceisgivenbycriesof,Tothefire!tothefire!Lads,
lasses,andchildrendanceroundtheblaze,andwhentheflameshavedieddowntheyviewitheachother
inleapingovertheredembers.Heorshewhodoessowithoutsingeinghisorhergarmentswillbe
marriedwithintheyear.Youngfolkalsocarrylightedtorchesaboutthestreetsorthefields,andwhen
theypassanorchardtheycryout,Morefruitthanleaves!DowntorecentyearsatLaviron,inthe
departmentofDoubs,itwastheyoungmarriedcouplesoftheyearwhohadchargeofthebonfires.Inthe
midstofthebonfireapolewasplantedwithawoodenfigureofacockfastenedtothetop.Thenthere
wereraces,andthewinnerreceivedthecockasaprize.
InAuvergnefiresareeverywherekindledontheeveningofthefirstSundayinLent.Everyvillage,every
hamlet,eveneveryward,everyisolatedfarmhasitsbonfireorfigo,asitiscalled,whichblazesupasthe
shadesofnightarefalling.Thefiresmaybeseenflaringontheheightsandintheplainsthepeople
danceandsingroundaboutthemandleapthroughtheflames.Thentheyproceedtotheceremonyofthe
Grannasmias.Agrannomioisatorchofstrawfastenedtothetopofapole.Whenthepyreishalf
consumed,thebystanderskindlethetorchesattheexpiringflamesandcarrythemintotheneighbouring
orchards,fields,andgardens,wherevertherearefruittrees.Astheymarchtheysingatthetopoftheir
voices,Grannomyfriend,Grannomyfather,Grannomymother.Thentheypasstheburningtorches
underthebranchesofeverytree,singing.

Brando,brandouncitsaquebrantso,inplanpanei!
thatis,Firebrandburneverybranchabasketful!Insomevillagesthepeoplealsorunacrossthesown
fieldsandshaketheashesofthetorchesonthegroundalsotheyputsomeoftheashesinthefowls
nests,inorderthatthehensmaylayplentyofeggsthroughouttheyear.Whenalltheseceremonieshave
beenperformed,everybodygoeshomeandfeaststhespecialdishesoftheeveningarefrittersand
pancakes.Heretheapplicationofthefiretothefruittrees,tothesownfields,andtothenestsofthe
poultryisclearlyacharmintendedtoensurefertilityandtheGrannotowhomtheinvocationsare
addressed,andwhogiveshisnametothetorches,maypossiblybe,asDr.Pommerolsuggests,noother
thantheancientCelticgodGrannus,whomtheRomansidentifiedwithApollo,andwhoseworshipis
attestedbyinscriptionsfoundnotonlyinFrancebutinScotlandandontheDanube.
Thecustomofcarryinglightedtorchesofstraw(brandons)abouttheorchardsandfieldstofertilisethem
onthefirstSundayofLentseemstohavebeencommoninFrance,whetheritwasaccompaniedwiththe
practiceofkindlingbonfiresornot.ThusintheprovinceofPicardyonthefirstSundayofLentpeople
carriedtorchesthroughthefields,exorcisingthefieldmice,thedarnel,andthesmut.Theyimaginedthat
theydidmuchgoodtothegardensandcausedtheonionstogrowlarge.Childrenranaboutthefields,
torchinhand,tomakethelandmorefertile.AtVerges,avillagebetweentheJuraandtheCombe
dAin,thetorchesatthisseasonwerekindledonthetopofamountain,andthebearerswenttoevery
houseinthevillage,demandingroastedpeasandobligingallcoupleswhohadbeenmarriedwithinthe
yeartodance.InBerry,adistrictofCentralFrance,itappearsthatbonfiresarenotlightedonthisday,
butwhenthesunhassetthewholepopulationofthevillages,armedwithblazingtorchesofstraw,
disperseoverthecountryandscourthefields,thevineyards,andtheorchards.Seenfromafar,the
multitudeofmovinglights,twinklinginthedarkness,appearlikewillothewispschasingeachother
acrosstheplains,alongthehillsides,anddownthevalleys.Whilethemenwavetheirflambeausabout
thebranchesofthefruittrees,thewomenandchildrentiebandsofwheatenstrawroundthetreetrunks.
Theeffectoftheceremonyissupposedtobetoavertthevariousplaguesfromwhichthefruitsofthe
earthareapttosufferandthebandsofstrawfastenedroundthestemsofthetreesarebelievedtorender
themfruitful.
InGermany,Austria,andSwitzerlandatthesameseasonsimilarcustomshaveprevailed.Thusinthe
EifelMountains,RhenishPrussia,onthefirstSundayinLentyoungpeopleusedtocollectstrawand
brushwoodfromhousetohouse.Thesetheycarriedtoaneminenceandpileduproundatall,slimbeech
tree,towhichapieceofwoodwasfastenedatrightanglestoformacross.Thestructurewasknownas
thehutorcastle.Firewassettoitandtheyoungpeoplemarchedroundtheblazingcastle
bareheaded,eachcarryingalightedtorchandprayingaloud.Sometimesastrawmanwasburnedinthe
hut.Peopleobservedthedirectioninwhichthesmokeblewfromthefire.Ifitblewtowardsthecorn
fields,itwasasignthattheharvestwouldbeabundant.Onthesameday,insomepartsoftheEifel,a
greatwheelwasmadeofstrawanddraggedbythreehorsestothetopofthehill.Thitherthevillageboys
marchedatnightfall,setfiretothewheel,andsentitrollingdowntheslope.AtOberstattfeldthewheel
hadtobeprovidedbytheyoungmanwhowaslastmarried.AboutEchternachinLuxemburgthesame
ceremonyiscalledburningthewitch.AtVoralbergintheTyrol,onthefirstSundayinLent,aslender
youngfirtreeissurroundedwithapileofstrawandfirewood.Tothetopofthetreeisfastenedahuman
figurecalledthewitch,madeofoldclothesandstuffedwithgunpowder.Atnightthewholeisseton
fireandboysandgirlsdanceroundit,swingingtorchesandsingingrhymesinwhichthewordscornin
thewinnowingbasket,theploughintheearthmaybedistinguished.InSwabiaonthefirstSundayin
Lentafigurecalledthewitchortheoldwifeorwintersgrandmotherismadeupofclothesand
fastenedtoapole.Thisisstuckinthemiddleofapileofwood,towhichfireisapplied.Whilethe
witchisburning,theyoungpeoplethrowblazingdiscsintotheair.Thediscsarethinroundpiecesof
wood,afewinchesindiameter,withnotchededgestoimitatetheraysofthesunorstars.Theyhavea
holeinthemiddle,bywhichtheyareattachedtotheendofawand.Beforethediscisthrownitisseton

fire,thewandisswungtoandfro,andtheimpetusthuscommunicatedtothediscisaugmentedby
dashingtherodsharplyagainstaslopingboard.Theburningdiscisthusthrownoff,andmountinghigh
intotheair,describesalongfierycurvebeforeitreachestheground.Thecharredembersoftheburned
witchanddiscsaretakenhomeandplantedintheflaxfieldsthesamenight,inthebeliefthattheywill
keepverminfromthefields.IntheRhnMountains,situatedonthebordersofHesseandBavaria,the
peopleusedtomarchtothetopofahilloreminenceonthefirstSundayinLent.Childrenandlads
carriedtorches,broomsdaubedwithtar,andpolesswathedinstraw.Awheel,wraptincombustibles,
waskindledandrolleddownthehillandtheyoungpeoplerushedaboutthefieldswiththeirburning
torchesandbrooms,tillatlasttheyflungtheminaheap,andstandingroundthem,struckupahymnora
popularsong.Theobjectofrunningaboutthefieldswiththeblazingtorcheswastodriveawaythe
wickedsower.OritwasdoneinhonouroftheVirgin,thatshemightpreservethefruitsoftheearth
throughouttheyearandblessthem.InneighbouringvillagesofHesse,betweentheRhnandtheVogel
Mountains,itisthoughtthatwherevertheburningwheelsroll,thefieldswillbesafefromhailandstrom.
InSwitzerland,also,itisorusedtobecustomarytokindlebonfiresonhighplacesontheeveningofthe
firstSundayinLent,andthedayisthereforepopularlyknownasSparkSunday.Thecustomprevailed,
forexample,throughoutthecantonofLucerne.Boyswentaboutfromhousetohousebeggingforwood
andstraw,thenpiledthefuelonaconspicuousmountainorhillroundaboutapole,whichboreastraw
effigycalledthewitch.Atnightfallthepilewassetonfire,andtheyoungfolksdancedwildlyroundit,
someofthemcrackingwhipsorringingbellsandwhenthefireburnedlowenough,theyleapedoverit.
Thiswascalledburningthewitch.Insomepartsofthecantonalsotheyusedtowrapoldwheelsin
strawandthorns,putalighttothem,andsendthemrollingandblazingdownhill.Themorebonfires
couldbeseensparklingandflaringinthedarkness,themorefruitfulwastheyearexpectedtobeandthe
higherthedancersleapedbesideoroverthefire,thehigher,itwasthought,wouldgrowtheflax.Insome
districtsitwasthelastmarriedmanorwomanwhomustkindlethebonfire.
Itseemshardlypossibletoseparatefromthesebonfires,kindledonthefirstSundayinLent,thefiresin
which,aboutthesameseason,theeffigycalledDeathisburnedaspartoftheceremonyofcarryingout
Death.WehaveseenthatatSpachendorf,inAustrianSilesia,onthemorningofRupertsDay(Shrove
Tuesday?),astrawman,dressedinafurcoatandafurcap,islaidinaholeoutsidethevillageandthere
burned,andthatwhileitisblazingeveryoneseekstosnatchafragmentofit,whichhefastenstoa
branchofthehighesttreeinhisgardenorburiesinhisfield,believingthatthiswillmakethecropsto
growbetter.TheceremonyisknownastheburyingofDeath.Evenwhenthestrawmanisnot
designatedasDeath,themeaningoftheobservanceisprobablythesameforthenameDeath,asIhave
triedtoshow,doesnotexpresstheoriginalintentionoftheceremony.AtCobernintheEifelMountains
theladsmakeupastrawmanonShroveTuesday.Theeffigyisformallytriedandaccusedofhaving
perpetratedallthetheftsthathavebeencommittedintheneighbourhoodthroughouttheyear.Being
condemnedtodeath,thestrawmanisledthroughthevillage,shot,andburneduponapyre.Theydance
roundtheblazingpile,andthelastbridemustleapoverit.InOldenburgontheeveningofShrove
Tuesdaypeopleusedtomakelongbundlesofstraw,whichtheysetonfire,andthenranaboutthefields
wavingthem,shrieking,andsingingwildsongs.Finallytheyburnedastrawmanonthefield.Inthe
districtofDsseldorfthestrawmanburnedonShroveTuesdaywasmadeofanunthreshedsheafof
corn.OnthefirstMondayafterthespringequinoxtheurchinsofZurichdragastrawmanonalittlecart
throughthestreets,whileatthesametimethegirlscarryaboutaMaytree.Whenvespersring,thestraw
manisburned.InthedistrictofAachenonAshWednesday,amanusedtobeencasedinpeasstrawand
takentoanappointedplace.Hereheslippedquietlyoutofhisstrawcasing,whichwasthenburned,the
childrenthinkingthatitwasthemanwhowasbeingburned.IntheValdiLedro(Tyrol)onthelastday
oftheCarnivalafigureismadeupofstrawandbrushwoodandthenburned.ThefigureiscalledtheOld
Woman,andtheceremonyburningtheOldWoman.

3.TheEasterFires
ANOTHERoccasiononwhichthesefirefestivalsareheldisEasterEve,theSaturdaybeforeEaster
Sunday.OnthatdayithasbeencustomaryinCatholiccountriestoextinguishallthelightsinthe
churches,andthentomakeanewfire,sometimeswithflintandsteel,sometimeswithaburningglass.
AtthisfireislitthegreatPaschalorEastercandle,whichisthenusedtorekindlealltheextinguished
lightsinthechurch.InmanypartsofGermanyabonfireisalsokindled,bymeansofthenewfire,on
someopenspacenearthechurch.Itisconsecrated,andthepeoplebringsticksofoak,walnut,andbeech,
whichtheycharinthefire,andthentakehomewiththem.Someofthesecharredsticksarethereupon
burnedathomeinanewlykindledfire,withaprayerthatGodwillpreservethehomesteadfromfire,
lightning,andhail.Thuseveryhousereceivesnewfire.Someofthesticksarekeptthroughouttheyear
andlaidonthehearthfireduringheavythunderstormstopreventthehousefrombeingstruckby
lightning,ortheyareinsertedintheroofwiththelikeintention.Othersareplacedinthefields,gardens,
andmeadows,withaprayerthatGodwillkeepthemfromblightandhail.Suchfieldsandgardensare
thoughttothrivemorethanothersthecornandtheplantsthatgrowinthemarenotbeatendownbyhail,
nordevouredbymice,vermin,andbeetlesnowitchharmsthem,andtheearsofcornstandcloseand
full.Thecharredsticksarealsoappliedtotheplough.TheashesoftheEasterbonfire,togetherwiththe
ashesoftheconsecratedpalmbranches,aremixedwiththeseedatsowing.Awoodenfigurecalled
Judasissometimesburnedintheconsecratedbonfire,andevenwherethiscustomhasbeenabolishedthe
bonfireitselfinsomeplacesgoesbythenameoftheburningofJudas.
TheessentiallypagancharacteroftheEasterfirefestivalappearsplainlybothfromthemodeinwhichit
iscelebratedbythepeasantsandfromthesuperstitiousbeliefswhichtheyassociatewithit.Allover
NorthernandCentralGermany,fromAltmarkandAnhaltontheeast,throughBrunswick,Hanover,
Oldenburg,theHarzdistrict,andHessetoWestphaliatheEasterbonfiresstillblazesimultaneouslyon
thehilltops.Asmanyasfortymaysometimesbecountedwithinsightatonce.LongbeforeEasterthe
youngpeoplehavebeenbusycollectingfirewoodeveryfarmercontributes,andtarbarrels,petroleum
cases,andsoforthgotoswellthepile.Neighbouringvillagesviewitheachotherastowhichshallsend
upthegreatestblaze.Thefiresarealwayskindled,yearafteryear,onthesamehill,whichaccordingly
oftentakesthenameofEasterMountain.Itisafinespectacletowatchfromsomeeminencethebonfires
flaringuponeafteranotherontheneighbouringheights.Asfarastheirlightreaches,sofar,inthebelief
ofthepeasants,thefieldswillbefruitful,andthehousesonwhichtheyshinewillbesafefrom
conflagrationorsickness.AtVolkmarsenandotherplacesinHessethepeopleusedtoobservewhich
waythewindblewtheflames,andthentheysowedflaxseedinthatdirection,confidentthatitwould
growwell.Brandstakenfromthebonfirespreservehousesfrombeingstruckbylightningandtheashes
increasethefertilityofthefields,protectthemfrommice,andmixedwiththedrinkingwaterofcattle
maketheanimalsthriveandensurethemagainstplague.Astheflamesdiedown,youngandoldleap
overthem,andcattlearesometimesdriventhroughthesmoulderingembers.Insomeplacestarbarrelsor
wheelswraptinstrawusedtobesetonfire,andthensentrollingdownthehillside.Inotherstheboys
lighttorchesandwispsofstrawatthebonfiresandrushaboutbrandishingthemintheirhands.
InMnsterlandtheseEasterfiresarealwayskindleduponcertaindefinitehills,whicharehenceknown
asEasterorPaschalMountains.Thewholecommunityassemblesaboutthefire.Theyoungmenand
maidens,singingEasterhymns,marchroundandroundthefire,tilltheblazediesdown.Thenthegirls
jumpoverthefireinaline,oneaftertheother,eachsupportedbytwoyoungmenwhoholdherhands
andrunbesideher.Inthetwilightboyswithblazingbundlesofstrawrunoverthefieldstomakethem
fruitful.AtDelmenhorst,inOldenburg,itusedtobethecustomtocutdowntwotrees,planttheminthe
groundsidebyside,andpiletwelvetarbarrelsagainsteach.Brushwoodwasthenheapedaboutthe
trees,andontheeveningofEasterSaturdaytheboys,afterrushingaboutwithblazingbeanpolesintheir
hands,setfiretothewhole.Attheendoftheceremonytheurchinstriedtoblackeneachotherandthe

clothesofgrownuppeople.IntheAltmarkitisbelievedthatasfarastheblazeoftheEasterbonfireis
visible,thecornwillgrowwellthroughouttheyear,andnoconflagrationwillbreakout.AtBraunrde,
intheHarzMountains,itwasthecustomtoburnsquirrelsintheEasterbonfire.IntheAltmark,bones
wereburnedinit.
NearForchheim,inUpperFranken,astrawmancalledtheJudasusedtobeburnedinthechurchyardson
EasterSaturday.Thewholevillagecontributedwoodtothepyreonwhichheperished,andthecharred
stickswereafterwardskeptandplantedinthefieldsonWalpurgisDay(thefirstofMay)topreservethe
wheatfromblightandmildew.AboutahundredyearsagoormorethecustomatAlthenneberg,inUpper
Bavaria,usedtobeasfollows.OntheafternoonofEasterSaturdaytheladscollectedwood,whichthey
piledinacornfield,whileinthemiddleofthepiletheysetupatallwoodencrossallswathedinstraw.
Aftertheeveningservicetheylightedtheirlanternsattheconsecratedcandleinthechurch,andranwith
thematfullspeedtothepyre,eachstrivingtogettherefirst.Thefirsttoarrivesetfiretotheheap.No
womanorgirlmightcomenearthebonfire,buttheywereallowedtowatchitfromadistance.Asthe
flamesrosethemenandladsrejoicedandmademerry,shouting,WeareburningtheJudas!Theman
whohadbeenthefirsttoreachthepyreandtokindleitwasrewardedonEasterSundaybythewomen,
whogavehimcolouredeggsatthechurchdoor.Theobjectofthewholeceremonywastokeepoffthe
hail.AtothervillagesofUpperBavariatheceremony,whichtookplacebetweennineandtenatnighton
EasterSaturday,wascalledburningtheEasterMan.Onaheightaboutamilefromthevillagethe
youngfellowssetupatallcrossenvelopedinstraw,sothatitlookedlikeamanwithhisarmsstretched
out.ThiswastheEasterMan.Noladundereighteenyearsofagemighttakepartintheceremony.One
oftheyoungmenstationedhimselfbesidetheEasterMan,holdinginhishandaconsecratedtaperwhich
hehadbroughtfromthechurchandlighted.Thereststoodatequalintervalsinagreatcircleroundthe
cross.Atagivensignaltheyracedthriceroundthecircle,andthenatasecondsignalranstraightatthe
crossandattheladwiththelightedtaperbesideittheonewhoreachedthegoalfirsthadtherightof
settingfiretotheEasterMan.Greatwasthejubilationwhilehewasburning.Whenhehadbeen
consumedintheflames,threeladswerechosenfromamongtherest,andeachofthethreedrewacircle
onthegroundwithastickthriceroundtheashes.Thentheyallleftthespot.OnEasterMondaythe
villagersgatheredtheashesandstrewedthemontheirfieldsalsotheyplantedinthefieldspalmbranches
whichhadbeenconsecratedonPalmSunday,andstickswhichhadbeencharredandhallowedonGood
Friday,allforthepurposeofprotectingtheirfieldsagainstshowersofhail.InsomepartsofSwabiathe
Easterfiresmightnotbekindledwithironorsteelorflint,butonlybythefrictionofwood.
ThecustomoftheEasterfiresappearstohaveprevailedalloverCentralandWesternGermanyfrom
northtosouth.WefinditalsoinHolland,wherethefireswerekindledonthehighesteminences,andthe
peopledancedroundthemandleapedthroughtheflamesorovertheglowingembers.Heretoo,asoften
inGermany,thematerialsforthebonfirewerecollectedbytheyoungfolkfromdoortodoor.Inmany
partsofSwedenfirearmsaredischargedinalldirectionsonEasterEve,andhugebonfiresarelightedon
hillsandeminences.SomepeoplethinkthattheintentionistokeepofftheTrollandotherevilspirits
whoareespeciallyactiveatthisseason.
4.TheBeltaneFires
INTHECENTRALHighlandsofScotlandbonfires,knownastheBeltanefires,wereformerlykindled
withgreatceremonyonthefirstofMay,andthetracesofhumansacrificesatthemwereparticularly
clearandunequivocal.Thecustomoflightingthebonfireslastedinvariousplacesfarintotheeighteenth
century,andthedescriptionsoftheceremonybywritersofthatperiodpresentsuchacuriousand
interestingpictureofancientheathendomsurvivinginourowncountrythatIwillreproducetheminthe
wordsoftheirauthors.ThefullestofthedescriptionsistheonebequeathedtousbyJohnRamsay,laird
ofOchtertyre,nearCrieff,thepatronofBurnsandthefriendofSirWalterScott.Hesays:Butthemost

considerableoftheDruidicalfestivalsisthatofBeltane,orMayday,whichwaslatelyobservedinsome
partsoftheHighlandswithextraordinaryceremonies.LiketheotherpublicworshipoftheDruids,the
Beltanefeastseemstohavebeenperformedonhillsoreminences.Theythoughtitdegradingtohim
whosetempleistheuniverse,tosupposethathewoulddwellinanyhousemadewithhands.Their
sacrificeswerethereforeofferedintheopenair,frequentlyuponthetopsofhills,wheretheywere
presentedwiththegrandestviewsofnature,andwerenearesttheseatofwarmthandorder.And,
accordingtotradition,suchwasthemannerofcelebratingthisfestivalintheHighlandswithinthelast
hundredyears.Butsincethedeclineofsuperstition,ithasbeencelebratedbythepeopleofeachhamlet
onsomehillorrisinggroundaroundwhichtheircattlewerepasturing.Thithertheyoungfolksrepaired
inthemorning,andcutatrench,onthesummitofwhichaseatofturfwasformedforthecompany.And
inthemiddleapileofwoodorotherfuelwasplaced,whichofoldtheykindledwithteineigini.e.,
forcedfireorneedfire.Although,formanyyearspast,theyhavebeencontentedwithcommonfire,yet
weshallnowdescribetheprocess,becauseitwillhereafterappearthatrecourseisstillhadtothetein
eiginuponextraordinaryemergencies.
Thenightbefore,allthefiresinthecountrywerecarefullyextinguished,andnextmorningthematerials
forexcitingthissacredfirewereprepared.Themostprimitivemethodseemstobethatwhichwasused
intheislandsofSkye,Mull,andTiree.Awellseasonedplankofoakwasprocured,inthemidstof
whichaholewasbored.Awimbleofthesametimberwasthenapplied,theendofwhichtheyfittedto
thehole.Butinsomepartsofthemainlandthemachinerywasdifferent.Theyusedaframeofgreen
wood,ofasquareform,inthecentreofwhichwasanaxletree.Insomeplacesthreetimesthreepersons,
inothersthreetimesnine,wererequiredforturningroundbyturnstheaxletreeorwimble.Ifanyof
themhadbeenguiltyofmurder,adultery,theft,orotheratrociouscrime,itwasimaginedeitherthatthe
firewouldnotkindle,orthatitwouldbedevoidofitsusualvirtue.Sosoonasanysparkswereemitted
bymeansoftheviolentfriction,theyappliedaspeciesofagaricwhichgrowsonoldbirchtrees,andis
verycombustible.Thisfirehadtheappearanceofbeingimmediatelyderivedfromheaven,andmanifold
werethevirtuesascribedtoit.Theyesteemeditapreservativeagainstwitchcraft,andasovereign
remedyagainstmalignantdiseases,bothinthehumanspeciesandincattleandbyitthestrongest
poisonsweresupposedtohavetheirnaturechanged.
Afterkindlingthebonfirewiththeteineiginthecompanypreparedtheirvictuals.Andassoonasthey
hadfinishedtheirmeal,theyamusedthemselvesawhileinsinginganddancingroundthefire.Towards
thecloseoftheentertainment,thepersonwhoofficiatedasmasterofthefeastproducedalargecake
bakedwitheggsandscallopedroundtheedge,calledambonnachbeatinei.e.,theBeltanecake.Itwas
dividedintoanumberofpieces,anddistributedingreatformtothecompany.Therewasoneparticular
piecewhichwhoevergotwascalledcailleachbealtinei.e.,theBeltanecarline,atermofgreat
reproach.Uponhisbeingknown,partofthecompanylaidholdofhimandmadeashowofputtinghim
intothefirebutthemajorityinterposing,hewasrescued.Andinsomeplacestheylaidhimflatonthe
ground,makingasiftheywouldquarterhim.Afterwards,hewaspeltedwitheggshells,andretainedthe
odiousappellationduringthewholeyear.Andwhilethefeastwasfreshinpeoplesmemory,they
affectedtospeakofthecailleachbealtineasdead.
IntheparishofCallander,abeautifuldistrictofWesternPerthshire,theBeltanecustomwasstillin
voguetowardstheendoftheeighteenthcentury.Ithasbeendescribedasfollowsbytheparishminister
ofthetime:UponthefirstdayofMay,whichiscalledBeltan,orBalteinday,alltheboysinatownship
orhamlet,meetinthemoors.Theycutatableinthegreensod,ofaroundfigure,bycastingatrenchin
theground,ofsuchcircumferenceastoholdthewholecompany.Theykindleafire,anddressarepastof
eggsandmilkintheconsistenceofacustard.Theykneadacakeofoatmeal,whichistoastedatthe
embersagainstastone.Afterthecustardiseatenup,theydividethecakeintosomanyportions,as
similaraspossibletooneanotherinsizeandshape,astherearepersonsinthecompany.Theydaubone
oftheseportionsalloverwithcharcoal,untilitbeperfectlyblack.Theyputallthebitsofthecakeintoa

bonnet.Everyone,blindfold,drawsoutaportion.Hewhoholdsthebonnet,isentitledtothelastbit.
Whoeverdrawstheblackbit,isthedevotedpersonwhoistobesacrificedtoBaal,whosefavourthey
meantoimplore,inrenderingtheyearproductiveofthesustenanceofmanandbeast.Thereislittle
doubtoftheseinhumansacrificeshavingbeenonceofferedinthiscountry,aswellasintheeast,
althoughtheynowpassfromtheactofsacrificing,andonlycompelthedevotedpersontoleapthree
timesthroughtheflameswithwhichtheceremoniesofthisfestivalareclosed.
ThomasPennant,whotravelledinPerthshireintheyear1769,tellsusthatonthefirstofMay,the
herdsmenofeveryvillageholdtheirBeltien,aruralsacrifice.Theycutasquaretrenchontheground,
leavingtheturfinthemiddleonthattheymakeafireofwood,onwhichtheydressalargecaudleof
eggs,butter,oatmealandmilkandbringbesidestheingredientsofthecaudle,plentyofbeerand
whiskyforeachofthecompanymustcontributesomething.Theritesbeginwithspillingsomeofthe
caudleontheground,bywayoflibation:onthateveryonetakesacakeofoatmeal,uponwhichare
raisedninesquareknobs,eachdedicatedtosomeparticularbeing,thesupposedpreserveroftheirflocks
andherds,ortosomeparticularanimal,therealdestroyerofthem:eachpersonthenturnshisfacetothe
fire,breaksoffaknob,andflingingitoverhisshoulders,says,ThisIgivetothee,preservethoumy
horsesthistothee,preservethoumysheepandsoon.Afterthat,theyusethesameceremonytothe
noxiousanimals:ThisIgivetothee,Ofox!sparethoumylambsthistothee,Ohoodedcrow!thisto
thee,Oeagle!Whentheceremonyisover,theydineonthecaudleandafterthefeastisfinished,what
isleftishidbytwopersonsdeputedforthatpurposebutonthenextSundaytheyreassemble,andfinish
thereliquesofthefirstentertainment.
AnotherwriteroftheeighteenthcenturyhasdescribedtheBeltanefestivalasitwasheldintheparishof
LogieraitinPerthshire.Hesays:OnthefirstofMay,O.S.,afestivalcalledBeltanisannuallyheldhere.
Itischieflycelebratedbythecowherds,whoassemblebyscoresinthefields,todressadinnerfor
themselves,ofboiledmilkandeggs.Thesedishestheyeatwithasortofcakesbakedfortheoccasion,
andhavingsmalllumpsintheformofnipples,raisedalloverthesurface.Inthislastaccountno
mentionismadeofbonfires,buttheywereprobablylighted,foracontemporarywriterinformsusthatin
theparishofKirkmichael,whichadjoinstheparishofLogieraitontheeast,thecustomoflightingafire
inthefieldsandbakingaconsecratedcakeonthefirstofMaywasnotquiteobsoleteinhistime.We
mayconjecturethatthecakewithknobswasformerlyusedforthepurposeofdeterminingwhoshouldbe
theBeltanecarlineorvictimdoomedtotheflames.Atraceofthiscustomsurvived,perhaps,inthe
customofbakingoatmealcakesofaspecialkindandrollingthemdownhillaboutnoononthefirstof
Mayforitwasthoughtthatthepersonwhosecakebrokeasitrolledwoulddieorbeunfortunatewithin
theyear.Thesecakes,orbannocksaswecalltheminScotland,werebakedintheusualway,butthey
werewashedoverwithathinbattercomposedofwhippedegg,milkorcream,andalittleoatmeal.This
customappearstohaveprevailedatornearKingussieinInvernessshire.
InthenortheastofScotlandtheBeltanefireswerestillkindledinthelatterhalfoftheeighteenth
centurytheherdsmenofseveralfarmsusedtogatherdrywood,kindleit,anddancethreetimes
southwaysabouttheburningpile.Butinthisregion,accordingtoalaterauthority,theBeltanefires
werelitnotonthefirstbutonthesecondofMay,OldStyle.Theywerecalledbonefires.Thepeople
believedthatonthateveningandnightthewitcheswereabroadandbusycastingspellsoncattleand
stealingcowsmilk.Tocounteracttheirmachinations,piecesofrowantreeandwoodbine,butespecially
ofrowantree,wereplacedoverthedoorsofthecowhouses,andfireswerekindledbyeveryfarmerand
cottar.Oldthatch,straw,furze,orbroomwaspiledinaheapandsetonfirealittleaftersunset.While
someofthebystanderskepttossingtheblazingmass,othershoistedportionsofitonpitchforksorpoles
andranhitherandthither,holdingthemashighastheycould.Meantimetheyoungpeopledancedround
thefireorranthroughthesmokeshouting,Fire!blazeandburnthewitchesfire!fire!burnthe
witches.Insomedistrictsalargeroundcakeofoatorbarleymealwasrolledthroughtheashes.When
allthefuelwasconsumed,thepeoplescatteredtheashesfarandwide,andtillthenightgrewquitedark

theycontinuedtorunthroughthem,crying,Fire!burnthewitches.
IntheHebridestheBeltanebannockissmallerthanthatmadeatSt.Michaels,butismadeinthesame
wayitisnolongermadeinUist,butFatherAllanremembersseeinghisgrandmothermakeoneabout
twentyfiveyearsago.Therewasalsoacheesemade,generallyonthefirstofMay,whichwaskeptto
thenextBeltaneasasortofcharmagainstthebewitchingofmilkproduce.TheBeltanecustomsseemto
havebeenthesameaselsewhere.Everyfirewasputoutandalargeonelitonthetopofthehill,andthe
cattledrivenrounditsunwards(dessil),tokeepoffmurrainalltheyear.Eachmanwouldtakehomefire
wherewithtokindlehisown.
InWalesalsothecustomoflightingBeltanefiresatthebeginningofMayusedtobeobserved,butthe
dayonwhichtheywerekindledvariedfromtheeveofMayDaytothethirdofMay.Theflamewas
sometimeselicitedbythefrictionoftwopiecesofoak,asappearsfromthefollowingdescription.The
firewasdoneinthisway.Ninemenwouldturntheirpocketsinsideout,andseethateverypieceof
moneyandallmetalswereofftheirpersons.Thenthemenwentintothenearestwoods,andcollected
sticksofninedifferentkindsoftrees.Thesewerecarriedtothespotwherethefirehadtobebuilt.There
acirclewascutinthesod,andthesticksweresetcrosswise.Allaroundthecirclethepeoplestoodand
watchedtheproceedings.Oneofthemenwouldthentaketwobitsofoak,andrubthemtogetheruntila
flamewaskindled.Thiswasappliedtothesticks,andsoonalargefirewasmade.Sometimestwofires
weresetupsidebyside.Thesefires,whetheroneortwo,werecalledcoelcerthorbonfire.Roundcakes
ofoatmealandbrownmealweresplitinfour,andplacedinasmallflourbag,andeverybodypresenthad
topickoutaportion.Thelastbitinthebagfelltothelotofthebagholder.Eachpersonwhochancedto
pickupapieceofbrownmealcakewascompelledtoleapthreetimesovertheflames,ortorunthrice
betweenthetwofires,bywhichmeansthepeoplethoughttheyweresureofaplentifulharvest.Shouts
andscreamsofthosewhohadtofacetheordealcouldbeheardeversofar,andthosewhochancedto
picktheoatmealportionssanganddancedandclappedtheirhandsinapproval,astheholdersofthe
brownbitsleapedthreetimesovertheflames,orranthreetimesbetweenthetwofires.
Thebeliefofthepeoplethatbyleapingthriceoverthebonfiresorrunningthricebetweenthemthey
ensuredaplentifulharvestisworthyofnote.Themodeinwhichthisresultwassupposedtobebrought
aboutisindicatedbyanotherwriteronWelshfolklore,accordingtowhomitusedtobeheldthatthe
bonfireslightedinMayorMidsummerprotectedthelandsfromsorcery,sothatgoodcropswould
follow.Theasheswerealsoconsideredvaluableascharms.Henceitappearsthattheheatofthefires
wasthoughttofertilisethefields,notdirectlybyquickeningtheseedsintheground,butindirectlyby
counteractingthebalefulinfluenceofwitchcraftorperhapsbyburningupthepersonsofthewitches.
TheBeltanefiresseemtohavebeenkindledalsoinIreland,forCormac,orsomebodyinhisname,says
thatbelltaine,Mayday,wassocalledfromtheluckyfire,orthetwofires,whichthedruidsofErin
usedtomakeonthatdaywithgreatincantationsandcattle,headds,usedtobebroughttothosefires,or
tobedrivenbetweenthem,asasafeguardagainstthediseasesoftheyear.Thecustomofdrivingcattle
throughorbetweenfiresonMayDayortheeveofMayDaypersistedinIrelanddowntoatimewithin
livingmemory.
ThefirstofMayisagreatpopularfestivalinthemoremidlandandsouthernpartsofSweden.Ontheeve
ofthefestivalhugebonfires,whichshouldbelightedbystrikingtwoflintstogether,blazeonallthehills
andknolls.Everylargehamlethasitsownfire,roundwhichtheyoungpeopledanceinaring.Theold
folknoticewhethertheflamesinclinetothenorthortothesouth.Intheformercase,thespringwillbe
coldandbackwardinthelatter,itwillbemildandgenial.InBohemia,ontheeveofMayDay,young
peoplekindlefiresonhillsandeminences,atcrossways,andinpastures,anddanceroundthem.They
leapovertheglowingembersoreventhroughtheflames.Theceremonyiscalledburningthewitches.
Insomeplacesaneffigyrepresentingawitchusedtobeburntinthebonfire.Wehavetorememberthat

theeveofMayDayisthenotoriousWalpurgisNight,whenthewitchesareeverywherespeedingunseen
throughtheairontheirhellisherrands.OnthiswitchingnightchildreninVoigtlandalsolightbonfires
ontheheightsandleapoverthem.Moreover,theywaveburningbroomsortossthemintotheair.Sofar
asthelightofthebonfirereaches,sofarwillablessingrestonthefields.Thekindlingofthefireson
WalpurgisNightiscalleddrivingawaythewitches.ThecustomofkindlingfiresontheeveofMay
Day(WalpurgisNight)forthepurposeofburningthewitchesis,orusedtobe,widespreadintheTyrol,
Moravia,SaxonyandSilesia.
5.TheMidsummerFires
BUTTHESEASONatwhichthesefirefestivalshavebeenmostgenerallyheldalloverEuropeisthe
summersolstice,thatisMidsummerEve(thetwentythirdofJune)orMidsummerday(thetwentyfourth
ofJune).AfainttingeofChristianityhasbeengiventothembynamingMidsummerDayafterSt.John
theBaptist,butwecannotdoubtthatthecelebrationdatesfromatimelongbeforethebeginningofour
era.Thesummersolstice,orMidsummerDay,isthegreatturningpointinthesunscareer,when,after
climbinghigherandhigherdaybydayinthesky,theluminarystopsandthenceforthretraceshissteps
downtheheavenlyroad.Suchamomentcouldnotbutberegardedwithanxietybyprimitivemanso
soonashebegantoobserveandponderthecoursesofthegreatlightsacrossthecelestialvaultand
havingstilltolearnhisownpowerlessnessinfaceofthevastcyclicchangesofnature,hemayhave
fanciedthathecouldhelpthesuninhisseemingdeclinecouldprophisfailingstepsandrekindlethe
sinkingflameoftheredlampinhisfeeblehand.Insomesuchthoughtsasthesethemidsummerfestivals
ofourEuropeanpeasantrymayperhapshavetakentheirrise.Whatevertheirorigin,theyhaveprevailed
alloverthisquarteroftheglobe,fromIrelandonthewesttoRussiaontheeast,andfromNorwayand
SwedenonthenorthtoSpainandGreeceonthesouth.Accordingtoamedivalwriter,thethreegreat
featuresofthemidsummercelebrationwerethebonfires,theprocessionwithtorchesroundthefields,
andthecustomofrollingawheel.Hetellsusthatboysburnedbonesandfilthofvariouskindstomakea
foulsmoke,andthatthesmokedroveawaycertainnoxiousdragonswhichatthistime,excitedbythe
summerheat,copulatedintheairandpoisonedthewellsandriversbydroppingtheirseedintothemand
heexplainsthecustomoftrundlingawheeltomeanthatthesun,havingnowreachedthehighestpointin
theecliptic,beginsthenceforwardtodescend.
Themainfeaturesofthemidsummerfirefestivalresemblethosewhichwehavefoundtocharacterisethe
vernalfestivalsoffire.Thesimilarityofthetwosetsofceremonieswillplainlyappearfromthe
followingexamples.
Awriterofthefirsthalfofthesixteenthcenturyinformsusthatinalmosteveryvillageandtownof
GermanypublicbonfireswerekindledontheEveofSt.John,andyoungandold,ofbothsexes,gathered
aboutthemandpassedthetimeindancingandsinging.Peopleonthisoccasionworechapletsof
mugwortandvervain,andtheylookedatthefirethroughbunchesoflarkspurwhichtheyheldintheir
hands,believingthatthiswouldpreservetheireyesinahealthystatethroughouttheyear.Aseach
departed,hethrewthemugwortandvervainintothefire,saying,Mayallmyillluckdepartandbe
burntupwiththese.AtLowerKonz,avillagesituatedonahillsideoverlookingtheMoselle,the
midsummerfestivalusedtobecelebratedasfollows.Aquantityofstrawwascollectedonthetopofthe
steepStrombergHill.Everyinhabitant,oratleasteveryhouseholder,hadtocontributehisshareofstraw
tothepile.Atnightfallthewholemalepopulation,menandboys,musteredonthetopofthehillthe
womenandgirlswerenotallowedtojointhem,buthadtotakeuptheirpositionatacertainspringhalf
waydowntheslope.Onthesummitstoodahugewheelcompletelyencasedinsomeofthestrawwhich
hadbeenjointlycontributedbythevillagerstherestofthestrawwasmadeintotorches.Fromeachside
ofthewheeltheaxletreeprojectedaboutthreefeet,thusfurnishinghandlestotheladswhowereto
guideitinitsdescent.ThemayoroftheneighbouringtownofSierck,whoalwaysreceivedabasketof

cherriesforhisservices,gavethesignalalightedtorchwasappliedtothewheel,andasitburstinto
flame,twoyoungfellows,stronglimbedandswiftoffoot,seizedthehandlesandbeganrunningwithit
downtheslope.Agreatshoutwentup.Everymanandboywavedablazingtorchintheair,andtook
caretokeepitalightsolongasthewheelwastrundlingdownthehill.Thegreatobjectoftheyoungmen
whoguidedthewheelwastoplungeitblazingintothewateroftheMosellebuttheyrarelysucceededin
theirefforts,forthevineyardswhichcoverthegreaterpartofthedeclivityimpededtheirprogress,and
thewheelwasoftenburnedoutbeforeitreachedtheriver.Asitrolledpastthewomenandgirlsatthe
spring,theyraisedcriesofjoywhichwereansweredbythemenonthetopofthemountainandthe
shoutswereechoedbytheinhabitantsofneighbouringvillageswhowatchedthespectaclefromtheir
hillsontheoppositebankoftheMoselle.Ifthefierywheelwassuccessfullyconveyedtothebankofthe
riverandextinguishedinthewater,thepeoplelookedforanabundantvintagethatyear,andthe
inhabitantsofKonzhadtherighttoexactawaggonloadofwhitewinefromthesurroundingvineyards.
Ontheotherhand,theybelievedthat,iftheyneglectedtoperformtheceremony,thecattlewouldbe
attackedbygiddinessandconvulsionsandwoulddanceintheirstalls.
DownatleasttothemiddleofthenineteenthcenturythemidsummerfiresusedtoblazealloverUpper
Bavaria.Theywerekindledespeciallyonthemountains,butalsofarandwideinthelowlands,andwe
aretoldthatinthedarknessandstillnessofnightthemovinggroups,litupbytheflickeringglowofthe
flames,presentedanimpressivespectacle.Cattleweredriventhroughthefiretocurethesickanimals
andtoguardsuchasweresoundagainstplagueandharmofeverykindthroughouttheyear.Manya
householderonthatdayputoutthefireonthedomestichearthandrekindleditbymeansofabrand
takenfromthemidsummerbonfire.Thepeoplejudgedoftheheighttowhichtheflaxwouldgrowinthe
yearbytheheighttowhichtheflamesofthebonfireroseandwhoeverleapedovertheburningpilewas
surenottosufferfrombackacheinreapingthecornatharvest.InmanypartsofBavariaitwasbelieved
thattheflaxwouldgrowashighastheyoungpeopleleapedoverthefire.Inotherstheoldfolkusedto
plantthreecharredsticksfromthebonfireinthefields,believingthatthiswouldmaketheflaxgrowtall.
Elsewhereanextinguishedbrandwasputintheroofofthehousetoprotectitagainstfire.Inthetowns
aboutWrzburgthebonfiresusedtobekindledinthemarketplaces,andtheyoungpeoplewhojumped
overthemworegarlandsofflowers,especiallyofmugwortandvervain,andcarriedsprigsoflarkspurin
theirhands.Theythoughtthatsuchaslookedatthefireholdingabitoflarkspurbeforetheirfacewould
betroubledbynomaladyoftheeyesthroughouttheyear.Further,itwascustomaryatWrzburg,inthe
sixteenthcentury,forthebishopsfollowerstothrowburningdiscsofwoodintotheairfromamountain
whichoverhangsthetown.Thediscsweredischargedbymeansofflexiblerods,andintheirflight
throughthedarknesspresentedtheappearanceoffierydragons.
SimilarlyinSwabia,ladsandlasses,handinhand,leapoverthemidsummerbonfire,prayingthatthe
hempmaygrowthreeellshigh,andtheysetfiretowheelsofstrawandsendthemrollingdownthehill.
Sometimes,asthepeoplesprangoverthemidsummerbonfiretheycriedout,Flax,flax!maytheflax
thisyeargrowsevenellshigh!AtRottenburgarudeeffigyinhumanform,calledtheAngelman,used
tobeenvelopedinflowersandthenburntinthemidsummerfirebyboys,whoafterwardsleapedoverthe
glowingembers.
SoinBadenthechildrencollectedfuelfromhousetohouseforthemidsummerbonfireonSt.Johns
Dayandladsandlassesleapedoverthefireincouples.Here,aselsewhere,acloseconnexionwastraced
betweenthesebonfiresandtheharvest.Insomeplacesitwasthoughtthatthosewholeapedoverthefires
wouldnotsufferfrombackacheatreaping.Sometimes,astheyoungfolksprangovertheflames,they
cried,Grow,thatthehempmaybethreeellshigh!Thisnotionthatthehemporthecornwouldgrowas
highastheflamesblazedorasthepeoplejumpedoverthem,seemstohavebeenwidespreadinBaden.It
washeldthattheparentsoftheyoungpeoplewhoboundedhighestoverthefirewouldhavethemost
abundantharvestandontheotherhand,ifamancontributednothingtothebonfire,itwasimaginedthat
therewouldbenoblessingonhiscrops,andthathishempinparticularwouldnevergrow.At

