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Psychosis

Agid O, Kapur S, Arenovich T, Zipursky RB. Delayed-onset hypothesis of antipsychotic action: a


hypothesis tested and rejected. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2003; 60:1228-1235
This study shows that if antipsychotics dont have an effect in the first week, they probably
never will, and the most pronounced effects are in the first two weeks of treatment.

Andreasen NC, Liu D, Ziebell S, Vora A, Ho BC. Relapse duration, treatment intensity, and brain
tissue loss in schizophrenia: a progressive longitudinal MRI study. Am J Psychiatry 2013;
170:609-615
Important study finding antipsychotics cause brain shrinkage rather than relapses, and
suggest using the lowest doses possible

Chouinard G, Jones BD. Neuroleptic-induced supersensitivity psychosis: clinical and


pharmacologic characteristics. Am J Psychiatry 1980; 137:16-21
One of the first papers to introduce the possibility of a neuroleptic-induced supersensitivity
psychosis

Demjaha A, Murray RM, McGuire PK, Kapur S, Howes OD. Dopamine synthesis capacity in
patients with treatment-resistant schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 2012; 169:1203-1210
This paper shows that dopamine dysregulation is not found in those with treatment resistant
schizophrenia and thus dopamine antagonists are worthless in these patients

Fletcher PC, Frith CD. Perceiving is believing: a Bayesian approach to explaining the positive
symptoms of schizophrenia. Nat Rev Neurosci 2009; 10:48-58
An extremely clever model uniting Schneiders first rank symptoms as theory of mind deficits
in context of other biological and neuropsychological findings in schizophrenia

Fusar-Poli P, Borgwardt S, Bechdolf A et al. The psychosis high-risk state: a comprehensive


state-of-the-art review. JAMA Psychiatry 2013; 70:107-120
Extremely useful review of the field of prodromal or at-risk mental state

Honer WG, Thornton AE, Chen EYH et al. Clozapine alone versus clozapine and risperidone
with refractory schizophrenia. N Engl J Med 2006; 354: 472-482
CARE study showed adding risperidone to clozapine no more effective than clozapine alone

Jones PB, Barnes TR, Davies L et al. Randomized controlled trial of the effect on quality of life of
second- vs first-generation antipsychotic drugs in schizophrenia: cost utility of the latest
antipsychotic drugs in schizophrenia study (CUtLASS 1) Arch Gen Psychiatry 2006; 63:1079-87
CUtLASS study was British equivalent of the CATIE using more of the typical antipsychotics
and confirming the new drugs cost more and have no additional benefit on quality of life

Kahn RS, Fleischhacker WW, Boter H et al. Effectiveness of antipsychotic drugs in first-episode
schizophrenia and schizophreniform disorder: an open randomised clinical trial. Lancet 2008;
371:1085-97
EUFEST study found that first-episode psychosis like chronic schizophrenia responds just as
well to the older drugs as the newer drugs

Kane J, Hongfeld G, Singer J, Meltzer H and the Clozaril Collaborative Study Group. Clozapine
for the treatment resistant schizophrenic: a double-blind comparison with
chlorpromazine. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1988; 45:789-796
Classic study demonstrating clozapines superiority to chlorpromazine in treatment-resistant
schizophrenia that led to re-discovery of clozapine in clinical practice

Kapur S. Psychosis as a state of aberrant salience: a framework linking biology, phenomenology,


and pharmacology in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 2003; 160:13-23
A modern classic, this paper describes how the dopamine hypothesis can explain the positive
symptoms of schizophrenia

Leff J, Sartorium N, Jablensky A, Korten A, Ernberg G. The International Pilot Study of


Schizophrenia: five-year follow-up findings. Psychol Med 1992; 22:131-145
Five-year follow up of the IPSS which found prognosis of schizophrenia was better in
developing countries than in the developed world

