International Journal of Training and Development 3:3

ISSN 1360-3736

Structuring on-the-job
training: report of a multiple
case study
Jan A De Jong and Bert Versloot
Structured on-the-job training (OJT) has gained the attention
of the business world as well as of researchers. The project
discussed in this article contains a series of case studies of
on-the-job training programmes in seven Dutch firms. Several
dimensions are found to be useful in discriminating between
types of OJT activities and between ways of structuring OJT.
Trainee activities are either of a preparatory nature or a real
work character. Assignments may be focussed on skill application, individualised study, or experiential learning. Jobs
may be broken down to a greater or lesser extent and supervisors may have either a directive or a coaching role.

After a period during which training was mainly thought of as the transmission of
knowledge in classrooms, preferably by professional trainers and with use of modern
educational technology, the work place has been rediscovered as a site for training
and learning (Marsick and Watkins, 1990; De Jong, 1991; Rothwell and Kazanas, 1994;
Jacobs and Jones, 1995; Onstenk, 1995; for a critical stance see Garrick, 1998). The
training departments of large companies are experimenting with training programmes which largely take place in the work environment, and often in interaction
with actual work processes. New employees are coached by experienced colleagues
or by their direct supervisor. The new employees and their supervisors may be supported during their learning and coaching activities by materials and instructions
provided by the training department. Arguments for this training method are the
supposed greater flexibility when compared with corporate classrooms, and the earlier availability of the new employees, resulting in higher cost effectiveness. Other
reasons which are often mentioned are higher motivation on the part of the new
employees and absence of problems with transfer of what has been learned to the
working environment.
Only a limited amount of empirical research into the phenomenon of on-the-job
training has been carried out and theory building has only just started. Elsewhere
Jan A. De Jong and Bert Versloot are staff members of the School of Educational Sciences, Utrecht
University, The Netherlands.
Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1999, 108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1JF, UK and 350 Main St., Malden, MA 02148, USA.

186 International Journal of Training and Development

we have described the state-of-the-art of research on on-the-job training (De Jong,

1997). On-the-job training has been defined, comprehensively, as the enhancement of
job competence acquisition, involving the actual work processes and/or the physical
and/or social work environment (De Jong, 1997, p. 449). In short, it is training for
the job through the job.
As a result of publications of Jacobs et al. (Jacobs and McGiffin 1987; Jacobs, 1992;
Jacobs and Jones 1995), and Rothwell and Kazanas (1990, 1994), it has become commonplace to distinguish between unstructured and structured on-the-job training.
Jacobs and Jones (1995, p. 22) define structured OJT as the planned process of
developing task-level expertise by having an experienced employee train a novice
employee at or near the actual work setting. As described by Jacobs and Jones, the
planning is done by the experienced employee on the basis of task analysis. The
training role of the experienced employee is conceived as a form of direct instruction
(as defined by Rosenshine and Stevens, 1984). It has been argued (De Jong, 1991,
1996) that structuring based on task analysis is just one way of structuring (other
ways being: structuring based on ongoing work processes, and structuring based on
evolving learning needs). Moreover, several on-the-job training programmes have
been identified that rely primarily on active study by the trainee (on-site study)
instead of active instruction by a trainer (on-site instruction). On-the-job training
thus has multiple forms, each of which can be structured to a lesser or greater extent
by prescribing and supporting the activities of trainees and their coaches.
At Utrecht University in the Netherlands, the authors started a research programme in 1990, with the aim of contributing to the development of a research-based
domain-specific theory of on-the-job training. The programme set out with a review
of the literature (De Jong, 1991), two exploratory case studies (De Jong, 1993) and a
telephone survey of on-the-job training programmes in Dutch industry and commerce (De Jong, 1992). In the next project the authors carried out case studies in seven
Dutch firms. The most recently finished project entails another set of case studies in
six other Dutch firms in which structured OJT programmes were developed to support innovation and change programmes (Glaude, 19971).
In this article, the results of the seven case studies will be presented (the penultimate project of the programme). The focus in this article is on didactics: the training
design and the actual delivery of the training. Data on the programme development
process and on the organisational incorporation have been reported separately
(Versloot and De Jong, 1994).

Research questions
The main objective of the case studies reported here was to increase our understanding of the conditions, processes and effects of structured on-the-job training programmes. Given the fact that so few theoretical and empirical studies are available
on the topic of structured on-the-job training, the research was bound to have an
exploratory character. The main objective was specified in 17 research questions. This
focus of the article is on the six research questions directly related to didactics. Those
six research questions are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Are certain types of (structured) on-the-job training suitable for certain types
of jobs?
What types of assignments were evaluated by the participants as the most useful?
What characteristics of training materials were evaluated most positively?
What timing of on-the-job and related off-the-job training was evaluated as the
most effective?
How are production processes safeguarded from disturbance by training activities?

A Ph.D. research study, supervised by Versloot.

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On-the-job training 187

6.

How are training processes safeguarded from disturbance caused by production priorities?