Edersleben,nearSangerhausen,ahighpolewasplantedinthegroundandatarbarrelwashungfromit
byachainwhichreachedtotheground.Thebarrelwasthensetonfireandswungroundthepoleamid
shoutsofjoy.
InDenmarkandNorwayalsomidsummerfireswerekindledonSt.JohnsEveonroads,openspaces,
andhills.PeopleinNorwaythoughtthatthefiresbanishedsicknessfromamongthecattle.Evenyetthe
firesaresaidtobelightedalloverNorwayonMidsummerEve.Theyarekindledinordertokeepoffthe
witches,whoaresaidtobeflyingfromallpartsthatnighttotheBlocksberg,wherethebigwitchlives.
InSwedentheEveofSt.John(St.Hans)isthemostjoyousnightofthewholeyear.Throughoutsome
partsofthecountry,especiallyintheprovincesofBohusandScaniaandindistrictsborderingon
Norway,itiscelebratedbythefrequentdischargeoffirearmsandbyhugebonfires,formerlycalled
BaldersBalefires(BaldersBlar),whicharekindledatduskonhillsandeminencesandthrowaglare
oflightoverthesurroundinglandscape.Thepeopledanceroundthefiresandleapoverorthroughthem.
InpartsofNorrlandonSt.JohnsEvethebonfiresarelitatthecrossroads.Thefuelconsistsofnine
differentsortsofwood,andthespectatorscastintotheflamesakindoftoadstool(Bran)inorderto
counteractthepoweroftheTrollsandotherevilspirits,whoarebelievedtobeabroadthatnightforat
thatmysticseasonthemountainsopenandfromtheircavernousdepthstheuncannycrewpoursforthto
danceanddisportthemselvesforatime.ThepeasantsbelievethatshouldanyoftheTrollsbeinthe
vicinitytheywillshowthemselvesandifananimal,forexampleaheorshegoat,happenstobeseen
neartheblazing,cracklingpile,thepeasantsarefirmlypersuadedthatitisnootherthantheEvilOnein
person.Further,itdeservestoberemarkedthatinSwedenSt.JohnsEveisafestivalofwateraswellas
offireforcertainholyspringsarethensupposedtobeendowedwithwonderfulmedicinalvirtues,and
manysickpeopleresorttothemforthehealingoftheirinfirmities.
InAustriathemidsummercustomsandsuperstitionsresemblethoseofGermany.Thusinsomepartsof
theTyrolbonfiresarekindledandburningdiscshurledintotheair.InthelowervalleyoftheInna
tatterdemalioneffigyiscartedaboutthevillageonMidsummerDayandthenburned.Heiscalledthe
Lotter,whichhasbeencorruptedintoLuther.AtAmbras,oneofthevillageswhereMartinLutheristhus
burnedineffigy,theysaythatifyougothroughthevillagebetweenelevenandtwelveonSt.Johns
Nightandwashyourselfinthreewells,youwillseeallwhoaretodieinthefollowingyear.AtGratzon
St.JohnsEve(thetwentythirdofJune)thecommonpeopleusedtomakeapuppetcalledthe
Tatermann,whichtheydraggedtothebleachingground,andpeltedwithburningbesomstillittookfire.
AtReutte,intheTyrol,peoplebelievedthattheflaxwouldgrowashighastheyleapedoverthe
midsummerbonfire,andtheytookpiecesofcharredwoodfromthefireandstuckthemintheirflax
fieldsthesamenight,leavingthemtheretilltheflaxharvesthadbeengotin.InLowerAustriabonfires
arekindledontheheights,andtheboyscaperroundthem,brandishinglightedtorchesdrenchedinpitch.
Whoeverjumpsthriceacrossthefirewillnotsufferfromfeverwithintheyear.Cartwheelsareoften
smearedwithpitch,ignited,andsentrollingandblazingdownthehillsides.
AlloverBohemiabonfiresstillburnonMidsummerEve.Intheafternoonboysgoaboutwithhandcarts
fromhousetohousecollectingfuelandthreateningwithevilconsequencesthecurmudgeonswhorefuse
themadole.Sometimestheyoungmenfellatallstraightfirinthewoodsandsetituponaheight,where
thegirlsdeckitwithnosegays,wreathsofleaves,andredribbons.Thenbrushwoodispiledaboutit,and
atnightfallthewholeissetonfire.Whiletheflamesbreakout,theyoungmenclimbthetreeandfetch
downthewreathswhichthegirlshadplacedonit.Afterthatladsandlassesstandonoppositesidesof
thefireandlookatoneanotherthroughthewreathstoseewhethertheywillbetruetoeachotherand
marrywithintheyear.Alsothegirlsthrowthewreathsacrosstheflamestothemen,andwoetothe
awkwardswainwhofailstocatchthewreaththrownhimbyhissweetheart.Whentheblazehasdied
down,eachcoupletakeshandsandleapsthriceacrossthefire.Heorshewhodoessowillbefreefrom
aguethroughouttheyear,andtheflaxwillgrowashighastheyoungfolksleap.Agirlwhoseesnine
bonfiresonMidsummerEvewillmarrybeforetheyearisout.Thesingedwreathsarecarriedhomeand

carefullypreservedthroughouttheyear.Duringthunderstormsabitofthewreathisburnedonthehearth
withaprayersomeofitisgiventokinethataresickorcalving,andsomeofitservestofumigatehouse
andcattlestall,thatmanandbeastmaykeephaleandwell.Sometimesanoldcartwheelissmearedwith
resin,ignited,andsentrollingdownthehill.Oftentheboyscollectallthewornoutbesomstheycanget
holdof,diptheminpitch,andhavingsetthemonfirewavethemaboutorthrowthemhighintotheair.
Ortheyrushdownthehillsideintroops,brandishingtheflamingbroomsandshouting.Thestumpsofthe
broomsandembersfromthefirearepreservedandstuckincabbagegardenstoprotectthecabbages
fromcaterpillarsandgnats.Somepeopleinsertcharredsticksandashesfromthemidsummerbonfirein
theirsownfieldsandmeadows,intheirgardensandtheroofsoftheirhouses,asatalismanagainst
lightningandfoulweatherortheyfancythattheashesplacedintheroofwillpreventanyfirefrom
breakingoutinthehouse.Insomedistrictstheycrownorgirdthemselveswithmugwortwhilethe
midsummerfireisburning,forthisissupposedtobeaprotectionagainstghosts,witches,andsickness
inparticular,awreathofmugwortisasurepreventiveofsoreeyes.Sometimesthegirlslookatthe
bonfiresthroughgarlandsofwildflowers,prayingthefiretostrengthentheireyesandeyelids.Shewho
doesthisthricewillhavenosoreeyesallthatyear.InsomepartsofBohemiatheyusedtodrivethecows
throughthemidsummerfiretoguardthemagainstwitchcraft.
InSlavoniccountries,also,themidsummerfestivaliscelebratedwithsimilarrites.Wehavealreadyseen
thatinRussiaontheEveofSt.Johnyoungmenandmaidensjumpoverabonfireincouplescarryinga
straweffigyofKupalointheirarms.InsomepartsofRussiaanimageofKupaloisburntorthrowninto
astreamonSt.JohnsNight.Again,insomedistrictsofRussiatheyoungfolkweargarlandsofflowers
andgirdlesofholyherbswhentheyspringthroughthesmokeorflamesandsometimestheydrivethe
cattlealsothroughthefireinordertoprotecttheanimalsagainstwizardsandwitches,whoarethen
ravenousaftermilk.InLittleRussiaastakeisdrivenintothegroundonSt.JohnsNight,wraptinstraw,
andsetonfire.Astheflamesrisethepeasantwomenthrowbirchenboughsintothem,saying,Maymy
flaxbeastallasthisbough!InRutheniathebonfiresarelightedbyaflameprocuredbythefrictionof
wood.Whiletheeldersofthepartyareengagedinthuschurningthefire,therestmaintainarespectful
silencebutwhentheflameburstsfromthewood,theybreakforthintojoyoussongs.Assoonasthe
bonfiresarekindled,theyoungpeopletakehandsandleapinpairsthroughthesmoke,ifnotthroughthe
flamesandafterthatthecattleintheirturnaredriventhroughthefire.
InmanypartsofPrussiaandLithuaniagreatfiresarekindledonMidsummerEve.Alltheheightsare
ablazewiththem,asfarastheeyecansee.Thefiresaresupposedtobeaprotectionagainstwitchcraft,
thunder,hail,andcattledisease,especiallyifnextmorningthecattlearedrivenovertheplaceswherethe
firesburned.Aboveall,thebonfiresensurethefarmeragainsttheartsofwitches,whotrytostealthe
milkfromhiscowsbycharmsandspells.Thatiswhynextmorningyoumayseetheyoungfellowswho
litthebonfiregoingfromhousetohouseandreceivingjugfulsofmilk.Andforthesamereasonthey
stickbursandmugwortonthegateorthehedgethroughwhichthecowsgotopasture,becausethatis
supposedtobeapreservativeagainstwitchcraft.InMasuren,adistrictofEasternPrussiainhabitedbya
branchofthePolishfamily,itisthecustomontheeveningofMidsummerDaytoputoutallthefiresin
thevillage.Thenanoakenstakeisdrivenintothegroundandawheelisfixedonitasonanaxle.This
wheelthevillagers,workingbyrelays,causetorevolvewithgreatrapiditytillfireisproducedby
friction.Everyonetakeshomealightedbrandfromthenewfireandwithitrekindlesthefireonthe
domestichearth.InSerbiaonMidsummerEveherdsmenlighttorchesofbirchbarkandmarchroundthe
sheepfoldsandcattlestallsthentheyclimbthehillsandthereallowthetorchestoburnout.
AmongtheMagyarsinHungarythemidsummerfirefestivalismarkedbythesamefeaturesthatmeetus
insomanypartsofEurope.OnMidsummerEveinmanyplacesitiscustomarytokindlebonfireson
heightsandtoleapoverthem,andfromthemannerinwhichtheyoungpeopleleapthebystanders
predictwhethertheywillmarrysoon.OnthisdayalsomanyHungarianswineherdsmakefirebyrotating
awheelroundawoodenaxlewraptinhemp,andthroughthefirethusmadetheydrivetheirpigsto

preservethemfromsickness.
TheEsthoniansofRussia,who,liketheMagyars,belongtothegreatTuranianfamilyofmankind,also
celebratethesummersolsticeintheusualway.TheythinkthattheSt.Johnsfirekeepswitchesfromthe
cattle,andtheysaythathewhodoesnotcometoitwillhavehisbarleyfullofthistlesandhisoatsfullof
weeds.IntheEsthonianislandofOesel,whiletheythrowfuelintothemidsummerfire,theycallout,
Weedstothefire,flaxtothefield,ortheyflingthreebilletsintotheflames,saying,Flaxgrowlong!
Andtheytakecharredsticksfromthebonfirehomewiththemandkeepthemtomakethecattlethrive.In
somepartsoftheislandthebonfireisformedbypilingbrushwoodandothercombustiblesroundatree,
atthetopofwhichaflagflies.Whoeversucceedsinknockingdowntheflagwithapolebeforeitbegins
toburnwillhavegoodluck.Formerlythefestivitieslastedtilldaybreak,andendedinscenesof
debaucherywhichlookeddoublyhideousbythegrowinglightofasummermorning.
WhenwepassfromtheeasttothewestofEuropewestillfindthesummersolsticecelebratedwithrites
ofthesamegeneralcharacter.Downtoaboutthemiddleofthenineteenthcenturythecustomoflighting
bonfiresatmidsummerprevailedsocommonlyinFrancethattherewashardlyatownoravillage,we
aretold,wheretheywerenotkindled.Peopledancedroundandleapedoverthem,andtookcharred
sticksfromthebonfirehomewiththemtoprotectthehousesagainstlightning,conflagrations,andspells.
InBrittany,apparently,thecustomofthemidsummerbonfiresiskeptuptothisday.Whentheflames
havedieddown,thewholeassemblykneelsroundaboutthebonfireandanoldmanpraysaloud.Then
theyallriseandmarchthriceroundthefireatthethirdturntheystopandeveryonepicksupapebble
andthrowsitontheburningpile.Afterthattheydisperse.InBrittanyandBerryitisbelievedthatagirl
whodancesroundninemidsummerbonfireswillmarrywithintheyear.InthevalleyoftheOrnethe
customwastokindlethebonfirejustatthemomentwhenthesunwasabouttodipbelowthehorizon
andthepeasantsdrovetheircattlethroughthefirestoprotectthemagainstwitchcraft,especiallyagainst
thespellsofwitchesandwizardswhoattemptedtostealthemilkandbutter.AtJumigesinNormandy,
downtothefirsthalfofthenineteenthcentury,themidsummerfestivalwasmarkedbycertainsingular
featureswhichborethestampofaveryhighantiquity.Everyyear,onthetwentythirdofJune,theEve
ofSt.John,theBrotherhoodoftheGreenWolfchoseanewchieformaster,whohadalwaystobetaken
fromthehamletofConihout.Onbeingelected,thenewheadofthebrotherhoodassumedthetitleofthe
GreenWolf,anddonnedapeculiarcostumeconsistingofalonggreenmantleandaverytallgreenhatof
aconicalshapeandwithoutabrim.Thusarrayedhestalkedsolemnlyattheheadofthebrothers,
chantingthehymnofSt.John,thecrucifixandholybannerleadingtheway,toaplacecalledChouquet.
Heretheprocessionwasmetbythepriest,precentors,andchoir,whoconductedthebrotherhoodtothe
parishchurch.AfterhearingmassthecompanyadjournedtothehouseoftheGreenWolf,wherea
simplerepastwasserveduptothem.Atnightabonfirewaskindledtothesoundofhandbellsbya
youngmanandayoungwoman,bothdeckedwithflowers.ThentheGreenWolfandhisbrothers,with
theirhoodsdownontheirshouldersandholdingeachotherbythehand,ranroundthefireaftertheman
whohadbeenchosentobetheGreenWolfofthefollowingyear.Thoughonlythefirstandthelastman
ofthechainhadahandfree,theirbusinesswastosurroundandseizethricethefutureGreenWolf,who
inhiseffortstoescapebelabouredthebrotherswithalongwandwhichhecarried.Whenatlastthey
succeededincatchinghimtheycarriedhimtotheburningpileandmadeasiftheywouldthrowhimon
it.Thisceremonyover,theyreturnedtothehouseoftheGreenWolf,whereasupper,stillofthemost
meagrefare,wassetbeforethem.Uptillmidnightasortofreligioussolemnityprevailed.Butatthe
strokeoftwelveallthiswaschanged.Constraintgavewaytolicensepioushymnswerereplacedby
Bacchanalianditties,andtheshrillquaveringnotesofthevillagefiddlehardlyroseabovetheroarof
voicesthatwentupfromthemerrybrotherhoodoftheGreenWolf.Nextday,thetwentyfourthofJune
orMidsummerDay,wascelebratedbythesamepersonageswiththesamenoisygaiety.Oneofthe
ceremoniesconsistedinparading,tothesoundofmusketry,anenormousloafofconsecratedbread,
which,risingintiers,wassurmountedbyapyramidofverdureadornedwithribbons.Afterthattheholy

handbells,depositedonthestepofthealtar,wereentrustedasinsigniaofofficetothemanwhowasto
betheGreenWolfnextyear.
AtChteauThierry,inthedepartmentofAisne,thecustomoflightingbonfiresanddancinground
thematthemidsummerfestivalofSt.Johnlasteddowntoabout1850thefireswerekindledespecially
whenJunehadbeenrainy,andthepeoplethoughtthatthelightingofthebonfireswouldcausetherainto
cease.IntheVosgesitisstillcustomarytokindlebonfiresuponthehilltopsonMidsummerEvethe
peoplebelievethatthefireshelptopreservethefruitsoftheearthandensuregoodcrops.
BonfireswerelitinalmostallthehamletsofPoitouontheEveofSt.John.Peoplemarchedroundthem
thrice,carryingabranchofwalnutintheirhand.Shepherdessesandchildrenpassedsprigsofmullein
(verbascum)andnutsacrosstheflamesthenutsweresupposedtocuretoothache,andthemulleinto
protectthecattlefromsicknessandsorcery.Whenthefiredieddownpeopletooksomeoftheashes
homewiththem,eithertokeeptheminthehouseasapreservativeagainstthunderortoscatterthemon
thefieldsforthepurposeofdestroyingcorncocklesanddarnel.InPoitoualsoitusedtobecustomaryon
theEveofSt.Johntotrundleablazingwheelwraptinstrawoverthefieldstofertilisethem.
InthemountainouspartofComminges,aprovinceofSouthernFrance,themidsummerfireismadeby
splittingopenthetrunkofatalltree,stuffingthecrevicewithshavings,andignitingthewhole.Agarland
offlowersisfastenedtothetopofthetree,andatthemomentwhenthefireislightedthemanwhowas
lastmarriedhastoclimbupaladderandbringtheflowersdown.Intheflatpartsofthesamedistrictthe
materialsofthemidsummerbonfiresconsistoffuelpiledintheusualwaybuttheymustbeputtogether
bymenwhohavebeenmarriedsincethelastmidsummerfestival,andeachofthesebenedictsisobliged
tolayawreathofflowersonthetopofthepile.
InProvencethemidsummerfiresarestillpopular.Childrengofromdoortodoorbeggingforfuel,and
theyareseldomsentemptyaway.Formerlythepriest,themayor,andthealdermenusedtowalkin
processiontothebonfire,andevendeignedtolightitafterwhichtheassemblymarchedthriceroundthe
burningpile.AtAixanominalking,chosenfromamongtheyouthforhisskillinshootingatapopinjay,
presidedoverthemidsummerfestival.Heselectedhisownofficers,andescortedbyabrillianttrain
marchedtothebonfire,kindledit,andwasthefirsttodanceroundit.Nextdayhedistributedlargesseto
hisfollowers.Hisreignlastedayear,duringwhichheenjoyedcertainprivileges.Hewasallowedto
attendthemasscelebratedbythecommanderoftheKnightsofSt.JohnonSt.JohnsDaytherightof
huntingwasaccordedtohim,andsoldiersmightnotbequarteredinhishouse.AtMarseillesalsoonthis
dayoneoftheguildschoseakingofthebadacheordoubleaxebutitdoesnotappearthathekindled
thebonfire,whichissaidtohavebeenlightedwithgreatceremonybytheprfetandotherauthorities.
InBelgiumthecustomofkindlingthemidsummerbonfireshaslongdisappearedfromthegreatcities,
butitisstillkeptupinruraldistrictsandsmalltowns.InthatcountrytheEveofSt.PetersDay(the
twentyninthofJune)iscelebratedbybonfiresanddancesexactlylikethosewhichcommemorateSt.
JohnsEve.SomepeoplesaythatthefiresofSt.Peter,likethoseofSt.John,arelightedinordertodrive
awaydragons.InFrenchFlandersdownto1789astrawfigurerepresentingamanwasalwaysburnedin
themidsummerbonfire,andthefigureofawomanwasburnedonSt.PetersDay,thetwentyninthof
June.InBelgiumpeoplejumpoverthemidsummerbonfiresasapreventiveofcolic,andtheykeepthe
ashesathometohinderfirefrombreakingout.
Thecustomoflightingbonfiresatmidsummerhasbeenobservedinmanypartsofourowncountry,and
asusualpeopledancedroundandleapedoverthem.InWalesthreeorninedifferentkindsofwoodand
charredfaggotscarefullypreservedfromthelastmidsummerweredeemednecessarytobuildthe
bonfire,whichwasgenerallydoneonrisingground.IntheValeofGlamorganacartwheelswathedin
strawusedtobeignitedandsentrollingdownthehill.Ifitkeptalightallthewaydownandblazedfora

longtime,anabundantharvestwasexpected.OnMidsummerEvepeopleintheIsleofManwerewont
tolightfirestothewindwardofeveryfield,sothatthesmokemightpassoverthecornandtheyfolded
theircattleandcarriedblazingfurzeorgorseroundthemseveraltimes.InIrelandcattle,especially
barrencattle,weredriventhroughthemidsummerfires,andtheasheswerethrownonthefieldsto
fertilisethem,orlivecoalswerecarriedintothemtopreventblight.InScotlandthetracesofmidsummer
firesarefewbutatthatseasoninthehighlandsofPerthshirecowherdsusedtogoroundtheirfolds
thrice,inthedirectionofthesun,withlightedtorches.Thistheydidtopurifytheflocksandherdsandto
keepthemfromfallingsick.
ThepracticeoflightingbonfiresonMidsummerEveanddancingorleapingoverthemis,orwastill
recently,commonalloverSpainandinsomepartsofItalyandSicily.InMaltagreatfiresarekindledin
thestreetsandsquaresofthetownsandvillagesontheEveofSt.John(MidsummerEve)formerlythe
GrandMasteroftheOrderofSt.Johnusedonthateveningtosetfiretoaheapofpitchbarrelsplacedin
frontofthesacredHospital.InGreece,too,thecustomofkindlingfiresonSt.JohnsEveandjumping
overthemissaidtobestilluniversal.Onereasonassignedforitisawishtoescapefromthefleas.
Accordingtoanotheraccount,thewomencryout,astheyleapoverthefire,Ileavemysinsbehindme.
InLesbosthefiresonSt.JohnsEveareusuallylightedbythrees,andthepeoplespringthriceover
them,eachwithastoneonhishead,saying,Ijumptheharesfire,myheadastone!InCalymnosthe
midsummerfireissupposedtoensureabundanceinthecomingyearaswellasdeliverancefromfleas.
Thepeopledanceroundthefiressinging,withstonesontheirheads,andthenjumpovertheblazeorthe
glowingembers.Whenthefireisburninglow,theythrowthestonesintoitandwhenitisnearlyout,
theymakecrossesontheirlegsandthengostraightwayandbatheinthesea.
ThecustomofkindlingbonfiresonMidsummerDayoronMidsummerEveiswidelyspreadamongthe
MohammedanpeoplesofNorthAfrica,particularlyinMoroccoandAlgeriaitiscommonbothtothe
BerbersandtomanyoftheArabsorArabicspeakingtribes.InthesecountriesMidsummerDay(the
twentyfourthofJune,OldStyle)iscalledlnsra.Thefiresarelitinthecourtyards,atcrossroads,in
thefields,andsometimesonthethreshingfloors.Plantswhichinburninggiveoutathicksmokeandan
aromaticsmellaremuchsoughtafterforfuelontheseoccasionsamongtheplantsusedforthepurpose
aregiantfennel,thyme,rue,chervilseed,camomile,geranium,andpennyroyal.Peopleexpose
themselves,andespeciallytheirchildren,tothesmoke,anddriveittowardstheorchardsandthecrops.
Alsotheyleapacrossthefiresinsomeplaceseverybodyoughttorepeattheleapseventimes.Moreover
theytakeburningbrandsfromthefiresandcarrythemthroughthehousesinordertofumigatethem.
Theypassthingsthroughthefire,andbringthesickintocontactwithit,whiletheyutterprayersfortheir
recovery.Theashesofthebonfiresarealsoreputedtopossessbeneficialpropertieshenceinsome
placespeoplerubtheirhairortheirbodieswiththem.Insomeplacestheythinkthatbyleapingoverthe
firestheyridthemselvesofallmisfortune,andthatchildlesscouplestherebyobtainoffspring.Berbersof
theRifprovince,inNorthernMorocco,makegreatuseoffiresatmidsummerforthegoodofthemselves,
theircattle,andtheirfruittrees.Theyjumpoverthebonfiresinthebeliefthatthiswillpreservethemin
goodhealth,andtheylightfiresunderfruittreestokeepthefruitfromfallinguntimely.Andthey
imaginethatbyrubbingapasteoftheashesontheirhairtheypreventthehairfromfallingofftheir
heads.InalltheseMoroccancustoms,wearetold,thebeneficialeffectisattributedwhollytothesmoke,
whichissupposedtobeenduedwithamagicalqualitythatremovesmisfortunefrommen,animals,fruit
treesandcrops.
ThecelebrationofamidsummerfestivalbyMohammedanpeoplesisparticularlyremarkable,because
theMohammedancalendar,beingpurelylunaranduncorrectedbyintercalation,necessarilytakesno
noteoffestivalswhichoccupyfixedpointsinthesolaryearallstrictlyMohammedanfeasts,being
pinnedtothemoon,slidegraduallywiththatluminarythroughthewholeperiodoftheearthsrevolution
aboutthesun.ThisfactofitselfseemstoprovethatamongtheMohammedanpeoplesofNorthern
Africa,asamongtheChristianpeoplesofEurope,themidsummerfestivalisquiteindependentofthe

religionwhichthepeoplepubliclyprofess,andisarelicofafarolderpaganism.
6.TheHalloweenFires
FROMTHEFOREGOINGsurveywemayinferthatamongtheheathenforefathersoftheEuropean
peoplesthemostpopularandwidespreadfirefestivaloftheyearwasthegreatcelebrationof
MidsummerEveorMidsummerDay.Thecoincidenceofthefestivalwiththesummersolsticecan
hardlybeaccidental.Ratherwemustsupposethatourpaganancestorspurposelytimedtheceremonyof
fireonearthtocoincidewiththearrivalofthesunatthehighestpointofhiscourseinthesky.Ifthatwas
so,itfollowsthattheoldfoundersofthemidsummerriteshadobservedthesolsticesorturningpointsof
thesunsapparentpathinthesky,andthattheyaccordinglyregulatedtheirfestalcalendartosomeextent
byastronomicalconsiderations.
Butwhilethismayberegardedasfairlycertainforwhatwemaycalltheaboriginesthroughoutalarge
partofthecontinent,itappearsnottohavebeentrueoftheCelticpeopleswhoinhabitedtheLandsEnd
ofEurope,theislandsandpromontoriesthatstretchoutintotheAtlanticOceanontheNorthWest.The
principalfirefestivalsoftheCelts,whichhavesurvived,thoughinarestrictedareaandwithdiminished
pomp,tomoderntimesandeventoourownday,wereseeminglytimedwithoutanyreferencetothe
positionofthesunintheheaven.Theyweretwoinnumber,andfellatanintervalofsixmonths,one
beingcelebratedontheeveofMayDayandtheotheronAllhallowEvenorHalloween,asitisnow
commonlycalled,thatis,onthethirtyfirstofOctober,thedayprecedingAllSaintsorAllhallowsDay.
Thesedatescoincidewithnoneofthefourgreathingesonwhichthesolaryearrevolves,towit,the
solsticesandtheequinoxes.Nordotheyagreewiththeprincipalseasonsoftheagriculturalyear,the
sowinginspringandthereapinginautumn.ForwhenMayDaycomes,theseedhaslongbeen
committedtotheearthandwhenNovemberopens,theharvesthaslongbeenreapedandgarnered,the
fieldsliebare,thefruittreesarestripped,andeventheyellowleavesarefastflutteringtotheground.Yet
thefirstofMayandthefirstofNovembermarkturningpointsoftheyearinEuropetheoneushersin
thegenialheatandtherichvegetationofsummer,theotherheralds,ifitdoesnotshare,thecoldand
barrennessofwinter.Nowtheseparticularpointsoftheyear,ashasbeenwellpointedoutbyalearned
andingeniouswriter,whiletheyareofcomparativelylittlemomenttotheEuropeanhusbandman,do
deeplyconcerntheEuropeanherdsmanforitisontheapproachofsummerthathedriveshiscattleout
intotheopentocropthefreshgrass,anditisontheapproachofwinterthatheleadsthembacktothe
safetyandshelterofthestall.AccordinglyitseemsnotimprobablethattheCelticbisectionoftheyear
intotwohalvesatthebeginningofMayandthebeginningofNovemberdatesfromatimewhenthe
Celtsweremainlyapastoralpeople,dependentfortheirsubsistenceontheirherds,andwhenaccordingly
thegreatepochsoftheyearforthemwerethedaysonwhichthecattlewentforthfromthehomesteadin
earlysummerandreturnedtoitagaininearlywinter.EveninCentralEurope,remotefromtheregion
nowoccupiedbytheCelts,asimilarbisectionoftheyearmaybeclearlytracedinthegreatpopularity,
ontheonehand,ofMayDayanditsEve(WalpurgisNight),and,ontheotherhand,oftheFeastofAll
SoulsatthebeginningofNovember,whichunderathinChristiancloakconcealsanancientpagan
festivalofthedead.HencewemayconjecturethateverywherethroughoutEuropethecelestialdivision
oftheyearaccordingtothesolsticeswasprecededbywhatwemaycallaterrestrialdivisionoftheyear
accordingtothebeginningofsummerandthebeginningofwinter.
Bethatasitmay,thetwogreatCelticfestivalsofMayDayandthefirstofNovemberor,tobemore
accurate,theEvesofthesetwodays,closelyresembleeachotherinthemanneroftheircelebrationand
inthesuperstitionsassociatedwiththem,andalike,bytheantiquecharacterimpresseduponboth,betray
aremoteandpurelypaganorigin.ThefestivalofMayDayorBeltane,astheCeltscalledit,which
usheredinsummer,hasalreadybeendescribeditremainstogivesomeaccountofthecorresponding
festivalofHalloween,whichannouncedthearrivalofwinter.

OfthetwofeastsHalloweenwasperhapsofoldthemoreimportant,sincetheCeltswouldseemtohave
datedthebeginningoftheyearfromitratherthanfromBeltane.IntheIsleofMan,oneofthefortresses
inwhichtheCelticlanguageandlorelongestheldoutagainstthesiegeoftheSaxoninvaders,thefirstof
November,OldStyle,hasbeenregardedasNewYearsdaydowntorecenttimes.ThusManxmummers
usedtogoroundonHalloween(OldStyle),singing,intheManxlanguage,asortofHogmanaysong
whichbeganTonightisNewYearsNight,Hogunnaa!InancientIreland,anewfireusedtobe
kindledeveryyearonHalloweenortheEveofSamhain,andfromthissacredflameallthefiresin
Irelandwererekindled.SuchacustompointsstronglytoSamhainorAllSaintsDay(thefirstof
November)asNewYearsDaysincetheannualkindlingofanewfiretakesplacemostnaturallyatthe
beginningoftheyear,inorderthattheblessedinfluenceofthefreshfiremaylastthroughoutthewhole
periodoftwelvemonths.AnotherconfirmationoftheviewthattheCeltsdatedtheiryearfromthefirstof
NovemberisfurnishedbythemanifoldmodesofdivinationwhichwerecommonlyresortedtobyCeltic
peoplesonHalloweenforthepurposeofascertainingtheirdestiny,especiallytheirfortuneinthe
comingyearforwhencouldthesedevicesforpryingintothefuturebemorereasonablyputinpractice
thanatthebeginningoftheyear?AsaseasonofomensandauguriesHalloweenseemstohavefar
surpassedBeltaneintheimaginationoftheCeltsfromwhichwemaywithsomeprobabilityinferthat
theyreckonedtheiryearfromHalloweenratherthanBeltane.Anothercircumstanceofgreatmoment
whichpointstothesameconclusionistheassociationofthedeadwithHalloween.Notonlyamongthe
CeltsbutthroughoutEurope,Halloween,thenightwhichmarksthetransitionfromautumntowinter,
seemstohavebeenofoldthetimeofyearwhenthesoulsofthedepartedweresupposedtorevisittheir
oldhomesinordertowarmthemselvesbythefireandtocomfortthemselveswiththegoodcheer
providedfortheminthekitchenortheparlourbytheiraffectionatekinsfolk.Itwas,perhaps,anatural
thoughtthattheapproachofwintershoulddrivethepoorshiveringhungryghostsfromthebarefields
andtheleaflesswoodlandstotheshelterofthecottagewithitsfamiliarfireside.Didnotthelowingkine
thentroopbackfromthesummerpasturesintheforestsandonthehillstobefedandcaredforinthe
stalls,whilethebleakwindswhistledamongtheswayingboughsandthesnowdriftsdeepenedinthe
hollows?andcouldthegoodmanandthegoodwifedenytothespiritsoftheirdeadthewelcomewhich
theygavetothecows?
Butitisnotonlythesoulsofthedepartedwhoaresupposedtobehoveringunseenonthedaywhen
autumntowinterresignsthepaleyear.Witchesthenspeedontheirerrandsofmischief,somesweeping
throughtheaironbesoms,othersgallopingalongtheroadsontabbycats,whichforthateveningare
turnedintocoalblacksteeds.Thefairies,too,areallletloose,andhobgoblinsofeverysortroamfreely
about.
YetwhileaglamourofmysteryandawehasalwaysclungtoHalloweeninthemindsoftheCeltic
peasantry,thepopularcelebrationofthefestivalhasbeen,atleastinmoderntimes,bynomeansofa
prevailinggloomycastonthecontraryithasbeenattendedbypicturesquefeaturesandmerrypastimes,
whichrendereditthegayestnightofalltheyear.AmongstthethingswhichintheHighlandsofScotland
contributedtoinvestthefestivalwitharomanticbeautywerethebonfireswhichusedtoblazeatfrequent
intervalsontheheights.Onthelastdayofautumnchildrengatheredferns,tarbarrels,thelongthin
stalkscalledginisg,andeverythingsuitableforabonfire.Thesewereplacedinaheaponsome
eminencenearthehouse,andintheeveningsetfireto.ThefireswerecalledSamhnagan.Therewasone
foreachhouse,anditwasanobjectofambitionwhoshouldhavethebiggest.Wholedistrictswere
brilliantwithbonfires,andtheirglareacrossaHighlandloch,andfrommanyeminences,formedan
exceedinglypicturesquescene.LiketheBeltanefiresonthefirstofMay,theHalloweenbonfiresseem
tohavebeenkindledmostcommonlyinthePerthshireHighlands.IntheparishofCallandertheystill
blazeddowntoneartheendoftheeighteenthcentury.Whenthefirehaddieddown,theasheswere
carefullycollectedintheformofacircle,andastonewasputin,nearthecircumference,forevery
personoftheseveralfamiliesinterestedinthebonfire.Nextmorning,ifanyofthesestoneswasfoundto
bedisplacedorinjured,thepeoplemadesurethatthepersonrepresentedbyitwasfeyordevoted,and

thathecouldnotlivetwelvemonthsfromthatday.AtBalquhidderdowntothelatterpartofthe
nineteenthcenturyeachhouseholdkindleditsbonfireatHalloween,butthecustomwaschiefly
observedbychildren.Thefireswerelightedonanyhighknollnearthehousetherewasnodancing
roundthem.HalloweenfireswerealsolightedinsomedistrictsofthenortheastofScotland,suchas
Buchan.Villagersandfarmersalikemusthavetheirfire.Inthevillagestheboyswentfromhouseto
houseandbeggedapeatfromeachhouseholder,usuallywiththewords,Gesapeattburnthe
witches.Whentheyhadcollectedenoughpeats,theypiledtheminaheap,togetherwithstraw,furze,
andothercombustiblematerials,andsetthewholeonfire.Theneachoftheyouths,oneafteranother,
laidhimselfdownonthegroundasneartothefireashecouldwithoutbeingscorched,andthuslying
allowedthesmoketorolloverhim.Theothersranthroughthesmokeandjumpedovertheirprostrate
comrade.Whentheheapwasburneddown,theyscatteredtheashes,vyingwitheachotherwhoshould
scatterthemmost.
InthenorthernpartofWalesitusedtobecustomaryforeveryfamilytomakeagreatbonfirecalledCoel
CoethonHalloween.Thefirewaskindledonthemostconspicuousspotnearthehouseandwhenithad
nearlygoneouteveryonethrewintotheashesawhitestone,whichhehadfirstmarked.Thenhaving
saidtheirprayersroundthefire,theywenttobed.Nextmorning,assoonastheywereup,theycameto
searchoutthestones,andifanyoneofthemwasfoundtobemissing,theyhadanotionthattheperson
whothrewitwoulddiebeforehesawanotherHalloween.AccordingtoSirJohnRhys,thehabitof
celebratingHalloweenbylightingbonfiresonthehillsisperhapsnotyetextinctinWales,andmenstill
livingcanrememberhowthepeoplewhoassistedatthebonfireswouldwaittillthelastsparkwasout
andthenwouldsuddenlytaketotheirheels,shoutingatthetopoftheirvoices,Thecroppedblacksow
seizethehindmost!Thesaying,asSirJohnRhysjustlyremarks,impliesthatoriginallyoneofthe
companybecameavictimindeadearnest.Downtothepresenttimethesayingiscurrentin
Carnarvonshire,whereallusionstothecuttyblacksowarestilloccasionallymadetofrightenchildren.
WecannowunderstandwhyinLowerBrittanyeverypersonthrowsapebbleintothemidsummer
bonfire.Doubtlessthere,asinWalesandtheHighlandsofScotland,omensoflifeanddeathhaveatone
timeorotherbeendrawnfromthepositionandstateofthepebblesonthemorningofAllSaintsDay.
Thecustom,thusfoundamongthreeseparatebranchesoftheCelticstock,probablydatesfromaperiod
beforetheirdispersion,oratleastfromatimewhenalienraceshadnotyetdrivenhomethewedgesof
separationbetweenthem.
IntheIsleofManalso,anotherCelticcountry,Halloweenwascelebrateddowntomoderntimesbythe
kindlingoffires,accompaniedwithalltheusualceremoniesdesignedtopreventthebanefulinfluenceof
fairiesandwitches.
7.TheMidwinterFires
IFTHEHEATHENofancientEuropecelebrated,aswehavegoodreasontobelieve,theseasonof
Midsummerwithagreatfestivaloffire,ofwhichthetraceshavesurvivedinmanyplacesdowntoour
owntime,itisnaturaltosupposethattheyshouldhaveobservedwithsimilarritesthecorresponding
seasonofMidwinterforMidsummerandMidwinter,or,inmoretechnicallanguage,thesummersolstice
andthewintersolstice,arethetwogreatturningpointsinthesunsapparentcoursethroughthesky,and
fromthestandpointofprimitivemannothingmightseemmoreappropriatethantokindlefiresonearth
atthetwomomentswhenthefireandheatofthegreatluminaryinheavenbegintowaneortowax.
InmodernChristendomtheancientfirefestivalofthewintersolsticeappearstosurvive,ortohave
surviveddowntorecentyears,intheoldcustomoftheYulelog,clog,orblock,asitwasvariouslycalled
inEngland.ThecustomwaswidespreadinEurope,butseemstohaveflourishedespeciallyinEngland,
France,andamongtheSouthSlavsatleastthefullestaccountsofthecustomcomefromthesequarters.