Leucht S, Cipriani A, Spineli L et al. Comparative efficacy and tolerability of 15 antipsychotic


drugs in schizophrenia: a multiple treatments meta-analysis. Lancet 2013; 382:951-962
This meta-analysis shows substantial differences in efficacy and side-effect profiles of different
antipsychotic agents with clozapine, amisulpride and olanzapine coming out as most effective,
and asenapine, lurasidone, and iloperidone coming out as least effective

Lieberman JA, Stroup TS, McEvoy JP et al. Effectiveness of Antipsychotic Drugs in Patients with
Chronic Schizophrenia. N Engl J Med 2005; 353:1209-1223
CATIE study showed olanzapine was more effective than other atypical antipsychotics and
ziprasidone less effective, with no difference between typical and atypical antipsychotics

Tiihonen J, Lonngvist J, Wahlbeck K et al. 11-year follow-up of mortality in patients with


schizophrenia: a population based cohort study (FIN11 study). Lancet 2009; 374:620-627
This study found clozapine was associated with reduced morality in comparison to other
antipsychotics or no treatment in schizophrenia

Wunderink L, Nieboer RM, Wiersma D, Sytema S, Nienhuis FJ. Recovery in remitted firstepisode psychosis at 7 years of follow-up of an early dose reduction/discontinuation or
maintenance treatment strategy: long-term follow-up of a 2-year randomized clinical
trial. JAMA Psychiatry 2013; 70:913-920
Controversial study that confirms older data that continued antipsychotic use leads to poorer
functional outcomes with better symptom control than discontinuation/early dose reduction

Depressive Disorders
Beck AT. The evolution of the cognitive model of depression and its neurobiological
correlates. Am J Psychiatry 2008; 165:969-977
Very readable overview of the cognitive model of depression in a biopsychosocial perspective
from the founder of cognitive therapy itself

Cipriani A, Furukawa TA, Salanti G et al. Comparative efficacy and acceptability of 12 newgeneration antidepressants: a multiple-treatments meta-analysis. Lancet 2009; 373:747-758
Mirtazapine and venlafaxine are the most efficacious, duloxetine and reboxetine dont work,
and sertraline or citalopram are probably the best first-line agents for depression

Fava GA. Can long-term treatment with antidepressant drugs worsen the course of
depression? J Clin Psychiatry 2003; 64:123-133
This paper suggests that antidepressants may be contributing to the poor prognosis for
depression!

Fava M, Rush AJ. Current status of augmentation and combination treatments for major
depressive disorder: a literature review and a proposal for a novel approach to improve

practice. Psychother Psychosom 2006; 75:139-153


This paper from the STAR*D team outlines how to maximize initial response and engagement
in treatment and proposes using combined or augmentation strategies much earlier than is
the case

Harmer CJ, Goodwin GM, Cowen PJ. Why do antidepressants take so long to work? A cognitive
neuropsychological model of antidepressant drug action. Br J Psychiatry 2009; 195:102-108
An attempt at explaining antidepressant action in cognitive neuropsychological terms

Kirsch I, Deacon BJ, Huedo-Medina TB, Scoboria A, Moore TJ, Johnson BT. Initial severity and
antidepressant benefits: a meta-analysis of data submitted to the Food and Drug
Adminstration. PLOS Med 2008; 5:e45 doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0050045
The best known study to report from unpublished data that antidepressants are no better than
placebo except in the most severe depressive episodes

Kuhn R. The treatment of depressive states with G 22355 (imipramine hydrochloride). Am J


Psychiatry 1958; 115:459-464
First paper to describe the use of TCA imipramine and suggest it is particular beneficial in
melancholic depression

McGrath PJ, Steward JW, Fava M et al. Tranylcypromine versus venlafaxine plus mirtazapine
following three failed antidepressant medication trials for depression: a STAR*D report. Am J
Psychiatry 2006; 163:1531-1541
STAR*D report finds response rate after three failed antidepressants is about 14% and that
combo of venlafaxine and mirtazapine is easier to use and better tolerated than
tranylcypromine