ThattheYulelogwasonlythewintercounterpartofthemidsummerbonfire,kindledwithindoors
insteadofintheopenaironaccountofthecoldandinclementweatheroftheseason,waspointedout
longagobyourEnglishantiquaryJohnBrandandtheviewissupportedbythemanyquaint
superstitionsattachingtotheYulelog,superstitionswhichhavenoapparentconnexionwithChristianity
butcarrytheirheathenoriginplainlystampeduponthem.Butwhilethetwosolstitialcelebrationswere
bothfestivalsoffire,thenecessityordesirabilityofholdingthewintercelebrationwithindoorslentitthe
characterofaprivateordomesticfestivity,whichcontrastsstronglywiththepublicityofthesummer
celebration,atwhichthepeoplegatheredonsomeopenspaceorconspicuousheight,kindledahuge
bonfireincommon,anddancedandmademerryroundittogether.
DowntoaboutthemiddleofthenineteenthcenturytheoldriteoftheYulelogwaskeptupinsomeparts
ofCentralGermany.ThusinthevalleysoftheSiegandLahntheYulelog,aheavyblockofoak,was
fittedintothefloorofthehearth,where,thoughitglowedunderthefire,itwashardlyreducedtoashes
withinayear.Whenthenewlogwaslaidnextyear,theremainsoftheoldoneweregroundtopowder
andstrewedoverthefieldsduringtheTwelveNights,whichwassupposedtopromotethegrowthofthe
crops.InsomevillagesofWestphalia,thepracticewastowithdrawtheYulelog(Christbrand)fromthe
firesosoonasitwasslightlycharreditwasthenkeptcarefullytobereplacedonthefirewhenevera
thunderstormbroke,becausethepeoplebelievedthatlightningwouldnotstrikeahouseinwhichthe
Yulelogwassmouldering.InothervillagesofWestphaliatheoldcustomwastotieuptheYulelogin
thelastsheafcutatharvest.
InseveralprovincesofFrance,andparticularlyinProvence,thecustomoftheYulelogortrfoir,asit
wascalledinmanyplaces,waslongobserved.AFrenchwriteroftheseventeenthcenturydenouncesas
superstitiousthebeliefthatalogcalledthetrfoirorChristmasbrand,whichyouputonthefireforthe
firsttimeonChristmasEveandcontinuetoputonthefireforalittlewhileeverydaytillTwelfthNight,
can,ifkeptunderthebed,protectthehouseforawholeyearfromfireandthunderthatitcanpreventthe
inmatesfromhavingchilblainsontheirheelsinwinterthatitcancurethecattleofmanymaladiesthat
ifapieceofitbesteepedinthewaterwhichcowsdrinkithelpsthemtocalveandlastlythatiftheashes
ofthelogbestrewnonthefieldsitcansavethewheatfrommildew.
InsomepartsofFlandersandFrancetheremainsoftheYulelogwereregularlykeptinthehouseunder
abedasaprotectionagainstthunderandlightninginBerry,whenthunderwasheard,amemberofthe
familyusedtotakeapieceofthelogandthrowitonthefire,whichwasbelievedtoavertthelightning.
Again,inPerigord,thecharcoalandashesarecarefullycollectedandkeptforhealingswollenglandsthe
partofthetrunkwhichhasnotbeenburntinthefireisusedbyploughmentomakethewedgefortheir
plough,becausetheyallegethatitcausestheseedstothrivebetterandthewomenkeeppiecesofittill
TwelfthNightforthesakeoftheirchickens.Somepeopleimaginethattheywillhaveasmanychickens
astherearesparksthatflyoutofthebrandsofthelogwhentheyshakethemandothersplacetheextinct
brandsunderthebedtodriveawayvermin.InvariouspartsofFrancethecharredlogisthoughttoguard
thehouseagainstsorceryaswellasagainstlightning.
InEnglandthecustomsandbeliefsconcerningtheYulelogusedtobesimilar.OnthenightofChristmas
Eve,saystheantiquaryJohnBrand,ourancestorswerewonttolightupcandlesofanuncommonsize,
calledChristmasCandles,andlayalogofwooduponthefire,calledaYuleclogorChristmasblock,to
illuminatethehouse,and,asitwere,toturnnightintoday.TheoldcustomwastolighttheYulelog
withafragmentofitspredecessor,whichhadbeenkeptthroughouttheyearforthepurposewhereitwas
sokept,thefiendcoulddonomischief.Theremainsofthelogwerealsosupposedtoguardthehouse
againstfireandlightning.
TothisdaytheritualofbringingintheYulelogisobservedwithmuchsolemnityamongtheSouthern
Slavs,especiallytheSerbians.Thelogisusuallyablockofoak,butsometimesofoliveorbeech.They

seemtothinkthattheywillhaveasmanycalves,lambs,pigs,andkidsastheystrikesparksoutofthe
burninglog.Somepeoplecarryapieceofthelogouttothefieldstoprotectthemagainsthail.InAlbania
downtorecentyearsitwasacommoncustomtoburnaYulelogatChristmas,andtheashesofthefire
werescatteredonthefieldstomakethemfertile.TheHuzuls,aSlavonicpeopleoftheCarpathians,
kindlefirebythefrictionofwoodonChristmasEve(OldStyle,thefifthofJanuary)andkeepitburning
tillTwelfthNight.
ItisremarkablehowcommonthebeliefappearstohavebeenthattheremainsoftheYulelog,ifkept
throughouttheyear,hadpowertoprotectthehouseagainstfireandespeciallyagainstlightning.Asthe
Yulelogwasfrequentlyofoak,itseemspossiblethatthisbeliefmaybearelicoftheoldAryancreed
whichassociatedtheoaktreewiththegodofthunder.Whetherthecurativeandfertilisingvirtues
ascribedtotheashesoftheYulelog,whicharesupposedtohealcattleaswellasmen,toenablecowsto
calve,andtopromotethefruitfulnessoftheearth,maynotbederivedfromthesameancientsource,isa
questionwhichdeservestobeconsidered.
8.TheNeedfire
THEFIREFESTIVALShithertodescribedareallcelebratedperiodicallyatcertainstatedtimesofthe
year.ButbesidestheseregularlyrecurringcelebrationsthepeasantsinmanypartsofEuropehavebeen
wontfromtimeimmemorialtoresorttoaritualoffireatirregularintervalsinseasonsofdistressand
calamity,aboveallwhentheircattlewereattackedbyepidemicdisease.Noaccountofthepopular
Europeanfirefestivalswouldbecompletewithoutsomenoticeoftheseremarkablerites,whichhaveall
thegreaterclaimonourattentionbecausetheymayperhapsberegardedasthesourceandoriginofall
theotherfirefestivalscertainlytheymustdatefromaveryremoteantiquity.Thegeneralnamebywhich
theyareknownamongtheTeutonicpeoplesisneedfire.Sometimestheneedfirewasknownaswild
fire,todistinguishitnodoubtfromthetamefireproducedbymoreordinarymethods.AmongSlavonic
peoplesitiscalledlivingfire.
ThehistoryofthecustomcanbetracedfromtheearlyMiddleAges,whenitwasdenouncedbythe
Churchasaheathensuperstition,downtothefirsthalfofthenineteenthcentury,whenitwasstill
occasionallypractisedinvariouspartsofGermany,England,Scotland,andIreland.AmongSlavonic
peoplesitappearstohavelingeredevenlonger.Theusualoccasionforperformingtheritewasan
outbreakofplagueorcattledisease,forwhichtheneedfirewasbelievedtobeaninfallibleremedy.The
animalswhichweresubjectedtoitincludedcows,pigs,horses,andsometimesgeese.Asanecessary
preliminarytothekindlingoftheneedfireallotherfiresandlightsintheneighbourhoodwere
extinguished,sothatnotsomuchasasparkremainedalightforsolongasevenanightlightburnedina
house,itwasimaginedthattheneedfirecouldnotkindle.Sometimesitwasdeemedenoughtoputout
allthefiresinthevillagebutsometimestheextinctionextendedtoneighbouringvillagesortoawhole
parish.InsomepartsoftheHighlandsofScotlandtherulewasthatallhouseholderswhodweltwithin
thetwonearestrunningstreamsshouldputouttheirlightsandfiresonthedayappointed.Usuallythe
needfirewasmadeintheopenair,butinsomepartsofSerbiaitwaskindledinadarkroomsometimes
theplacewasacrosswayorahollowinaroad.IntheHighlandsofScotlandtheproperplacesfor
performingtheriteseemtohavebeenknollsorsmallislandsinrivers.
Theregularmethodofproducingtheneedfirewasbythefrictionoftwopiecesofwooditmightnotbe
struckbyflintandsteel.VeryexceptionallyamongsomeSouthSlavswereadofapracticeofkindlinga
needfirebystrikingapieceofirononananvil.Wherethewoodtobeemployedisspecified,itis
generallysaidtobeoakbutontheLowerRhinethefirewaskindledbythefrictionofoakwoodorfir
wood.InSlavoniccountrieswehearofpoplar,pear,andcornelwoodbeingusedforthepurpose.Often
thematerialissimplydescribedastwopiecesofdrywood.Sometimesninedifferentkindsofwoodwere

deemednecessary,butratherperhapstobeburnedinthebonfirethantoberubbedtogetherforthe
productionoftheneedfire.Theparticularmodeofkindlingtheneedfirevariedindifferentdistrictsa
verycommononewasthis.Twopolesweredrivenintothegroundaboutafootandahalffromeach
other.Eachpolehadinthesidefacingtheotherasocketintowhichasmoothcrosspieceorrollerwas
fitted.Thesocketswerestuffedwithlinen,andthetwoendsoftherollerwererammedtightlyintothe
sockets.Tomakeitmoreinflammabletherollerwasoftencoatedwithtar.Aropewasthenwoundround
theroller,andthefreeendsatbothsidesweregrippedbytwoormorepersons,whobypullingtherope
toandfrocausedtherollertorevolverapidly,tillthroughthefrictionthelineninthesocketstookfire.
Thesparkswereimmediatelycaughtintoworoakumandwavedaboutinacircleuntiltheyburstintoa
brightglow,whenstrawwasappliedtoit,andtheblazingstrawusedtokindlethefuelthathadbeen
stackedtomakethebonfire.Oftenawheel,sometimesacartwheelorevenaspinningwheel,formed
partofthemechanisminAberdeenshireitwascalledthemucklewheelintheislandofMullthe
wheelwasturnedfromeasttowestoverninespindlesofoakwood.Sometimeswearemerelytoldthat
twowoodenplankswererubbedtogether.Sometimesitwasprescribedthatthecartwheelusedforfire
makingandtheaxleonwhichitturnedshouldbothbenew.Similarlyitwassaidthattheropewhich
turnedtherollershouldbenewifpossibleitshouldbewovenofstrandstakenfromagallowsropewith
whichpeoplehadbeenhanged,butthiswasacounselofperfectionratherthanastrictnecessity.
Variousruleswerealsolaiddownastothekindofpersonswhomightorshouldmaketheneedfire.
Sometimesitwassaidthatthetwopersonswhopulledtheropewhichtwirledtherollershouldalwaysbe
brothersoratleastbearthesamebaptismalnamesometimesitwasdeemedsufficientiftheywereboth
chasteyoungmen.InsomevillagesofBrunswickpeoplethoughtthatifeverybodywholentahandin
kindlingtheneedfiredidnotbearthesameChristianname,theywouldlabourinvain.InSilesiathetree
employedtoproducetheneedfireusedtobefelledbyapairoftwinbrothers.Inthewesternislandsof
Scotlandthefirewaskindledbyeightyonemarriedmen,whorubbedtwogreatplanksagainsteach
other,workinginrelaysofnineinNorthUisttheninetimesninewhomadethefirewereallfirst
begottensons,butwearenottoldwhethertheyweremarriedorsingle.AmongtheSerbianstheneedfire
issometimeskindledbyaboyandgirlbetweenelevenandfourteenyearsofage,whoworkstarknaked
inadarkroomsometimesitismadebyanoldmanandanoldwomanalsointhedark.InBulgaria,too,
themakersofneedfirestripthemselvesoftheirclothesinCaithnesstheydivestedthemselvesofall
kindsofmetal.Ifafterlongrubbingofthewoodnofirewaselicitedtheyconcludedthatsomefiremust
stillbeburninginthevillagesoastrictsearchwasmadefromhousetohouse,anyfirethatmightbe
foundwasputout,andthenegligenthouseholderpunishedorupbraidedindeedaheavyfinemightbe
inflictedonhim.
Whentheneedfirewasatlastkindled,thebonfirewaslitfromit,andassoonastheblazehadsomewhat
dieddown,thesickanimalsweredrivenovertheglowingembers,sometimesinaregularorderof
precedence,firstthepigs,nextthecows,andlastofallthehorses.Sometimestheyweredriventwiceor
thricethroughthesmokeandflames,sothatoccasionallysomeofthemwerescorchedtodeath.Assoon
asallthebeastswerethrough,theyoungfolkwouldrushwildlyattheashesandcinders,sprinklingand
blackeningeachotherwiththemthosewhoweremostblackenedwouldmarchintriumphbehindthe
cattleintothevillageandwouldnotwashthemselvesforalongtime.Fromthebonfirepeoplecarried
liveembershomeandusedthemtorekindlethefiresintheirhouses.Thesebrands,afterbeing
extinguishedinwater,theysometimesputinthemanagersatwhichthecattlefed,andkeptthemthere
forawhile.Ashesfromtheneedfirewerealsostrewedonthefieldstoprotectthecropsagainstvermin
sometimestheyweretakenhometobeemployedasremediesinsickness,beingsprinkledontheailing
partormixedinwateranddrunkbythepatient.InthewesternislandsofScotlandandontheadjoining
mainland,assoonasthefireonthedomestichearthhadbeenrekindledfromtheneedfireapotfullof
waterwassetonit,andthewaterthusheatedwasafterwardssprinkleduponthepeopleinfectedwiththe
plagueoruponthecattlethatweretaintedbythemurrain.Specialvirtuewasattributedtothesmokeof
thebonfireinSwedenfruittreesandnetswerefumigatedwithit,inorderthatthetreesmightbearfruit

andthenetscatchfish.IntheHighlandsofScotlandtheneedfirewasaccountedasovereignremedyfor
witchcraft.IntheislandofMull,whenthefirewaskindledasacureforthemurrain,wehearoftherite
beingaccompaniedbythesacrificeofasickheifer,whichwascutinpiecesandburnt.Slavonianand
Bulgarianpeasantsconceivecattleplagueasafoulfiendorvampyrewhichcanbekeptatbayby
interposingabarrieroffirebetweenitandtheherds.Asimilarconceptionmayperhapshaveoriginally
everywhereunderlaintheuseoftheneedfireasaremedyforthemurrain.Itappearsthatinsomeparts
ofGermanythepeopledidnotwaitforanoutbreakofcattleplague,but,takingtimebytheforelock,
kindledaneedfireannuallytopreventthecalamity.SimilarlyinPolandthepeasantsaresaidtokindle
firesinthevillagestreetseveryyearonSt.Rochussdayandtodrivethecattlethricethroughthemin
ordertoprotectthebeastsagainstthemurrain.WehaveseenthatintheHebridesthecattlewereinlike
mannerdrivenannuallyroundtheBeltanefiresforthesamepurpose.InsomecantonsofSwitzerland
childrenstillkindleaneedfirebythefrictionofwoodforthesakeofdispellingamist.

LXIII.TheInterpretationoftheFireFestivals
1.OntheFirefestivalsingeneral
THEFOREGOINGsurveyofthepopularfirefestivalsofEuropesuggestssomegeneralobservations.In
thefirstplacewecanhardlyhelpbeingstruckbytheresemblancewhichtheceremoniesbeartoeach
other,atwhatevertimeoftheyearandinwhateverpartofEuropetheyarecelebrated.Thecustomof
kindlinggreatbonfires,leapingoverthem,anddrivingcattlethroughorroundthemwouldseemtohave
beenpracticallyuniversalthroughoutEurope,andthesamemaybesaidoftheprocessionsorraceswith
blazingtorchesroundfields,orchards,pastures,orcattlestalls.Lesswidespreadarethecustomsof
hurlinglighteddiscsintotheairandtrundlingaburningwheeldownhill.TheceremonialoftheYulelog
isdistinguishedfromthatoftheotherfirefestivalsbytheprivacyanddomesticitywhichcharacteriseit
butthisdistinctionmaywellbeduesimplytotheroughweatherofmidwinter,whichisaptnotonlyto
renderapublicassemblyintheopenairdisagreeable,butalsoatanymomenttodefeattheobjectofthe
assemblybyextinguishingtheallimportantfireunderadownpourofrainorafallofsnow.Apartfrom
theselocalorseasonaldifferences,thegeneralresemblancebetweenthefirefestivalsatalltimesofthe
yearandinallplacesistolerablyclose.Andastheceremoniesthemselvesresembleeachother,sodothe
benefitswhichthepeopleexpecttoreapfromthem.Whetherappliedintheformofbonfiresblazingat
fixedpoints,oroftorchescarriedaboutfromplacetoplace,orofembersandashestakenfromthe
smoulderingheapoffuel,thefireisbelievedtopromotethegrowthofthecropsandthewelfareofman
andbeast,eitherpositivelybystimulatingthem,ornegativelybyavertingthedangersandcalamities
whichthreatenthemfromsuchcausesasthunderandlightning,conflagration,blight,mildew,vermin,
sterility,disease,andnotleastofallwitchcraft.
Butwenaturallyask,Howdiditcomeaboutthatbenefitssogreatandmanifoldweresupposedtobe
attainedbymeanssosimple?Inwhatwaydidpeopleimaginethattheycouldprocuresomanygoodsor
avoidsomanyillsbytheapplicationoffireandsmoke,ofembersandashes?Twodifferentexplanations
ofthefirefestivalshavebeengivenbymodernenquirers.Ontheonehandithasbeenheldthattheyare
suncharmsormagicalceremoniesintended,ontheprincipleofimitativemagic,toensureaneedful
supplyofsunshineformen,animals,andplantsbykindlingfireswhichmimiconearththegreatsource
oflightandheatinthesky.ThiswastheviewofWilhelmMannhardt.Itmaybecalledthesolartheory.
Ontheotherhandithasbeenmaintainedthattheceremonialfireshavenonecessaryreferencetothesun
butaresimplypurificatoryinintention,beingdesignedtoburnupanddestroyallharmfulinfluences,
whethertheseareconceivedinapersonalformaswitches,demons,andmonsters,orinanimpersonal
formasasortofpervadingtaintorcorruptionoftheair.ThisistheviewofDr.EdwardWestermarck
andapparentlyofProfessorEugenMogk.Itmaybecalledthepurificatorytheory.Obviouslythetwo
theoriespostulatetwoverydifferentconceptionsofthefirewhichplaystheprincipalpartintherites.On

theoneview,thefire,likesunshineinourlatitude,isagenialcreativepowerwhichfostersthegrowthof
plantsandthedevelopmentofallthatmakesforhealthandhappinessontheotherview,thefireisa
fiercedestructivepowerwhichblastsandconsumesallthenoxiouselements,whetherspiritualor
material,thatmenacethelifeofmen,ofanimals,andofplants.Accordingtotheonetheorythefireisa
stimulant,accordingtotheotheritisadisinfectantontheoneviewitsvirtueispositive,ontheotheritis
negative.
Yetthetwoexplanations,differentastheyareinthecharacterwhichtheyattributetothefire,are
perhapsnotwhollyirreconcilable.Ifweassumethatthefireskindledatthesefestivalswereprimarily
intendedtoimitatethesunslightandheat,maywenotregardthepurificatoryanddisinfectingqualities,
whichpopularopinioncertainlyappearstohaveascribedtothem,asattributesderiveddirectlyfromthe
purificatoryanddisinfectingqualitiesofsunshine?Inthiswaywemightconcludethat,whilethe
imitationofsunshineintheseceremonieswasprimaryandoriginal,thepurificationattributedtothem
wassecondaryandderivative.Suchaconclusion,occupyinganintermediatepositionbetweenthetwo
opposingtheoriesandrecognisinganelementoftruthinbothofthem,wasadoptedbymeinearlier
editionsofthisworkbutinthemeantimeDr.Westermarckhasarguedpowerfullyinfavourofthe
purificatorytheoryalone,andIamboundtosaythathisargumentscarrygreatweight,andthatona
fullerreviewofthefactsthebalanceofevidenceseemstometoinclinedecidedlyinhisfavour.
However,thecaseisnotsoclearastojustifyusindismissingthesolartheorywithoutdiscussion,and
accordinglyIproposetoadducetheconsiderationswhichtellforitbeforeproceedingtonoticethose
whichtellagainstit.AtheorywhichhadthesupportofsolearnedandsagaciousaninvestigatorasW.
Mannhardtisentitledtoarespectfulhearing.
2.TheSolarTheoryoftheFirefestivals
INANEARLIERpartofthisworkwesawthatsavagesresorttocharmsformakingsunshine,andit
wouldbenowonderifprimitivemaninEuropedidthesame.Indeed,whenweconsiderthecoldand
cloudyclimateofEuropeduringagreatpartoftheyear,weshallfinditnaturalthatsuncharmsshould
haveplayedamuchmoreprominentpartamongthesuperstitiouspracticesofEuropeanpeoplesthan
amongthoseofsavageswholivenearertheequatorandwhoconsequentlyareapttogetinthecourseof
naturemoresunshinethantheywant.Thisviewofthefestivalsmaybesupportedbyvariousarguments
drawnpartlyfromtheirdates,partlyfromthenatureoftherites,andpartlyfromtheinfluencewhichthey
arebelievedtoexertupontheweatherandonvegetation.
First,inregardtothedatesofthefestivalsitcanbenomereaccidentthattwoofthemostimportantand
widelyspreadofthefestivalsaretimedtocoincidemoreorlessexactlywiththesummerandwinter
solstices,thatis,withthetwoturningpointsinthesunsapparentcourseintheskywhenhereaches
respectivelyhishighestandhislowestelevationatnoon.Indeedwithrespecttothemidwinter
celebrationofChristmaswearenotlefttoconjectureweknowfromtheexpresstestimonyofthe
ancientsthatitwasinstitutedbythechurchtosupersedeanoldheathenfestivalofthebirthofthesun,
whichwasapparentlyconceivedtobebornagainontheshortestdayoftheyear,afterwhichhislightand
heatwereseentogrowtilltheyattainedtheirfullmaturityatmidsummer.Thereforeitisnoveryfar
fetchedconjecturetosupposethattheYulelog,whichfiguressoprominentlyinthepopularcelebration
ofChristmas,wasoriginallydesignedtohelpthelabouringsunofmidwintertorekindlehisseemingly
expiringlight.
Notonlythedateofsomeofthefestivalsbutthemanneroftheircelebrationsuggestsaconscious
imitationofthesun.Thecustomofrollingaburningwheeldownahill,whichisoftenobservedatthese
ceremonies,mightwellpassforanimitationofthesunscourseinthesky,andtheimitationwouldbe
especiallyappropriateonMidsummerDaywhenthesunsannualdeclensionbegins.Indeedthecustom

hasbeenthusinterpretedbysomeofthosewhohaverecordedit.Notlessgraphic,itmaybesaid,isthe
mimicryofhisapparentrevolutionbyswingingaburningtarbarrelroundapole.Again,thecommon
practiceofthrowingfierydiscs,sometimesexpresslysaidtobeshapedlikesuns,intotheairatthe
festivalsmaywellbeapieceofimitativemagic.Inthese,asinsomanycases,themagicforcemaybe
supposedtotakeeffectthroughmimicryorsympathy:byimitatingthedesiredresultyouactually
produceit:bycounterfeitingthesunsprogressthroughtheheavensyoureallyhelptheluminaryto
pursuehiscelestialjourneywithpunctualityanddespatch.Thenamefireofheaven,bywhichthe
midsummerfireissometimespopularlyknown,clearlyimpliesaconsciousnessofaconnexionbetween
theearthlyandtheheavenlyflame.
Again,themannerinwhichthefireappearstohavebeenoriginallykindledontheseoccasionshasbeen
allegedinsupportoftheviewthatitwasintendedtobeamocksun.Assomescholarshaveperceived,it
ishighlyprobablethatattheperiodicfestivalsinformertimesfirewasuniversallyobtainedbythe
frictionoftwopiecesofwood.ItisstillsoprocuredinsomeplacesbothattheEasterandthe
Midsummerfestivals,anditisexpresslysaidtohavebeenformerlysoprocuredattheBeltane
celebrationbothinScotlandandWales.Butwhatmakesitnearlycertainthatthiswasoncetheinvariable
modeofkindlingthefireattheseperiodicfestivalsistheanalogyoftheneedfire,whichhasalmost
alwaysbeenproducedbythefrictionofwood,andsometimesbytherevolutionofawheel.Itisa
plausibleconjecturethatthewheelemployedforthispurposerepresentsthesun,andifthefiresatthe
regularlyrecurringcelebrationswereformerlyproducedinthesameway,itmightberegardedasa
confirmationoftheviewthattheywereoriginallysuncharms.Inpointoffactthereis,asKuhnhas
indicated,someevidencetoshowthatthemidsummerfirewasoriginallythusproduced.Wehaveseen
thatmanyHungarianswineherdsmakefireonMidsummerEvebyrotatingawheelroundawooden
axlewraptinhemp,andthattheydrivetheirpigsthroughthefirethusmade.AtObermedlingen,in
Swabia,thefireofheaven,asitwascalled,wasmadeonSt.VitussDay(thefifteenthofJune)by
ignitingacartwheel,which,smearedwithpitchandplaitedwithstraw,wasfastenedonapoletwelve
feethigh,thetopofthepolebeinginsertedinthenaveofthewheel.Thisfirewasmadeonthesummitof
amountain,andastheflameascended,thepeopleutteredasetformofwords,witheyesandarms
directedheavenward.Herethefixingofawheelonapoleandignitingitsuggeststhatoriginallythefire
wasproduced,asinthecaseoftheneedfire,bytherevolutionofawheel.Thedayonwhichthe
ceremonytakesplace(thefifteenthofJune)isnearmidsummerandwehaveseenthatinMasurenfire
is,orusedtobe,actuallymadeonMidsummerDaybyturningawheelrapidlyaboutanoakenpole,
thoughitisnotsaidthatthenewfiresoobtainedisusedtolightabonfire.However,wemustbearin
mindthatinallsuchcasestheuseofawheelmaybemerelyamechanicaldevicetofacilitatethe
operationoffiremakingbyincreasingthefrictionitneednothaveanysymbolicalsignificance.
Further,theinfluencewhichthesefires,whetherperiodicoroccasional,aresupposedtoexertonthe
weatherandvegetationmaybecitedinsupportoftheviewthattheyaresuncharms,sincetheeffects
ascribedtothemresemblethoseofsunshine.Thus,theFrenchbeliefthatinarainyJunethelightingof
themidsummerbonfireswillcausetheraintoceaseappearstoassumethattheycandispersethedark
cloudsandmakethesuntobreakoutinradiantglory,dryingthewetearthanddrippingtrees.Similarly
theuseoftheneedfirebySwisschildrenonfoggydaysforthepurposeofclearingawaythemistmay
verynaturallybeinterpretedasasuncharm.IntheVosgesMountainsthepeoplebelievethatthe
midsummerfireshelptopreservethefruitsoftheearthandensuregoodcrops.InSwedenthewarmthor
coldofthecomingseasonisinferredfromthedirectioninwhichtheflamesoftheMayDaybonfireare
blowniftheyblowtothesouth,itwillbewarm,iftothenorth,cold.Nodoubtatpresentthedirectionof
theflamesisregardedmerelyasanauguryoftheweather,notasamodeofinfluencingit.Butwemay
beprettysurethatthisisoneofthecasesinwhichmagichasdwindledintodivination.SointheEifel
Mountains,whenthesmokeblowstowardsthecornfields,thisisanomenthattheharvestwillbe
abundant.Buttheolderviewmayhavebeennotmerelythatthesmokeandflamesprognosticated,but
thattheyactuallyproducedanabundantharvest,theheatoftheflamesactinglikesunshineonthecorn.

PerhapsitwaswiththisviewthatpeopleintheIsleofManlitfirestowindwardoftheirfieldsinorder
thatthesmokemightblowoverthem.SoinSouthAfrica,aboutthemonthofApril,theMatabeleslight
hugefirestothewindwardoftheirgardens,theirideabeingthatthesmoke,bypassingoverthecrops,
willassisttheripeningofthem.AmongtheZulusalsomedicineisburnedonafireplacedtowindward
ofthegarden,thefumigationwhichtheplantsinconsequencereceivebeingheldtoimprovethecrop.
Again,theideaofourEuropeanpeasantsthatthecornwillgrowwellasfarastheblazeofthebonfireis
visible,maybeinterpretedasaremnantofthebeliefinthequickeningandfertilisingpowerofthe
bonfires.Thesamebelief,itmaybeargued,reappearsinthenotionthatemberstakenfromthebonfires
andinsertedinthefieldswillpromotethegrowthofthecrops,anditmaybethoughttounderliethe
customsofsowingflaxseedinthedirectioninwhichtheflamesblow,ofmixingtheashesofthebonfire
withtheseedcornatsowing,ofscatteringtheashesbythemselvesoverthefieldtofertiliseit,andof
incorporatingapieceoftheYulelogintheploughtomaketheseedsthrive.Theopinionthattheflaxor
hempwillgrowashighastheflamesriseorthepeopleleapoverthembelongsclearlytothesameclass
ofideas.Again,atKonz,onthebanksoftheMoselle,iftheblazingwheelwhichwastrundleddownthe
hillsidereachedtheriverwithoutbeingextinguished,thiswashailedasaproofthatthevintagewouldbe
abundant.Sofirmlywasthisbeliefheldthatthesuccessfulperformanceoftheceremonyentitledthe
villagerstolevyataxupontheownersoftheneighbouringvineyards.Heretheunextinguishedwheel
mightbetakentorepresentanuncloudedsun,whichinturnwouldportendanabundantvintage.Sothe
waggonloadofwhitewinewhichthevillagersreceivedfromthevineyardsroundaboutmightpassfora
paymentforthesunshinewhichtheyhadprocuredforthegrapes.SimilarlyintheValeofGlamorgana
blazingwheelusedtobetrundleddownhillonMidsummerDay,andifthefirewereextinguishedbefore
thewheelreachedthefootofthehill,thepeopleexpectedabadharvestwhereasifthewheelkeptalight
allthewaydownandcontinuedtoblazeforalongtime,thefarmerslookedforwardtoheavycropsthat
summer.Here,again,itisnaturaltosupposethattherusticmindtracedadirectconnexionbetweenthe
fireofthewheelandthefireofthesun,onwhichthecropsaredependent.
Butinpopularbeliefthequickeningandfertilisinginfluenceofthebonfiresisnotlimitedtothe
vegetableworlditextendsalsotoanimals.ThisplainlyappearsfromtheIrishcustomofdrivingbarren
cattlethroughthemidsummerfires,fromtheFrenchbeliefthattheYulelogsteepedinwaterhelpscows
tocalve,fromtheFrenchandSerbiannotionthattherewillbeasmanychickens,calves,lambs,andkids
astherearesparksstruckoutoftheYulelog,fromtheFrenchcustomofputtingtheashesofthebonfires
inthefowlsneststomakethehenslayeggs,andfromtheGermanpracticeofmixingtheashesofthe
bonfireswiththedrinkofcattleinordertomaketheanimalsthrive.Further,thereareclearindications
thatevenhumanfecundityissupposedtobepromotedbythegenialheatofthefires.InMoroccothe
peoplethinkthatchildlesscouplescanobtainoffspringbyleapingoverthemidsummerbonfire.Itisan
Irishbeliefthatagirlwhojumpsthriceoverthemidsummerbonfirewillsoonmarryandbecomethe
motherofmanychildreninFlanderswomenleapoverthemidsummerfirestoensureaneasydelivery
invariouspartsofFrancetheythinkthatifagirldancesroundninefiresshewillbesuretomarrywithin
theyear,andinBohemiatheyfancythatshewilldosoifshemerelyseesnineofthebonfires.Onthe
otherhand,inLechrainpeoplesaythatifayoungmanandwoman,leapingoverthemidsummerfire
together,escapeunsmirched,theyoungwomanwillnotbecomeamotherwithintwelvemonthsthe
flameshavenottouchedandfertilisedher.InpartsofSwitzerlandandFrancethelightingoftheYulelog
isaccompaniedbyaprayerthatthewomenmaybearchildren,theshegoatsbringforthkids,andthe
ewesdroplambs.Theruleobservedinsomeplacesthatthebonfiresshouldbekindledbythepersonwho
waslastmarriedseemstobelongtothesameclassofideas,whetheritbethatsuchapersonissupposed
toreceivefrom,ortoimpartto,thefireagenerativeandfertilisinginfluence.Thecommonpracticeof
loversleapingoverthefireshandinhandmayverywellhaveoriginatedinanotionthattherebytheir
marriagewouldbeblessedwithoffspringandthelikemotivewouldexplainthecustomwhichobliges
couplesmarriedwithintheyeartodancetothelightoftorches.Andthescenesofprofligacywhich
appeartohavemarkedthemidsummercelebrationamongtheEsthonians,astheyoncemarkedthe
celebrationofMayDayamongourselves,mayhavesprung,notfromthemerelicenceofholiday

makers,butfromacrudenotionthatsuchorgieswerejustified,ifnotrequired,bysomemysteriousbond
whichlinkedthelifeofmantothecoursesoftheheavensatthisturningpointoftheyear.
Atthefestivalswhichweareconsideringthecustomofkindlingbonfiresiscommonlyassociatedwitha
customofcarryinglightedtorchesaboutthefields,theorchards,thepastures,theflocksandtheherds
andwecanhardlydoubtthatthetwocustomsareonlytwodifferentwaysofattainingthesameobject,
namely,thebenefitswhicharebelievedtoflowfromthefire,whetheritbestationaryorportable.
Accordinglyifweacceptthesolartheoryofthebonfires,weseemboundtoapplyitalsotothetorches
wemustsupposethatthepracticeofmarchingorrunningwithblazingtorchesaboutthecountryis
simplyameansofdiffusingfarandwidethegenialinfluenceofthesunshineofwhichtheseflickering
flamesareafeebleimitation.Infavourofthisviewitmaybesaidthatsometimesthetorchesarecarried
aboutthefieldsfortheexpresspurposeoffertilisingthem,andwiththesameintentionlivecoalsfrom
thebonfiresaresometimesplacedinthefieldstopreventblight.OntheeveofTwelfthDayinNormandy
men,women,andchildrenrunwildlythroughthefieldsandorchardswithlightedtorches,whichthey
waveaboutthebranchesanddashagainstthetrunksofthefruittreesforthesakeofburningthemoss
anddrivingawaythemolesandfieldmice.Theybelievethattheceremonyfulfillsthedoubleobjectof
exorcisingtheverminwhosemultiplicationwouldbearealcalamity,andofimpartingfecunditytothe
trees,thefields,andeventhecattleandtheyimaginethatthemoretheceremonyisprolonged,the
greaterwillbethecropoffruitnextautumn.InBohemiatheysaythatthecornwillgrowashighasthey
flingtheblazingbesomsintotheair.NoraresuchnotionsconfinedtoEurope.InCorea,afewdays
beforetheNewYearfestival,theeunuchsofthepalaceswingburningtorches,chantinginvocationsthe
while,andthisissupposedtoensurebountifulcropsforthenextseason.Thecustomoftrundlinga
burningwheeloverthefields,whichusedtobeobservedinPoitoufortheexpresspurposeoffertilising
them,maybethoughttoembodythesameideainastillmoregraphicformsinceinthiswaythemock
sunitself,notmerelyitslightandheatrepresentedbytorches,ismadeactuallytopassovertheground
whichistoreceiveitsquickeningandkindlyinfluence.Oncemore,thecustomofcarryinglightedbrands
roundcattleisplainlyequivalenttodrivingtheanimalsthroughthebonfireandifthebonfireisa
suncharm,thetorchesmustbesoalso.
3.ThePurificatoryTheoryoftheFirefestivals
THUSfarwehaveconsideredwhatmaybesaidforthetheorythatattheEuropeanfirefestivalsthefire
iskindledasacharmtoensureanabundantsupplyofsunshineformanandbeast,forcornandfruits.It
remainstoconsiderwhatmaybesaidagainstthistheoryandinfavouroftheviewthatintheseritesfire
isemployednotasacreativebutasacleansingagent,whichpurifiesmen,animals,andplantsby
burningupandconsumingthenoxiouselements,whethermaterialorspiritual,whichmenaceallliving
thingswithdiseaseanddeath.
First,then,itistobeobservedthatthepeoplewhopractisethefirecustomsappearnevertoallegethe
solartheoryinexplanationofthem,whileonthecontrarytheydofrequentlyandemphaticallyput
forwardthepurificatorytheory.Thisisastrongargumentinfavourofthepurificatoryandagainstthe
solartheoryforthepopularexplanationofapopularcustomisnevertoberejectedexceptforgrave
cause.Andinthepresentcasethereseemstobenoadequatereasonforrejectingit.Theconceptionof
fireasadestructiveagent,whichcanbeturnedtoaccountfortheconsumptionofevilthings,issosimple
andobviousthatitcouldhardlyescapethemindsevenoftherudepeasantrywithwhomthesefestivals
originated.Ontheotherhandtheconceptionoffireasanemanationofthesun,oratalleventsaslinked
toitbyabondofphysicalsympathy,isfarlesssimpleandobviousandthoughtheuseoffireasacharm
toproducesunshineappearstobeundeniable,neverthelessinattemptingtoexplainpopularcustomswe
shouldneverhaverecoursetoamorereconditeideawhenasimpleroneliestohandandissupportedby
theexplicittestimonyofthepeoplethemselves.Nowinthecaseofthefirefestivalsthedestructive

aspectoffireisoneuponwhichthepeopledwellagainandagainanditishighlysignificantthatthe
greatevilagainstwhichthefireisdirectedappearstobewitchcraft.Againandagainwearetoldthatthe
firesareintendedtoburnorrepelthewitchesandtheintentionissometimesgraphicallyexpressedby
burninganeffigyofawitchinthefire.Hence,whenwerememberthegreatholdwhichthedreadof
witchcrafthashadonthepopularEuropeanmindinallages,wemaysuspectthattheprimaryintention
ofallthesefirefestivalswassimplytodestroyoratalleventsgetridofthewitches,whowereregarded
asthecausesofnearlyallthemisfortunesandcalamitiesthatbefallmen,theircattle,andtheircrops.
Thissuspicionisconfirmedwhenweexaminetheevilsforwhichthebonfiresandtorchesweresupposed
toprovidearemedy.Foremost,perhaps,amongtheseevilswemayreckonthediseasesofcattleandof
alltheillsthatwitchesarebelievedtoworkthereisprobablynonewhichissoconstantlyinsistedonas
theharmtheydototheherds,particularlybystealingthemilkfromthecows.Nowitissignificantthat
theneedfire,whichmayperhapsberegardedastheparentoftheperiodicfirefestivals,iskindledabove
allasaremedyforamurrainorotherdiseaseofcattleandthecircumstancesuggests,whatongeneral
groundsseemsprobable,thatthecustomofkindlingtheneedfiregoesbacktoatimewhentheancestors
oftheEuropeanpeoplessubsistedchieflyontheproductsoftheirherds,andwhenagricultureasyet
playedasubordinatepartintheirlives.Witchesandwolvesarethetwogreatfoesstilldreadedbythe
herdsmaninmanypartsofEuropeandweneednotwonderthatheshouldresorttofireasapowerful
meansofbanningthemboth.AmongSlavonicpeoplesitappearsthatthefoeswhomtheneedfireis
designedtocombatarenotsomuchlivingwitchesasvampyresandotherevilspirits,andtheceremony
aimsratheratrepellingthesebalefulbeingsthanatactuallyconsumingthemintheflames.Butforour
presentpurposethesedistinctionsareimmaterial.TheimportantthingtoobserveisthatamongtheSlavs
theneedfire,whichisprobablytheoriginalofalltheceremonialfiresnowunderconsideration,isnota
suncharm,butclearlyandunmistakablynothingbutameansofprotectingmanandbeastagainstthe
attacksofmaleficentcreatures,whomthepeasantthinkstoburnorscarebytheheatofthefire,justashe
mightburnorscarewildanimals.
Again,thebonfiresareoftensupposedtoprotectthefieldsagainsthailandthehomesteadagainst
thunderandlightning.Butbothhailandthunderstormsarefrequentlythoughttobecausedbywitches
hencethefirewhichbansthewitchesnecessarilyservesatthesametimeasatalismanagainsthail,
thunder,andlightning.Further,brandstakenfromthebonfiresarecommonlykeptinthehousestoguard
themagainstconflagrationandthoughthismayperhapsbedoneontheprincipleofhomoeopathic
magic,onefirebeingthoughttoactasapreventiveofanother,itisalsopossiblethattheintentionmay
betokeepwitchincendiariesatbay.Again,peopleleapoverthebonfiresasapreventiveofcolic,and
lookattheflamessteadilyinordertopreservetheireyesingoodhealthandbothcolicandsoreeyesare
inGermany,andprobablyelsewhere,setdowntothemachinationsofwitches.Oncemore,toleapover
themidsummerfiresortocircumambulatethemisthoughttopreventapersonfromfeelingpainsinhis
backatreapingandinGermanysuchpainsarecalledwitchshotsandascribedtowitchcraft.
Butifthebonfiresandtorchesofthefirefestivalsaretoberegardedprimarilyasweaponsdirected
againstwitchesandwizards,itbecomesprobablethatthesameexplanationappliesnotonlytothe
flamingdiscswhicharehurledintotheair,butalsototheburningwheelswhicharerolleddownhillon
theseoccasionsdiscsandwheels,wemaysuppose,arealikeintendedtoburnthewitcheswhohover
invisibleintheairorhauntunseenthefields,theorchards,andthevineyardsonthehillside.Certainly
witchesareconstantlythoughttoridethroughtheaironbroomsticksorotherequallyconvenient
vehiclesandiftheydoso,howcanyougetatthemsoeffectuallyasbyhurlinglightedmissiles,whether
discs,torches,orbesoms,afterthemastheyflitpastoverheadinthegloom?TheSouthSlavonian
peasantbelievesthatwitchesrideinthedarkhailcloudssoheshootsatthecloudstobringdownthe
hags,whilehecursesthem,saying,Curse,curseHerodias,thymotherisaheathen,damnedofGodand
fetteredthroughtheRedeemersblood.Alsohebringsoutapotofglowingcharcoalonwhichhehas
thrownholyoil,laurelleaves,andwormwoodtomakeasmoke.Thefumesaresupposedtoascendtothe

cloudsandstupefythewitches,sothattheytumbledowntoearth.Andinorderthattheymaynotfall
soft,butmayhurtthemselvesverymuch,theyokelhastilybringsoutachairandtiltsitbottomupsothat
thewitchinfallingmaybreakherlegsonthelegsofthechair.Worsethanthat,hecruellylaysscythes,
billhooks,andotherformidableweaponsedgeupwardssoastocutandmanglethepoorwretcheswhen
theydropplumpuponthemfromtheclouds.
Onthisviewthefertilitysupposedtofollowtheapplicationoffireintheformofbonfires,torches,discs,
rollingwheels,andsoforth,isnotconceivedasresultingdirectlyfromanincreaseofsolarheatwhich
thefirehasmagicallygenerateditismerelyanindirectresultobtainedbyfreeingthereproductive
powersofplantsandanimalsfromthefatalobstructionofwitchcraft.Andwhatistrueofthe
reproductionofplantsandanimalsmayholdgoodalsoofthefertilityofthehumansexes.Thebonfires
aresupposedtopromotemarriageandtoprocureoffspringforchildlesscouples.Thishappyeffectneed
notflowdirectlyfromanyquickeningorfertilisingenergyinthefireitmayfollowindirectlyfromthe
powerofthefiretoremovethoseobstacleswhichthespellsofwitchesandwizardsnotoriouslypresent
totheunionofmanandwife.
Onthewhole,then,thetheoryofthepurificatoryvirtueoftheceremonialfiresappearsmoreprobable
andmoreinaccordancewiththeevidencethantheopposingtheoryoftheirconnexionwiththesun.

LXIV.TheBurningofHumanBeingsintheFires
1.TheBurningofEffigiesintheFires
WEhavestilltoask,Whatisthemeaningofburningeffigiesinthefireatthesefestivals?Afterthe
precedinginvestigationtheanswertothequestionseemsobvious.Asthefiresareoftenallegedtobe
kindledforthepurposeofburningthewitches,andastheeffigyburntinthemissometimescalledthe
Witch,wemightnaturallybedisposedtoconcludethatalltheeffigiesconsumedintheflamesonthese
occasionsrepresentwitchesorwarlocks,andthatthecustomofburningthemismerelyasubstitutefor
burningthewickedmenandwomenthemselves,sinceontheprincipleofhomoeopathicorimitative
magicyoupracticallydestroythewitchherselfindestroyinghereffigy.Onthewholethisexplanationof
theburningofstrawfiguresinhumanshapeatthefestivalsisperhapsthemostprobable.
Yetitmaybethatthisexplanationdoesnotapplytoallthecases,andthatcertainofthemmayadmitand
evenrequireanotherinterpretation.Fortheeffigiessoburned,asIhavealreadyremarked,canhardlybe
separatedfromtheeffigiesofDeathwhichareburnedorotherwisedestroyedinspringandgrounds
havebeenalreadygivenforregardingthesocalledeffigiesofDeathasreallyrepresentativesofthetree
spiritorspiritofvegetation.Aretheothereffigies,whichareburnedinthespringandmidsummer
bonfires,susceptibleofthesameexplanation?Itwouldseemso.Forjustasthefragmentsofthesocalled
Deatharestuckinthefieldstomakethecropsgrow,sothecharredembersofthefigureburnedinthe
springbonfiresaresometimeslaidonthefieldsinthebeliefthattheywillkeepverminfromthecrop.
Again,therulethatthelastmarriedbridemustleapoverthefireinwhichthestrawmanisburnedon
ShroveTuesday,isprobablyintendedtomakeherfruitful.But,aswehaveseen,thepowerofblessing
womenwithoffspringisaspecialattributeoftreespiritsitisthereforeafairpresumptionthatthe
burningeffigyoverwhichthebridemustleapisarepresentativeofthefertilisingtreespiritorspiritof
vegetation.Thischaracteroftheeffigy,asrepresentativeofthespiritofvegetation,isalmost
unmistakablewhenthefigureiscomposedofanunthreshedsheafofcornoriscoveredfromheadtofoot
withflowers.Again,itistobenotedthat,insteadofapuppet,trees,eitherlivingorfelled,aresometimes
burnedbothinthespringandmidsummerbonfires.Now,consideringthefrequencywithwhichthetree
spiritisrepresentedinhumanshape,itishardlyrashtosupposethatwhensometimesatreeand
sometimesaneffigyisburnedinthesefires,theeffigyandthetreeareregardedasequivalenttoeach

other,eachbeingarepresentativeofthetreespirit.This,again,isconfirmedbyobserving,first,that
sometimestheeffigywhichistobeburnediscarriedaboutsimultaneouslywithaMaytree,theformer
beingcarriedbytheboys,thelatterbythegirlsand,second,thattheeffigyissometimestiedtoaliving
treeandburnedwithit.Inthesecases,wecanscarcelydoubt,thetreespiritisrepresented,aswehave
founditrepresentedbefore,induplicate,bothbythetreeandbytheeffigy.Thatthetruecharacterofthe
effigyasarepresentativeofthebeneficentspiritofvegetationshouldsometimesbeforgotten,isnatural.
Thecustomofburningabeneficentgodistooforeigntolatermodesofthoughttoescape
misinterpretation.Naturallyenoughthepeoplewhocontinuedtoburnhisimagecameintimetoidentify
itastheeffigyofpersons,whom,onvariousgrounds,theyregardedwithaversion,suchasJudas
Iscariot,Luther,andawitch.
Thegeneralreasonsforkillingagodorhisrepresentativehavebeenexaminedinaprecedingchapter.
Butwhenthegodhappenstobeadeityofvegetation,therearespecialreasonswhyheshoulddiebyfire.
Forlightandheatarenecessarytovegetablegrowthand,ontheprincipleofsympatheticmagic,by
subjectingthepersonalrepresentativeofvegetationtotheirinfluence,yousecureasupplyofthese
necessariesfortreesandcrops.Inotherwords,byburningthespiritofvegetationinafirewhich
representsthesun,youmakesurethat,foratimeatleast,vegetationshallhaveplentyofsun.Itmaybe
objectedthat,iftheintentionissimplytosecureenoughsunshineforvegetation,thisendwouldbebetter
attained,ontheprinciplesofsympatheticmagic,bymerelypassingtherepresentativeofvegetation
throughthefireinsteadofburninghim.Inpointoffactthisissometimesdone.InRussia,aswehave
seen,thestrawfigureofKupaloisnotburnedinthemidsummerfire,butmerelycarriedbackwardsand
forwardsacrossit.But,forthereasonsalreadygiven,itisnecessarythatthegodshoulddiesonextday
Kupaloisstrippedofherornamentsandthrownintoastream.InthisRussiancustomthepassageofthe
imagethroughthefire,ifitisnotsimplyapurification,maypossiblybeasuncharmthekillingofthe
godisaseparateact,andthemodeofkillinghimbydrowningisprobablyaraincharm.Butusually
peoplehavenotthoughtitnecessarytodrawthisfinedistinctionforthevariousreasonsalready
assigned,itisadvantageous,theythink,toexposethegodofvegetationtoaconsiderabledegreeofheat,
anditisalsoadvantageoustokillhim,andtheycombinetheseadvantagesinaroughandreadywayby
burninghim.
2.TheBurningofMenandAnimalsintheFires
INTHEPOPULARcustomsconnectedwiththefirefestivalsofEuropetherearecertainfeatureswhich
appeartopointtoaformerpracticeofhumansacrifice.Wehaveseenreasonsforbelievingthatin
Europelivingpersonshaveoftenactedasrepresentativesofthetreespiritandcornspiritandhave
suffereddeathassuch.Thereisnoreason,therefore,whytheyshouldnothavebeenburned,ifany
specialadvantageswerelikelytobeattainedbyputtingthemtodeathinthatway.Theconsiderationof
humansufferingisnotonewhichentersintothecalculationsofprimitiveman.Now,inthefirefestivals
whichwearediscussing,thepretenceofburningpeopleissometimescarriedsofarthatitseems
reasonabletoregarditasamitigatedsurvivalofanoldercustomofactuallyburningthem.Thusin
Aachen,aswesaw,themancladinpeasstrawactssocleverlythatthechildrenreallybelieveheisbeing
burned.AtJumigesinNormandythemancladallingreen,whoborethetitleoftheGreenWolf,was
pursuedbyhiscomrades,andwhentheycaughthimtheyfeignedtoflinghimuponthemidsummer
bonfire.SimilarlyattheBeltanefiresinScotlandthepretendedvictimwasseized,andashowmadeof
throwinghimintotheflames,andforsometimeafterwardspeopleaffectedtospeakofhimasdead.
Again,intheHalloweenbonfiresofNortheasternScotlandwemayperhapsdetectasimilarpretencein
thecustomobservedbyaladoflyingdownasclosetothefireaspossibleandallowingtheotherladsto
leapoverhim.ThetitularkingatAix,whoreignedforayearanddancedthefirstdanceroundthe
midsummerbonfire,mayperhapsindaysofoldhavedischargedthelessagreeabledutyofservingas
fuelforthatfirewhichinlatertimesheonlykindled.InthefollowingcustomsMannhardtisprobably

rightinrecognisingtracesofanoldcustomofburningaleafcladrepresentativeofthespiritof
vegetation.AtWolfeck,inAustria,onMidsummerDay,aboycompletelycladingreenfirbranchesgoes
fromhousetohouse,accompaniedbyanoisycrew,collectingwoodforthebonfire.Ashegetsthewood
hesings:
ForesttreesIwant,
Nosourmilkforme,
Butbeerandwine,
Socanthewoodmanbejollyandgay.
InsomepartsofBavaria,also,theboyswhogofromhousetohousecollectingfuelforthemidsummer
bonfireenveloponeoftheirnumberfromheadtofootingreenbranchesoffirs,andleadhimbyarope
throughthewholevillage.AtMoosheim,inWurtemberg,thefestivalofSt.JohnsFireusuallylastedfor
fourteendays,endingonthesecondSundayafterMidsummerDay.Onthislastdaythebonfirewasleft
inchargeofthechildren,whiletheolderpeopleretiredtoawood.Heretheyencasedayoungfellowin
leavesandtwigs,who,thusdisguised,wenttothefire,scatteredit,andtroditout.Allthepeoplepresent
fledatthesightofhim.
Butitseemspossibletogofartherthanthis.Ofhumansacrificesofferedontheseoccasionsthemost
unequivocaltraces,aswehaveseen,arethosewhich,aboutahundredyearsago,stilllingeredatthe
BeltanefiresintheHighlandsofScotland,thatis,amongaCelticpeoplewho,situatedinaremotecorner
ofEuropeandalmostcompletelyisolatedfromforeigninfluence,hadtillthenconservedtheirold
heathenismbetterperhapsthananyotherpeopleintheWestofEurope.Itissignificant,therefore,that
humansacrificesbyfireareknown,onunquestionableevidence,tohavebeensystematicallypractised
bytheCelts.TheearliestdescriptionofthesesacrificeshasbeenbequeathedtousbyJuliusCaesar.As
conquerorofthehithertoindependentCeltsofGaul,Caesarhadampleopportunityofobservingthe
nationalCelticreligionandmanners,whilethesewerestillfreshandcrispfromthenativemintandhad
notyetbeenfusedinthemeltingpotofRomancivilisation.WithhisownnotesCaesarappearstohave
incorporatedtheobservationsofaGreekexplorer,bynamePosidonius,whotravelledinGaulaboutfifty
yearsbeforeCaesarcarriedtheRomanarmstotheEnglishChannel.TheGreekgeographerStraboand
thehistorianDiodorusseemalsotohavederivedtheirdescriptionsoftheCelticsacrificesfromthework
ofPosidonius,butindependentlyofeachother,andofCaesar,foreachofthethreederivativeaccounts
containsomedetailswhicharenottobefoundineitheroftheothers.Bycombiningthem,therefore,we
canrestoretheoriginalaccountofPosidoniuswithsomeprobability,andthusobtainapictureofthe
sacrificesofferedbytheCeltsofGaulatthecloseofthesecondcenturybeforeourera.Thefollowing
seemtohavebeenthemainoutlinesofthecustom.CondemnedcriminalswerereservedbytheCeltsin
ordertobesacrificedtothegodsatagreatfestivalwhichtookplaceonceineveryfiveyears.Themore
therewereofsuchvictims,thegreaterwasbelievedtobethefertilityoftheland.Iftherewerenot
enoughcriminalstofurnishvictims,captivestakeninwarwereimmolatedtosupplythedeficiency.
WhenthetimecamethevictimsweresacrificedbytheDruidsorpriests.Sometheyshotdownwith
arrows,sometheyimpaled,andsometheyburnedaliveinthefollowingmanner.Colossalimagesof
wickerworkorofwoodandgrasswereconstructedthesewerefilledwithlivemen,cattle,andanimals
ofotherkindsfirewasthenappliedtotheimages,andtheywereburnedwiththeirlivingcontents.
Suchwerethegreatfestivalsheldonceeveryfiveyears.Butbesidesthesequinquennialfestivals,
celebratedonsograndascale,andwith,apparently,solargeanexpenditureofhumanlife,itseems
reasonabletosupposethatfestivalsofthesamesort,onlyonalesserscale,wereheldannually,andthat
fromtheseannualfestivalsarelineallydescendedsomeatleastofthefirefestivalswhich,withtheir
tracesofhumansacrifices,arestillcelebratedyearbyyearinmanypartsofEurope.Thegiganticimages
constructedofosiersorcoveredwithgrassinwhichtheDruidsenclosedtheirvictimsremindusofthe
leafyframeworkinwhichthehumanrepresentativeofthetreespiritisstillsooftenencased.Hence,

seeingthatthefertilityofthelandwasapparentlysupposedtodependuponthedueperformanceofthese
sacrifices,MannhardtinterpretedtheCelticvictims,casedinosiersandgrass,asrepresentativesofthe
treespiritorspiritofvegetation.
ThesewickergiantsoftheDruidsseemtohavehadtilllately,ifnotdowntothepresenttime,their
representativesatthespringandmidsummerfestivalsofmodernEurope.AtDouay,downatleasttothe
earlypartofthenineteenthcentury,aprocessiontookplaceannuallyontheSundaynearesttothe
seventhofJuly.Thegreatfeatureoftheprocessionwasacolossalfigure,sometwentyorthirtyfeethigh,
madeofosiers,andcalledthegiant,whichwasmovedthroughthestreetsbymeansofrollersand
ropesworkedbymenwhowereenclosedwithintheeffigy.Thefigurewasarmedasaknightwithlance
andsword,helmetandshield.Behindhimmarchedhiswifeandhisthreechildren,allconstructedof
osiersonthesameprinciple,butonasmallerscale.AtDunkirktheprocessionofthegiantstookplaceon
MidsummerDay,thetwentyfourthofJune.Thefestival,whichwasknownastheFolliesofDunkirk,
attractedmultitudesofspectators.Thegiantwasahugefigureofwickerwork,occasionallyasmuchas
fortyfivefeethigh,dressedinalongbluerobewithgoldstripes,whichreachedtohisfeet,concealing
thedozenormoremenwhomadeitdanceandbobitsheadtothespectators.Thiscolossaleffigywent
bythenameofPapaReuss,andcarriedinitspocketabouncinginfantofBrobdingnagianproportions.
Therearwasbroughtupbythedaughterofthegiant,constructed,likehersire,ofwickerwork,and
little,ifatall,inferiortohiminsize.MosttownsandevenvillagesofBrabantandFlandershave,orused
tohave,similarwickergiantswhichwereannuallyledabouttothedelightofthepopulace,wholoved
thesegrotesquefigures,spokeofthemwithpatrioticenthusiasm,andneverweariedofgazingatthem.At
Antwerpthegiantwassobigthatnogateinthecitywaslargeenoughtolethimgothroughhencehe
couldnotvisithisbrothergiantsinneighbouringtowns,astheotherBelgiangiantsusedtodoonsolemn
occasions.
InEnglandartificialgiantsseemtohavebeenastandingfeatureofthemidsummerfestival.Awriterof
thesixteenthcenturyspeaksofMidsommerpageantsinLondon,wheretomakethepeoplewonder,are
setforthgreatandugliegyantsmarchingasiftheywerealive,andarmedatallpoints,butwithinthey
arestuffedfullofbrownepaperandtow,whichtheshrewdboyes,underpeering,doguilefullydiscover,
andturnetoagreatederision.AtChestertheannualpageantonMidsummerEveincludedtheeffigies
offourgiants,withanimals,hobbyhorses,andotherfigures.AtCoventryitappearsthatthegiantswife
figuredbesidethegiant.AtBurford,inOxfordshire,MidsummerEveusedtobecelebratedwithgreat
jollitybythecarryingofagiantandadragonupanddownthetown.Thelastsurvivorofthese
perambulatingEnglishgiantslingeredatSalisbury,whereanantiquaryfoundhimmoulderingtodecayin
theneglectedhalloftheTailorsCompanyabouttheyear1844.Hisbodilyframeworkwasalathand
hoop,liketheonewhichusedtobewornbyJackintheGreenonMayDay.
Inthesecasesthegiantsmerelyfiguredintheprocessions.Butsometimestheywereburnedinthe
summerbonfires.ThusthepeopleoftheRueauxOursinParisusedannuallytomakeagreatwicker
workfigure,dressedasasoldier,whichtheypromenadedupanddownthestreetsforseveraldays,and
solemnlyburnedonthethirdofJuly,thecrowdofspectatorssingingSalveRegina.Apersonagewho
borethetitleofkingpresidedovertheceremonywithalightedtorchinhishand.Theburningfragments
oftheimagewerescatteredamongthepeople,whoeagerlyscrambledforthem.Thecustomwas
abolishedin1743.InBrie,IsledeFrance,awickerworkgiant,eighteenfeethigh,wasannuallyburned
onMidsummerEve.
Again,theDruidicalcustomofburningliveanimals,enclosedinwickerwork,hasitscounterpartatthe
springandmidsummerfestivals.AtLuchoninthePyreneesonMidsummerEveahollowcolumn,
composedofstrongwickerwork,israisedtotheheightofaboutsixtyfeetinthecentreoftheprincipal
suburb,andinterlacedwithgreenfoliageuptotheverytopwhilethemostbeautifulflowersandshrubs
procurableareartisticallyarrangedingroupsbelow,soastoformasortofbackgroundtothescene.The

columnisthenfilledwithcombustiblematerials,readyforignition.Atanappointedhourabout8P.M.
agrandprocession,composedoftheclergy,followedbyyoungmenandmaidensinholidayattire,
pourforthfromthetownchantinghymns,andtakeuptheirpositionaroundthecolumn.Meanwhile,
bonfiresarelit,withbeautifuleffect,inthesurroundinghills.Asmanylivingserpentsascouldbe
collectedarenowthrownintothecolumn,whichissetonfireatthebasebymeansoftorches,armed
withwhichaboutfiftyboysandmendancearoundwithfranticgestures.Theserpents,toavoidthe
flames,wriggletheirwaytothetop,whencetheyareseenlashingoutlaterallyuntilfinallyobligedto
drop,theirstrugglesforlifegivingrisetoenthusiasticdelightamongthesurroundingspectators.Thisisa
favouriteannualceremonyfortheinhabitantsofLuchonanditsneighbourhood,andlocaltradition
assignsittoaheathenorigin.InthemidsummerfiresformerlykindledonthePlacedeGrveatParisit
wasthecustomtoburnabasket,barrel,orsackfulloflivecats,whichwashungfromatallmastinthe
midstofthebonfiresometimesafoxwasburned.Thepeoplecollectedtheembersandashesofthefire
andtookthemhome,believingthattheybroughtgoodluck.TheFrenchkingsoftenwitnessedthese
spectaclesandevenlitthebonfirewiththeirownhands.In1648LouistheFourteenth,crownedwitha
wreathofrosesandcarryingabunchofrosesinhishand,kindledthefire,dancedatitandpartookofthe
banquetafterwardsinthetownhall.Butthiswasthelastoccasionwhenamonarchpresidedatthe
midsummerbonfireinParis.AtMetzmidsummerfireswerelightedwithgreatpompontheesplanade,
andadozencats,enclosedinwickercages,wereburnedaliveinthem,totheamusementofthepeople.
SimilarlyatGap,inthedepartmentoftheHighAlps,catsusedtoberoastedoverthemidsummer
bonfire.InRussiaawhitecockwassometimesburnedinthemidsummerbonfireinMeissenor
Thuringiaahorsesheadusedtobethrownintoit.Sometimesanimalsareburnedinthespringbonfires.
IntheVosgescatswereburnedonShroveTuesdayinAlsacetheywerethrownintotheEasterbonfire.
InthedepartmentoftheArdennescatswereflungintothebonfireskindledonthefirstSundayinLent
sometimes,byarefinementofcruelty,theywerehungoverthefirefromtheendofapoleandroasted
alive.Thecat,whichrepresentedthedevil,couldneversufferenough.Whilethecreatureswere
perishingintheflames,theshepherdsguardedtheirflocksandforcedthemtoleapoverthefire,
esteemingthisaninfalliblemeansofpreservingthemfromdiseaseandwitchcraft.Wehaveseenthat
squirrelsweresometimesburnedintheEasterfire.
ThusitappearsthatthesacrificialritesoftheCeltsofancientGaulcanbetracedinthepopularfestivals
ofmodernEurope.NaturallyitisinFrance,orratherinthewiderareacomprisedwithinthelimitsof
ancientGaul,thattheseriteshavelefttheclearesttracesinthecustomsofburninggiantsofwickerwork
andanimalsenclosedinwickerworkorbaskets.Thesecustoms,itwillhavebeenremarked,are
generallyobservedatoraboutmidsummer.Fromthiswemayinferthattheoriginalritesofwhichthese
arethedegeneratesuccessorsweresolemnisedatmidsummer.Thisinferenceharmoniseswiththe
conclusionsuggestedbyageneralsurveyofEuropeanfolkcustom,thatthemidsummerfestivalmuston
thewholehavebeenthemostwidelydiffusedandthemostsolemnofalltheyearlyfestivalscelebrated
bytheprimitiveAryansinEurope.AtthesametimewemustbearinmindthatamongtheBritishCelts
thechieffirefestivalsoftheyearappearcertainlytohavebeenthoseofBeltane(MayDay)and
Halloween(thelastdayofOctober)andthissuggestsadoubtwhethertheCeltsofGaulalsomaynot
havecelebratedtheirprincipalritesoffire,includingtheirburntsacrificesofmenandanimals,atthe
beginningofMayorthebeginningofNovemberratherthanatMidsummer.
Wehavestilltoask,Whatisthemeaningofsuchsacrifices?Whyweremenandanimalsburnttodeath
atthesefestivals?IfwearerightininterpretingthemodernEuropeanfirefestivalsasattemptstobreak
thepowerofwitchcraftbyburningorbanningthewitchesandwarlocks,itseemstofollowthatwemust
explainthehumansacrificesoftheCeltsinthesamemannerthatis,wemustsupposethatthemen
whomtheDruidsburntinwickerworkimageswerecondemnedtodeathonthegroundthattheywere
witchesorwizards,andthatthemodeofexecutionbyfirewaschosenbecauseburningaliveisdeemed
thesurestmodeofgettingridofthesenoxiousanddangerousbeings.Thesameexplanationwouldapply
tothecattleandwildanimalsofmanykindswhichtheCeltsburnedalongwiththemen.They,too,we

mayconjecture,weresupposedtobeeitherunderthespellofwitchcraftoractuallytobethewitchesand
wizards,whohadtransformedthemselvesintoanimalsforthepurposeofprosecutingtheirinfernalplots
againstthewelfareoftheirfellowcreatures.Thisconjectureisconfirmedbytheobservationthatthe
victimsmostcommonlyburnedinmodernbonfireshavebeencats,andthatcatsarepreciselytheanimals
intowhich,withthepossibleexceptionofhares,witchesweremostusuallysupposedtotransform
themselves.Again,wehaveseenthatserpentsandfoxesusedsometimestobeburntinthemidsummer
firesandWelshandGermanwitchesarereportedtohaveassumedtheformbothoffoxesandserpents.
Inshort,whenwerememberthegreatvarietyofanimalswhoseformswitchescanassumeatpleasure,it
seemseasyonthishypothesistoaccountforthevarietyoflivingcreaturesthathavebeenburntat
festivalsbothinancientGaulandmodernEuropeallthesevictims,wemaysurmise,weredoomedtothe
flames,notbecausetheywereanimals,butbecausetheywerebelievedtobewitcheswhohadtakenthe
shapeofanimalsfortheirnefariouspurposes.OneadvantageofexplainingtheancientCelticsacrifices
inthiswayisthatitintroduces,asitwere,aharmonyandconsistencyintothetreatmentwhichEurope
hasmetedouttowitchesfromtheearliesttimesdowntoabouttwocenturiesago,whenthegrowing
influenceofrationalismdiscreditedthebeliefinwitchcraftandputastoptothecustomofburning
witches.Bethatasitmay,wecannowperhapsunderstandwhytheDruidsbelievedthatthemore
personstheysentencedtodeath,thegreaterwouldbethefertilityoftheland.Toamodernreaderthe
connexionatfirstsightmaynotbeobviousbetweentheactivityofthehangmanandtheproductivityof
theearth.Butalittlereflectionmaysatisfyhimthatwhenthecriminalswhoperishatthestakeoronthe
gallowsarewitches,whosedelightitistoblightthecropsofthefarmerortolaythemlowunderstorms
ofhail,theexecutionofthesewretchesisreallycalculatedtoensureanabundantharvestbyremoving
oneoftheprincipalcauseswhichparalysetheeffortsandblastthehopesofthehusbandman.
TheDruidicalsacrificeswhichweareconsideringwereexplainedinadifferentwaybyW.Mannhardt.
HesupposedthatthemenwhomtheDruidsburnedinwickerworkimagesrepresentedthespiritsof
vegetation,andaccordinglythatthecustomofburningthemwasamagicalceremonyintendedtosecure
thenecessarysunshineforthecrops.Similarly,heseemstohaveinclinedtotheviewthattheanimals
whichusedtobeburntinthebonfiresrepresentedthecornspirit,which,aswesawinanearlierpartof
thiswork,isoftensupposedtoassumetheshapeofananimal.Thistheoryisnodoubttenable,andthe
greatauthorityofW.Mannhardtentitlesittocarefulconsideration.Iadopteditinformereditionsofthis
bookbutonreconsiderationitseemstomeonthewholetobelessprobablethanthetheorythatthemen
andanimalsburntinthefiresperishedinthecharacterofwitches.Thislatterviewisstronglysupported
bythetestimonyofthepeoplewhocelebratethefirefestivals,sinceapopularnameforthecustomof
kindlingthefiresisburningthewitches,effigiesofwitchesaresometimesconsumedintheflames,
andthefires,theirembers,ortheirashesaresupposedtofurnishprotectionagainstwitchcraft.Onthe
otherhandthereislittletoshowthattheeffigiesortheanimalsburntinthefiresareregardedbythe
peopleasrepresentativesofthevegetationspirit,andthatthebonfiresaresuncharms.Withregardto
serpentsinparticular,whichusedtobeburntinthemidsummerfireatLuchon,Iamnotawareofany
certainevidencethatinEuropesnakeshavebeenregardedasembodimentsofthetreespiritorcorn
spirit,thoughinotherpartsoftheworldtheconceptionappearstobenotunknown.Whereasthepopular
faithinthetransformationofwitchesintoanimalsissogeneralanddeeplyrooted,andthefearofthese
uncannybeingsissostrong,thatitseemssafertosupposethatthecatsandotheranimalswhichwere
burntinthefiresuffereddeathasembodimentsofwitchesthanthattheyperishedasrepresentativesof
vegetationspirits.

LXV.BalderandtheMistletoe
THEREADERmayrememberthattheprecedingaccountofthepopularfirefestivalsofEuropewas
suggestedbythemythoftheNorsegodBalder,whoissaidtohavebeenslainbyabranchofmistletoe
andburntinagreatfire.Wehavenowtoenquirehowfarthecustomswhichhavebeenpassedinreview

helptoshedlightonthemyth.Inthisenquiryitmaybeconvenienttobeginwiththemistletoe,the
instrumentofBaldersdeath.
FromtimeimmemorialthemistletoehasbeentheobjectofsuperstitiousvenerationinEurope.Itwas
worshippedbytheDruids,aswelearnfromafamouspassageofPliny.Afterenumeratingthedifferent
kindsofmistletoe,heproceeds:Intreatingofthissubject,theadmirationinwhichthemistletoeisheld
throughoutGauloughtnottopassunnoticed.TheDruids,forsotheycalltheirwizards,esteemnothing
moresacredthanthemistletoeandthetreeonwhichitgrows,providedonlythatthetreeisanoak.But
apartfromthistheychooseoakwoodsfortheirsacredgrovesandperformnosacredriteswithoutoak
leavessothattheverynameofDruidsmayberegardedasaGreekappellationderivedfromtheir
worshipoftheoak.Fortheybelievethatwhatevergrowsonthesetreesissentfromheaven,andisasign
thatthetreehasbeenchosenbythegodhimself.Themistletoeisveryrarelytobemetwithbutwhenit
isfound,theygatheritwithsolemnceremony.Thistheydoaboveallonthesixthdayofthemoon,from
whencetheydatethebeginningsoftheirmonths,oftheiryears,andoftheirthirtyyearscycle,because
bythesixthdaythemoonhasplentyofvigourandhasnotrunhalfitscourse.Afterduepreparations
havebeenmadeforasacrificeandafeastunderthetree,theyhailitastheuniversalhealerandbringto
thespottwowhitebulls,whosehornshaveneverbeenboundbefore.Apriestcladinawhiterobeclimbs
thetreeandwithagoldensicklecutsthemistletoe,whichiscaughtinawhitecloth.Thentheysacrifice
thevictims,prayingthatGodmaymakehisowngifttoprosperwiththoseuponwhomhehasbestowed
it.Theybelievethatapotionpreparedfrommistletoewillmakebarrenanimalstobringforth,andthat
theplantisaremedyagainstallpoison.
InanotherpassagePlinytellsusthatinmedicinethemistletoewhichgrowsonanoakwasesteemedthe
mostefficacious,andthatitsefficacywasbysomesuperstitiouspeoplesupposedtobeincreasedifthe
plantwasgatheredonthefirstdayofthemoonwithouttheuseofiron,andifwhengathereditwasnot
allowedtotouchtheearthoakmistletoethusobtainedwasdeemedacureforepilepsycarriedaboutby
womenitassistedthemtoconceiveandithealedulcersmosteffectually,ifonlythesufferercheweda
pieceoftheplantandlaidanotherpieceonthesore.Yet,again,hesaysthatmistletoewassupposed,like
vinegarandanegg,tobeanexcellentmeansofextinguishingafire.
IfintheselatterpassagesPlinyrefers,asheapparentlydoes,tothebeliefscurrentamonghis
contemporariesinItaly,itwillfollowthattheDruidsandtheItaliansweretosomeextentagreedasto
thevaluablepropertiespossessedbymistletoewhichgrowsonanoakbothofthemdeemeditan
effectualremedyforanumberofailments,andbothofthemascribedtoitaquickeningvirtue,theDruids
believingthatapotionpreparedfrommistletoewouldfertilisebarrencattle,andtheItaliansholdingthat
apieceofmistletoecarriedaboutbyawomanwouldhelphertoconceiveachild.Further,bothpeoples
thoughtthatiftheplantweretoexertitsmedicinalpropertiesitmustbegatheredinacertainwayandat
acertaintime.Itmightnotbecutwithiron,hencetheDruidscutitwithgoldanditmightnottouchthe
earth,hencetheDruidscaughtitinawhitecloth.Inchoosingthetimeforgatheringtheplant,both
peoplesweredeterminedbyobservationofthemoononlytheydifferedastotheparticulardayofthe
moon,theItalianspreferringthefirst,andtheDruidsthesixth.
WiththesebeliefsoftheancientGaulsandItaliansastothewonderfulmedicinalpropertiesofmistletoe
wemaycomparethesimilarbeliefsofthemodernAinoofJapan.Wereadthatthey,likemanynations
oftheNorthernorigin,holdthemistletoeinpeculiarveneration.Theylookuponitasamedicine,goodin
almosteverydisease,anditissometimestakeninfoodandatothersseparatelyasadecoction.The
leavesareusedinpreferencetotheberries,thelatterbeingoftoostickyanatureforgeneralpurposes.
Butmany,too,supposethisplanttohavethepowerofmakingthegardensbearplentifully.Whenused
forthispurpose,theleavesarecutupintofinepieces,and,afterhavingbeenprayedover,aresownwith
themilletandotherseeds,alittlealsobeingeatenwiththefood.Barrenwomenhavealsobeenknownto
eatthemistletoe,inordertobemadetobearchildren.Thatmistletoewhichgrowsuponthewillowis

supposedtohavethegreatestefficacy.Thisisbecausethewillowislookeduponbythemasbeingan
especiallysacredtree.
ThustheAinoagreewiththeDruidsinregardingmistletoeasacureforalmosteverydisease,andthey
agreewiththeancientItaliansthatappliedtowomenithelpsthemtobearchildren.Again,theDruidical
notionthatthemistletoewasanallhealerorpanaceamaybecomparedwithanotionentertainedby
theWalosofSenegambia.Thesepeoplehavemuchvenerationforasortofmistletoe,whichtheycall
tobtheycarryleavesofitontheirpersonswhentheygotowarasapreservativeagainstwounds,justas
iftheleaveswererealtalismans(grisgris).TheFrenchwriterwhorecordsthispracticeadds:Isitnot
verycuriousthatthemistletoeshouldbeinthispartofAfricawhatitwasinthesuperstitionsofthe
Gauls?Thisprejudice,commontothetwocountries,mayhavethesameoriginblacksandwhiteswill
doubtlesshaveseen,eachofthemforthemselves,somethingsupernaturalinaplantwhichgrowsand
flourisheswithouthavingrootsintheearth.Maytheynothavebelieved,infact,thatitwasaplantfallen
fromthesky,agiftofthedivinity?
ThissuggestionastotheoriginofthesuperstitionisstronglyconfirmedbytheDruidicalbelief,reported
byPliny,thatwhatevergrewonanoakwassentfromheavenandwasasignthatthetreehadbeen
chosenbythegodhimself.SuchabeliefexplainswhytheDruidscutthemistletoe,notwithacommon
knife,butwithagoldensickle,andwhy,whencut,itwasnotsufferedtotouchtheearthprobablythey
thoughtthatthecelestialplantwouldhavebeenprofanedanditsmarvellousvirtuelostbycontactwith
theground.WiththeritualobservedbytheDruidsincuttingthemistletoewemaycomparetheritual
whichinCambodiaisprescribedinasimilarcase.Theysaythatwhenyouseeanorchidgrowingasa
parasiteonatamarindtree,youshoulddressinwhite,takeanewearthenwarepot,thenclimbthetreeat
noon,breakofftheplant,putitinthepotandletthepotfalltotheground.Afterthatyoumakeinthepot
adecoctionwhichconfersthegiftofinvulnerability.ThusjustasinAfricatheleavesofoneparasitic
plantaresupposedtorenderthewearerinvulnerable,soinCambodiaadecoctionmadefromanother
parasiticplantisconsideredtorenderthesameservicetosuchasmakeuseofit,whetherbydrinkingor
washing.Wemayconjecturethatinbothplacesthenotionofinvulnerabilityissuggestedbytheposition
oftheplant,which,occupyingaplaceofcomparativesecurityabovetheground,appearstopromiseto
itsfortunatepossessorasimilarsecurityfromsomeoftheillsthatbesetthelifeofmanonearth.Wehave
alreadymetwithexamplesofthestorewhichtheprimitivemindsetsonsuchvantagegrounds.
Whatevermaybetheoriginofthesebeliefsandpracticesconcerningthemistletoe,certainitisthatsome
ofthemhavetheiranalogiesinthefolkloreofmodernEuropeanpeasants.Forexample,itislaiddown
asaruleinvariouspartsofEuropethatmistletoemaynotbecutintheordinarywaybutmustbeshotor
knockeddownwithstonesfromthetreeonwhichitisgrowing.Thus,intheSwisscantonofAargauall
parasiticplantsareesteemedinacertainsenseholybythecountryfolk,butmostparticularlysothe
mistletoegrowingonanoak.Theyascribegreatpowerstoit,butshrinkfromcuttingitoffintheusual
manner.Insteadofthattheyprocureitinthefollowingmanner.WhenthesunisinSagittariusandthe
moonisonthewane,onthefirst,third,orfourthdaybeforethenewmoon,oneoughttoshootdown
withanarrowthemistletoeofanoakandtocatchitwiththelefthandasitfalls.Suchmistletoeisa
remedyforeveryailmentofchildren.HereamongtheSwisspeasants,asamongtheDruidsofold,
specialvirtueisascribedtomistletoewhichgrowsonanoak:itmaynotbecutintheusualway:itmust
becaughtasitfallstothegroundanditisesteemedapanaceaforalldiseases,atleastofchildren.In
Sweden,also,itisapopularsuperstitionthatifmistletoeistopossessitspeculiarvirtue,itmusteitherbe
shotdownoutoftheoakorknockeddownwithstones.Similarly,solateastheearlypartofthe
nineteenthcentury,peopleinWalesbelievedthatforthemistletoetohaveanypower,itmustbeshotor
struckdownwithstonesoffthetreewhereitgrew.
Again,inrespectofthehealingvirtuesofmistletoetheopinionofmodernpeasants,andevenofthe
learned,hastosomeextentagreedwiththatoftheancients.TheDruidsappeartohavecalledtheplant,

orperhapstheoakonwhichitgrew,theallhealerandallhealerissaidtobestillanameofthe
mistletoeinthemodernCelticspeechofBrittany,Wales,Ireland,andScotland.OnSt.Johnsmorning
(Midsummermorning)peasantsofPiedmontandLombardygoouttosearchtheoakleavesfortheoil
ofSt.John,whichissupposedtohealallwoundsmadewithcuttinginstruments.Originally,perhaps,
theoilofSt.Johnwassimplythemistletoe,oradecoctionmadefromit.ForinHolsteinthemistletoe,
especiallyoakmistletoe,isstillregardedasapanaceaforgreenwoundsandasasurecharmtosecure
successinhuntingandatLacaune,inthesouthofFrance,theoldDruidicalbeliefinthemistletoeasan
antidotetoallpoisonsstillsurvivesamongthepeasantrytheyapplytheplanttothestomachofthe
suffererorgivehimadecoctionofittodrink.Again,theancientbeliefthatmistletoeisacurefor
epilepsyhassurvivedinmoderntimesnotonlyamongtheignorantbutamongthelearned.Thusin
Swedenpersonsafflictedwiththefallingsicknessthinktheycanwardoffattacksofthemaladyby
carryingaboutwiththemaknifewhichhasahandleofoakmistletoeandinGermanyforasimilar
purposepiecesofmistletoeusedtobehungroundthenecksofchildren.IntheFrenchprovinceof
Bourbonnaisapopularremedyforepilepsyisadecoctionofmistletoewhichhasbeengatheredonan
oakonSt.JohnsDayandboiledwithryeflour.SoatBottesfordinLincolnshireadecoctionofmistletoe
issupposedtobeapalliativeforthisterribledisease.Indeedmistletoewasrecommendedasaremedyfor
thefallingsicknessbyhighmedicalauthoritiesinEnglandandHollanddowntotheeighteenthcentury.
However,theopinionofthemedicalprofessionastothecurativevirtuesofmistletoehasundergonea
radicalalteration.WhereastheDruidsthoughtthatmistletoecuredeverything,moderndoctorsappearto
thinkthatitcuresnothing.Iftheyareright,wemustconcludethattheancientandwidespreadfaithinthe
medicinalvirtueofmistletoeisapuresuperstitionbasedonnothingbetterthanthefancifulinferences
whichignorancehasdrawnfromtheparasiticnatureoftheplant,itspositionhighuponthebranchofa
treeseemingtoprotectitfromthedangerstowhichplantsandanimalsaresubjectonthesurfaceofthe
ground.Fromthispointofviewwecanperhapsunderstandwhymistletoehassolongandsopersistently
beenprescribedasacureforthefallingsickness.Asmistletoecannotfalltothegroundbecauseitis
rootedonthebranchofatreehighabovetheearth,itseemstofollowasanecessaryconsequencethatan
epilepticpatientcannotpossiblyfalldowninafitsolongashecarriesapieceofmistletoeinhispocket
oradecoctionofmistletoeinhisstomach.Suchatrainofreasoningwouldprobablyberegardedeven
nowascogentbyalargeportionofthehumanspecies.
AgaintheancientItalianopinionthatmistletoeextinguishesfireappearstobesharedbySwedish
peasants,whohangupbunchesofoakmistletoeontheceilingsoftheirroomsasaprotectionagainst
harmingeneralandconflagrationinparticular.Ahintastothewayinwhichmistletoecomestobe
possessedofthispropertyisfurnishedbytheepithetthunderbosom,whichpeopleoftheAargau
cantoninSwitzerlandapplytotheplant.Forathunderbesomisashaggy,bushyexcrescenceon
branchesoftrees,whichispopularlybelievedtobeproducedbyaflashoflightninghenceinBohemiaa
thunderbesomburntinthefireprotectsthehouseagainstbeingstruckbyathunderbolt.Beingitselfa
productoflightningitnaturallyserves,onhomoeopathicprinciples,asaprotectionagainstlightning,in
factasakindoflightningconductor.HencethefirewhichmistletoeinSwedenisdesignedespeciallyto
avertfromhousesmaybefirekindledbylightningthoughnodoubttheplantisequallyeffectiveagainst
conflagrationingeneral.
Again,mistletoeactsasamasterkeyaswellasalightningconductorforitissaidtoopenalllocks.But
perhapsthemostpreciousofallthevirtuesofmistletoeisthatitaffordsefficientprotectionagainst
sorceryandwitchcraft.That,nodoubt,isthereasonwhyinAustriaatwigofmistletoeislaidonthe
thresholdasapreventiveofnightmareanditmaybethereasonwhyinthenorthofEnglandtheysay
thatifyouwishyourdairytothriveyoushouldgiveyourbunchofmistletoetothefirstcowthatcalves
afterNewYearsDay,foritiswellknownthatnothingissofataltomilkandbutteraswitchcraft.
SimilarlyinWales,forthesakeofensuringgoodlucktothedairy,peopleusedtogiveabranchof
mistletoetothefirstcowthatgavebirthtoacalfafterthefirsthouroftheNewYearandinrural