Rush AJ, Trivedi MH, Wisniewski SR et al. Bupropion-SR, Sertraline, or Venlafaxine-XR after
failure of SSRIs for Depression. N Engl J Med 2005; 354:1231-1242
STAR*D trial finds only 20% remit after one failed antidepressant, and bupropion, sertraline
and venlafaxine are just as bad as each other

Trivedi MH, Fava M, Wisniewski SR et al. Medication augmentation after the failure of SSRIs
for depression. N Engl J Med 2006; 354:1243-1252
STAR*D trials finds augmentation strategies all as bad as each other and no better than

switching to another agent

Trivedi MH, Rush AJ, Wisniewski SR et al. Evaluation of outcomes with citalopram for
depression using measurement-based care in STAR*D: implications for clinical practice. Am J
Psychiatry 2006; 163: 28-40
STAR*D study finds remission rates only 30% for first trial of citalopram and that it takes
about 6-8 weeks to note remission, longer than previously claimed

West ED, Dally PJ. Effects of iproniazid in depressive syndromes. Br Med J 1959; 1:1491-1494
One of the first papers to report MAOIs are effective especially in atypical depressions

Bipolar Disorders
Cade JF. Lithium salts in the treatment of psychotic excitement. Med J Aust 1949; 2:349-352
Classic paper that first used lithium to treat mania, absolute must read.

Cipriani A, Barbui C, Salanti G et al. Comparative efficacy and acceptability of antimanic drugs
in acute mania: a multiple-treatments meta-analysis. Lancet 2011; 378:1306-1315
This meta-analysis finds that antipsychotics are the best treatment for acute mania rather
than lithium or mood stabilizers.

Cipriani A, Hawton K, Stockton S, Geddes JR. Lithium in the prevention of suicide in mood
disorders: updated systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 2013; 346:f3646
Updated meta-analysis finds lithium still appears to have anti-suicidal properties

Geddes JR, Miklowitz DJ. Treatment of bipolar disorder. Lancet 2013; 381:1672-1682
Reviews the evidence for pharmacological and psychological treatments in bipolar disorder

Janowsky DS, Epstein RS. Playing the manic game interpersonal maneuvers of the acutely
manic patient. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1970; 22:252-26
Describes the frustrating and destructive maneuvers manic patients catch clinicians in.
Possibly more relevant to borderline patients, I find this slightly outmoded and offensive, but
seems well-loved by more seasoned psychiatrists of all stripes

McKnight RF, Adida M, Budge K, Stockton S, Goodwin GM, Geddes JR. Lithium toxicity profile:
a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet 2012; 379:721-728
Toxicity of lithium has been overblown with ESRD being a rare complication. Li also causes
hyperparathyroidism and checking Ca periodically is recommended

Miklowitz DJ, Otto MW, Frank E et al. Psychosocial treatments for bipolar depression: a 1-year
randomized trial from the Systematic Treatment Enhanced Program. Arch Gen
Psychiatry 2007; 64:419-426
Shows family focused therapy, IPSRT and CBT as useful therapies in treatment of bipolar
depression

Nierenberg AA, Ostacher MJ, Calabrese JR et al. Treatment-resistant bipolar depression: a


STEP-BD equipoise randomized effectiveness trial of antidepressant augmentation with
lamotrigine, inositol, or risperidone. Am J Psychiatry 2006; 163:210-216
Bipolar depression is hard to treatment and augmenting antidepressants with lamictal,
inositol or risperidone are just as bad as each other

Sachs GS, Nierenberg AA, Calabrese JR et al. Effectiveness of adjunctive antidepressant


treatment for bipolar depression. N Engl J Med 2007; 356:1711-1722
STEP-BD study found antidepressants dont work in bipolar disorder