districtsofWales,wheremistletoeabounded,therewasalwaysaprofusionofitinthefarmhouses.When
mistletoewasscarce,Welshfarmersusedtosay,Nomistletoe,noluckbutiftherewasafinecropof
mistletoe,theyexpectedafinecropofcorn.InSwedenmistletoeisdiligentlysoughtafteronSt.Johns
Eve,thepeoplebelievingittobe,inahighdegree,possessedofmysticqualitiesandthatifasprigofit
beattachedtotheceilingofthedwellinghouse,thehorsesstall,orthecowscrib,theTrollwillthenbe
powerlesstoinjureeithermanorbeast.
Withregardtothetimewhenthemistletoeshouldbegatheredopinionshavevaried.TheDruidsgathered
itaboveallonthesixthdayofthemoon,theancientItaliansapparentlyonthefirstdayofthemoon.In
moderntimessomehavepreferredthefullmoonofMarchandothersthewaningmoonofwinterwhen
thesunisinSagittarius.ButthefavouritetimewouldseemtobeMidsummerEveorMidsummerDay.
WehaveseenthatbothinFranceandSwedenspecialvirtuesareascribedtomistletoegatheredat
Midsummer.TheruleinSwedenisthatmistletoemustbecutonthenightofMidsummerEvewhensun
andmoonstandinthesignoftheirmight.Again,inWalesitwasbelievedthatasprigofmistletoe
gatheredonSt.JohnsEve(MidsummerEve),oratanytimebeforetheberriesappeared,wouldinduce
dreamsofomen,bothgoodandbad,ifitwereplacedunderthepillowofthesleeper.Thusmistletoeis
oneofthemanyplantswhosemagicalormedicinalvirtuesarebelievedtoculminatewiththe
culminationofthesunonthelongestdayoftheyear.Henceitseemsreasonabletoconjecturethatinthe
eyesoftheDruids,also,whoreveredtheplantsohighly,thesacredmistletoemayhaveacquireda
doubleportionofitsmysticqualitiesatthesolsticeinJune,andthataccordinglytheymayhaveregularly
cutitwithsolemnceremonyonMidsummerEve.
Bethatasitmay,certainitisthatthemistletoe,theinstrumentofBaldersdeath,hasbeenregularly
gatheredforthesakeofitsmysticqualitiesonMidsummerEveinScandinavia,Baldershome.Theplant
isfoundcommonlygrowingonpeartrees,oaks,andothertreesinthickdampwoodsthroughoutthe
moretemperatepartsofSweden.ThusoneofthetwomainincidentsofBaldersmythisreproducedin
thegreatmidsummerfestivalofScandinavia.Buttheothermainincidentofthemyth,theburningof
Baldersbodyonapyre,hasalsoitscounterpartinthebonfireswhichstillblaze,orblazedtilllately,in
Denmark,Norway,andSwedenonMidsummerEve.Itdoesnotappear,indeed,thatanyeffigyisburned
inthesebonfiresbuttheburningofaneffigyisafeaturewhichmighteasilydropoutafteritsmeaning
wasforgotten.AndthenameofBaldersbalefires(BaldersBlar),bywhichthesemidsummerfires
wereformerlyknowninSweden,putstheirconnexionwithBalderbeyondthereachofdoubt,andmakes
itprobablethatinformertimeseitheralivingrepresentativeoraneffigyofBalderwasannuallyburned
inthem.MidsummerwastheseasonsacredtoBalder,andtheSwedishpoetTegner,inplacingthe
burningofBalderatmidsummer,mayverywellhavefollowedanoldtraditionthatthesummersolstice
wasthetimewhenthegoodgodcametohisuntimelyend.
ThusithasbeenshownthattheleadingincidentsoftheBaldermythhavetheircounterpartsinthosefire
festivalsofourEuropeanpeasantrywhichundoubtedlydatefromatimelongpriortotheintroductionof
Christianity.ThepretenceofthrowingthevictimchosenbylotintotheBeltanefire,andthesimilar
treatmentoftheman,thefutureGreenWolf,atthemidsummerbonfireinNormandy,maynaturallybe
interpretedastracesofanoldercustomofactuallyburninghumanbeingsontheseoccasionsandthe
greendressoftheGreenWolf,coupledwiththeleafyenvelopeoftheyoungfellowwhotrodoutthe
midsummerfireatMoosheim,seemstohintthatthepersonswhoperishedatthesefestivalsdidsointhe
characteroftreespiritsordeitiesofvegetation.FromallthiswemayreasonablyinferthatintheBalder
mythontheonehand,andthefirefestivalsandcustomofgatheringmistletoeontheotherhand,we
have,asitwere,thetwobrokenanddisseveredhalvesofanoriginalwhole.Inotherwords,wemay
assumewithsomedegreeofprobabilitythatthemythofBaldersdeathwasnotmerelyamyth,thatis,a
descriptionofphysicalphenomenainimageryborrowedfromhumanlife,butthatitwasatthesametime
thestorywhichpeopletoldtoexplainwhytheyannuallyburnedahumanrepresentativeofthegodand
cutthemistletoewithsolemnceremony.IfIamright,thestoryofBalderstragicendformed,sotosay,

thetextofthesacreddramawhichwasactedyearbyyearasamagicalritetocausethesuntoshine,trees
togrow,cropstothrive,andtoguardmanandbeastfromthebalefulartsoffairiesandtrolls,ofwitches
andwarlocks.Thetalebelonged,inshort,tothatclassofnaturemythswhicharemeanttobe
supplementedbyritualhere,assooften,mythstoodtomagicintherelationoftheorytopractice.
ButifthevictimsthehumanBalderswhodiedbyfire,whetherinspringoratmidsummer,wereput
todeathaslivingembodimentsoftreespiritsordeitiesofvegetation,itwouldseemthatBalderhimself
musthavebeenatreespiritordeityofvegetation.Itbecomesdesirable,therefore,todetermine,ifwe
can,theparticularkindoftreeortrees,ofwhichapersonalrepresentativewasburnedatthefire
festivals.Forwemaybequitesurethatitwasnotasarepresentativeofvegetationingeneralthatthe
victimsuffereddeath.Theideaofvegetationingeneralistooabstracttobeprimitive.Mostprobablythe
victimatfirstrepresentedaparticularkindofsacredtree.ButofallEuropeantreesnonehassuchclaims
astheoaktobeconsideredaspreeminentlythesacredtreeoftheAryans.Wehaveseenthatitsworship
isattestedforallthegreatbranchesoftheAryanstockinEuropehencewemaycertainlyconcludethat
thetreewasveneratedbytheAryansincommonbeforethedispersion,andthattheirprimitivehome
musthavelaininalandwhichwasclothedwithforestsofoak.
Now,consideringtheprimitivecharacterandremarkablesimilarityofthefirefestivalsobservedbyall
thebranchesoftheAryanraceinEurope,wemayinferthatthesefestivalsformpartofthecommon
stockofreligiousobservanceswhichthevariouspeoplescarriedwiththemintheirwanderingsfromtheir
oldhome.But,ifIamright,anessentialfeatureofthoseprimitivefirefestivalswastheburningofaman
whorepresentedthetreespirit.Inview,then,oftheplaceoccupiedbytheoakinthereligionofthe
Aryans,thepresumptionisthatthetreesorepresentedatthefirefestivalsmustoriginallyhavebeenthe
oak.SofarastheCeltsandLithuaniansareconcerned,thisconclusionwillperhapshardlybecontested.
ButbothforthemandfortheGermansitisconfirmedbyaremarkablepieceofreligiousconservatism.
Themostprimitivemethodknowntomanofproducingfireisbyrubbingtwopiecesofwoodagainst
eachothertilltheyigniteandwehaveseenthatthismethodisstillusedinEuropeforkindlingsacred
firessuchastheneedfire,andthatmostprobablyitwasformerlyresortedtoatallthefirefestivals
underdiscussion.Nowitissometimesrequiredthattheneedfire,orothersacredfire,shouldbemadeby
thefrictionofaparticularkindofwoodandwhenthekindofwoodisprescribed,whetheramongCelts,
Germans,orSlavs,thatwoodappearstobegenerallytheoak.Butifthesacredfirewasregularlykindled
bythefrictionofoakwood,wemayinferthatoriginallythefirewasalsofedwiththesamematerial.In
pointoffact,itappearsthattheperpetualfireofVestaatRomewasfedwithoakwood,andthatoak
woodwasthefuelconsumedintheperpetualfirewhichburnedunderthesacredoakatthegreat
LithuaniansanctuaryofRomove.Further,thatoakwoodwasformerlythefuelburnedinthemidsummer
firesmayperhapsbeinferredfromthecustom,saidtobestillobservedbypeasantsinmanymountain
districtsofGermany,ofmakingupthecottagefireonMidsummerDaywithaheavyblockofoakwood.
Theblockissoarrangedthatitsmouldersslowlyandisnotfinallyreducedtocharcoaltilltheexpiryofa
year.ThenuponnextMidsummerDaythecharredembersoftheoldlogareremovedtomakeroomfor
thenewone,andaremixedwiththeseedcornorscatteredaboutthegarden.Thisisbelievedtoguardthe
foodcookedonthehearthfromwitchcraft,topreservetheluckofthehouse,topromotethegrowthof
thecrops,andtokeepthemfromblightandvermin.Thusthecustomisalmostexactlyparalleltothatof
theYulelog,whichinpartsofGermany,France,England,Serbia,andotherSlavoniclandswas
commonlyofoakwood.Thegeneralconclusionis,thatatthoseperiodicoroccasionalceremoniesthe
ancientAryansbothkindledandfedthefirewiththesacredoakwood.
Butifatthesesolemnritesthefirewasregularlymadeofoakwood,itfollowsthatanymanwhowas
burnedinitasapersonificationofthetreespiritcouldhaverepresentednotreebuttheoak.Thesacred
oakwasthusburnedinduplicatethewoodofthetreewasconsumedinthefire,andalongwithitwas
consumedalivingmanasapersonificationoftheoakspirit.TheconclusionthusdrawnfortheEuropean
AryansingeneralisconfirmedinitsspecialapplicationtotheScandinaviansbytherelationinwhich

amongstthemthemistletoeappearstohavestoodtotheburningofthevictiminthemidsummerfire.We
haveseenthatamongScandinaviansithasbeencustomarytogatherthemistletoeatmidsummer.Butso
farasappearsonthefaceofthiscustom,thereisnothingtoconnectitwiththemidsummerfiresinwhich
humanvictimsoreffigiesofthemwereburned.Evenifthefire,asseemsprobable,wasoriginally
alwaysmadewithoakwood,whyshouldithavebeennecessarytopullthemistletoe?Thelastlink
betweenthemidsummercustomsofgatheringthemistletoeandlightingthebonfiresissuppliedby
Baldersmyth,whichcanhardlybedisjoinedfromthecustomsinquestion.Themythsuggeststhata
vitalconnexionmayoncehavebeenbelievedtosubsistbetweenthemistletoeandthehuman
representativeoftheoakwhowasburnedinthefire.Accordingtothemyth,Baldercouldbekilledby
nothinginheavenorearthexceptthemistletoeandsolongasthemistletoeremainedontheoak,hewas
notonlyimmortalbutinvulnerable.Now,ifwesupposethatBalderwastheoak,theoriginofthemyth
becomesintelligible.Themistletoewasviewedastheseatoflifeoftheoak,andsolongasitwas
uninjurednothingcouldkillorevenwoundtheoak.Theconceptionofthemistletoeastheseatoflifeof
theoakwouldnaturallybesuggestedtoprimitivepeoplebytheobservationthatwhiletheoakis
deciduous,themistletoewhichgrowsonitisevergreen.Inwinterthesightofitsfreshfoliageamongthe
barebranchesmusthavebeenhailedbytheworshippersofthetreeasasignthatthedivinelifewhich
hadceasedtoanimatethebranchesyetsurvivedinthemistletoe,astheheartofasleeperstillbeatswhen
hisbodyismotionless.Hencewhenthegodhadtobekilledwhenthesacredtreehadtobeburntit
wasnecessarytobeginbybreakingoffthemistletoe.Forsolongasthemistletoeremainedintact,the
oak(sopeoplemightthink)wasinvulnerablealltheblowsoftheirknivesandaxeswouldglance
harmlessfromitssurface.Butoncetearfromtheoakitssacredheartthemistletoeandthetree
noddedtoitsfall.Andwheninlatertimesthespiritoftheoakcametoberepresentedbyalivingman,it
waslogicallynecessarytosupposethat,likethetreehepersonated,hecouldneitherbekillednor
woundedsolongasthemistletoeremaineduninjured.Thepullingofthemistletoewasthusatoncethe
signalandthecauseofhisdeath.
OnthisviewtheinvulnerableBalderisneithermorenorlessthanapersonificationofamistletoebearing
oak.TheinterpretationisconfirmedbywhatseemstohavebeenanancientItalianbelief,thatthe
mistletoecanbedestroyedneitherbyfirenorwaterforiftheparasiteisthusdeemedindestructible,it
mighteasilybesupposedtocommunicateitsownindestructibilitytothetreeonwhichitgrows,solong
asthetworemaininconjunction.Or,toputthesameideainmythicalform,wemighttellhowthekindly
godoftheoakhadhislifesecurelydepositedintheimperishablemistletoewhichgrewamongthe
brancheshowaccordinglysolongasthemistletoekeptitsplacethere,thedeityhimselfremained
invulnerableandhowatlastacunningfoe,letintothesecretofthegodsinvulnerability,torethe
mistletoefromtheoak,therebykillingtheoakgodandafterwardsburninghisbodyinafirewhichcould
havemadenoimpressiononhimsolongastheincombustibleparasiteretaineditsseatamongthe
boughs.
Butsincetheideaofabeingwhoselifeisthus,inasense,outsidehimself,mustbestrangetomany
readers,andhas,indeed,notyetbeenrecognisedinitsfullbearingonprimitivesuperstition,itwillbe
worthwhiletoillustrateitbyexamplesdrawnbothfromstoryandcustom.Theresultwillbetoshow
that,inassumingthisideaastheexplanationofBaldersrelationtothemistletoe,Iassumeaprinciple
whichisdeeplyengravedonthemindofprimitiveman.

LXVI.TheExternalSoulinFolkTales
INAFORMERpartofthisworkwesawthat,intheopinionofprimitivepeople,thesoulmay
temporarilyabsentitselffromthebodywithoutcausingdeath.Suchtemporaryabsencesofthesoulare
oftenbelievedtoinvolveconsiderablerisk,sincethewanderingsoulisliabletoavarietyofmishapsat
thehandsofenemies,andsoforth.Butthereisanotheraspecttothispowerofdisengagingthesoulfrom

thebody.Ifonlythesafetyofthesoulcanbeensuredduringitsabsence,thereisnoreasonwhythesoul
shouldnotcontinueabsentforanindefinitetimeindeedamanmay,onapurecalculationofpersonal
safety,desirethathissoulshouldneverreturntohisbody.Unabletoconceiveoflifeabstractlyasa
permanentpossibilityofsensationoracontinuousadjustmentofinternalarrangementstoexternal
relations,thesavagethinksofitasaconcretematerialthingofadefinitebulk,capableofbeingseen
andhandled,keptinaboxorjar,andliabletobebruised,fractured,orsmashedinpieces.Itisnot
needfulthatthelife,soconceived,shouldbeinthemanitmaybeabsentfromhisbodyandstill
continuetoanimatehimbyvirtueofasortofsympathyoractionatadistance.Solongasthisobject
whichhecallshislifeorsoulremainsunharmed,themaniswellifitisinjured,hesuffersifitis
destroyed,hedies.Or,toputitotherwise,whenamanisillordies,thefactisexplainedbysayingthat
thematerialobjectcalledhislifeorsoul,whetheritbeinhisbodyoroutofit,haseithersustainedinjury
orbeendestroyed.Buttheremaybecircumstancesinwhich,ifthelifeorsoulremainsintheman,it
standsagreaterchanceofsustaininginjurythanifitwerestowedawayinsomesafeandsecretplace.
Accordingly,insuchcircumstances,primitivemantakeshissouloutofhisbodyanddepositsitfor
securityinsomesnugspot,intendingtoreplaceitinhisbodywhenthedangerispast.Orifheshould
discoversomeplaceofabsolutesecurity,hemaybecontenttoleavehissoultherepermanently.The
advantageofthisisthat,solongasthesoulremainsunharmedintheplacewherehehasdepositedit,the
manhimselfisimmortalnothingcankillhisbody,sincehislifeisnotinit.
EvidenceofthisprimitivebeliefisfurnishedbyaclassoffolktalesofwhichtheNorsestoryofThe
giantwhohadnoheartinhisbodyisperhapsthebestknownexample.Storiesofthiskindarewidely
diffusedovertheworld,andfromtheirnumberandthevarietyofincidentandofdetailsinwhichthe
leadingideaisembodied,wemayinferthattheconceptionofanexternalsoulisonewhichhashada
powerfulholdonthemindsofmenatanearlystageofhistory.Forfolktalesareafaithfulreflectionof
theworldasitappearedtotheprimitivemindandwemaybesurethatanyideawhichcommonlyoccurs
inthem,howeverabsurditmayseemtous,mustoncehavebeenanordinaryarticleofbelief.This
assurance,sofarasitconcernsthesupposedpowerofdisengagingthesoulfromthebodyforalongeror
shortertime,isamplycorroboratedbyacomparisonofthefolktalesinquestionwiththeactualbeliefs
andpracticesofsavages.Tothisweshallreturnaftersomespecimensofthetaleshavebeengiven.The
specimenswillbeselectedwithaviewofillustratingboththecharacteristicfeaturesandthewide
diffusionofthisclassoftales.
Inthefirstplace,thestoryoftheexternalsoulistold,invariousforms,byallAryanpeoplesfrom
HindoostantotheHebrides.Averycommonformofitisthis:Awarlock,giant,orotherfairylandbeing
isinvulnerableandimmortalbecausehekeepshissoulhiddenfarawayinsomesecretplacebutafair
princess,whomheholdsenthralledinhisenchantedcastle,wileshissecretfromhimandrevealsittothe
hero,whoseeksoutthewarlockssoul,heart,life,ordeath(asitisvariouslycalled),andbydestroying
it,simultaneouslykillsthewarlock.ThusaHindoostorytellshowamagiciancalledPunchkinhelda
queencaptivefortwelveyears,andwouldfainmarryher,butshewouldnothavehim.Atlastthe
queenssoncametorescueher,andthetwoplottedtogethertokillPunchkin.Sothequeenspokethe
magicianfair,andpretendedthatshehadatlastmadeuphermindtomarryhim.Anddotellme,she
said,areyouquiteimmortal?Candeathnevertouchyou?Andareyoutoogreatanenchantereverto
feelhumansuffering?Itistrue,hesaid,thatIamnotasothers.Far,faraway,hundredsofthousands
ofmilesfromthis,thereliesadesolatecountrycoveredwiththickjungle.Inthemidstofthejungle
growsacircleofpalmtrees,andinthecentreofthecirclestandsixchatteesfullofwater,piledone
aboveanother:belowthesixthchatteeisasmallcage,whichcontainsalittlegreenparrotonthelifeof
theparrotdependsmylifeandiftheparrotiskilledImustdie.Itis,however,headded,impossible
thattheparrotshouldsustainanyinjury,bothonaccountoftheinaccessibilityofthecountry,and
because,bymyappointment,manythousandgeniisurroundthepalmtrees,andkillallwhoapproachthe
place.Butthequeensyoungsonovercamealldifficulties,andgotpossessionoftheparrot.Hebrought
ittothedoorofthemagicianspalace,andbeganplayingwithit.Punchkin,themagician,sawhim,and,

comingout,triedtopersuadetheboytogivehimtheparrot.Givememyparrot!criedPunchkin.Then
theboytookholdoftheparrotandtoreoffoneofhiswingsandashedidsothemagiciansrightarm
felloff.Punchkinthenstretchedouthisleftarm,crying,Givememyparrot!Theprincepulledoffthe
parrotssecondwing,andthemagiciansleftarmtumbledoff.Givememyparrot!criedhe,andfellon
hisknees.Theprincepulledofftheparrotsrightleg,themagiciansrightlegfellofftheprincepulled
offtheparrotsleftleg,downfellthemagiciansleft.Nothingremainedofhimexceptthetrunkandthe
headbutstillherolledhiseyes,andcried,Givememyparrot!Takeyourparrot,then,criedtheboy
andwiththathewrungthebirdsneck,andthrewitatthemagicianand,ashedidso,Punchkinshead
twistedround,and,withafearfulgroan,hedied!InanotherHindootaleanogreisaskedbyhisdaughter,
Papa,wheredoyoukeepyoursoul?Sixteenmilesawayfromthisplace,hesaid,isatree.Round
thetreearetigers,andbears,andscorpions,andsnakesonthetopofthetreeisaverygreatfatsnakeon
hisheadisalittlecageinthecageisabirdandmysoulisinthatbird.Theendoftheogreislikethat
ofthemagicianintheprevioustale.Asthebirdswingsandlegsaretornoff,theogresarmsandlegs
dropoffandwhenitsneckiswrunghefallsdowndead.InaBengaleestoryitissaidthatalltheogres
dwellinCeylon,andthatalltheirlivesareinasinglelemon.Aboycutsthelemoninpieces,andallthe
ogresdie.
InaSiameseorCambodianstory,probablyderivedfromIndia,wearetoldthatThossakanorRavana,
theKingofCeylon,wasablebymagicarttotakehissouloutofhisbodyandleaveitinaboxathome,
whilehewenttothewars.Thushewasinvulnerableinbattle.WhenhewasabouttogivebattletoRama,
hedepositedhissoulwithahermitcalledFireeye,whowastokeepitsafeforhim.SointhefightRama
wasastoundedtoseethathisarrowsstruckthekingwithoutwoundinghim.ButoneofRamasallies,
knowingthesecretofthekingsinvulnerability,transformedhimselfbymagicintothelikenessofthe
king,andgoingtothehermitaskedbackhissoul.Onreceivingithesoaredupintotheairandflewto
Rama,brandishingtheboxandsqueezingitsohardthatallthebreathlefttheKingofCeylonsbody,
andhedied.InaBengaleestoryaprincegoingintoafarcountryplantedwithhisownhandsatreeinthe
courtyardofhisfatherspalace,andsaidtohisparents,Thistreeismylife.Whenyouseethetreegreen
andfresh,thenknowthatitiswellwithmewhenyouseethetreefadeinsomeparts,thenknowthatI
aminanillcaseandwhenyouseethewholetreefade,thenknowthatIamdeadandgone.Inanother
Indiantaleaprince,settingforthonhistravels,leftbehindhimabarleyplant,withinstructionsthatit
shouldbecarefullytendedandwatchedforifitflourished,hewouldbealiveandwell,butifitdrooped,
thensomemischancewasabouttohappentohim.Andsoitfellout.Fortheprincewasbeheaded,andas
hisheadrolledoff,thebarleyplantsnappedintwoandtheearofbarleyfelltotheground.
InGreektales,ancientandmodern,theideaofanexternalsoulisnotuncommon.WhenMeleagerwas
sevendaysold,theFatesappearedtohismotherandtoldherthatMeleagerwoulddiewhenthebrand
whichwasblazingonthehearthhadburntdown.Sohismothersnatchedthebrandfromthefireandkept
itinabox.Butinafteryears,beingenragedathersonforslayingherbrothers,sheburntthebrandinthe
fireandMeleagerexpiredinagonies,asifflameswerepreyingonhisvitals.Again,NisusKingof
Megarahadapurpleorgoldenhaironthemiddleofhishead,anditwasfatedthatwheneverthehairwas
pulledoutthekingshoulddie.WhenMegarawasbesiegedbytheCretans,thekingsdaughterScyllafell
inlovewithMinos,theirking,andpulledoutthefatalhairfromherfathershead.Sohedied.Ina
modernGreekfolktaleamansstrengthliesinthreegoldenhairsonhishead.Whenhismotherpulls
themout,hegrowsweakandtimidandisslainbyhisenemies.InanothermodernGreekstorythelifeof
anenchanterisboundupwiththreedoveswhichareinthebellyofawildboar.Whenthefirstdoveis
killed,themagiciangrowssickwhenthesecondiskilled,hegrowsverysickandwhenthethirdis
killed,hedies.InanotherGreekstoryofthesamesortanogresstrengthisinthreesingingbirdswhich
areinawildboar.Theherokillstwoofthebirds,andthencomingtotheogreshousefindshimlyingon
thegroundingreatpain.Heshowsthethirdbirdtotheogre,whobegsthattheherowilleitherletitfly
awayorgiveittohimtoeat.Buttheherowringsthebirdsneck,andtheogrediesonthespot.

InamodernRomanversionofAladdinandtheWonderfulLamp,themagiciantellstheprincess,
whomheholdscaptiveinafloatingrockinmidocean,thathewillneverdie.Theprincessreportsthisto
theprinceherhusband,whohascometorescueher.Theprincereplies,Itisimpossiblebutthatthere
shouldbesomeonethingorotherthatisfataltohimaskhimwhatthatonefatalthingis.Sothe
princessaskedthemagician,andhetoldherthatinthewoodwasahydrawithsevenheadsinthemiddle
headofthehydrawasaleveret,intheheadoftheleveretwasabird,inthebirdsheadwasaprecious
stone,andifthisstonewereputunderhispillowhewoulddie.Theprinceprocuredthestone,andthe
princesslaiditunderthemagicianspillow.Nosoonerdidtheenchanterlayhisheadonthepillowthan
hegavethreeterribleyells,turnedhimselfroundandroundthreetimes,anddied.
StoriesofthesamesortarecurrentamongSlavonicpeoples.ThusaRussianstorytellshowawarlock
calledKoshcheitheDeathlesscarriedoffaprincessandkeptherprisonerinhisgoldencastle.However,
aprincemadeuptoheronedayasshewaswalkingaloneanddisconsolateinthecastlegarden,and
cheeredbytheprospectofescapingwithhimshewenttothewarlockandcoaxedhimwithfalseand
flatteringwords,saying,Mydearestfriend,tellme,Iprayyou,willyouneverdie?Certainlynot,
sayshe.Well,saysshe,andwhereisyourdeath?isitinyourdwelling?Tobesureitis,sayshe,
itisinthebroomunderthethreshold.Thereupontheprincessseizedthebroomandthrewitonthefire,
butalthoughthebroomburned,thedeathlessKoshcheiremainedaliveindeednotsomuchasahairof
himwassinged.Balkedinherfirstattempt,theartfulhussypoutedandsaid,Youdonotlovemetrue,
foryouhavenottoldmewhereyourdeathisyetIamnotangry,butloveyouwithallmyheart.With
thesefawningwordsshebesoughtthewarlocktotellhertrulywherehisdeathwas.Sohelaughedand
said,Whydoyouwishtoknow?Wellthen,outofloveIwilltellyouwhereitlies.Inacertainfield
therestandthreegreenoaks,andundertherootsofthelargestoakisaworm,andifeverthiswormis
foundandcrushed,thatinstantIshalldie.Whentheprincessheardthesewords,shewentstraighttoher
loverandtoldhimallandhesearchedtillhefoundtheoaksanddugupthewormandcrushedit.Then
hehurriedtothewarlockscastle,butonlytolearnfromtheprincessthatthewarlockwasstillalive.
ThenshefelltowheedlingandcoaxingKoshcheioncemore,andthistime,overcomebyherwiles,he
openedhishearttoherandtoldherthetruth.Mydeath,saidhe,isfarfromhereandhardtofind,on
thewideocean.Inthatseaisanisland,andontheislandtheregrowsagreenoak,andbeneaththeoakis
anironchest,andinthechestisasmallbasket,andinthebasketisahare,andinthehareisaduck,and
intheduckisaneggandhewhofindstheeggandbreaksit,killsmeatthesametime.Theprince
naturallyprocuredthefatefuleggandwithitinhishandsheconfrontedthedeathlesswarlock.The
monsterwouldhavekilledhim,buttheprincebegantosqueezetheegg.Atthatthewarlockshrieked
withpain,andturningtothefalseprincess,whostoodbysmirkingandsmiling,Wasitnotoutoflove
foryou,saidhe,thatItoldyouwheremydeathwas?Andisthisthereturnyoumaketome?With
thathegrabbedathissword,whichhungfromapegonthewallbutbeforehecouldreachit,theprince
hadcrushedtheegg,andsureenoughthedeathlesswarlockfoundhisdeathatthesamemoment.Inone
ofthedescriptionsofKoshcheisdeath,heissaidtobekilledbyablowontheforeheadinflictedbythe
mysteriouseggthatlastlinkinthemagicchainbywhichhislifeisdarklybound.Inanotherversionof
thesamestory,buttoldofasnake,thefatalblowisstruckbyasmallstonefoundintheyolkofanegg,
whichisinsideaduck,whichisinsideahare,whichisinsideastone,whichisonanisland.
AmongstpeoplesoftheTeutonicstockstoriesoftheexternalsoularenotwanting.Inataletoldbythe
SaxonsofTransylvaniaitissaidthatayoungmanshotatawitchagainandagain.Thebulletswentclean
throughherbutdidhernoharm,andsheonlylaughedandmockedathim.Sillyearthworm,shecried,
shootasmuchasyoulike.Itdoesmenoharm.Forknowthatmyliferesidesnotinmebutfar,far
away.Inamountainisapond,onthepondswimsaduck,intheduckisanegg,intheeggburnsalight,
thatlightismylife.Ifyoucouldputoutthatlight,mylifewouldbeatanend.Butthatcannever,never
be.However,theyoungmangotholdoftheegg,smashedit,andputoutthelight,andwithitthe
witchslifewentoutalso.InaGermanstoryacannibalcalledBodywithoutSoulorSoullesskeepshis
soulinabox,whichstandsonarockinthemiddleoftheRedSea.Asoldiergetspossessionofthebox

andgoeswithittoSoulless,whobegsthesoldiertogivehimbackhissoul.Butthesoldieropensthe
box,takesoutthesoul,andflingsitbackwardoverhishead.Atthesamemomentthecannibaldrops
deadtotheground.
InanotherGermanstoryandoldwarlockliveswithadamselallaloneinthemidstofavastandgloomy
wood.Shefearsthatbeingoldhemaydieandleaveheraloneintheforest.Buthereassuresher.Dear
child,hesaid,Icannotdie,andIhavenoheartinmybreast.Butsheimportunedhimtotellherwhere
hisheartwas.Sohesaid,Far,farfromhereinanunknownandlonesomelandstandsagreatchurch.
Thechurchiswellsecuredwithirondoors,androundaboutitflowsabroaddeepmoat.Inthechurch
fliesabirdandinthebirdismyheart.Solongasthebirdlives,Ilive.Itcannotdieofitself,andnoone
cancatchitthereforeIcannotdie,andyouneedhavenoanxiety.Howevertheyoungman,whosebride
thedamselwastohavebeenbeforethewarlockspiritedheraway,contrivedtoreachthechurchand
catchthebird.Hebroughtittothedamsel,whostowedhimanditawayunderthewarlocksbed.Soon
theoldwarlockcamehome.Hewasailing,andsaidso.Thegirlweptandsaid,Alas,daddyisdyinghe
hasaheartinhisbreastafterall.Child,repliedthewarlock,holdyourtongue.Icantdie.Itwill
soonpassover.Atthattheyoungmanunderthebedgavethebirdagentlesqueezeandashedidso,
theoldwarlockfeltveryunwellandsatdown.Thentheyoungmangrippedthebirdtighter,andthe
warlockfellsenselessfromhischair.Nowsqueezehimdead,criedthedamsel.Herloverobeyed,and
whenthebirdwasdead,theoldwarlockalsolaydeadonthefloor.
IntheNorsetaleofthegiantwhohadnoheartinhisbody,thegianttellsthecaptiveprincess,Far,far
awayinalakeliesanisland,onthatislandstandsachurch,inthatchurchisawell,inthatwellswimsa
duck,inthatduckthereisanegg,andinthateggthereliesmyheart.Theheroofthetale,withthehelp
ofsomeanimalstowhomhehadbeenkind,obtainstheeggandsqueezesit,atwhichthegiantscreams
piteouslyandbegsforhislife.Buttheherobreakstheegginpiecesandthegiantatoncebursts.In
anotherNorsestoryahillogretellsthecaptiveprincessthatshewillneverbeabletoreturnhomeunless
shefindsthegrainofsandwhichliesundertheninthtongueoftheninthheadofacertaindragonbutif
thatgrainofsandweretocomeovertherockinwhichtheogreslive,theywouldallburstandtherock
itselfwouldbecomeagildedpalace,andthelakegreenmeadows.Theherofindsthegrainofsandand
takesittothetopofthehighrockinwhichtheogreslive.Soalltheogresburstandtherestfallsoutas
oneoftheogreshadforetold.
InaCeltictale,recordedintheWestHighlandsofScotland,agiantisquestionedbyacaptivequeenas
towherehekeepshissoul.Atlast,afterdeceivingherseveraltimes,heconfidestoherthefatalsecret:
Thereisagreatflagstoneunderthethreshold.Thereisawetherundertheflag.Thereisaduckinthe
wethersbelly,andanegginthebellyoftheduck,anditisintheeggthatmysoulis.Onthemorrow
whenthegiantwasgone,thequeencontrivedtogetpossessionoftheeggandcrusheditinherhands,
andatthatverymomentthegiant,whowascominghomeinthedusk,felldowndead.InanotherCeltic
tale,aseabeasthascarriedoffakingsdaughter,andanoldsmithdeclaresthatthereisnowayofkilling
thebeastbutone.IntheislandthatisinthemidstofthelochisEillidChaisfhionthewhitefooted
hind,oftheslenderestlegs,andtheswifteststep,andthoughsheshouldbecaught,therewouldspringa
hoodieoutofher,andthoughthehoodieshouldbecaught,therewouldspringatroutoutofher,butthere
isanegginthemouthofthetrout,andthesoulofthebeastisintheegg,andiftheeggbreaks,thebeast
isdead.Asusualtheeggisbrokenandthebeastdies.
InanIrishstorywereadhowagiantkeptabeautifuldamselaprisonerinhiscastleonthetopofahill,
whichwaswhitewiththebonesofthechampionswhohadtriedinvaintorescuethefaircaptive.Atlast
thehero,afterhewingandslashingatthegiantalltonopurpose,discoveredthattheonlywaytokillhim
wastorubamoleonthegiantsrightbreastwithacertainegg,whichwasinaduck,whichwasina
chest,whichlaylockedandboundatthebottomofthesea.Withthehelpofsomeobliginganimals,the
heromadehimselfmasterofthepreciouseggandslewthegiantbymerelystrikingitagainstthemoleon

hisrightbreast.SimilarlyinaBretonstorytherefiguresagiantwhomneitherfirenorwaternorsteelcan
harm.Hetellshisseventhwife,whomhehasjustmarriedaftermurderingallherpredecessors,Iam
immortal,andnoonecanhurtmeunlesshecrushesonmybreastanegg,whichisinapigeon,whichis
inthebellyofaharethishareisinthebellyofawolf,andthiswolfisinthebellyofmybrother,who
dwellsathousandleaguesfromhere.SoIamquiteeasyonthatscore.Asoldiercontrivedtoobtainthe
eggandcrushitonthebreastofthegiant,whoimmediatelyexpired.InanotherBretontalethelifeofa
giantresidesinanoldboxtreewhichgrowsinhiscastlegardenandtokillhimitisnecessarytosever
thetaprootofthetreeatasingleblowofanaxewithoutinjuringanyofthelesserroots.Thistaskthe
hero,asusual,successfullyaccomplishes,andatthesamemomentthegiantdropsdead.
ThenotionofanexternalsoulhasnowbeentracedinfolktalestoldbyAryanpeoplesfromIndiato
Ireland.Wehavestilltoshowthatthesameideaoccurscommonlyinthepopularstoriesofpeopleswho
donotbelongtotheAryanstock.IntheancientEgyptiantaleofTheTwoBrothers,whichwaswritten
downinthereignofRamesesII.,about1300B.C.,wereadhowoneofthebrothersenchantedhisheart
andplaceditintheflowerofanacaciatree,andhow,whentheflowerwascutattheinstigationofhis
wife,heimmediatelyfelldowndead,butrevivedwhenhisbrotherfoundthelostheartintheberryofthe
acaciaandthrewitintoacupoffreshwater.
InthestoryofSeyfelMulookintheArabianNightsthejinneetellsthecaptivedaughteroftheKingof
India,WhenIwasborn,theastrologersdeclaredthatthedestructionofmysoulwouldbeeffectedby
thehandofoneofthesonsofthehumankings.Ithereforetookmysoul,andputitintothecropofa
sparrow,andIimprisonedthesparrowinalittlebox,andputthisintoanothersmallbox,andthisIput
withinsevenothersmallboxes,andIputthesewithinsevenchests,andthechestsIputintoacofferof
marblewithinthevergeofthiscircumambientoceanforthispartisremotefromthecountriesof
mankind,andnoneofmankindcangainaccesstoit.ButSeyfelMulookgotpossessionofthesparrow
andstrangledit,andthejinneefelluponthegroundaheapofblackashes.InaKabylestoryanogre
declaresthathisfateisfarawayinanegg,whichisinapigeon,whichisinacamel,whichisinthesea.
Theheroprocurestheeggandcrushesitbetweenhishands,andtheogredies.InaMagyarfolktale,an
oldwitchdetainsayoungprincecalledAmbroseinthebowelsoftheearth.Atlastsheconfidedtohim
thatshekeptawildboarinasilkenmeadow,andifitwerekilled,theywouldfindahareinside,and
insidethehareapigeon,andinsidethepigeonasmallbox,andinsidetheboxoneblackandoneshining
beetle:theshiningbeetleheldherlife,andtheblackoneheldherpowerifthesetwobeetlesdied,then
herlifewouldcometoanendalso.Whentheoldhagwentout,Ambrosekilledthewildboar,andtook
outtheharefromtheharehetookthepigeon,fromthepigeonthebox,andfromtheboxthetwobeetles
hekilledtheblackbeetle,butkepttheshiningonealive.Sothewitchspowerleftherimmediately,and
whenshecamehome,shehadtotaketoherbed.Havinglearnedfromherhowtoescapefromhisprison
totheupperair,Ambrosekilledtheshiningbeetle,andtheoldhagsspiritleftheratonce.InaKalmuck
talewereadhowacertainkhanchallengedawisemantoshowhisskillbystealingapreciousstoneon
whichthekhanslifedepended.Thesagecontrivedtopurlointhetalismanwhilethekhanandhisguards
sleptbutnotcontentwiththishegaveafurtherproofofhisdexteritybybonnetingtheslumbering
potentatewithabladder.Thiswastoomuchforthekhan.Nextmorningheinformedthesagethathe
couldoverlookeverythingelse,butthattheindignityofbeingbonnetedwithabladderwasmorethanhe
couldbearandheorderedhisfacetiousfriendtoinstantexecution.Painedatthisexhibitionofroyal
ingratitude,thesagedashedtothegroundthetalismanwhichhestillheldinhishandandatthesame
instantbloodflowedfromthenostrilsofthekhan,andhegaveuptheghost.
InaTartarpoemtwoheroesnamedAkMolotandBulatengageinmortalcombat.AkMolotpierceshis
foethroughandthroughwithanarrow,grappleswithhim,anddasheshimtotheground,butallinvain,
Bulatcouldnotdie.Atlastwhenthecombathaslastedthreeyears,afriendofAkMolotseesagolden
caskethangingbyawhitethreadfromthesky,andbethinkshimthatperhapsthiscasketcontainsBulats
soul.Soheshotthroughthewhitethreadwithanarrow,anddownfellthecasket.Heopenedit,andin

thecasketsattenwhitebirds,andoneofthebirdswasBulatssoul.Bulatweptwhenhesawthathissoul
wasfoundinthecasket.Butoneaftertheotherthebirdswerekilled,andthenAkMoloteasilyslewhis
foe.InanotherTartarpoem,twobrothersgoingtofighttwootherbrotherstakeouttheirsoulsandhide
themintheformofawhiteherbwithsixstalksinadeeppit.Butoneoftheirfoesseesthemdoingso
anddigsuptheirsouls,whichheputsintoagoldenramshorn,andthenstickstheramshorninhis
quiver.Thetwowarriorswhosesoulshavethusbeenstolenknowthattheyhavenochanceofvictory,
andaccordinglymakepeacewiththeirenemies.InanotherTartarpoematerribledemonsetsallthegods
andheroesatdefiance.Atlastavaliantyouthfightsthedemon,bindshimhandandfoot,andsliceshim
withhissword.Butstillthedemonisnotslain.Sotheyouthaskedhim,Tellme,whereisyoursoul
hidden?Forifyoursoulhadbeenhiddeninyourbody,youmusthavebeendeadlongago.Thedemon
replied,Onthesaddleofmyhorseisabag.Inthebagisaserpentwithtwelveheads.Intheserpentis
mysoul.Whenyouhavekilledtheserpent,youhavekilledmealso.Sotheyouthtookthesaddlebag
fromthehorseandkilledthetwelveheadedserpent,whereuponthedemonexpired.InanotherTartar
poemaherocalledKkChandepositswithamaidenagoldenring,inwhichishalfhisstrength.
AfterwardswhenKkChaniswrestlinglongwithaheroandcannotkillhim,awomandropsintohis
mouththeringwhichcontainshalfhisstrength.Thusinspiredwithfreshforceheslayshisenemy.
InaMongolianstorytheheroJorogetsthebetterofhisenemythelamaTschoridonginthefollowing
way.Thelama,whoisanenchanter,sendsouthissoulintheformofawasptostingJoroseyes.But
Jorocatchesthewaspinhishand,andbyalternatelyshuttingandopeninghishandhecausesthelama
alternatelytoloseandrecoverconsciousness.InaTartarpoemtwoyouthscutopenthebodyofanold
witchandtearoutherbowels,butalltonopurpose,shestilllives.Onbeingaskedwherehersoulis,she
answersthatitisinthemiddleofhershoesoleintheformofasevenheadedspeckledsnake.Sooneof
theyouthssliceshershoesolewithhissword,takesoutthespeckledsnake,andcutsoffitssevenheads.
Thenthewitchdies.AnotherTartarpoemdescribeshowtheheroKartagagrappledwiththeSwan
woman.Longtheywrestled.Moonswaxedandwanedandstilltheywrestledyearscameandwent,and
stillthestrugglewenton.ButthepiebaldhorseandtheblackhorseknewthattheSwanwomanssoul
wasnotinher.Undertheblackearthflownineseaswheretheseasmeetandformone,theseacomesto
thesurfaceoftheearth.Atthemouthofthenineseasrisesarockofcopperitrisestothesurfaceofthe
ground,itrisesupbetweenheavenandearth,thisrockofcopper.Atthefootofthecopperrockisablack
chest,intheblackchestisagoldencasket,andinthegoldencasketisthesouloftheSwanwoman.
SevenlittlebirdsarethesouloftheSwanwomanifthebirdsarekilledtheSwanwomanwilldie
straightway.Sothehorsesrantothefootofthecopperrock,openedtheblackchest,andbroughtback
thegoldencasket.Thenthepiebaldhorseturnedhimselfintoabaldheadedman,openedthegolden
casket,andcutofftheheadsofthesevenbirds.SotheSwanwomandied.InanotherTartarpoemthe
hero,pursuinghissisterwhohasdrivenawayhiscattle,iswarnedtodesistfromthepursuitbecausehis
sisterhascarriedawayhissoulinagoldenswordandagoldenarrow,andifhepursueshershewillkill
himbythrowingthegoldenswordorshootingthegoldenarrowathim.
AMalaypoemrelateshowonceuponatimeinthecityofIndrapooratherewasacertainmerchantwho
wasrichandprosperous,buthehadnochildren.Onedayashewalkedwithhiswifebytheriverthey
foundababygirl,fairasanangel.SotheyadoptedthechildandcalledherBidasari.Themerchant
causedagoldenfishtobemade,andintothisfishhetransferredthesoulofhisadopteddaughter.Then
heputthegoldenfishinagoldenboxfullofwater,andhiditinapondinthemidstofhisgarden.In
timethegirlgrewtobealovelywoman.NowtheKingofIndrapoorahadafairyoungqueen,wholived
infearthatthekingmighttaketohimselfasecondwife.So,hearingofthecharmsofBidasari,thequeen
resolvedtoputheroutoftheway.SheluredthegirltothepalaceandtorturedhercruellybutBidasari
couldnotdie,becausehersoulwasnotinher.Atlastshecouldstandthetorturenolongerandsaidtothe
queen,Ifyouwishmetodie,youmustbringtheboxwhichisinthepondinmyfathersgarden.Sothe
boxwasbroughtandopened,andtherewasthegoldenfishinthewater.Thegirlsaid,Mysoulisinthat

fish.Inthemorningyoumusttakethefishoutofthewater,andintheeveningyoumustputitbackinto
thewater.Donotletthefishlieabout,butbinditroundyourneck.Ifyoudothis,Ishallsoondie.So
thequeentookthefishoutoftheboxandfasteneditroundherneckandnosoonerhadshedonesothan
Bidasarifellintoaswoon.Butintheevening,whenthefishwasputbackintothewater,Bidasaricame
toherselfagain.Seeingthatshethushadthegirlinherpower,thequeensentherhometoheradopted
parents.Tosaveherfromfurtherpersecutionherparentsresolvedtoremovetheirdaughterfromthecity.
SoinalonelyanddesolatespottheybuiltahouseandbroughtBidasarithither.Thereshedweltalone,
undergoingvicissitudesthatcorrespondedwiththevicissitudesofthegoldenfishinwhichwashersoul.
Alldaylong,whilethefishwasoutofthewater,sheremainedunconsciousbutintheevening,whenthe
fishwasputintothewater,sherevived.Onedaythekingwasouthunting,andcomingtothehouse
whereBidasarilayunconscious,wassmittenwithherbeauty.Hetriedtowakenher,butinvain.Next
day,towardsevening,herepeatedhisvisit,butstillfoundherunconscious.However,whendarknessfell,
shecametoherselfandtoldthekingthesecretofherlife.Sothekingreturnedtothepalace,tookthe
fishfromthequeen,andputitinwater.ImmediatelyBidasarirevived,andthekingtookhertowife.
AnotherstoryofanexternalsoulcomesfromNias,anislandtothewestofSumatra.Onceonatimea
chiefwascapturedbyhisenemies,whotriedtoputhimtodeathbutfailed.Waterwouldnotdrownhim
norfireburnhimnorsteelpiercehim.Atlasthiswiferevealedthesecret.Onhisheadhehadahairas
hardasacopperwireandwiththiswirehislifewasboundup.Sothehairwaspluckedout,andwithit
hisspiritfled.
AWestAfricanstoryfromSouthernNigeriarelateshowakingkepthissoulinalittlebrownbird,which
perchedonatalltreebesidethegateofthepalace.Thekingslifewassoboundupwiththatofthebird
thatwhoevershouldkillthebirdwouldsimultaneouslykillthekingandsucceedtothekingdom.The
secretwasbetrayedbythequeentoherlover,whoshotthebirdwithanarrowandtherebyslewtheking
andascendedthevacantthrone.AtaletoldbytheBaRongaofSouthAfricasetsforthhowthelivesofa
wholefamilywerecontainedinonecat.Whenagirlofthefamily,namedTitishan,marriedahusband,
shebeggedherparentstolethertakethepreciouscatwithhertohernewhome.Buttheyrefused,
saying,Youknowthatourlifeisattachedtoitandtheyofferedtogiveheranantelopeorevenan
elephantinsteadofit.Butnothingwouldsatisfyherbutthecat.Soatlastshecarrieditoffwithherand
shutitupinaplacewherenobodysawitevenherhusbandknewnothingaboutit.Oneday,whenshe
wenttoworkinthefields,thecatescapedfromitsplaceofconcealment,enteredthehut,putonthe
warliketrappingsofthehusband,anddancedandsang.Somechildren,attractedbythenoise,discovered
thecatatitsantics,andwhentheyexpressedtheirastonishment,theanimalonlycaperedthemoreand
insultedthembesides.Sotheywenttotheownerandsaid,Thereissomebodydancinginyourhouse,
andheinsultedus.Holdyourtongues,saidhe,Illsoonputastoptoyourlies.Sohewentandhid
behindthedoorandpeepedin,andtheresureenoughwasthecatprancingaboutandsinging.Hefiredat
it,andtheanimaldroppeddowndead.Atthesamemomenthiswifefelltothegroundinthefieldwhere
shewasatworksaidshe,Ihavebeenkilledathome.Butshehadstrengthenoughlefttoaskher
husbandtogowithhertoherparentsvillage,takingwithhimthedeadcatwraptupinamat.Allher
relativesassembled,andbitterlytheyreproachedherforhavinginsistedontakingtheanimalwithherto
herhusbandsvillage.Assoonasthematwasunrolledandtheysawthedeadcat,theyallfelldown
lifelessoneaftertheother.SotheClanoftheCatwasdestroyedandthebereavedhusbandclosedthe
gateofthevillagewithabranch,andreturnedhome,andtoldhisfriendshowinkillingthecathehad
killedthewholeclan,becausetheirlivesdependedonthelifeofthecat.
IdeasofthesamesortmeetusinstoriestoldbytheNorthAmericanIndians.ThustheNavajoestellofa
certainmythicalbeingcalledtheMaidenthatbecomesaBear,wholearnedtheartofturningherself
intoabearfromtheprairiewolf.Shewasagreatwarriorandquiteinvulnerableforwhenshewentto
warshetookouthervitalorgansandhidthem,sothatnoonecouldkillherandwhenthebattlewas
oversheputtheorgansbackintheirplacesagain.TheKwakiutlIndiansofBritishColumbiatellofan

ogress,whocouldnotbekilledbecauseherlifewasinahemlockbranch.Abraveboymetherinthe
woods,smashedherheadwithastone,scatteredherbrains,brokeherbones,andthrewthemintothe
water.Then,thinkinghehaddisposedoftheogress,hewentintoherhouse.Therehesawawoman
rootedtothefloor,whowarnedhim,saying,Nowdonotstaylong.Iknowthatyouhavetriedtokillthe
ogress.Itisthefourthtimethatsomebodyhastriedtokillher.Sheneverdiesshehasnearlycometo
life.Thereinthatcoveredhemlockbranchisherlife.Gothere,andassoonasyouseeherenter,shoot
herlife.Thenshewillbedead.Hardlyhadshefinishedspeakingwhensureenoughincametheogress,
singingasshewalked.Buttheboyshotatherlife,andshefelldeadtothefloor.

LXVII.TheExternalSoulinFolkCustom
1.TheExternalSoulinInanimateThings
THUStheideathatthesoulmaybedepositedforalongerorshortertimeinsomeplaceofsecurity
outsidethebody,oratalleventsinthehair,isfoundinthepopulartalesofmanyraces.Itremainsto
showthattheideaisnotamerefigmentdevisedtoadornatale,butisarealarticleofprimitivefaith,
whichhasgivenrisetoacorrespondingsetofcustoms.
Wehaveseenthatinthetalesthehero,asapreparationforbattle,sometimesremoveshissoulfromhis
body,inorderthathisbodymaybeinvulnerableandimmortalinthecombat.Withalikeintentionthe
savageremoveshissoulfromhisbodyonvariousoccasionsofrealorimaginaryperil.Thusamongthe
peopleofMinahassainCelebes,whenafamilymovesintoanewhouse,apriestcollectsthesoulsofthe
wholefamilyinabag,andafterwardsrestoresthemtotheirowners,becausethemomentofenteringa
newhouseissupposedtobefraughtwithsupernaturaldanger.InSouthernCelebes,whenawomanis
broughttobed,themessengerwhofetchesthedoctororthemidwifealwayscarrieswithhimsomething
madeofiron,suchasachoppingknife,whichhedeliverstothedoctor.Thedoctormustkeepthething
inhishousetilltheconfinementisover,whenhegivesitback,receivingafixedsumofmoneyfordoing
so.Thechoppingknife,orwhateveritis,representsthewomanssoul,whichatthiscriticaltimeis
believedtobesaferoutofherbodythaninit.Hencethedoctormusttakegreatcareoftheobjectfor
wereitlost,thewomanssoulwouldassuredly,theythink,belostwithit.
AmongtheDyaksofPinoeh,adistrictofSoutheasternBorneo,whenachildisborn,amedicinemanis
sentfor,whoconjuresthesouloftheinfantintohalfacoconut,whichhethereuponcoverswithacloth
andplacesonasquareplatterorchargersuspendedbycordsfromtheroof.Thisceremonyherepeatsat
everynewmoonforayear.Theintentionoftheceremonyisnotexplainedbythewriterwhodescribesit,
butwemayconjecturethatitistoplacethesoulofthechildinasaferplacethanitsownfraillittlebody.
Thisconjectureisconfirmedbythereasonassignedforasimilarcustomobservedelsewhereinthe
IndianArchipelago.IntheKeiIslands,whenthereisanewlybornchildinahouse,anemptycoconut,
splitandsplicedtogetheragain,maysometimesbeseenhangingbesidearoughwoodenimageofan
ancestor.Thesouloftheinfantisbelievedtobetemporarilydepositedinthecoconutinorderthatit
maybesafefromtheattacksofevilspiritsbutwhenthechildgrowsbiggerandstronger,thesoulwill
takeupitspermanentabodeinitsownbody.SimilarlyamongtheEsquimauxofAlaska,whenachildis
sick,themedicinemanwillsometimesextractitssoulfromitsbodyandplaceitforsafekeepinginan
amulet,whichforfurthersecurityhedepositsinhisownmedicinebag.Itseemsprobablethatmany
amuletshavebeensimilarlyregardedassoulboxes,thatis,assafesinwhichthesoulsoftheownersare
keptforgreatersecurity.AnoldManganjewomanintheWestShiredistrictofBritishCentralAfrica
usedtowearroundherneckanivoryornament,hollow,andaboutthreeincheslong,whichshecalled
herlifeorsoul.Naturally,shewouldnotpartwithitaplantertriedtobuyitofher,butinvain.When
Mr.JamesMacdonaldwasonedaysittinginthehouseofaHlubichief,awaitingtheappearanceofthat
greatman,whowasbusydecoratinghisperson,anativepointedtoapairofmagnificentoxhorns,and

said,Ntamehashissoulinthesehorns.Thehornswerethoseofananimalwhichhadbeensacrificed,
andtheywereheldsacred.Amagicianhadfastenedthemtotherooftoprotectthehouseanditsinmates
fromthethunderbolt.Theidea,addsMr.Macdonald,isinnowayforeigntoSouthAfricanthought.
Amanssoultheremaydwellintheroofofhishouse,inatree,byaspringofwater,oronsome
mountainscaur.AmongthenativesoftheGazellePeninsulainNewBritainthereisasecretsociety
whichgoesbythenameofIngnietorIngiet.Onhisentranceintoiteverymanreceivesastoneinthe
shapeeitherofahumanbeingorofananimal,andhenceforthhissoulisbelievedtobeknitupina
mannerwiththestone.Ifitbreaks,itisanevilomenforhimtheysaythatthethunderhasstruckthe
stoneandthathewhoownsitwillsoondie.Ifneverthelessthemansurvivesthebreakingofhissoul
stone,theysaythatitwasnotapropersoulstoneandhegetsanewoneinstead.TheemperorRomanus
LecapenuswasonceinformedbyanastronomerthatthelifeofSimeon,princeofBulgaria,wasbound
upwithacertaincolumninConstantinople,sothatifthecapitalofthecolumnwereremoved,Simeon
wouldimmediatelydie.Theemperortookthehintandremovedthecapital,andatthesamehour,asthe
emperorlearnedbyenquiry,SimeondiedofheartdiseaseinBulgaria.
Again,wehaveseenthatinfolktalesamanssoulorstrengthissometimesrepresentedasboundup
withhishair,andthatwhenhishairiscutoffhediesorgrowsweak.SothenativesofAmboynausedto
thinkthattheirstrengthwasintheirhairandwoulddesertthemifitwereshorn.Acriminalundertorture
inaDutchCourtofthatislandpersistedindenyinghisguilttillhishairwascutoff,whenhe
immediatelyconfessed.Oneman,whowastriedformurder,enduredwithoutflinchingtheutmost
ingenuityofhistorturerstillhesawthesurgeonstandingwithapairofshears.Onaskingwhatthiswas
for,andbeingtoldthatitwastocuthishair,hebeggedtheywouldnotdoit,andmadeacleanbreast.In
subsequentcases,whentorturefailedtowringaconfessionfromaprisoner,theDutchauthoritiesmadea
practiceofcuttingoffhishair.
HereinEuropeitusedtobethoughtthatthemaleficentpowersofwitchesandwizardsresidedintheir
hair,andthatnothingcouldmakeanyimpressiononthemiscreantssolongastheykepttheirhairon.
HenceinFranceitwascustomarytoshavethewholebodiesofpersonschargedwithsorcerybefore
handingthemovertothetorturer.MillaeuswitnessedthetortureofsomepersonsatToulouse,from
whomnoconfessioncouldbewrunguntiltheywerestrippedandcompletelyshaven,whentheyreadily
acknowledgedthetruthofthecharge.Awomanalso,whoapparentlyledapiouslife,wasputtothe
tortureonsuspicionofwitchcraft,andboreheragonieswithincredibleconstancy,untilcomplete
depilationdrovehertoadmitherguilt.ThenotedinquisitorSprengercontentedhimselfwithshavingthe
headofthesuspectedwitchorwizardbuthismorethoroughgoingcolleagueCumanusshavedthewhole
bodiesoffortysevenwomenbeforecommittingthemalltotheflames.Hehadhighauthorityforthis
rigorousscrutiny,sinceSatanhimself,inasermonpreachedfromthepulpitofNorthBerwickchurch,
comfortedhismanyservantsbyassuringthemthatnoharmcouldbefallthemsalangastheirhairwes
on,andsouldnewirlattaneteirfallfrathairene.SimilarlyinBastar,aprovinceofIndia,ifamanis
adjudgedguiltyofwitchcraft,heisbeatenbythecrowd,hishairisshaved,thehairbeingsupposedto
constitutehispowerofmischief,hisfrontteethareknockedout,inorder,itissaid,topreventhimfrom
mutteringincantations.Womensuspectedofsorceryhavetoundergothesameordealiffoundguilty,
thesamepunishmentisawarded,andafterbeingshaved,theirhairisattachedtoatreeinsomepublic
place.SoamongtheBhilsofIndia,whenawomanwasconvictedofwitchcraftandhadbeensubjected
tovariousformsofpersuasion,suchashangingheaddownwardsfromatreeandhavingpepperputinto
hereyes,alockofhairwascutfromherheadandburiedintheground,thatthelastlinkbetweenher
andherformerpowersofmischiefmightbebroken.InlikemanneramongtheAztecsofMexico,when
wizardsandwitcheshaddonetheirevildeeds,andthetimecametoputanendtotheirdetestablelife,
someonelaidholdofthemandcroppedthehaironthecrownoftheirheads,whichtookfromthemall
theirpowerofsorceryandenchantment,andthenitwasthatbydeaththeyputanendtotheirodious
existence.

2.TheExternalSoulinPlants
FURTHERithasbeenshownthatinfolktalesthelifeofapersonissometimessoboundupwiththelife
ofaplantthatthewitheringoftheplantwillimmediatelyfolloworbefollowedbythedeathofthe
person.AmongtheMBengasinWesternAfrica,abouttheGaboon,whentwochildrenarebornonthe
sameday,thepeopleplanttwotreesofthesamekindanddanceroundthem.Thelifeofeachofthe
childrenisbelievedtobeboundupwiththelifeofoneofthetreesandifthetreediesoristhrown
down,theyaresurethatthechildwillsoondie.IntheCameroons,also,thelifeofapersonisbelievedto
besympatheticallyboundupwiththatofatree.ThechiefofOldTowninCalabarkepthissoulina
sacredgrovenearaspringofwater.WhensomeEuropeans,infrolicorignorance,cutdownpartofthe
grove,thespiritwasmostindignantandthreatenedtheperpetratorsofthedeed,accordingtotheking,
withallmannerofevil.
SomeofthePapuansunitethelifeofanewbornbabesympatheticallywiththatofatreebydrivinga
pebbleintothebarkofthetree.Thisissupposedtogivethemcompletemasteryoverthechildslifeif
thetreeiscutdown,thechildwilldie.AfterabirththeMaorisusedtoburythenavelstringinasacred
placeandplantayoungsaplingoverit.Asthetreegrew,itwasatohuorangaorsignoflifeforthe
childifitflourished,thechildwouldprosperifitwitheredanddied,theparentsauguredtheworstfor
thelittleone.InsomepartsofFijithenavelstringofamaleinfantisplantedtogetherwithacoconutor
theslipofabreadfruittree,andthechildslifeissupposedtobeintimatelyconnectedwiththatofthe
tree.AmongsttheDyaksofLandakandTajan,districtsofDutchBorneo,itiscustomarytoplantafruit
treeforababy,andhenceforthinthepopularbeliefthefateofthechildisboundupwiththatofthetree.
Ifthetreeshootsuprapidly,itwillgowellwiththechildbutifthetreeisdwarfedorshrivelled,nothing
butmisfortunecanbeexpectedforitshumancounterpart.
ItissaidthattherearestillfamiliesinRussia,Germany,England,France,andItalywhoareaccustomed
toplantatreeatthebirthofachild.Thetree,itishoped,willgrowwiththechild,anditistendedwith
specialcare.ThecustomisstillprettygeneralinthecantonofAargauinSwitzerlandanappletreeis
plantedforaboyandapeartreeforagirl,andthepeoplethinkthatthechildwillflourishordwindle
withthetree.InMecklenburgtheafterbirthisthrownoutatthefootofayoungtree,andthechildisthen
believedtogrowwiththetree.NeartheCastleofDalhousie,notfarfromEdinburgh,theregrowsanoak
tree,calledtheEdgewellTree,whichispopularlybelievedtobelinkedtothefateofthefamilybya
mysterioustiefortheysaythatwhenoneofthefamilydies,orisabouttodie,abranchfallsfromthe
EdgewellTree.Thus,onseeingagreatboughdropfromthetreeonaquiet,stilldayinJuly1874,anold
foresterexclaimed,Thelairdsdeidnoo!andsoonafternewscamethatFoxMaule,eleventhEarlof
Dalhousie,wasdead.
InEnglandchildrenaresometimespassedthroughacleftashtreeasacureforruptureorrickets,and
thenceforwardasympatheticconnexionissupposedtoexistbetweenthemandthetree.Anashtree
whichhadbeenusedforthispurposegrewattheedgeofShirleyHeath,ontheroadfromHocklyHouse
toBirmingham.ThomasChillingworth,sonoftheownerofanadjoiningfarm,nowaboutthirtyfour,
was,whenaninfantofayearold,passedthroughasimilartree,nowperfectlysound,whichhepreserves
withsomuchcarethathewillnotsufferasinglebranchtobetouched,foritisbelievedthelifeofthe
patientdependsonthelifeofthetree,andthemomentthatiscutdown,bethepatienteversodistant,the
rupturereturns,andamortificationensues,andterminatesindeath,aswasthecaseinamandrivinga
waggonontheveryroadinquestion.Itisnotuncommon,however,addsthewriter,forpersonsto
surviveforatimethefellingofthetree.Theordinarymodeofeffectingthecureistosplitayoungash
saplinglongitudinallyforafewfeetandpassthechild,naked,eitherthreetimesorthreetimesthree
throughthefissureatsunrise.IntheWestofEnglanditissaidthatthepassageshouldbeagainstthe
sun.Assoonastheceremonyhasbeenperformed,thetreeisboundtightlyupandthefissureplastered
overwithmudorclay.Thebeliefisthatjustasthecleftinthetreeclosesup,sotheruptureinthechilds

bodywillbehealedbutthatiftheriftinthetreeremainsopen,theruptureinthechildwillremaintoo,
andifthetreeweretodie,thedeathofthechildwouldsurelyfollow.
Asimilarcureforvariousdiseases,butespeciallyforruptureandrickets,hasbeencommonlypractised
inotherpartsofEurope,asGermany,France,Denmark,andSwedenbutinthesecountriesthetree
employedforthepurposeisusuallynotanashbutanoaksometimesawillowtreeisallowedoreven
prescribedinstead.InMecklenburg,asinEngland,thesympatheticrelationthusestablishedbetweenthe
treeandthechildisbelievedtobesoclosethatifthetreeiscutdownthechildwilldie.
3.TheExternalSoulinAnimals
BUTinpractice,asinfolktales,itisnotmerelywithinanimateobjectsandplantsthatapersonis
occasionallybelievedtobeunitedbyabondofphysicalsympathy.Thesamebond,itissupposed,may
existbetweenamanandananimal,sothatthewelfareoftheonedependsonthewelfareoftheother,
andwhentheanimaldiesthemandiesalso.Theanalogybetweenthecustomandthetalesisallthe
closerbecauseinbothofthemthepowerofthusremovingthesoulfromthebodyandstowingitawayin
ananimalisoftenaspecialprivilegeofwizardsandwitches.ThustheYakutsofSiberiabelievethat
everyshamanorwizardkeepshissoul,oroneofhissouls,incarnateinananimalwhichiscarefully
concealedfromalltheworld.Nobodycanfindmyexternalsoul,saidonefamouswizard,itlies
hiddenfarawayinthestonymountainsofEdzhigansk.Onlyonceayear,whenthelastsnowsmeltand
theearthturnsblack,dotheseexternalsoulsofwizardsappearintheshapeofanimalsamongthe
dwellingsofmen.Theywandereverywhere,yetnonebutwizardscanseethem.Thestrongonessweep
roaringandnoisilyalong,theweakstealaboutquietlyandfurtively.Oftentheyfight,andthenthe
wizardwhoseexternalsoulisbeaten,fallsillordies.Theweakestandmostcowardlywizardsarethey
whosesoulsareincarnateintheshapeofdogs,forthedoggiveshishumandoublenopeace,butgnaws
hisheartandtearshisbody.Themostpowerfulwizardsaretheywhoseexternalsoulshavetheshapeof
stallions,elks,blackbears,eagles,orboars.Again,theSamoyedsoftheTurukhinskregionholdthat
everyshamanhasafamiliarspiritintheshapeofaboar,whichheleadsaboutbyamagicbelt.Onthe
deathoftheboartheshamanhimselfdiesandstoriesaretoldofbattlesbetweenwizards,whosendtheir
spiritstofightbeforetheyencountereachotherinperson.TheMalaysbelievethatthesoulofaperson
maypassintoanotherpersonorintoananimal,orratherthatsuchamysteriousrelationcanarise
betweenthetwothatthefateoftheoneiswhollydependentonthatoftheother.
AmongtheMelanesiansofMota,oneoftheNewHebridesislands,theconceptionofanexternalsoulis
carriedoutinthepracticeofdailylife.IntheMotalanguagethewordtamaniusignifiessomething
animateorinanimatewhichamanhascometobelievetohaveanexistenceintimatelyconnectedwith
hisown.ItwasnoteveryoneinMotawhohadhistamaniuonlysomemenfanciedthattheyhadthis
relationtoalizard,asnake,oritmightbeastonesometimesthethingwassoughtforandfoundby
drinkingtheinfusionofcertainleavesandheapingtogetherthedregsthenwhateverlivingthingwas
firstseeninorupontheheapwasthetamaniu.Itwaswatchedbutnotfedorworshippedthenatives
believedthatitcameatcall,andthatthelifeofthemanwasboundupwiththelifeofhistamaniu,ifa
livingthing,orwithitssafetyshoulditdie,orifnotlivinggetbrokenorbelost,themanwoulddie.
Henceincaseofsicknesstheywouldsendtoseeifthetamaniuwassafeandwell.
ThetheoryofanexternalsouldepositedinananimalappearstobeveryprevalentinWestAfrica,
particularlyinNigeria,theCameroons,andtheGaboon.AmongtheFansoftheGabooneverywizardis
believedatinitiationtounitehislifewiththatofsomeparticularwildanimalbyariteofblood
brotherhoodhedrawsbloodfromtheearoftheanimalandfromhisownarm,andinoculatestheanimal
withhisownblood,andhimselfwiththebloodofthebeast.Henceforthsuchanintimateunionis
establishedbetweenthetwothatthedeathoftheoneentailsthedeathoftheother.Theallianceis

thoughttobringtothewizardorsorcereragreataccessionofpower,whichhecanturntohisadvantage
invariousways.Inthefirstplace,likethewarlockinthefairytaleswhohasdepositedhislifeoutsideof
himselfinsomesafeplace,theFanwizardnowdeemshimselfinvulnerable.Moreover,theanimalwith
whichhehasexchangedbloodhasbecomehisfamiliar,andwillobeyanyordershemaychoosetogive
itsohemakesuseofittoinjureandkillhisenemies.Forthatreasonthecreaturewithwhomhe
establishestherelationofbloodbrotherhoodisneveratameordomesticanimal,butalwaysaferocious
anddangerouswildbeast,suchasaleopard,ablackserpent,acrocodile,ahippopotamus,awildboar,or
avulture.OfallthesecreaturestheleopardisbyfarthecommonestfamiliarofFanwizards,andnextto
itcomestheblackserpentthevultureistherarest.Witchesaswellaswizardshavetheirfamiliarsbut
theanimalswithwhichthelivesofwomenarethusboundupgenerallydifferfromthosetowhichmen
committheirexternalsouls.Awitchneverhasapantherforherfamiliar,butoftenavenomousspecies
ofserpent,sometimesahornedviper,sometimesablackserpent,sometimesagreenonethatlivesin
bananatreesoritmaybeavulture,anowl,orotherbirdofnight.Ineverycasethebeastorbirdwith
whichthewitchorwizardhascontractedthismysticallianceisanindividual,neveraspeciesandwhen
theindividualanimaldiestheallianceisnaturallyatanend,sincethedeathoftheanimalissupposedto
entailthedeathoftheman.
SimilarbeliefsareheldbythenativesoftheCrossRivervalleywithintheprovincesoftheCameroons.
Groupsofpeople,generallytheinhabitantsofavillage,havechosenvariousanimals,withwhichthey
believethemselvestostandonafootingofintimatefriendshiporrelationship.Amongstsuchanimalsare
hippopotamuses,elephants,leopards,crocodiles,gorillas,fish,andserpents,allofthemcreatureswhich
areeitherverystrongorcaneasilyhidethemselvesinthewaterorathicket.Thispowerofconcealing
themselvesissaidtobeanindispensableconditionofthechoiceofanimalfamiliars,sincetheanimal
friendorhelperisexpectedtoinjurehisownersenemybystealthforexample,ifheisahippopotamus,
hewillbobupsuddenlyoutofthewaterandcapsizetheenemyscanoe.Betweentheanimalsandtheir
humanfriendsorkinsfolksuchasympatheticrelationissupposedtoexistthatthemomenttheanimal
diesthemandiesalso,andsimilarlytheinstantthemanperishessodoesthebeast.Fromthisitfollows
thattheanimalkinsfolkmayneverbeshotatormolestedforfearofinjuringorkillingthepersonswhose
livesareknitupwiththelivesofthebrutes.Thisdoesnot,however,preventthepeopleofavillage,who
haveelephantsfortheiranimalfriends,fromhuntingelephants.Fortheydonotrespectthewholespecies
butmerelycertainindividualsofit,whichstandinanintimaterelationtocertainindividualmenand
womenandtheyimaginethattheycanalwaysdistinguishthesebrotherelephantsfromthecommonherd
ofelephantswhicharemereelephantsandnothingmore.Therecognitionindeedissaidtobemutual.
Whenahunter,whohasanelephantforhisfriend,meetsahumanelephant,aswemaycallit,thenoble
animalliftsupapawandholdsitbeforehisface,asmuchastosay,Dontshoot.Werethehunterso
inhumanastofireonandwoundsuchanelephant,thepersonwhoselifewasboundupwiththeelephant
wouldfallill.
TheBalongoftheCameroonsthinkthateverymanhasseveralsouls,ofwhichoneisinhisbodyand
anotherinananimal,suchasanelephant,awildpig,aleopard,andsoforth.Whenamancomeshome,
feelingill,andsays,Ishallsoondie,anddiesaccordingly,thepeopleaverthatoneofhissoulshas
beenkilledinawildpigoraleopardandthatthedeathoftheexternalsoulhascausedthedeathofthe
soulinhisbody.AsimilarbeliefintheexternalsoulsoflivingpeopleisentertainedbytheIbos,an
importanttribeoftheNigerdelta.Theythinkthatamansspiritcanquithisbodyforatimeduringlife
andtakeupitsabodeinananimal.Amanwhowishestoacquirethispowerprocuresacertaindrugfrom
awisemanandmixesitwithhisfood.Afterthathissoulgoesoutandentersintoananimal.Ifitshould
happenthattheanimaliskilledwhilethemanssoulislodgedinit,themandiesandiftheanimalbe
wounded,themansbodywillpresentlybecoveredwithboils.Thisbeliefinstigatestomanydeedsof
darknessforaslyroguewillsometimessurreptitiouslyadministerthemagicaldrugtohisenemyinhis
food,andhavingthussmuggledtheotherssoulintoananimalwilldestroythecreature,andwithitthe
manwhosesoulislodgedinit.

ThenegroesofCalabar,atthemouthoftheNiger,believethateverypersonhasfoursouls,oneofwhich
alwayslivesoutsideofhisorherbodyintheformofawildbeastintheforest.Thisexternalsoul,or
bushsoul,asMissKingsleycallsit,maybealmostanyanimal,forexample,aleopard,afish,ora
tortoisebutitisneveradomesticanimalandneveraplant.Unlessheisgiftedwithsecondsight,aman
cannotseehisownbushsoul,butadivinerwilloftentellhimwhatsortofcreaturehisbushsoulis,and
afterthatthemanwillbecarefulnottokillanyanimalofthatspecies,andwillstronglyobjecttoanyone
elsedoingso.Amanandhissonshaveusuallythesamesortofanimalsfortheirbushsouls,andsowith
amotherandherdaughters.Butsometimesallthechildrenofafamilytakeafterthebushsouloftheir
fatherforexample,ifhisexternalsoulisaleopard,allhissonsanddaughterswillhaveleopardsfortheir
externalsouls.Andontheotherhand,sometimestheyalltakeaftertheirmotherforinstance,ifher
externalsoulisatortoise,alltheexternalsoulsofhersonsanddaughterswillbetortoisestoo.So
intimatelyboundupisthelifeofthemanwiththatoftheanimalwhichheregardsashisexternalorbush
soul,thatthedeathorinjuryoftheanimalnecessarilyentailsthedeathorinjuryoftheman.And,
conversely,whenthemandies,hisbushsoulcannolongerfindaplaceofrest,butgoesmadandrushes
intothefireorchargespeopleandisknockedonthehead,andthatisanendofit.
NearEketinNorthCalabarthereisasacredlake,thefishofwhicharecarefullypreservedbecausethe
peoplebelievethattheirownsoulsarelodgedinthefish,andthatwitheveryfishkilledahumanlife
wouldbesimultaneouslyextinguished.IntheCalabarRivernotverymanyyearsagothereusedtobea
hugeoldcrocodile,popularlysupposedtocontaintheexternalsoulofachiefwhoresidedinthefleshat
DukeTown.Sportingviceconsulsusedfromtimetotimetohunttheanimal,andonceanofficer
contrivedtohitit.Forthwiththechiefwaslaidupwithawoundinhisleg.Hegaveoutthatadoghad
bittenhim,butnodoubtthewiseshooktheirheadsandrefusedtobeputoffwithsoflimsyapretext.
Again,amongseveraltribesonthebanksoftheNigerbetweenLokojaandthedeltathereprevailsa
beliefinthepossibilityofamanpossessinganalteregointheformofsomeanimalsuchasacrocodile
orahippopotamus.Itisbelievedthatsuchapersonslifeisboundupwiththatoftheanimaltosuchan
extentthat,whateveraffectstheoneproducesacorrespondingimpressionupontheother,andthatifone
diestheothermustspeedilydosotoo.IthappenednotverylongagothatanEnglishmanshota
hippopotamusclosetoanativevillagethefriendsofawomanwhodiedthesamenightinthevillage
demandedandeventuallyobtainedfivepoundsascompensationforthemurderofthewoman.
AmongsttheZapotecsofCentralAmerica,whenawomanwasabouttobeconfined,herrelations
assembledinthehut,andbegantodrawonthefloorfiguresofdifferentanimals,rubbingeachoneoutas
soonasitwascompleted.Thiswentontillthemomentofbirth,andthefigurethatthenremained
sketcheduponthegroundwascalledthechildstonaorsecondself.Whenthechildgrewoldenough,
heprocuredtheanimalthatrepresentedhimandtookcareofit,asitwasbelievedthathealthand
existencewereboundupwiththatoftheanimals,infactthatthedeathofbothwouldoccur
simultaneously,orratherthatwhentheanimaldiedthemanwoulddietoo.AmongtheIndiansof
GuatemalaandHondurasthenagualornaualisthatanimateorinanimateobject,generallyananimal,
whichstandsinaparallelrelationtoaparticularman,sothatthewealandwoeofthemandependonthe
fateofthenagual.Accordingtoanoldwriter,manyIndiansofGuatemalaaredeludedbythedevilto
believethattheirlifedependethuponthelifeofsuchandsuchabeast(whichtheytakeuntothemastheir
familiarspirit),andthinkthatwhenthatbeastdieththeymustdiewhenheischased,theirheartspant
whenheisfaint,theyarefaintnay,ithappeneththatbythedevilsdelusiontheyappearintheshapeof
thatbeast(whichcommonlybytheirchoiceisabuck,ordoe,alion,ortigre,ordog,oreagle)andinthat
shapehavebeenshotatandwounded.TheIndianswerepersuadedthatthedeathoftheirnagualwould
entailtheirown.LegendaffirmsthatinthefirstbattleswiththeSpaniardsontheplateauof
QuetzaltenangothenagualsoftheIndianchiefsfoughtintheformofserpents.Thenagualofthehighest
chiefwasespeciallyconspicuous,becauseithadtheformofagreatbird,resplendentingreenplumage.
TheSpanishgeneralPedrodeAlvaradokilledthebirdwithhislance,andatthesamemomenttheIndian
chieffelldeadtotheground.