Geddes, JR, Goodwin GM, Rendell K et al. Lithium plus valproate combination therapy versus
monotherapy for relapse prevention in bipolar I disorder (BALANCE): a randomized open-label
trial. Lancet 2010; 375:385-395
Lithium is better than valproate, and there benefit of combining the two isnt clear

Yonkers KA. Management of bipolar disorder during pregnancy and the postpartum period. Am
J Psychiatry 2004; 161:608-620
Nice review of management of bipolar disorder in women

Suicide
Harris EC, Barraclough B. Suicide as an outcome for mental disorders. A meta-analysis. Br J
Psychiatry 1997; 170:205-228

Meta-analysis finds mental disorders except for mental retardation and dementia increase
risk of suicide

Gitlin MJ. A psychiatrists reaction to a patients suicide. Am J Psychiatry; 156:1630-1634


Discusses the experience of losing a patient to suicide

Mann JJ, Apter A, Bertolote J et al. Suicide prevention strategies: a systematic


review. JAMA 2005; 294:2064-2074
A comprehensive but biased review of suicide prevention strategies that places too much
emphasis on clinical approaches and not enough on means prevention but still worth reading

Rosen DH. Suicide survivors. A follow-up study of persons who survived jumping from the
Golden Gate and San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridges. West J Med 1975; 122:289-294
Classic study interviewing survivors of the Golden Gate Bridge attempted suicides argues for
suicide barriers. Must read.

Stone M, Laughren T, Jones ML et al. Risk of suicidality in clinical trials of antidepressants in


adults: analysis of proprietary data submitted to US Food and Drug Administration. BMJ 2009;
339:b2880
Extensive meta-analysis of clinical trials showing that risk of suicidality is age-related, and
antidepressants may reduce suicides in the elderly

Anxiety Disorders, OCD, and PTSD


Abramowitz JS, Taylor S, McKay D. Obsessive-compulsive disorder. Lancet 2009; 374:491-499
Summarizes cognitive-behavioral and biological aspects of OCD and its treatment

Ehlers A, Clark DM. A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behav Res
Therapy 2000; 38:319-345
An insightful and extremely useful model for understanding chronic PTSD from the cognitive
perspective

Hoge CW, McGurk D, Thomas JL, Cox AL, Engel CC, Castro CA. Mild traumatic brain injury in
U.S. soldiers returning from Iraq. N Engl J Med 2008; 31:453-463

mTBI is common in OIF Veterans and often highly comorbid with PTSD symptoms

Roy-Byrne PP, Craske MG, Stein MB. Panic disorder. Lancet 2006; 368:1023-1032
Concise overview of panic and its treatment

Summerfield D. The invention of posttraumatic stress disorder and the social usefulness of a
psychiatric category. Br Med J 2001; 322:95-98
Provocative discussion of PTSD as a sociopolitical construct

Personality Disorders
Groves JE. Taking care of the hateful patient. N Engl J Med 1978; 299:883-887
Classic paper describes 4 hateful patients in the medical setting

Kernberg O. Borderline personality organization. J Am Psychoanal Assoc. 15:641-685


Classic psychoanalytic paper popularizes the borderline personality organization construct
which is described from different psychodynamic perspectives

Leichsenring F, Leibing E, Kruse J, New AS, Leweke F. Borderline personality


disorder. Lancet 2011; 377:74-84
Comprehensive review of borderline personality disorder and its treatment. The drugs dont
really work.

Vaillant GE. The beginning of wisdom is never calling a patient a borderline; or, the clinical
management of immature defenses in the treatment of individuals with personality disorders. J
Psychother Pract Res 1992; 1:117-134
Classic, extremely well written and useful discussion of managing different defenses in
difficult patients

Eating Disorders
Treasure J, Claudino AM, Zucker N. Eating disorders. Lancet 2010; 375:583-93
Nice overview on biology of eating disorders and review of evidence for different therapies

Yager J, Andersen AE. Anorexia nervosa. N Engl J Med 2005; 353:1481-1488


Concise summary of management of anorexia nervosa

Substance Use and Addiction Psychiatry


Anton RF, OMalley SS, Ciraulo DA et al. Combined pharmacotherapies and behavioral
interventions for alcohol dependence: the COMBINE study: a randomized controlled
trial. JAMA 2006; 295:2003-2017
Naltrexone is better than acamprosate for alcohol dependence when combined with CBT

Arsenault L, Cannon M, Poulton R, Murray R, Caspi A, Moffitt TE. Cannabis use in adolescence
and risk for adult psychosis: longitudinal prospective study. BMJ 2002; 325:1212-1213
First prospective longitudinal study to establish adolescent cannabis use as a risk factor for
psychosis

Johns A. Psychiatric effects of cannabis. Br J Psychiatry 2001; 178:116-122


Reviews the psychiatric complications of cannabis use

Khantzian EH. The self-medication hypothesis of addiction. Am J Psychiatry 1985; 142:12591264


This psychodynamic view of addiction as self-medication has proved enduring and influential
in clinical practice and popular culture despite no supporting evidence

Koston TR, OConnor PG. Management of drug and alcohol withdrawal. N Engl J Med 2003;
348:1786-1795
Comprehensive overview of withdrawal syndromes and their management

Laaksonen E, Koski-Jannes A, Salspuro M, Ahtinen H, Alho H. A randomized, multicenter,


open-label, comparative trial of disulfiram, naltrexone and acamprosate in the treatment of
alcohol dependence. Alcohol Alcohol 2008; 43:53-61
Disulfiram may actually be better than naltrexone or acamprosate when combined with
behavior therapy in alcohol dependence

McKetin R, Lubman DI, Baker AL, Dawe S, Ali RL. Dose-related psychotic symptoms in chronic
methamphetamine users: evidence from a prospective longitudinal study. JAMA
Psychiatry 2013; 70:319-324
First prospective longitudinal study to establish causal relationship and dose-dependence
between methamphetamine use and psychosis

Project MATCH Research Group. Matching alcoholism treatments to client heterogeneity:


project MATCH three-year drinking outcomes. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1998 22:1300-1311
12-step facilitation, CBT, and motivational interviewing are all beneficial in alcoholism, with
patient characteristics helping to match best treatment. Angry alcoholics do better with MI.

Van Winkel R, Kahn Rs, Linszen DH et al. Family-based analysis of genetic variation underlying
psychosis-inducing effects of cannabis: sibling analysis and proband follow-up. Arch Gen
Psychiatry 2011; 68:148-57
Shows gene-environment interaction between SNPS in AKT1 and cannabis use in increasing
risk of psychosis which has been replicated, unlikely previous studies involving SNPs of COMT

Volkow ND, Swanson JM. Clinical practice: adult attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder. N
Engl J Med 2013
Up-to-date review of adult ADD

Child and Adolescent Psychiatry


Baron-Cohen S. The extreme-male brain theory of autism. Trends Cogn Sci 2002; 6:248-254
This paper gives a compelling account of autism as the extreme variant of the male brain

Bowlby J. The making and breaking of affectional bonds. I. Aetiology and psychopathology in
the light of attachment theory. An expanded version of the Fiftieth Maudsley Lecture, delivered
before the Royal College of Psychiatrist, 19 November 1976. Br J Psychiatry 1977; 130:201-210
Very readable paper summarizes key findings of attachment theory and its relevance to
psychopathology throughout the lifespan

Jensen PS, Arnold LD, Swanson JM et al. 3-year follow-up of the NIMH MTA Study. J Am Acad
Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2007; 56:989-1002
Important ADHD study showed benefits of stimulant treatment did not persist after initial

phase of treatment compared with behavior therapy

March J, Silva S, Petrycki S et al. Fluoxetine, cognitive-behavioral therapy, and their


combination for adolescences with depression: Treatment for Adolescents with Depression
Study (TADS) randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2004; 292:807-820
TADS study showed combination of CBT and fluoxetine was best treatment for adolescent
depression