InmanytribesofSouthEasternAustraliaeachsexusedtoregardaparticularspeciesofanimalsinthe
samewaythataCentralAmericanIndianregardedhisnagual,butwiththisdifference,thatwhereasthe
Indianapparentlyknewtheindividualanimalwithwhichhislifewasboundup,theAustraliansonly
knewthateachoftheirliveswasboundupwithsomeoneanimalofthespecies,buttheycouldnotsay
withwhich.Theresultnaturallywasthateverymansparedandprotectedalltheanimalsofthespecies
withwhichthelivesofthemenwereboundupandeverywomansparedandprotectedalltheanimalsof
thespecieswithwhichthelivesofthewomenwereboundupbecausenooneknewbutthatthedeathof
anyanimaloftherespectivespeciesmightentailhisorherownjustasthekillingofthegreenbirdwas
immediatelyfollowedbythedeathoftheIndianchief,andthekillingoftheparrotbythedeathof
Punchkininthefairytale.Thus,forexample,theWotjobaluktribeofSouthEasternAustraliaheldthat
thelifeofNgnngnt(theBat)isthelifeofaman,andthelifeofYrtatgrk(theNightjar)isthe
lifeofawoman,andthatwheneitherofthesecreaturesiskilledthelifeofsomemanorofsomewoman
isshortened.Insuchacaseeverymanoreverywomaninthecampfearedthatheorshemightbethe
victim,andfromthiscausegreatfightsaroseinthistribe.Ilearnthatinthesefights,menononesideand
womenontheother,itwasnotatallcertainwhichwouldbevictorious,forattimesthewomengavethe
menaseveredrubbingwiththeiryamsticks,whileoftenwomenwereinjuredorkilledbyspears.The
Wotjobaluksaidthatthebatwasthemansbrotherandthatthenightjarwashiswife.Theparticular
speciesofanimalswithwhichthelivesofthesexeswerebelievedtoberespectivelyboundupvaried
somewhatfromtribetotribe.ThuswhereasamongtheWotjobalukthebatwastheanimalofthemen,at
GunbowerCreekontheLowerMurraythebatseemstohavebeentheanimalofthewomen,forthe
nativeswouldnotkillitforthereasonthatifitwaskilled,oneoftheirlubras[women]wouldbesureto
dieinconsequence.Butwhatevertheparticularsortsofcreaturewithwhichthelivesofmenand
womenwerebelievedtobeboundup,thebeliefitselfandthefightstowhichitgaveriseareknownto
haveprevailedoveralargepartofSouthEasternAustralia,andprobablytheyextendedmuchfarther.
Thebeliefwasaveryseriousone,andsoconsequentlywerethefightswhichsprangfromit.Thusamong
sometribesofVictoriathecommonbatbelongstothemen,whoprotectitagainstinjury,eventothe
halfkillingoftheirwivesforitssake.Thefernowl,orlargegoatsucker,belongstothewomen,and,
althoughabirdofevilomen,creatingterroratnightbyitscry,itisjealouslyprotectedbythem.Ifaman
killsone,theyareasmuchenragedasifitwasoneoftheirchildren,andwillstrikehimwiththeirlong
poles.
ThejealousprotectionthusaffordedbyAustralianmenandwomentobatsandowlsrespectively(for
batsandowlsseemtobethecreaturesusuallyallottedtothetwosexes)isnotbaseduponpurelyselfish
considerations.Foreachmanbelievesthatnotonlyhisownlifebutthelivesofhisfather,brothers,sons,
andsoonareboundupwiththelivesofparticularbats,andthatthereforeinprotectingthebatspecieshe
isprotectingthelivesofallhismalerelationsaswellashisown.Similarly,eachwomanbelievesthatthe
livesofhermother,sisters,daughters,andsoforth,equallywithherown,areboundupwiththelivesof
particularowls,andthatinguardingtheowlspeciessheisguardingthelivesofallherfemalerelations
besidesherown.Now,whenmenslivesarethussupposedtobecontainedincertainanimals,itis
obviousthattheanimalscanhardlybedistinguishedfromthemen,orthemenfromtheanimals.Ifmy
brotherJohnslifeisinabat,then,ontheonehand,thebatismybrotheraswellasJohnand,onthe
otherhand,Johnisinasenseabat,sincehislifeisinabat.Similarly,ifmysisterMaryslifeisinan
owl,thentheowlismysisterandMaryisanowl.Thisisanaturalenoughconclusion,andthe
Australianshavenotfailedtodrawit.Whenthebatisthemansanimal,itiscalledhisbrotherandwhen
theowlisthewomansanimal,itiscalledhersister.Andconverselyamanaddressesawomanasan
owl,andsheaddresseshimasabat.Sowiththeotheranimalsallottedtothesexesrespectivelyinother
tribes.Forexample,amongtheKurnaiallemuwrenswerebrothersofthemen,andallthemenwere
emuwrensallsuperbwarblersweresistersofthewomen,andallthewomenweresuperbwarblers.
Butwhenasavagenameshimselfafterananimal,callsithisbrother,andrefusestokillit,theanimalis
saidtobehistotem.AccordinglyinthetribesofSouthEasternAustraliawhichwehavebeen

consideringthebatandtheowl,theemuwrenandthesuperbwarbler,mayproperlybedescribedas
totemsofthesexes.Buttheassignationofatotemtoasexiscomparativelyrare,andhashithertobeen
discoverednowherebutinAustralia.Farmorecommonlythetotemisappropriatednottoasex,buttoa
clan,andishereditaryeitherinthemaleorfemaleline.Therelationofanindividualtotheclantotem
doesnotdifferinkindfromhisrelationtothesextotemhewillnotkillit,hespeaksofitashisbrother,
andhecallshimselfbyitsname.Nowiftherelationsaresimilar,theexplanationwhichholdsgoodof
theoneoughtequallytoholdgoodoftheother.Therefore,thereasonwhyaclanrevereaparticular
speciesofanimalsorplants(fortheclantotemmaybeaplant)andcallthemselvesafterit,wouldseem
tobeabeliefthatthelifeofeachindividualoftheclanisboundupwithsomeoneanimalorplantofthe
species,andthathisorherdeathwouldbetheconsequenceofkillingthatparticularanimal,or
destroyingthatparticularplant.ThisexplanationoftotemismsquaresverywellwithSirGeorgeGreys
definitionofatotemorkobonginWesternAustralia.Hesays:Acertainmysteriousconnexionexists
betweenafamilyanditskobong,sothatamemberofthefamilywillneverkillananimalofthespecies
towhichhiskobongbelongs,shouldhefinditasleepindeedhealwayskillsitreluctantly,andnever
withoutaffordingitachancetoescape.Thisarisesfromthefamilybeliefthatsomeoneindividualofthe
speciesistheirnearestfriend,tokillwhomwouldbeagreatcrime,andtobecarefullyavoided.
Similarly,anativewhohasavegetableforhiskobongmaynotgatheritundercertaincircumstances,and
ataparticularperiodoftheyear.Hereitwillbeobservedthatthougheachmansparesalltheanimalsor
plantsofthespecies,theyarenotallequallyprecioustohimfarfromit,outofthewholespeciesthereis
onlyonewhichisspeciallydeartohimbutashedoesnotknowwhichthedearoneis,heisobligedto
sparethemallfromfearofinjuringtheone.Again,thisexplanationoftheclantotemharmoniseswith
thesupposedeffectofkillingoneofthetotemspecies.Onedayoneoftheblackskilledacrow.Three
orfourdaysafterwardsaBoortwa(crow)[i.e.amanoftheCrowclan]namedLarrydied.Hehadbeen
ailingforsomedays,butthekillingofhiswingong[totem]hastenedhisdeath.Herethekillingofthe
crowcausedthedeathofamanoftheCrowclan,exactlyas,inthecaseofthesextotems,thekillingofa
batcausesthedeathofaBatmanorthekillingofanowlcausesthedeathofanOwlwoman.Similarly,
thekillingofhisnagualcausesthedeathofaCentralAmericanIndian,thekillingofhisbushsoul
causesthedeathofaCalabarnegro,thekillingofhistamaniucausesthedeathofaBanksIslander,and
thekillingoftheanimalinwhichhislifeisstowedawaycausesthedeathofthegiantorwarlockinthe
fairytale.
ThusitappearsthatthestoryofThegiantwhohadnoheartinhisbodymayperhapsfurnishthekeyto
therelationwhichissupposedtosubsistbetweenamanandhistotem.Thetotem,onthistheory,is
simplythereceptacleinwhichamankeepshislife,asPunchkinkepthislifeinaparrot,andBidasari
kepthersoulinagoldenfish.Itisnovalidobjectiontothisviewthatwhenasavagehasbothasextotem
andaclantotemhislifemustbeboundupwithtwodifferentanimals,thedeathofeitherofwhichwould
entailhisown.Ifamanhasmorevitalplacesthanoneinhisbody,why,thesavagemaythink,shouldhe
nothavemorevitalplacesthanoneoutsideit?Why,sincehecanputhislifeoutsidehimself,shouldhe
nottransferoneportionofittooneanimalandanothertoanother?Thedivisibilityoflife,or,toputit
otherwise,thepluralityofsouls,isanideasuggestedbymanyfamiliarfacts,andhascommendeditself
tophilosopherslikePlato,aswellastosavages.Itisonlywhenthenotionofasoul,frombeingaquasi
scientifichypothesis,becomesatheologicaldogmathatitsunityandindivisibilityareinsisteduponas
essential.Thesavage,unshackledbydogma,isfreetoexplainthefactsoflifebytheassumptionofas
manysoulsashethinksnecessary.Hence,forexample,theCaribssupposedthattherewasonesoulin
thehead,anotherintheheart,andothersoulsatalltheplaceswhereanarteryisfeltpulsating.Someof
theHidatsaIndiansexplainthephenomenaofgradualdeath,whentheextremitiesappeardeadfirst,by
supposingthatmanhasfoursouls,andthattheyquitthebody,notsimultaneously,butoneafterthe
other,dissolutionbeingonlycompletewhenallfourhavedeparted.SomeoftheDyaksofBorneoand
theMalaysofthePeninsulabelievethateverymanhassevensouls.TheAlfoorsofPosoinCelebesare
ofopinionthathehasthree.ThenativesofLaossupposethatthebodyistheseatofthirtyspirits,which
resideinthehands,thefeet,themouth,theeyes,andsoon.Hence,fromtheprimitivepointofview,itis

perfectlypossiblethatasavageshouldhaveonesoulinhissextotemandanotherinhisclantotem.
However,asIhaveobserved,sextotemshavebeenfoundnowherebutinAustraliasothatasarulethe
savagewhopractisestotemismneednothavemorethanonesouloutofhisbodyatatime.
Ifthisexplanationofthetotemasareceptacleinwhichamankeepshissouloroneofhissoulsis
correct,weshouldexpecttofindsometotemicpeopleofwhomitisexpresslysaidthateveryman
amongstthemisbelievedtokeepatleastonesoulpermanentlyoutofhisbody,andthatthedestruction
ofthisexternalsoulissupposedtoentailthedeathofitsowner.SuchapeoplearetheBataksofSumatra.
TheBataksaredividedintoexogamousclans(margas)withdescentinthemalelineandeachclanis
forbiddentoeatthefleshofaparticularanimal.Oneclanmaynoteatthetiger,anothertheape,another
thecrocodile,anotherthedog,anotherthecat,anotherthedove,anotherthewhitebuffalo,andanother
thelocust.Thereasongivenbymembersofaclanforabstainingfromthefleshoftheparticularanimalis
eitherthattheyaredescendedfromanimalsofthatspecies,andthattheirsoulsafterdeathmay
transmigrateintotheanimals,orthattheyortheirforefathershavebeenundercertainobligationstothe
creatures.Sometimes,butnotalways,theclanbearsthenameoftheanimal.ThustheBatakshave
totemisminfull.But,further,eachBatakbelievesthathehassevenor,onamoremoderatecomputation,
threesouls.Oneofthesesoulsisalwaysoutsidethebody,butneverthelesswheneveritdies,howeverfar
awayitmaybeatthetime,thatsamemomentthemandiesalso.Thewriterwhomentionsthisbelief
saysnothingabouttheBataktotemsbutontheanalogyoftheAustralian,CentralAmerican,andAfrican
evidencewemayconjecturethattheexternalsoul,whosedeathentailsthedeathoftheman,ishousedin
thetotemicanimalorplant.
AgainstthisviewitcanhardlybethoughttomilitatethattheBatakdoesnotinsettermsaffirmhis
externalsoultobeinhistotem,butallegesothergroundsforrespectingthesacredanimalorplantofhis
clan.Forifasavageseriouslybelievesthathislifeisboundupwithanexternalobject,itisinthelast
degreeunlikelythathewillletanystrangerintothesecret.Inallthattoucheshisinmostlifeandbeliefs
thesavageisexceedinglysuspiciousandreservedEuropeanshaveresidedamongsavagesforyears
withoutdiscoveringsomeoftheircapitalarticlesoffaith,andintheendthediscoveryhasoftenbeenthe
resultofaccident.Aboveall,thesavagelivesinanintenseandperpetualdreadofassassinationby
sorcerythemosttriflingrelicsofhispersontheclippingsofhishairandnails,hisspittle,theremnants
ofhisfood,hisverynameallthesemay,hefancies,beturnedbythesorcerertohisdestruction,andhe
isthereforeanxiouslycarefultoconcealordestroythem.Butifinmatterssuchasthese,whicharebut
theoutpostsandoutworksofhislife,heissoshyandsecretive,howclosemustbetheconcealment,how
impenetrablethereserveinwhichheenshroudstheinnerkeepandcitadelofhisbeing!Whenthe
princessinthefairytaleasksthegiantwherehekeepshissoul,heoftengivesfalseorevasiveanswers,
anditisonlyaftermuchcoaxingandwheedlingthatthesecretisatlastwrungfromhim.Inhisjealous
reticencethegiantresemblesthetimidandfurtivesavagebutwhereastheexigenciesofthestory
demandthatthegiantshouldatlastrevealhissecret,nosuchobligationislaidonthesavageandno
inducementthatcanbeofferedislikelytotempthimtoimperilhissoulbyrevealingitshidingplacetoa
stranger.Itisthereforenomatterforsurprisethatthecentralmysteryofthesavageslifeshouldsolong
haveremainedasecret,andthatweshouldbelefttopieceittogetherfromscatteredhintsandfragments
andfromtherecollectionsofitwhichlingerinfairytales.
4.TheRitualofDeathandResurrection
THISviewoftotemismthrowslightonaclassofreligiousritesofwhichnoadequateexplanation,sofar
asIamaware,hasyetbeenoffered.Amongstmanysavagetribes,especiallysuchasareknownto
practicetotemism,itiscustomaryforladsatpubertytoundergocertaininitiatoryrites,ofwhichoneof
thecommonestisapretenceofkillingtheladandbringinghimtolifeagain.Suchritesbecome
intelligibleifwesupposethattheirsubstanceconsistsinextractingtheyouthssoulinordertotransferit

tohistotem.Fortheextractionofhissoulwouldnaturallybesupposedtokilltheyouthoratleastto
throwhimintoadeathliketrance,whichthesavagehardlydistinguishesfromdeath.Hisrecoverywould
thenbeattributedeithertothegradualrecoveryofhissystemfromtheviolentshockwhichithad
received,or,moreprobably,totheinfusionintohimoffreshlifedrawnfromthetotem.Thustheessence
oftheseinitiatoryrites,sofarastheyconsistinasimulationofdeathandresurrection,wouldbean
exchangeoflifeorsoulsbetweenthemanandhistotem.Theprimitivebeliefinthepossibilityofsuchan
exchangeofsoulscomesclearlyoutinastoryofaBasquehunterwhoaffirmedthathehadbeenkilled
byabear,butthatthebearhad,afterkillinghim,breatheditsownsoulintohim,sothatthebearsbody
wasnowdead,buthehimselfwasabear,beinganimatedbythebearssoul.Thisrevivalofthedead
hunterasabearisexactlyanalogoustowhat,onthetheoryheresuggested,issupposedtotakeplacein
theceremonyofkillingaladatpubertyandbringinghimtolifeagain.Theladdiesasamanandcomes
tolifeagainasananimaltheanimalssoulisnowinhim,andhishumansoulisintheanimal.With
goodright,therefore,doeshecallhimselfaBearoraWolf,etc.,accordingtohistotemandwithgood
rightdoeshetreatthebearsorthewolves,etc.,ashisbrethren,sinceintheseanimalsarelodgedthe
soulsofhimselfandhiskindred.
Examplesofthissupposeddeathandresurrectionatinitiationareasfollows.IntheWonghior
WonghibontribeofNewSouthWalestheyouthsonapproachingmanhoodareinitiatedatasecret
ceremony,whichnonebutinitiatedmenmaywitness.Partoftheproceedingsconsistsinknockingouta
toothandgivinganewnametothenovice,indicativeofthechangefromyouthtomanhood.Whilethe
teetharebeingknockedoutaninstrumentknownasabullroarer,whichconsistsofaflatpieceofwood
withserratededgestiedtotheendofastring,isswungroundsoastoproducealoudhummingnoise.
Theuninitiatedarenotallowedtoseethisinstrument.Womenareforbiddentowitnesstheceremonies
underpainofdeath.Itisgivenoutthattheyouthsareeachmetinturnbyamythicalbeing,called
Thuremlin(morecommonlyknownasDaramulun)whotakestheyouthtoadistance,killshim,andin
someinstancescutshimup,afterwhichherestoreshimtolifeandknocksoutatooth.Theirbeliefinthe
powerofThuremlinissaidtobeundoubted.
TheUalaroioftheUpperDarlingRiversaidthatatinitiationtheboymetaghost,whokilledhimand
broughthimtolifeagainasayoungman.AmongthenativesontheLowerLachlanandMurrayRiversit
wasThrumalun(Daramulun)whowasthoughttoslayandresuscitatethenovices.IntheUnmatjeratribe
ofCentralAustraliawomenandchildrenbelievethataspiritcalledTwanyirikakillstheyouthand
afterwardsbringshimtolifeagainduringtheperiodofinitiation.Theritesofinitiationinthistribe,asin
theotherCentraltribes,comprisetheoperationsofcircumcisionandsubincisionandassoonasthe
secondofthesehasbeenperformedonhim,theyoungmanreceivesfromhisfatherasacredstick
(churinga),withwhich,heistold,hisspiritwasassociatedintheremotestpast.Whileheisoutinthe
bushrecoveringfromhiswounds,hemustswingthebullroarer,orabeingwholivesupintheskywill
swoopdownandcarryhimoff.IntheBinbingatribe,onthewesterncoastoftheGulfofCarpentaria,the
womenandchildrenbelievethatthenoiseofthebullroareratinitiationismadebyaspiritnamed
Katajalina,wholivesinananthillandcomesoutandeatsuptheboy,afterwardsrestoringhimtolife.
SimilarlyamongtheirneighbourstheAnulathewomenimaginethatthedroningsoundofthebullroarer
isproducedbyaspiritcalledGnabaia,whoswallowstheladsatinitiationandafterwardsdisgorgesthem
intheformofinitiatedmen.
AmongthetribessettledonthesoutherncoastofNewSouthWales,ofwhichtheCoastMurringtribe
mayberegardedastypical,thedramaofresurrectionfromthedeadwasexhibitedinagraphicformto
thenovicesatinitiation.Theceremonyhasbeendescribedforusbyaneyewitness.Aman,disguised
withstringybarkfibre,laydowninagraveandwaslightlycoveredupwithsticksandearth.Inhishand
heheldasmallbush,whichappearedtobegrowinginthesoil,andotherbusheswerestuckinthe
groundtoheightentheeffect.Thenthenoviceswerebroughtandplacedbesidethegrave.Next,a
processionofmen,disguisedinstringybarkfibre,drewnear.Theyrepresentedapartyofmedicinemen,

guidedbytworeverendseniors,whohadcomeonpilgrimagetothegraveofabrothermedicineman,
wholayburiedthere.Whenthelittleprocession,chantinganinvocationtoDaramulun,haddefiledfrom
amongtherocksandtreesintotheopen,itdrewuponthesideofthegraveoppositetothenovices,the
twooldmentakingupapositionintherearofthedancers.Forsometimethedanceandsongwentontill
thetreethatseemedtogrowfromthegravebegantoquiver.Lookthere!criedthementothenovices,
pointingtothetremblingleaves.Astheylooked,thetreequiveredmoreandmore,thenwasviolently
agitatedandfelltotheground,whileamidtheexciteddancingofthedancersandthechantingofthe
choirthesupposeddeadmanspurnedfromhimthesuperincumbentmassofsticksandleaves,and
springingtohisfeetdancedhismagicdanceinthegraveitself,andexhibitedinhismouththemagic
substanceswhichhewassupposedtohavereceivedfromDaramuluninperson.
SometribesofNorthernNewGuineatheYabim,Bukaua,Kai,andTamilikemanyAustraliantribes,
requireeverymalememberofthetribetobecircumcisedbeforeheranksasafullgrownmanandthe
tribalinitiation,ofwhichcircumcisionisthecentralfeature,isconceivedbythem,asbysomeAustralian
tribes,asaprocessofbeingswallowedanddisgorgedbyamythicalmonster,whosevoiceisheardinthe
hummingsoundofthebullroarer.IndeedtheNewGuineatribesnotonlyimpressthisbeliefonthe
mindsofwomenandchildren,butenactitinadramaticformattheactualritesofinitiation,atwhichno
womanoruninitiatedpersonmaybepresent.Forthispurposeahutaboutahundredfeetlongiserected
eitherinthevillageorinalonelypartoftheforest.Itismodelledintheshapeofthemythicalmonsterat
theendwhichrepresentshisheaditishigh,andittapersawayattheotherend.Abetelpalm,grubbedup
withtheroots,standsforthebackboneofthegreatbeinganditsclusteringfibresforhishairandto
completetheresemblancethebuttendofthebuildingisadornedbyanativeartistwithapairofgoggle
eyesandagapingmouth.Whenafteratearfulpartingfromtheirmothersandwomenfolk,whobelieve
orpretendtobelieveinthemonsterthatswallowstheirdearones,theawestrucknovicesarebrought
facetofacewiththisimposingstructure,thehugecreatureemitsasullengrowl,whichisinfactnoother
thanthehummingnoteofbullroarersswungbymenconcealedinthemonstersbelly.Theactual
processofdeglutitionisvariouslyenacted.AmongtheTamiitisrepresentedbycausingthecandidatesto
defilepastarowofmenwhoholdbullroarersovertheirheadsamongtheKaiitismoregraphicallyset
forthbymakingthempassunderascaffoldonwhichstandsaman,whomakesagestureofswallowing
andtakesinfactagulpofwateraseachtremblingnovicepassesbeneathhim.Butthepresentofapig,
opportunelyofferedfortheredemptionoftheyouth,inducesthemonstertorelentanddisgorgehis
victimthemanwhorepresentsthemonsteracceptsthegiftvicariously,agurglingsoundisheard,and
thewaterwhichhadjustbeenswalloweddescendsinajetonthenovice.Thissignifiesthattheyoung
manhasbeenreleasedfromthemonstersbelly.However,hehasnowtoundergothemorepainfuland
dangerousoperationofcircumcision.Itfollowsimmediately,andthecutmadebytheknifeofthe
operatorisexplainedtobeabiteorscratchwhichthemonsterinflictedonthenoviceinspewinghimout
ofhiscapaciousmaw.Whiletheoperationisproceeding,aprodigiousnoiseismadebytheswingingof
bullroarerstorepresenttheroarofthedreadfulbeingwhoisintheactofswallowingtheyoungman.
When,assometimeshappens,aladdiesfromtheeffectoftheoperation,heisburiedsecretlyinthe
forest,andhissorrowingmotheristoldthatthemonsterhasapigsstomachaswellasahumanstomach,
andthatunfortunatelyhersonslippedintothewrongstomach,fromwhichitwasimpossibletoextricate
him.Aftertheyhavebeencircumcisedtheladsmustremainforsomemonthsinseclusion,shunningall
contactwithwomenandeventhesightofthem.Theyliveinthelonghutwhichrepresentsthemonsters
belly.Whenatlastthelads,nowrankingasinitiatedmen,arebroughtbackwithgreatpompand
ceremonytothevillage,theyarereceivedwithsobsandtearsofjoybythewomen,asifthegravehad
givenupitsdead.Atfirsttheyoungmenkeeptheireyesrigidlyclosedorevensealedwithaplasterof
chalk,andtheyappearnottounderstandthewordsofcommandwhicharegiventhembyanelder.
Gradually,however,theycometothemselvesasifawakeningfromastupor,andnextdaytheybatheand
washoffthecrustofwhitechalkwithwhichtheirbodieshadbeencoated.

ItishighlysignificantthatallthesetribesofNewGuineaapplythesamewordtothebullroarerandto
themonster,whoissupposedtoswallowthenovicesatcircumcision,andwhosefearfulroaris
representedbythehumoftheharmlesswoodeninstruments.Further,itdeservestobenotedthatinthree
languagesoutofthefourthesamewordwhichisappliedtothebullroarerandtothemonstermeansalso
aghostorspiritofthedead,whileinthefourthlanguage(theKai)itsignifiesgrandfather.Fromthisit
seemstofollowthatthebeingwhoswallowsanddisgorgesthenovicesatinitiationisbelievedtobea
powerfulghostorancestralspirit,andthatthebullroarer,whichbearshisname,ishismaterial
representative.Thatwouldexplainthejealoussecrecywithwhichthesacredimplementiskeptfromthe
sightofwomen.Whiletheyarenotinuse,thebullroarersarestowedawayinthemensclubhouses,
whichnowomanmayenterindeednowomanoruninitiatedpersonmayseteyesonabullroarerunder
painofdeath.SimilarlyamongtheTugeriorKayaKaya,alargePapuantribeonthesouthcoastof
DutchNewGuinea,thenameofthebullroarer,whichtheycallsosom,isgiventoamythicalgiant,who
issupposedtoappeareveryyearwiththesoutheastmonsoon.Whenhecomes,afestivalisheldinhis
honourandbullroarersareswung.Boysarepresentedtothegiant,andhekillsthem,butconsiderately
bringsthemtolifeagain.
IncertaindistrictsofVitiLevu,thelargestoftheFijianIslands,thedramaofdeathandresurrectionused
tobeactedwithmuchsolemnitybeforetheeyesofyoungmenatinitiation.Inasacredenclosurethey
wereshownarowofdeadorseeminglydeadmenlyingontheground,theirbodiescutopenandcovered
withblood,theirentrailsprotruding.Butatayellfromthehighpriestthecounterfeitdeadmenstartedto
theirfeetandrandowntotherivertocleansethemselvesfromthebloodandgutsofpigswithwhich
theywerebeslobbered.Soontheymarchedbacktothesacredenclosureasifcometolife,clean,fresh,
andgarlanded,swayingtheirbodiesintimetothemusicofasolemnhymn,andtooktheirplacesinfront
ofthenovices.Suchwasthedramaofdeathandresurrection.
ThepeopleofRook,anislandbetweenNewGuineaandNewBritain,holdfestivalsatwhichoneortwo
disguisedmen,theirheadscoveredwithwoodenmasks,godancingthroughthevillage,followedbyall
theothermen.TheydemandthatthecircumcisedboyswhohavenotyetbeenswallowedbyMarsaba
(thedevil)shallbegivenuptothem.Theboys,tremblingandshrieking,aredeliveredtothem,andmust
creepbetweenthelegsofthedisguisedmen.Thentheprocessionmovesthroughthevillageagain,and
announcesthatMarsabahaseatenuptheboys,andwillnotdisgorgethemtillhereceivesapresentof
pigs,taro,andsoforth.Soallthevillagers,accordingtotheirmeans,contributeprovisions,whichare
thenconsumedinthenameofMarsaba.
InthewestofCeramboysatpubertyareadmittedtotheKakianassociation.Modernwritershave
commonlyregardedthisassociationasprimarilyapoliticalleagueinstitutedtoresistforeigndomination.
Inrealityitsobjectsarepurelyreligiousandsocial,thoughitispossiblethatthepriestsmayhave
occasionallyusedtheirpowerfulinfluenceforpoliticalends.Thesocietyisinfactmerelyoneofthose
widelydiffusedprimitiveinstitutions,ofwhichachiefobjectistheinitiationofyoungmen.Inrecent
yearsthetruenatureoftheassociationhasbeendulyrecognisedbythedistinguishedDutchethnologist,
J.G.F.Riedel.TheKakianhouseisanoblongwoodenshed,situatedunderthedarkesttreesinthedepth
oftheforest,andisbuilttoadmitsolittlelightthatitisimpossibletoseewhatgoesoninit.Every
villagehassuchahouse.Thithertheboyswhoaretobeinitiatedareconductedblindfold,followedby
theirparentsandrelations.Eachboyisledbythehandoftwomen,whoactashissponsorsorguardians,
lookingafterhimduringtheperiodofinitiation.Whenallareassembledbeforetheshed,thehighpriest
callsalouduponthedevils.Immediatelyahideousuproarisheardtoproceedfromtheshed.Itismade
bymenwithbambootrumpets,whohavebeensecretlyintroducedintothebuildingbyabackdoor,but
thewomenandchildrenthinkitismadebythedevils,andaremuchterrified.Thenthepriestsenterthe
shed,followedbytheboys,oneatatime.Assoonaseachboyhasdisappearedwithintheprecincts,a
dullchoppingsoundisheard,afearfulcryringsout,andaswordorspear,drippingwithblood,isthrust
throughtheroofoftheshed.Thisisatokenthattheboysheadhasbeencutoff,andthatthedevilhas

carriedhimawaytotheotherworld,theretoregenerateandtransformhim.Soatsightofthebloody
swordthemothersweepandwail,cryingthatthedevilhasmurderedtheirchildren.Insomeplaces,it
wouldseem,theboysarepushedthroughanopeningmadeintheshapeofacrocodilesjawsora
cassowarysbeak,anditisthensaidthatthedevilhasswallowedthem.Theboysremainintheshedfor
fiveorninedays.Sittinginthedark,theyheartheblastofthebambootrumpets,andfromtimetotime
thesoundofmusketshotsandtheclashofswords.Everydaytheybathe,andtheirfacesandbodiesare
smearedwithayellowdye,togivethemtheappearanceofhavingbeenswallowedbythedevil.During
hisstayintheKakianhouseeachboyhasoneortwocrossestattooedwiththornsonhisbreastorarm.
Whentheyarenotsleeping,theladsmustsitinacrouchingposturewithoutmovingamuscle.Astheysit
inarowcrosslegged,withtheirhandsstretchedout,thechieftakeshistrumpet,andplacingthemouth
ofitonthehandsofeachlad,speaksthroughitinstrangetones,imitatingthevoiceofthespirits.He
warnsthelads,underpainofdeath,toobservetherulesoftheKakiansociety,andnevertorevealwhat
haspassedintheKakianhouse.Thenovicesarealsotoldbytheprieststobehavewelltotheirblood
relations,andaretaughtthetraditionsandsecretsofthetribe.
Meantimethemothersandsistersoftheladshavegonehometoweepandmourn.Butinadayortwothe
menwhoactedasguardiansorsponsorstothenovicesreturntothevillagewiththegladtidingsthatthe
devil,attheintercessionofthepriests,hasrestoredtheladstolife.Themenwhobringthisnewscomein
afaintingstateanddaubedwithmud,likemessengersfreshlyarrivedfromthenetherworld.Before
leavingtheKakianhouse,eachladreceivesfromthepriestastickadornedatbothendswithacocksor
cassowarysfeathers.Thesticksaresupposedtohavebeengiventotheladsbythedevilatthetime
whenherestoredthemtolife,andtheyserveasatokenthattheyouthshavebeeninthespiritland.When
theyreturntotheirhomestheytotterintheirwalk,andenterthehousebackward,asiftheyhadforgotten
howtowalkproperlyortheyenterthehousebythebackdoor.Ifaplateoffoodisgiventothem,they
holditupsidedown.Theyremaindumb,indicatingtheirwantsbysignsonly.Allthisistoshowthatthey
arestillundertheinfluenceofthedevilorthespirits.Theirsponsorshavetoteachthemallthecommon
actsoflife,asiftheywerenewbornchildren.Further,uponleavingtheKakianhousetheboysarestrictly
forbiddentoeatofcertainfruitsuntilthenextcelebrationoftheriteshastakenplace.Andfortwentyor
thirtydaystheirhairmaynotbecombedbytheirmothersorsisters.Attheendofthattimethehigh
priesttakesthemtoalonelyplaceintheforest,andcutsoffalockofhairfromthecrownofeachoftheir
heads.Aftertheseinitiatoryritestheladsaredeemedmen,andmaymarryitwouldbeascandalifthey
marriedbefore.
IntheregionoftheLowerCongoasimulationofdeathandresurrectionis,orratherusedtobe,practised
bythemembersofaguildorsecretsocietycalledndembo.InthepracticeofNdembotheinitiating
doctorsgetsomeonetofalldowninapretendedfit,andinthatstateheiscarriedawaytoanenclosed
placeoutsidethetown.ThisiscalleddyingNdembo.Othersfollowsuit,generallyboysandgirls,but
oftenyoungmenandwomen.Theyaresupposedtohavedied.Buttheparentsandfriendssupply
food,andafteraperiodvarying,accordingtocustom,fromthreemonthstothreeyears,itisarrangedthat
thedoctorshallbringthemtolifeagain.Whenthedoctorsfeehasbeenpaid,andmoney(goods)
savedforafeast,theNdembopeoplearebroughttolife.Atfirsttheypretendtoknownooneand
nothingtheydonotevenknowhowtomasticatefood,andfriendshavetoperformthatofficeforthem.
Theywanteverythingnicethatanyoneuninitiatedmayhave,andbeatthemifitisnotgranted,oreven
strangleandkillpeople.Theydonotgetintotroubleforthis,becauseitisthoughtthattheydonotknow
better.Sometimestheycarryonthepretenceoftalkinggibberish,andbehavingasiftheyhadreturned
fromthespiritworld.Afterthistheyareknownbyanothername,peculiartothosewhohavedied
Ndembo.Wehearofthecustomfaralongontheupperriver,aswellasinthecataractregion.
AmongsomeoftheIndiantribesofNorthAmericathereexistcertainreligiousassociationswhichare
onlyopentocandidateswhohavegonethroughapretenceofbeingkilledandbroughttolifeagain.In
1766or1767CaptainJonathanCarverwitnessedtheadmissionofacandidatetoanassociationcalled

thefriendlysocietyoftheSpirit(WakonKitchewah)amongtheNaudowessies,aSiouanorDacotan
tribeintheregionofthegreatlakes.Thecandidatekneltbeforethechief,whotoldhimthathehimself
wasnowagitatedbythesamespiritwhichheshouldinafewmomentscommunicatetohimthatit
wouldstrikehimdead,butthathewouldinstantlyberestoredagaintolifetothisheadded,thatthe
communication,howeverterrifying,wasanecessaryintroductiontotheadvantagesenjoyedbythe
communityintowhichhewasonthepointofbeingadmitted.Ashespokethis,heappearedtobegreatly
agitatedtillatlasthisemotionsbecamesoviolent,thathiscountenancewasdistorted,andhiswhole
frameconvulsed.Atthisjuncturehethrewsomethingthatappearedbothinshapeandcolourlikeasmall
bean,attheyoungman,whichseemedtoenterhismouth,andheinstantlyfellasmotionlessasifhehad
beenshot.Foratimethemanlaylikedead,butunderashowerofblowsheshowedsignsof
consciousness,andfinally,dischargingfromhismouththebean,orwhateveritwasthatthechiefhad
thrownathim,hecametolife.Inothertribes,forexample,theOjebways,Winnebagoes,andDacotasor
Sioux,theinstrumentbywhichthecandidateisapparentlyslainisthemedicinebag.Thebagismadeof
theskinofananimal(suchastheotter,wildcat,serpent,bear,raccoon,wolf,owl,weasel),ofwhichit
roughlypreservestheshape.Eachmemberofthesocietyhasoneofthesebags,inwhichhekeepsthe
oddsandendsthatmakeuphismedicineorcharms.Theybelievethatfromthemiscellaneous
contentsinthebellyoftheskinbagoranimalthereissuesaspiritorbreath,whichhasthepower,not
onlytoknockdownandkillaman,butalsotosethimupandrestorehimtolife.Themodeofkillinga
manwithoneofthesemedicinebagsistothrustitathimhefallslikedead,butasecondthrustofthe
bagrestoreshimtolife.
AceremonywitnessedbythecastawayJohnR.JewittduringhiscaptivityamongtheIndiansofNootka
Sounddoubtlessbelongstothisclassofcustoms.TheIndiankingorchiefdischargedapistolcloseto
hissonsear,whoimmediatelyfelldownasifkilled,uponwhichallthewomenofthehousesetupa
mostlamentablecry,tearinghandfulsofhairfromtheirheads,andexclaimingthattheprincewasdead
atthesametimeagreatnumberoftheinhabitantsrushedintothehousearmedwiththeirdaggers,
muskets,etc.,enquiringthecauseoftheiroutcry.Thesewereimmediatelyfollowedbytwoothers
dressedinwolfskins,withmasksovertheirfacesrepresentingtheheadofthatanimal.Thelattercamein
ontheirhandsandfeetinthemannerofabeast,andtakinguptheprince,carriedhimoffupontheir
backs,retiringinthesamemannertheyentered.InanotherplaceJewittmentionsthattheyoungprince
aladofaboutelevenyearsofageworeamaskinimitationofawolfshead.Now,astheIndiansof
thispartofAmericaaredividedintototemclans,ofwhichtheWolfclanisoneoftheprincipal,andas
themembersofeachclanareinthehabitofwearingsomeportionofthetotemanimalabouttheirperson,
itisprobablethattheprincebelongedtotheWolfclan,andthattheceremonydescribedbyJewitt
representedthekillingoftheladinorderthathemightbebornanewasawolf,muchinthesameway
thattheBasquehuntersupposedhimselftohavebeenkilledandtohavecometolifeagainasabear.
Thisconjecturalexplanationoftheceremonyhas,sinceitwasfirstputforward,beentosomeextent
confirmedbytheresearchesofDr.FranzBoasamongtheseIndiansthoughitwouldseemthatthe
communitytowhichthechiefssonthusobtainedadmissionwasnotsomuchatotemclanasasecret
societycalledTlokoala,whosemembersimitatedwolves.Everynewmemberofthesocietymustbe
initiatedbythewolves.Atnightapackofwolves,personatedbyIndiansdressedinwolfskinsand
wearingwolfmasks,maketheirappearance,seizethenovice,andcarryhimintothewoods.Whenthe
wolvesareheardoutsidethevillage,comingtofetchawaythenovice,allthemembersofthesociety
blackentheirfacesandsing,Amongallthetribesisgreatexcitement,becauseIamTlokoala.Nextday
thewolvesbringbackthenovicedead,andthemembersofthesocietyhavetorevivehim.Thewolves
aresupposedtohaveputamagicstoneintohisbody,whichmustberemovedbeforehecancometolife.
Tillthisisdonethepretendedcorpseisleftlyingoutsidethehouse.Twowizardsgoandremovethe
stone,whichappearstobequartz,andthenthenoviceisresuscitated.AmongtheNiskaIndiansof
BritishColumbia,whoaredividedintofourprincipalclanswiththeraven,thewolf,theeagle,andthe
bearfortheirrespectivetotems,thenoviceatinitiationisalwaysbroughtbackbyanartificialtotem

animal.ThuswhenamanwasabouttobeinitiatedintoasecretsocietycalledOlala,hisfriendsdrew
theirknivesandpretendedtokillhim.Inrealitytheylethimslipaway,whiletheycutofftheheadofa
dummywhichhadbeenadroitlysubstitutedforhim.Thentheylaidthedecapitateddummydownand
covereditover,andthewomenbegantomournandwail.Hisrelationsgaveafuneralbanquetand
solemnlyburnttheeffigy.Inshort,theyheldaregularfuneral.Forawholeyearthenoviceremained
absentandwasseenbynonebutmembersofthesecretsociety.Butattheendofthattimehecameback
alive,carriedbyanartificialanimalwhichrepresentedhistotem.
Intheseceremoniestheessenceoftheriteappearstobethekillingofthenoviceinhischaracterofaman
andhisrestorationtolifeintheformoftheanimalwhichisthenceforwardtobe,ifnothisguardian
spirit,atleastlinkedtohiminapeculiarlyintimaterelation.ItistoberememberedthattheIndiansof
Guatemala,whoselifewasboundupwithananimal,weresupposedtohavethepowerofappearingin
theshapeoftheparticularcreaturewithwhichtheywerethussympatheticallyunited.Henceitseemsnot
unreasonabletoconjecturethatinlikemannertheIndiansofBritishColumbiamayimaginethattheirlife
dependsonthelifeofsomeoneofthatspeciesofcreaturetowhichtheyassimilatethemselvesbytheir
costume.AtleastifthatisnotanarticleofbeliefwiththeColumbianIndiansofthepresentday,itmay
verywellhavebeensowiththeirancestorsinthepast,andthusmayhavehelpedtomouldtheritesand
ceremoniesbothofthetotemclansandofthesecretsocieties.Forthoughthesetwosortsofcommunities
differinrespectofthemodeinwhichmembershipofthemisobtainedamanbeingbornintohistotem
clanbutadmittedintoasecretsocietylaterinlifewecanhardlydoubtthattheyarenearakinandhave
theirrootinthesamemodeofthought.Thatthought,ifIamright,isthepossibilityofestablishinga
sympatheticrelationwithananimal,aspirit,orothermightybeing,withwhomamandepositsforsafe
keepinghissoulorsomepartofit,andfromwhomhereceivesinreturnagiftofmagicalpowers.
Thus,onthetheoryheresuggested,wherevertotemismisfound,andwhereverapretenceismadeof
killingandbringingtolifeagainthenoviceatinitiation,theremayexistorhaveexistednotonlyabelief
inthepossibilityofpermanentlydepositingthesoulinsomeexternalobjectanimal,plant,orwhatnot
butanactualintentionofsodoing.Ifthequestionisput,whydomendesiretodeposittheirlife
outsidetheirbodies?theanswercanonlybethat,likethegiantinthefairytale,theythinkitsafertodo
sothantocarryitaboutwiththem,justaspeopledeposittheirmoneywithabankerratherthancarryit
ontheirpersons.Wehaveseenthatatcriticalperiodsthelifeorsoulissometimestemporarilystowed
awayinasafeplacetillthedangerispast.Butinstitutionsliketotemismarenotresortedtomerelyon
specialoccasionsofdangertheyaresystemsintowhicheveryone,oratleasteverymale,isobligedto
beinitiatedatacertainperiodoflife.Nowtheperiodoflifeatwhichinitiationtakesplaceisregularly
pubertyandthisfactsuggeststhatthespecialdangerwhichtotemismandsystemslikeitareintendedto
obviateissupposednottoarisetillsexualmaturityhasbeenattained,infact,thatthedangerapprehended
isbelievedtoattendtherelationofthesexestoeachother.Itwouldbeeasytoprovebyalongarrayof
factsthatthesexualrelationisassociatedintheprimitivemindwithmanyseriousperilsbuttheexact
natureofthedangerapprehendedisstillobscure.Wemayhopethatamoreexactacquaintancewith
savagemodesofthoughtwillintimedisclosethiscentralmysteryofprimitivesociety,andwillthereby
furnishtheclue,notonlytototemism,buttotheoriginofthemarriagesystem.