Rutter M, Sroufe LA. Developmental psychopathology: concepts and challenges. Dev


Psychopathol 2000; 12:265-296
The father of child psychiatry outlines the developmental approach to psychopathology

Sikich L, Frazier JA, McClellan J et al. Double-blind comparison of first- and second-generation
antipsychotics in early-onset schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder: findings from the
treatment of early-onset schizophrenia spectrum disorders (TEOSS) study. Am J
Psychiatry 2008; 165:1420-31
TEOSS study finds molindone (now defunct) is just as good as the newer drugs in early onset
psychotic disorders

Geriatric Psychiatry
Burns A, Jacoby R, Levy R. Psychiatric phenomena in Alzheimers disease. IV: Disorders of
behavior. Br J Psychiatry 1990; 157:86-94
Outlines the most common behavioral disturbances in Alzheimers from a sample of 178
patients, and finds features of Kluver-Bucy syndrome occur more commonly than is realized
Howard RJ, Juszszak E, Ballard CG t al. Donepezil for the treatment of agitation in Alzheimers
Disease. N Engl J Med 2007; 357: 1382-1392
Donepezil doesnt help agitation in context of Alzheimers disease
Howard RJ, McShane R, Lindesay J et al. Donepezil and memantine for moderate-to-severe
Alzheimers Disease. N Engl J Med 2012; 366:893-903
There is a small functional benefit to donepezil or memantine in moderate-to-severe
Alzheimers with no difference between the two and no additional benefit of the combination
Inouye SK. Delirium in older persons. N Engl J Med 2006; 354:1157-1165

Nice overview of diagnosis, causes and management of delirium in the elderly


McKeith IG, Dickson DW, Lowe J et al. Diagnosis and management of dementia with Lewy
bodies. Neurology 2005; 12:1863-1872
Most recent guidelines for diagnosis and management of LBD
Saczynski JS, Marcanonio ER, Quach L, Fong TG, Gross A, Inouye SK, Jones RN. Cognitive
trajectories after postoperative delirium. N Engl J Med 2012; 367:30-39
Reminder that most patients post-delirium do not return to baseline and experience significant
decline in cognitive functioning
Schneider LS, Tariot PN, Dagerman KS et al. Effectiveness of atypical antipsychotic drugs in
patients with Alzheimers disease. N Engl J Med 2006; 355:1528-1538
CATIE-AD study compares antipsychotics for Alzheimers they are all as bad as each other
and do more harm than good
Psychosomatic Medicine
Appelbaum PS. Assessment of patients competence to consent to treatment. N Engl J
Med 2007; 357:1834-1840
Definitive review of decisional capacity assessment for clinicians

Barsky AJ, Saintford R, Rogers MP, Borus JF. Nonspecific medication side-effects and the
nocebo phenomenon. JAMA 2002; 287:622-627
Describes the nocebo effect as a common occurrence in anxious patients, and a cognitive
model for understanding its development

Beach SR, Celano CM, Noseworthy PA, Januzzi JL, Huffman JC. QTc prolongation, Torsades de
pointes, and psychotropic medications. Psychosomatics 2013; 54:1-13
Comprehensive up-to-date review on QTc prolongation and psychotropic drugs. Turns out we
vastly overestimate the significance of cardiac risk of drugs.

Block SD. Psychological issues in end-of-life care. J Palliat Med 2006; 9:751-772
Comprehensive review of psychological problems and psychiatric disorders at the end-of-life

Boyer EW, Shannon M. The serotonin syndrome. N Engl J Med 2005; 352:1112-1120
Comprehensive review of serotonin syndrome comparing it to other differentials

Eastwood S, Bisson JI. Management of factitious disorders: a systematic review. Psychother


Psychosom 2008; 77:209-218
Systematic review of case reports and series of factitious disorder highlighting bleak
prognosis and difficulties keeping these patients engaged in care.