LXVIII.TheGoldenBough
THUStheviewthatBalderslifewasinthemistletoeisentirelyinharmonywithprimitivemodesof
thought.Itmayindeedsoundlikeacontradictionthat,ifhislifewasinthemistletoe,heshould
neverthelesshavebeenkilledbyablowfromtheplant.Butwhenapersonslifeisconceivedas
embodiedinaparticularobject,withtheexistenceofwhichhisownexistenceisinseparablyboundup,
andthedestructionofwhichinvolveshisown,theobjectinquestionmayberegardedandspokenof
indifferentlyashislifeorhisdeath,ashappensinthefairytales.Henceifamansdeathisinanobject,it

isperfectlynaturalthatheshouldbekilledbyablowfromit.InthefairytalesKoshcheitheDeathlessis
killedbyablowfromtheeggorthestoneinwhichhislifeordeathissecretedtheogresburstwhena
certaingrainofsanddoubtlesscontainingtheirlifeordeathiscarriedovertheirheadsthemagician
dieswhenthestoneinwhichhislifeordeathiscontainedisputunderhispillowandtheTartarherois
warnedthathemaybekilledbythegoldenarroworgoldenswordinwhichhissoulhasbeenstowed
away.
Theideathatthelifeoftheoakwasinthemistletoewasprobablysuggested,asIhavesaid,bythe
observationthatinwinterthemistletoegrowingontheoakremainsgreenwhiletheoakitselfisleafless.
Butthepositionoftheplantgrowingnotfromthegroundbutfromthetrunkorbranchesofthetree
mightconfirmthisidea.Primitivemanmightthinkthat,likehimself,theoakspirithadsoughttodeposit
hislifeinsomesafeplace,andforthispurposehadpitchedonthemistletoe,which,beinginasense
neitheronearthnorinheaven,mightbesupposedtobefairlyoutofharmsway.Inaformerchapterwe
sawthatprimitivemanseekstopreservethelifeofhishumandivinitiesbykeepingthempoisedbetween
earthandheaven,astheplacewheretheyareleastlikelytobeassailedbythedangersthatencompassthe
lifeofmanonearth.Wecanthereforeunderstandwhyithasbeenarulebothofancientandofmodern
folkmedicinethatthemistletoeshouldnotbeallowedtotouchthegroundwereittotouchtheground,
itshealingvirtuewouldbegone.Thismaybeasurvivaloftheoldsuperstitionthattheplantinwhichthe
lifeofthesacredtreewasconcentratedshouldnotbeexposedtotheriskincurredbycontactwiththe
earth.InanIndianlegend,whichoffersaparalleltotheBaldermyth,IndrasworetothedemonNamuci
thathewouldslayhimneitherbydaynorbynight,neitherwithstaffnorwithbow,neitherwiththepalm
ofthehandnorwiththefist,neitherwiththewetnorwiththedry.Buthekilledhiminthemorning
twilightbysprinklingoverhimthefoamofthesea.Thefoamoftheseaisjustsuchanobjectasasavage
mightchoosetoputhislifein,becauseitoccupiesthatsortofintermediateornondescriptposition
betweenearthandskyorseaandskyinwhichprimitivemanseessafety.Itisthereforenotsurprising
thatthefoamoftherivershouldbethetotemofaclaninIndia.
Again,theviewthatthemistletoeowesitsmysticcharacterpartlytoitsnotgrowingonthegroundis
confirmedbyaparallelsuperstitionaboutthemountainashorrowantree.InJutlandarowanthatis
foundgrowingoutofthetopofanothertreeisesteemedexceedinglyeffectiveagainstwitchcraft:since
itdoesnotgrowonthegroundwitcheshavenopoweroveritifitistohaveitsfulleffectitmustbecut
onAscensionDay.Henceitisplacedoverdoorstopreventtheingressofwitches.InSwedenand
Norway,also,magicalpropertiesareascribedtoaflyingrowan(flgrnn),thatistoarowanwhich
isfoundgrowingnotintheordinaryfashiononthegroundbutonanothertree,oronaroof,orinacleft
oftherock,whereithassproutedfromseedscatteredbybirds.Theysaythatamanwhoisoutinthe
darkshouldhaveabitofflyingrowanwithhimtochewelseherunsariskofbeingbewitchedandof
beingunabletostirfromthespot.JustasinScandinaviatheparasiticrowanisdeemedacountercharmto
sorcery,soinGermanytheparasiticmistletoeisstillcommonlyconsideredaprotectionagainstwitch
craft,andinSweden,aswesaw,themistletoewhichisgatheredonMidsummerEveisattachedtothe
ceilingofthehouse,thehorsesstallorthecowscrib,inthebeliefthatthisrenderstheTrollpowerless
toinjuremanorbeast.
TheviewthatthemistletoewasnotmerelytheinstrumentofBaldersdeath,butthatitcontainedhislife,
iscountenancedbytheanalogyofaScottishsuperstition.TraditionranthatthefateoftheHaysofErrol,
anestateinPerthshire,neartheFirthofTay,wasboundupwiththemistletoethatgrewonacertaingreat
oak.AmemberoftheHayfamilyhasrecordedtheoldbeliefasfollows:Amongthelowcountry
familiesthebadgesarenowalmostgenerallyforgottenbutitappearsbyanancientMS.,andthe
traditionofafewoldpeopleinPerthshire,thatthebadgeoftheHayswasthemistletoe.Therewas
formerlyintheneighbourhoodofErrol,andnotfarfromtheFalconstone,avastoakofanunknownage,
anduponwhichgrewaprofusionoftheplant:manycharmsandlegendswereconsideredtobe
connectedwiththetree,andthedurationofthefamilyofHaywassaidtobeunitedwithitsexistence.It

wasbelievedthatasprigofthemistletoecutbyaHayonAllhallowmaseve,withanewdirk,andafter
surroundingthetreethreetimessunwise,andpronouncingacertainspell,wasasurecharmagainstall
glamourorwitchery,andaninfallibleguardinthedayofbattle.Aspraygatheredinthesamemanner
wasplacedinthecradleofinfants,andthoughttodefendthemfrombeingchangedforelfbairnsbythe
fairies.Finally,itwasaffirmed,thatwhentherootoftheoakhadperished,thegrassshouldgrowinthe
hearthofErrol,andaravenshouldsitinthefalconsnest.Thetwomostunluckydeedswhichcouldbe
donebyoneofthenameofHaywas,tokillawhitefalcon,andtocutdownalimbfromtheoakofErrol.
WhentheoldtreewasdestroyedIcouldneverlearn.TheestatehasbeensoldoutofthefamilyofHay,
andofcourseitissaidthatthefataloakwascutdownashorttimebefore.Theoldsuperstitionis
recordedinverseswhicharetraditionallyascribedtoThomastheRhymer:
WhilethemistletoebatsonErrolsaik,
Andthataikstandsfast,
TheHaysshallflourish,andtheirgoodgreyhawk
Shallnochtflinchbeforetheblast.
Butwhentherootoftheaikdecays,
Andthemistletoedwinesonitswitheredbreast,
ThegrassshallgrowonErrolshearthstane,
Andthecorbieroupinthefalconsnest.
ItisnotanewopinionthattheGoldenBoughwasthemistletoe.True,Virgildoesnotidentifybutonly
comparesitwithmistletoe.Butthismaybeonlyapoeticaldevicetocastamysticglamouroverthe
humbleplant.Or,moreprobably,hisdescriptionwasbasedonapopularsuperstitionthatatcertaintimes
themistletoeblazedoutintoasupernaturalgoldenglory.Thepoettellshowtwodoves,guidingAeneas
tothegloomyvaleinwhosedepthgrewtheGoldenBough,alighteduponatree,whenceshonea
flickeringgleamofgold.Asinthewoodsinwintercoldthemistletoeaplantnotnativetoitstreeis
greenwithfreshleavesandtwinesitsyellowberriesaboutthebolessuchseemedupontheshadyholm
oaktheleafygold,sorustledinthegentlebreezethegoldenleaf.HereVirgildefinitelydescribesthe
GoldenBoughasgrowingonaholmoak,andcomparesitwiththemistletoe.Theinferenceisalmost
inevitablethattheGoldenBoughwasnothingbutthemistletoeseenthroughthehazeofpoetryorof
popularsuperstition.
NowgroundshavebeenshownforbelievingthatthepriestoftheAriciangrovetheKingoftheWood
personifiedthetreeonwhichgrewtheGoldenBough.Henceifthattreewastheoak,theKingofthe
Woodmusthavebeenapersonificationoftheoakspirit.Itis,therefore,easytounderstandwhy,before
hecouldbeslain,itwasnecessarytobreaktheGoldenBough.Asanoakspirit,hislifeordeathwasin
themistletoeontheoak,andsolongasthemistletoeremainedintact,he,likeBalder,couldnotdie.To
slayhim,therefore,itwasnecessarytobreakthemistletoe,andprobably,asinthecaseofBalder,to
throwitathim.Andtocompletetheparallel,itisonlynecessarytosupposethattheKingoftheWood
wasformerlyburned,deadoralive,atthemidsummerfirefestivalwhich,aswehaveseen,wasannually
celebratedintheAriciangrove.Theperpetualfirewhichburnedinthegrove,liketheperpetualfire
whichburnedinthetempleofVestaatRomeandundertheoakatRomove,wasprobablyfedwiththe
sacredoakwoodandthusitwouldbeinagreatfireofoakthattheKingoftheWoodformerlymethis
end.Atalatertime,asIhavesuggested,hisannualtenureofofficewaslengthenedorshortened,asthe
casemightbe,bytherulewhichallowedhimtolivesolongashecouldprovehisdivinerightbythe
stronghand.Butheonlyescapedthefiretofallbythesword.
ThusitseemsthatataremoteageintheheartofItaly,besidethesweetLakeofNemi,thesamefiery
tragedywasannuallyenactedwhichItalianmerchantsandsoldierswereafterwardstowitnessamong
theirrudekindred,theCeltsofGaul,andwhich,iftheRomaneagleshadeverswoopedonNorway,

mighthavebeenfoundrepeatedwithlittledifferenceamongthebarbarousAryansoftheNorth.Therite
wasprobablyanessentialfeatureintheancientAryanworshipoftheoak.
Itonlyremainstoask,WhywasthemistletoecalledtheGoldenBough?Thewhitishyellowofthe
mistletoeberriesishardlyenoughtoaccountforthename,forVirgilsaysthattheboughwasaltogether
golden,stemsaswellasleaves.Perhapsthenamemaybederivedfromtherichgoldenyellowwhicha
boughofmistletoeassumeswhenithasbeencutandkeptforsomemonthsthebrighttintisnotconfined
totheleaves,butspreadstothestalksaswell,sothatthewholebranchappearstobeindeedaGolden
Bough.Bretonpeasantshangupgreatbunchesofmistletoeinfrontoftheircottages,andinthemonthof
Junethesebunchesareconspicuousforthebrightgoldentingeoftheirfoliage.InsomepartsofBrittany,
especiallyaboutMorbihan,branchesofmistletoearehungoverthedoorsofstablesandbyrestoprotect
thehorsesandcattle,probablyagainstwitchcraft.
Theyellowcolourofthewitheredboughmaypartlyexplainwhythemistletoehasbeensometimes
supposedtopossessthepropertyofdisclosingtreasuresintheearthforontheprinciplesof
homoeopathicmagicthereisanaturalaffinitybetweenayellowboughandyellowgold.Thissuggestion
isconfirmedbytheanalogyofthemarvellouspropertiespopularlyascribedtothemythicalfernseed,
whichispopularlysupposedtobloomlikegoldorfireonMidsummerEve.ThusinBohemiaitissaid
thatonSt.JohnsDayfernseedbloomswithgoldenblossomsthatgleamlikefire.Nowitisaproperty
ofthismythicalfernseedthatwhoeverhasit,orwillascendamountainholdingitinhishandon
MidsummerEve,willdiscoveraveinofgoldorwillseethetreasuresoftheearthshiningwithabluish
flame.InRussiatheysaythatifyousucceedincatchingthewondrousbloomofthefernatmidnighton
MidsummerEve,youhaveonlytothrowitupintotheair,anditwillfalllikeastarontheveryspot
whereatreasurelieshidden.InBrittanytreasureseekersgatherfernseedatmidnightonMidsummer
Eve,andkeepittillPalmSundayofthefollowingyearthentheystrewtheseedonthegroundwhere
theythinkatreasureisconcealed.Tyrolesepeasantsimaginethathiddentreasurescanbeseenglowing
likeflameonMidsummerEve,andthatfernseed,gatheredatthismysticseason,withtheusual
precautions,willhelptobringtheburiedgoldtothesurface.IntheSwisscantonofFreiburgpeopleused
towatchbesideafernonSt.Johnsnightinthehopeofwinningatreasure,whichthedevilhimself
sometimesbroughttothem.InBohemiatheysaythathewhoprocuresthegoldenbloomofthefernat
thisseasonhastherebythekeytoallhiddentreasuresandthatifmaidenswillspreadaclothunderthe
fastfadingbloom,redgoldwilldropintoit.AndintheTryolandBohemiaifyouplacefernseedamong
money,themoneywillneverdecrease,howevermuchofityouspend.Sometimesthefernseedis
supposedtobloomonChristmasnight,andwhoevercatchesitwillbecomeveryrich.InStyriatheysay
thatbygatheringfernseedonChristmasnightyoucanforcethedeviltobringyouabagofmoney.
Thus,ontheprincipleoflikebylike,fernseedissupposedtodiscovergoldbecauseitisitselfgolden
andforasimilarreasonitenrichesitspossessorwithanunfailingsupplyofgold.Butwhilethefernseed
isdescribedasgolden,itisequallydescribedasglowingandfiery.Hence,whenweconsiderthattwo
greatdaysforgatheringthefabulousseedareMidsummerEveandChristmasthatis,thetwosolstices
(forChristmasisnothingbutanoldheathencelebrationofthewintersolstice)weareledtoregardthe
fieryaspectofthefernseedasprimary,anditsgoldenaspectassecondaryandderivative.Fernseed,in
fact,wouldseemtobeanemanationofthesunsfireatthetwoturningpointsofitscourse,thesummer
andwintersolstices.ThisviewisconfirmedbyaGermanstoryinwhichahunterissaidtohaveprocured
fernseedbyshootingatthesunonMidsummerDayatnoonthreedropsofbloodfelldown,whichhe
caughtinawhitecloth,andtheseblooddropswerethefernseed.Herethebloodisclearlythebloodof
thesun,fromwhichthefernseedisthusdirectlyderived.Thusitmaybetakenasprobablethatfernseed
isgolden,becauseitisbelievedtobeanemanationofthesunsgoldenfire.
Now,likefernseed,themistletoeisgatheredeitheratMidsummeroratChristmasthatis,eitheratthe
summeroratthewintersolsticeand,likefernseed,itissupposedtopossessthepowerofrevealing

treasuresintheearth.OnMidsummerEvepeopleinSwedenmakediviningrodsofmistletoe,oroffour
differentkindsofwoodoneofwhichmustbemistletoe.Thetreasureseekerplacestherodontheground
aftersundown,andwhenitrestsdirectlyovertreasure,therodbeginstomoveasifitwerealive.Now,if
themistletoediscoversgold,itmustbeinitscharacteroftheGoldenBoughandifitisgatheredatthe
solstices,mustnottheGoldenBough,likethegoldenfernseed,beanemanationofthesunsfire?The
questioncannotbeansweredwithasimpleaffirmative.WehaveseenthattheoldAryansperhaps
kindledthesolstitialandotherceremonialfiresinpartassuncharms,thatis,withtheintentionof
supplyingthesunwithfreshfireandasthesefireswereusuallymadebythefrictionorcombustionof
oakwood,itmayhaveappearedtotheancientAryanthatthesunwasperiodicallyrecruitedfromthefire
whichresidedinthesacredoak.Inotherwords,theoakmayhaveseemedtohimtheoriginalstorehouse
orreservoirofthefirewhichwasfromtimetotimedrawnouttofeedthesun.Butifthelifeoftheoak
wasconceivedtobeinthemistletoe,themistletoemustonthatviewhavecontainedtheseedorgermof
thefirewhichwaselicitedbyfrictionfromthewoodoftheoak.Thus,insteadofsayingthatthemistletoe
wasanemanationofthesunsfire,itmightbemorecorrecttosaythatthesunsfirewasregardedasan
emanationofthemistletoe.Nowonder,then,thatthemistletoeshonewithagoldensplendour,andwas
calledtheGoldenBough.Probably,however,likefernseed,itwasthoughttoassumeitsgoldenaspect
onlyatthosestatedtimes,especiallymidsummer,whenfirewasdrawnfromtheoaktolightupthesun.
AtPulverbatch,inShropshire,itwasbelievedwithinlivingmemorythattheoaktreebloomson
MidsummerEveandtheblossomwithersbeforedaylight.Amaidenwhowishestoknowherlotin
marriageshouldspreadawhiteclothunderthetreeatnight,andinthemorningshewillfindalittledust,
whichisallthatremainsoftheflower.Sheshouldplacethepinchofdustunderherpillow,andthenher
futurehusbandwillappeartoherinherdreams.Thisfleetingbloomoftheoak,ifIamright,was
probablythemistletoeinitscharacteroftheGoldenBough.Theconjectureisconfirmedbythe
observationthatinWalesarealsprigofmistletoegatheredonMidsummerEveissimilarlyplacedunder
thepillowtoinducepropheticdreamsandfurtherthemodeofcatchingtheimaginarybloomoftheoak
inawhiteclothisexactlythatwhichwasemployedbytheDruidstocatchtherealmistletoewhenit
droppedfromtheboughoftheoak,severedbythegoldensickle.AsShropshirebordersonWales,the
beliefthattheoakbloomsonMidsummerEvemaybeWelshinitsimmediateorigin,thoughprobably
thebeliefisafragmentoftheprimitiveAryancreed.InsomepartsofItaly,aswesaw,peasantsstillgo
outonMidsummermorningtosearchtheoaktreesfortheoilofSt.John,which,likethemistletoe,
healsallwounds,andis,perhaps,themistletoeitselfinitsglorifiedaspect.Thusitiseasytounderstand
howatitleliketheGoldenBough,solittledescriptiveofitsusualappearanceonthetree,shouldhave
beenappliedtotheseeminglyinsignificantparasite.Further,wecanperhapsseewhyinantiquity
mistletoewasbelievedtopossesstheremarkablepropertyofextinguishingfire,andwhyinSwedenitis
stillkeptinhousesasasafeguardagainstconflagration.Itsfierynaturemarksitout,onhomoeopathic
principles,asthebestpossiblecureorpreventiveofinjurybyfire.
TheseconsiderationsmaypartiallyexplainwhyVirgilmakesAeneascarryaglorifiedboughofmistletoe
withhimonhisdescentintothegloomysubterraneanworld.Thepoetdescribeshowattheverygatesof
helltherestretchedavastandgloomywood,andhowthehero,followingtheflightoftwodovesthat
luredhimon,wanderedintothedepthsoftheimmemorialforesttillhesawafaroffthroughtheshadows
ofthetreestheflickeringlightoftheGoldenBoughilluminatingthemattedboughsoverhead.Ifthe
mistletoe,asayellowwitheredboughinthesadautumnwoods,wasconceivedtocontaintheseedof
fire,whatbettercompanioncouldaforlornwandererinthenethershadestakewithhimthanaboughthat
wouldbealamptohisfeetaswellasarodandstafftohishands?Armedwithithemightboldly
confrontthedreadfulspectresthatwouldcrosshispathonhisadventurousjourney.HencewhenAeneas,
emergingfromtheforest,comestothebanksofStyx,windingslowwithsluggishstreamthroughthe
infernalmarsh,andthesurlyferrymanrefuseshimpassageinhisboat,hehasbuttodrawtheGolden
Boughfromhisbosomandholditup,andstraightwaytheblustererquailsatthesightandmeekly
receivestheherointohiscrazybark,whichsinksdeepinthewaterundertheunusualweightoftheliving
man.Eveninrecenttimes,aswehaveseen,mistletoehasbeendeemedaprotectionagainstwitchesand

trolls,andtheancientsmaywellhavecrediteditwiththesamemagicalvirtue.Andiftheparasitecan,as
someofourpeasantsbelieve,openalllocks,whyshoulditnothaveservedasanopenSesameinthe
handsofAeneastounlockthegatesofdeath?
Now,too,wecanconjecturewhyVirbiusatNemicametobeconfoundedwiththesun.IfVirbiuswas,
asIhavetriedtoshow,atreespirit,hemusthavebeenthespiritoftheoakonwhichgrewtheGolden
BoughfortraditionrepresentedhimasthefirstoftheKingsoftheWood.Asanoakspirithemusthave
beensupposedperiodicallytorekindlethesunsfire,andmightthereforeeasilybeconfoundedwiththe
sunitself.SimilarlywecanexplainwhyBalder,anoakspirit,wasdescribedassofairoffaceandso
shiningthatalightwentforthfromhim,andwhyheshouldhavebeensooftentakentobethesun.And
ingeneralwemaysaythatinprimitivesociety,whentheonlyknownwayofmakingfireisbythe
frictionofwood,thesavagemustnecessarilyconceiveoffireasapropertystoredaway,likesaporjuice,
intrees,fromwhichhehaslaboriouslytoextractit.TheSenalIndiansofCaliforniaprofesstobelieve
thatthewholeworldwasonceaglobeoffire,whencethatelementpassedupintothetrees,andnow
comesoutwhenevertwopiecesofwoodarerubbedtogether.SimilarlytheMaiduIndiansofCalifornia
holdthattheearthwasprimarilyaglobeofmoltenmatter,andfromthattheprincipleoffireascended
throughtherootsintothetrunkandbranchesoftrees,whencetheIndianscanextractitbymeansoftheir
drill.InNamoluk,oneoftheCarolineIslands,theysaythattheartofmakingfirewastaughtmenbythe
gods.Olofaet,thecunningmasterofflames,gavefiretothebirdmwiandbadehimcarryittoearthinhis
bill.Sothebirdflewfromtreetotreeandstoredawaytheslumberingforceofthefireinthewood,from
whichmencanelicititbyfriction.IntheancientVedichymnsofIndiathefiregodAgniisspokenofas
borninwood,astheembryoofplants,orasdistributedinplants.Heisalsosaidtohaveenteredintoall
plantsortostriveafterthem.Whenheiscalledtheembryooftreesoroftreesaswellasplants,there
maybeasideglanceatthefireproducedinforestsbythefrictionoftheboughsoftrees.
Atreewhichhasbeenstruckbylightningisnaturallyregardedbythesavageaschargedwithadoubleor
tripleportionoffireforhashenotseenthemightyflashenterintothetrunkwithhisowneyes?Hence
perhapswemayexplainsomeofthemanysuperstitiousbeliefsconcerningtreesthathavebeenstruckby
lightning.WhentheThompsonIndiansofBritishColumbiawishedtosetfiretothehousesoftheir
enemies,theyshotatthemarrowswhichwereeithermadefromatreethathadbeenstruckbylightning
orhadsplintersofsuchwoodattachedtothem.WendishpeasantsofSaxonyrefusetoburnintheir
stovesthewoodoftreesthathavebeenstruckbylightningtheysaythatwithsuchfuelthehousewould
beburntdown.InlikemannertheThongaofSouthAfricawillnotusesuchwoodasfuelnorwarm
themselvesatafirewhichhasbeenkindledwithit.Onthecontrary,whenlightningsetsfiretoatree,the
WinamwangaofNorthernRhodesiaputoutallthefiresinthevillageandplasterthefireplacesafresh,
whiletheheadmenconveythelightningkindledfiretothechief,whopraysoverit.Thechiefthensends
outthenewfiretoallhisvillages,andthevillagersrewardhismessengersfortheboon.Thisshowsthat
theylookuponfirekindledbylightningwithreverence,andthereverenceisintelligible,fortheyspeak
ofthunderandlightningasGodhimselfcomingdowntoearth.SimilarlytheMaiduIndiansofCalifornia
believethataGreatMancreatedtheworldandallitsinhabitants,andthatlightningisnothingbutthe
GreatManhimselfdescendingswiftlyoutofheavenandrendingthetreeswithhisflamingarms.
ItisaplausibletheorythatthereverencewhichtheancientpeoplesofEuropepaidtotheoak,andthe
connexionwhichtheytracedbetweenthetreeandtheirskygod,werederivedfromthemuchgreater
frequencywithwhichtheoakappearstobestruckbylightningthananyothertreeofourEuropean
forests.Thispeculiarityofthetreehasseeminglybeenestablishedbyaseriesofobservationsinstituted
withinrecentyearsbyscientificenquirerswhohavenomythologicaltheorytomaintain.Howeverwe
mayexplainit,whetherbytheeasierpassageofelectricitythroughoakwoodthanthroughanyother
timber,orinsomeotherway,thefactitselfmaywellhaveattractedthenoticeofourrudeforefathers,
whodweltinthevastforestswhichthencoveredalargepartofEuropeandtheymightnaturallyaccount
foritintheirsimplereligiouswaybysupposingthatthegreatskygod,whomtheyworshippedand

whoseawfulvoicetheyheardintherollofthunder,lovedtheoakaboveallthetreesofthewoodand
oftendescendedintoitfromthemurkycloudinaflashoflightning,leavingatokenofhispresenceorof
hispassageintherivenandblackenedtrunkandtheblastedfoliage.Suchtreeswouldthenceforthbe
encircledbyanimbusofgloryasthevisibleseatsofthethunderingskygod.Certainitisthat,likesome
savages,bothGreeksandRomansidentifiedtheirgreatgodoftheskyandoftheoakwiththelightning
flashwhichstruckthegroundandtheyregularlyenclosedsuchastrickenspotandtreateditthereafteras
sacred.ItisnotrashtosupposethattheancestorsoftheCeltsandGermansintheforestsofCentral
Europepaidalikerespectforlikereasonstoablastedoak.
ThisexplanationoftheAryanreverencefortheoakandoftheassociationofthetreewiththegreatgod
ofthethunderandthesky,wassuggestedorimpliedlongagobyJacobGrimm,andhasbeeninrecent
yearspowerfullyreinforcedbyMr.W.WardeFowler.Itappearstobesimplerandmoreprobablethan
theexplanationwhichIformerlyadopted,namely,thattheoakwasworshippedprimarilyforthemany
benefitswhichourrudeforefathersderivedfromthetree,particularlyforthefirewhichtheydrewby
frictionfromitswoodandthattheconnexionoftheoakwiththeskywasanafterthoughtbasedonthe
beliefthattheflashoflightningwasnothingbutthesparkwhichtheskygodupaloftelicitedbyrubbing
twopiecesofoakwoodagainsteachother,justashissavageworshipperkindledfireintheforeston
earth.Onthattheorythegodofthethunderandtheskywasderivedfromtheoriginalgodoftheoakon
thepresenttheory,whichInowprefer,thegodoftheskyandthethunderwasthegreatoriginaldeityof
ourAryanancestors,andhisassociationwiththeoakwasmerelyaninferencebasedonthefrequency
withwhichtheoakwasseentobestruckbylightning.IftheAryans,assomethink,roamedthewide
steppesofRussiaorCentralAsiawiththeirflocksandherdsbeforetheyplungedintothegloomofthe
Europeanforests,theymayhaveworshippedthegodoftheblueorcloudyfirmamentandtheflashing
thunderboltlongbeforetheythoughtofassociatinghimwiththeblastedoaksintheirnewhome.
Perhapsthenewtheoryhasthefurtheradvantageofthrowinglightonthespecialsanctityascribedto
mistletoewhichgrowsonanoak.Themererarityofsuchagrowthonanoakhardlysufficestoexplain
theextentandthepersistenceofthesuperstition.Ahintofitsrealoriginispossiblyfurnishedbythe
statementofPlinythattheDruidsworshippedtheplantbecausetheybelievedittohavefallenfrom
heavenandtobeatokenthatthetreeonwhichitgrewwaschosenbythegodhimself.Cantheyhave
thoughtthatthemistletoedroppedontheoakinaflashoflightning?Theconjectureisconfirmedbythe
namethunderbesomwhichisappliedtomistletoeintheSwisscantonofAargau,fortheepithetclearly
impliesacloseconnexionbetweentheparasiteandthethunderindeedthunderbesomisapopular
nameinGermanyforanybushynestlikeexcrescencegrowingonabranch,becausesuchaparasitic
growthisactuallybelievedbytheignoranttobeaproductoflightning.Ifthereisanytruthinthis
conjecture,therealreasonwhytheDruidsworshippedamistletoebearingoakaboveallothertreesof
theforestwasabeliefthateverysuchoakhadnotonlybeenstruckbylightningbutboreamongits
branchesavisibleemanationofthecelestialfiresothatincuttingthemistletoewithmysticritesthey
weresecuringforthemselvesallthemagicalpropertiesofathunderbolt.Ifthatwasso,wemust
apparentlyconcludethatthemistletoewasdeemedanemanationofthelightningratherthan,asIhave
thusfarargued,ofthemidsummersun.Perhaps,indeed,wemightcombinethetwoseeminglydivergent
viewsbysupposingthatintheoldAryancreedthemistletoedescendedfromthesunonMidsummerDay
inaflashoflightning.Butsuchacombinationisartificialandunsupported,sofarasIknow,byany
positiveevidence.Whetheronmythicalprinciplesthetwointerpretationscanreallybereconciledwith
eachotherornot,Iwillnotpresumetosaybutevenshouldtheyprovetobediscrepant,the
inconsistencyneednothavepreventedourrudeforefathersfromembracingbothofthematthesame
timewithanequalfervourofconvictionforlikethegreatmajorityofmankindthesavageisabovebeing
hideboundbythetrammelsofapedanticlogic.Inattemptingtotrackhisdeviousthoughtthroughthe
jungleofcrassignoranceandblindfear,wemustalwaysrememberthatwearetreadingenchanted
ground,andmustbewareoftakingforsolidrealitiesthecloudyshapesthatcrossourpathorhoverand
gibberatusthroughthegloom.Wecannevercompletelyreplaceourselvesatthestandpointofprimitive

man,seethingswithhiseyes,andfeelourheartsbeatwiththeemotionsthatstirredhis.Allourtheories
concerninghimandhiswaysmustthereforefallfarshortofcertaintytheutmostwecanaspiretoinsuch
mattersisareasonabledegreeofprobability.
ToconcludetheseenquirieswemaysaythatifBalderwasindeed,asIhaveconjectured,a
personificationofamistletoebearingoak,hisdeathbyablowofthemistletoemightonthenewtheory
beexplainedasadeathbyastrokeoflightning.Solongasthemistletoe,inwhichtheflameofthe
lightningsmouldered,wassufferedtoremainamongtheboughs,solongnoharmcouldbefallthegood
andkindlygodoftheoak,whokepthislifestowedawayforsafetybetweenearthandheaveninthe
mysteriousparasitebutwhenoncethatseatofhislife,orofhisdeath,wastornfromthebranchand
hurledatthetrunk,thetreefellthegoddiedsmittenbyathunderbolt.
AndwhatwehavesaidofBalderintheoakforestsofScandinaviamayperhaps,withallduediffidence
inaquestionsoobscureanduncertain,beappliedtothepriestofDiana,theKingoftheWood,atAricia
intheoakforestsofItaly.HemayhavepersonatedinfleshandbloodthegreatItaliangodofthesky,
Jupiter,whohadkindlycomedownfromheaveninthelightningflashtodwellamongmeninthe
mistletoethethunderbesomtheGoldenBoughgrowingonthesacredoakinthedellsofNemi.If
thatwasso,weneednotwonderthatthepriestguardedwithdrawnswordthemysticboughwhich
containedthegodslifeandhisown.Thegoddesswhomheservedandmarriedwasherself,ifIamright,
nootherthantheQueenofHeaven,thetruewifeoftheskygod.Forshe,too,lovedthesolitudeofthe
woodsandthelonelyhills,andsailingoverheadonclearnightsinthelikenessofthesilvermoonlooked
downwithpleasureonherownfairimagereflectedonthecalm,theburnishedsurfaceofthelake,
DianasMirror.

LXIX.FarewelltoNemi
WEareattheendofourenquiry,butasoftenhappensinthesearchaftertruth,ifwehaveansweredone
question,wehaveraisedmanymoreifwehavefollowedonetrackhome,wehavehadtopassbyothers
thatopenedoffitandled,orseemedtolead,tofarothergoalsthanthesacredgroveatNemi.Someof
thesepathswehavefollowedalittlewayothers,iffortuneshouldbekind,thewriterandthereadermay
onedaypursuetogether.Forthepresentwehavejourneyedfarenoughtogether,anditistimetopart.
Yetbeforewedoso,wemaywellaskourselveswhetherthereisnotsomemoregeneralconclusion,
somelesson,ifpossible,ofhopeandencouragement,tobedrawnfromthemelancholyrecordofhuman
errorandfollywhichhasengagedourattentioninthisbook.
Ifthenweconsider,ontheonehand,theessentialsimilarityofmanschiefwantseverywhereandatall
times,andontheotherhand,thewidedifferencebetweenthemeanshehasadoptedtosatisfythemin
differentages,weshallperhapsbedisposedtoconcludethatthemovementofthehigherthought,sofar
aswecantraceit,hasonthewholebeenfrommagicthroughreligiontoscience.Inmagicmandepends
onhisownstrengthtomeetthedifficultiesanddangersthatbesethimoneveryside.Hebelievesina
certainestablishedorderofnatureonwhichhecansurelycount,andwhichhecanmanipulateforhis
ownends.Whenhediscovershismistake,whenherecognisessadlythatboththeorderofnaturewhich
hehadassumedandthecontrolwhichhehadbelievedhimselftoexerciseoveritwerepurelyimaginary,
heceasestorelyonhisownintelligenceandhisownunaidedefforts,andthrowshimselfhumblyonthe
mercyofcertaingreatinvisiblebeingsbehindtheveilofnature,towhomhenowascribesallthosefar
reachingpowerswhichheoncearrogatedtohimself.Thusintheacutermindsmagicisgradually
supersededbyreligion,whichexplainsthesuccessionofnaturalphenomenaasregulatedbythewill,the
passion,orthecapriceofspiritualbeingslikemaninkind,thoughvastlysuperiortohiminpower.
Butastimegoesonthisexplanationinitsturnprovestobeunsatisfactory.Foritassumesthatthe
successionofnaturaleventsisnotdeterminedbyimmutablelaws,butistosomeextentvariableand

irregular,andthisassumptionisnotborneoutbycloserobservation.Onthecontrary,themorewe
scrutinisethatsuccessionthemorewearestruckbytherigiduniformity,thepunctualprecisionwith
which,whereverwecanfollowthem,theoperationsofnaturearecarriedon.Everygreatadvancein
knowledgehasextendedthesphereoforderandcorrespondinglyrestrictedthesphereofapparent
disorderintheworld,tillnowwearereadytoanticipatethateveninregionswherechanceandconfusion
appearstilltoreign,afullerknowledgewouldeverywherereducetheseemingchaostocosmos.Thusthe
keenerminds,stillpressingforwardtoadeepersolutionofthemysteriesoftheuniverse,cometoreject
thereligioustheoryofnatureasinadequate,andtorevertinameasuretotheolderstandpointofmagic
bypostulatingexplicitly,whatinmagichadonlybeenimplicitlyassumed,towit,aninflexibleregularity
intheorderofnaturalevents,which,ifcarefullyobserved,enablesustoforeseetheircoursewith
certaintyandtoactaccordingly.Inshort,religion,regardedasanexplanationofnature,isdisplacedby
science.
Butwhilesciencehasthismuchincommonwithmagicthatbothrestonafaithinorderasthe
underlyingprincipleofallthings,readersofthisworkwillhardlyneedtoberemindedthattheorder
presupposedbymagicdifferswidelyfromthatwhichformsthebasisofscience.Thedifferenceflows
naturallyfromthedifferentmodesinwhichthetwoordershavebeenreached.Forwhereastheorderon
whichmagicreckonsismerelyanextension,byfalseanalogy,oftheorderinwhichideaspresent
themselvestoourminds,theorderlaiddownbyscienceisderivedfrompatientandexactobservationof
thephenomenathemselves.Theabundance,thesolidity,andthesplendouroftheresultsalready
achievedbysciencearewellfittedtoinspireuswithacheerfulconfidenceinthesoundnessofits
method.Hereatlast,aftergropingaboutinthedarkforcountlessages,manhashituponacluetothe
labyrinth,agoldenkeythatopensmanylocksinthetreasuryofnature.Itisprobablynottoomuchtosay
thatthehopeofprogressmoralandintellectualaswellasmaterialinthefutureisboundupwiththe
fortunesofscience,andthateveryobstacleplacedinthewayofscientificdiscoveryisawrongto
humanity.
Yetthehistoryofthoughtshouldwarnusagainstconcludingthatbecausethescientifictheoryofthe
worldisthebestthathasyetbeenformulated,itisnecessarilycompleteandfinal.Wemustremember
thatatbottomthegeneralisationsofscienceor,incommonparlance,thelawsofnaturearemerely
hypothesesdevisedtoexplainthatevershiftingphantasmagoriaofthoughtwhichwedignifywiththe
highsoundingnamesoftheworldandtheuniverse.Inthelastanalysismagic,religion,andscienceare
nothingbuttheoriesofthoughtandassciencehassupplanteditspredecessors,soitmayhereafterbe
itselfsupersededbysomemoreperfecthypothesis,perhapsbysometotallydifferentwayoflookingat
thephenomenaofregisteringtheshadowsonthescreenofwhichweinthisgenerationcanformno
idea.Theadvanceofknowledgeisaninfiniteprogressiontowardsagoalthatforeverrecedes.Weneed
notmurmurattheendlesspursuit:
Fattinonfosteavivercomebruti
Maperseguirvirtuteeconoscenza.
Greatthingswillcomeofthatpursuit,thoughwemaynotenjoythem.Brighterstarswillriseonsome
voyagerofthefuturesomegreatUlyssesoftherealmsofthoughtthanshineonus.Thedreamsof
magicmayonedaybethewakingrealitiesofscience.Butadarkshadowliesathwartthefarendofthis
fairprospect.Forhowevervasttheincreaseofknowledgeandofpowerwhichthefuturemayhavein
storeforman,hecanscarcelyhopetostaythesweepofthosegreatforceswhichseemtobemaking
silentlybutrelentlesslyforthedestructionofallthisstarryuniverseinwhichourearthswimsasaspeck
ormote.Intheagestocomemanmaybeabletopredict,perhapseventocontrol,thewaywardcoursesof
thewindsandclouds,buthardlywillhispunyhandshavestrengthtospeedafreshourslackeningplanet
initsorbitorrekindlethedyingfireofthesun.Yetthephilosopherwhotremblesattheideaofsuch
distantcatastrophesmayconsolehimselfbyreflectingthatthesegloomyapprehensions,liketheearth

andthesunthemselves,areonlypartsofthatunsubstantialworldwhichthoughthasconjuredupoutof
thevoid,andthatthephantomswhichthesubtleenchantresshasevokedtodayshemaybantomorrow.
Theytoo,likesomuchthattocommoneyesseemssolid,maymeltintoair,intothinair.
Withoutdippingsofarintothefuture,wemayillustratethecoursewhichthoughthashithertorunby
likeningittoawebwovenofthreedifferentthreadstheblackthreadofmagic,theredthreadof
religion,andthewhitethreadofscience,ifundersciencewemayincludethosesimpletruths,drawn
fromobservationofnature,ofwhichmeninallageshavepossessedastore.Couldwethensurveythe
webofthoughtfromthebeginning,weshouldprobablyperceiveittobeatfirstachequerofblackand
white,apatchworkoftrueandfalsenotions,hardlytingedasyetbytheredthreadofreligion.Butcarry
youreyefartheralongthefabricandyouwillremarkthat,whiletheblackandwhitechequerstillruns
throughit,thererestsonthemiddleportionoftheweb,wherereligionhasenteredmostdeeplyintoits
texture,adarkcrimsonstain,whichshadesoffinsensiblyintoalightertintasthewhitethreadofscience
iswovenmoreandmoreintothetissue.Toawebthuschequeredandstained,thusshotwiththreadsof
diversehues,butgraduallychangingcolourthefartheritisunrolled,thestateofmodernthought,withall
itsdivergentaimsandconflictingtendencies,maybecompared.Willthegreatmovementwhichfor
centurieshasbeenslowlyalteringthecomplexionofthoughtbecontinuedinthenearfuture?orwilla
reactionsetinwhichmayarrestprogressandevenundomuchthathasbeendone?Tokeepupour
parable,whatwillbethecolourofthewebwhichtheFatesarenowweavingonthehummingloomof
time?willitbewhiteorred?Wecannottell.Afaintglimmeringlightilluminesthebackwardportionof
theweb.Cloudsandthickdarknesshidetheotherend.
Ourlongvoyageofdiscoveryisoverandourbarkhasdroopedherwearysailsinportatlast.Oncemore
wetaketheroadtoNemi.Itisevening,andasweclimbthelongslopeoftheAppianWayuptothe
AlbanHills,welookbackandseetheskyaflamewithsunset,itsgoldengloryrestingliketheaureoleof
adyingsaintoverRomeandtouchingwithacrestoffirethedomeofSt.Peters.Thesightonceseencan
neverbeforgotten,butweturnfromitandpursueourwaydarklingalongthemountainside,tillwe
cometoNemiandlookdownonthelakeinitsdeephollow,nowfastdisappearingintheevening
shadows.TheplacehaschangedbutlittlesinceDianareceivedthehomageofherworshippersinthe
sacredgrove.Thetempleofthesylvangoddess,indeed,hasvanishedandtheKingoftheWoodno
longerstandssentinelovertheGoldenBough.ButNemiswoodsarestillgreen,andasthesunsetfades
abovetheminthewest,therecomestous,borneontheswellofthewind,thesoundofthechurchbells
ofAriciaringingtheAngelus.AveMaria!Sweetandsolemntheychimeoutfromthedistanttownand
dielingeringlyawayacrossthewideCampagnanmarshes.Leroiestmort,viveleroi!AveMaria!
EndofProjectGutenberg'sTheGoldenBough,bySirJamesGeorgeFrazer

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