Groves JE. Management of the borderline patient on a medical or surgical ward: the psychiatric
consultants role. Int J Psychiatry Med 1975; 6:337-48
Practical suggestions on how to manage difficult patients in the medical setting

Kayser MS, Kohler CG, Dalmau J. Psychiatric manifestations of paraneoplastic disorders. Am J


Psychiatry 2010; 167:1039-1050
Discusses the emerging field of autoimmune-mediated neuropsychiatric disorders

McDermott BE, Feldman MD. Malingering in the medical setting. Psychiatr Clin N Am 2007;
30:645-662
Detailed review of malingering and its detection

Stone J, Carson A, Sharpe M. Functional symptoms and signs in neurology: assessment and
diagnosis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2005; 76(Suppl I): i2-i12

Stone J, Carson A, Sharpe M. Functional symptoms and signs in neurology: management. J


Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2005; 76(Suppl I): i13-21
These two papers discuss the assessment and management of conversion disorder including
examination maneuvers for eliciting functional neurology

Strawn JR, Keck Jr PE, Caroff SN. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Am J Psychiatry 2007;
164:870-876
Up to date review of neuroleptic malignant syndrome

Electroconvulsive Therapy
Anjala AV, Smetana GW. Medical evaluation of patients undergoing electroconvulsive
therapy. N Engl J Med 2009; 360:1437-1444
Discusses the medical workup and preparation of patients for ECT

Rose D, Fleischmann P, Wykes T, Leese M, Bindman J. Patients perspectives on


electroconvulsive therapy: systematic review. BMJ 2003; 326:1363
This user-led study reveals that autobiographical memory problems persist more commonly
than is believed

UK ECT Review Group. Efficacy and safety of electroconvulsive therapy in depressive disorders:
a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet 2003; 361:799-808
The most comprehensive meta-analysis of ECT for depression showing its efficacy in
depressive states

Psychiatric Diagnosis
Kendell RE, Cooper JE, Gourlay AJ, Copeland JRM, Sharpe L, Gurland BJ. Diagnostic criteria of
American and British psychiatrists. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1971; 25: 123-130
The UK-US diagnostic study showed American Psychiatrists diagnosed more schizophrenia
than their British counterparts in every case, including cases of depression, manic-depressive
illness and even personality disorder, establishing importance of reliability in psychiatric
diagnosis
Murphy JM. Psychiatric labeling in cross-cultural perspective. Science 1976; 191:1019-1028
This paper describes the concept of madness or mental illness existing across cultures
dispelling mental illness as the result of simply labeling deviance or a convenient myth
Rosenhan DL. On being sane in insane places. Science 1973: 179:250-258
This classic study questioned the validity of psychiatric diagnosis by having pseudopatients
get admitted to psychiatric hospital who then remained there despite no further reports of
symptoms of mental illness!
Conceptual issues in psychiatry
Engel GL. The need for a new medical model: a challenge for biomedicine. Science 1977;
196:129-36

This classic paper popularizes the biopsychosocial model and the application of general
systems theory to medicine.

Kandel ER. A New intellectual framework for psychiatry. Am J Psychiatry 1998; 155:457-469
Kandel suggests firmly rooting medicine of the mind in the biology of the brain

Kendler KS. Explanatory models for psychiatric illness. Am J Psychiatry 2008; 165:695-702
Kendler proposes psychiatric disorders are understood best pluralistically with multiple levels
of explanation and biological understanding will not supplant more macro level
understanding of disorders but enhance it

Szasz T. The myth of mental illness. Am Psychol 1960; 15:113-118


This classic article of the book with the same title claims because the mind is a metaphor, it
cannot be diseased, and thus mental illness is a myth. Szasz prefers to conceive of psychiatric
disorders as problems in living. Given the cachet of these views in popular culture, this is
essential reading.

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