With regard to these six research questions propositions were formulated, summarising all information related to these questions that could be found in the literature
review and in the two initial exploratory case-studies. The propositions, to be tested
by comparing them to the case data, are listed below (numbers correspond to the
numbers of the research questions).
1.
2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

On-site study will be most effective for jobs with a substantial problem-solving
activity component, whereas on-site instruction will be most effective for jobs
that mainly involve the following of rules.
Assignments will be evaluated positively if
a. the prerequisite knowledge is present;
b. trainees are, within safety limits, free to experiment;
c. well timed and clear feedback is provided;
d. good results qualify for the performance of new tasks;
e. the assignment is clearly related to future tasks.
Training manuals will be judged to be more effective if
a. they are regularly updated;
b. most frequent tasks and problems are treated first;
c. information on both the how and the why is presented;
d. they are clearly structured;
e. the use of materials and documentation available at the work-site is encouraged.
To be judged effective, on-the-job training should be delivered just in time. Just
in-time on-the-job training depends on
a. the reduction of work pressure (see 6);
b. well timed teaching of theoretical prerequisite knowledge.
To be judged effective, structured on-the-job training should interfere with production as little as possible. This can be achieved by
a. using quiet hours for training;
b. gradually introducing trainees into productive tasks of increasing complexity;
c. delivering instruction by written or electronic media;
d. reducing learning time through good instructional materials (see 3).
To be judged effective, structured on-the-job training should not be hindered by
production pressure. This can be achieved by
a. allowing trainers time for training;
b. regular assessment of trainee progress;
c. common duty-rotas of trainer and trainee;
d. appointing trainers who are sensitive to the training needs of trainees.

Method
The research method can be characterised as a multiple case study (Miles and
Huberman, 1984, 1994). The researchers shared the conviction of Miles and Huberman (1984, p. 34) that better science happens when one makes ones framework
and associated choices of research questions, sample, and instrumentationexplicit,
rather than pretending a sort of inductive purity (italicisation in original). Therefore
research questions and propositions were formulated beforehand, although the
researchers remained sensitive to new questions and new insights developing during
the research process. In accordance with the recommendations of Miles and
Huberman (1984), and Yin (1984), the concepts used in the propositions were translated into research instruments. A content analysis instrument was constructed for
the analysis of relevant documents. Additionally, five interview schedules were
developed, for trainees (and former trainees), trainers, supervisors, managers and
HRD- officers. Each item was placed in the interview schedules for those categories
of participants considered knowledgeable. As a consequence, most items were placed
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(if necessary in modified form) in more than one interview schedule. Interviews were
held in the year 1993 by students who were in their last year of the Utrecht University
Educational Science programme (specialisation: HRD). Numbers of interviewed persons per case varied from 7 to 19, with an average of 12. Some persons (those who
were in a coordinating position) were interviewed more than once. By placing the
same item in several questionnaires some triangulation could take place; ie. checking reports from different witnesses. Interviews were tape-recorded, typed out, and
checked by the interviewees. Segments of the scripts were coded in relation to the
concepts measured (in accordance with the recommendations of Miles and
Huberman, 1984, pp. 5469). Data from all the instruments for each case were summarised for each concept. Case-reports were written based on these summaries. The
case-reports relate the collected data to the propositions and the research questions
formulated in advance. Based on the case-reports the cases were compared with
respect to each concept and, integrating that information, with respect to each proposition. Evidence, although provisional because of the restricted number of cases,
is primarily based upon converging opinions of respondents (with respect to relations
between conditions and effects) and upon contingencies (patterns of co-variation)
detected when comparing the cases.

The cases
Based upon the results of the telephone survey of on-the-job training programmes
in Dutch companies, a selection was made of seven non-industrial companies (of
more than 500 employees), offering training programmes designated as a type of
structured on-the-job training, and having indicated to be willing to cooperate in
the research study2. In general, the training programmes studied differed in amount
of structure, as well in many other aspects. A common feature, distinguishing these
programmes from on-the-job training programmes studied in the past, is that they
were neither located in factories, nor prepared for technical production jobs. Another
common feature of the selected OJT programmes (although not a selection criterion)
is their nestling within larger HRD programmes, consisting of both on-the-job and
off-the-job components. Table 1 provides an overview. In each case just one training
programme was the subject of study, with the exception of Clothing Retail, where
three programmes, for different functions, were studied. At the Weather Bureau two
similar programmes for comparable functions were studied.

Programme descriptions
For the sake of presentation, the descriptions of the seven OJT programmes are
grouped in three exhibits (exhibit 1, 2 and 3). When comparing the cases, the programmes classified in the same exhibit were found to have some features in common.
The descriptions follow a fixed format: a) job characteristics, b) programme history,
c) training schedules, d) training process, e) training materials, f) interaction with
production, g) effectiveness of the programme. The real names of the companies are
not mentioned in this article.
The first group of three cases (exhibit 1) is characterised by on-the-job instruction
in a real-work context. The training takes place in the physical work environment,
utilising (part of) the social work environment, and involving actual work processes.
Exhibit 1: Insurance, Airport Ground Service, Weather Bureau
Insurance
a) Job characteristics: This case study focusses on the client administrators of an insurance

2
In fact, eight companies participated in the research; one case is omitted in the analysis presented
in this article, because the on-the-job training programme involved was largely unstructured.

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On-the-job training 189

Table 1: Companies and functions

Company

Product/service

Function

Tasks of employee

1. Bank 1

Banking

Front-office workers,
using a new
computer system.

2. Airport
Ground
services

Dispatch of
aeroplanes,
passengers, and
cargo.

Ground attendants.

Advising clients/
administration of
financial transactions
with clients.
Check-in of
passengers/
controlling luggage/
ticket control/
operating bridges.
Dispatch of
correspondence/
administration.
Observing the
weather/
report. Located in
main airport and
coast weather station.
Selling tickets/
advising clients.

3. Insurance Insurance.

Client administrators
in the Collecting
Division.
Observers.

4. Weather
Bureau

Weather
bureau/meteorological
office: Information on
the weather.

5. Railway
Company

National railway
Front-office workers.
company: transport of
people and cargo.
Clothing retail.
1. Salesmen;
2. Senior salesmen;
3. Department
supervisors.

6. Clothing
Retail

7. Bank 2

Banking.

Client advisors
(front-office).

1. Selling clothes/
presentation/
service;
2. Ditto +
supplementing/
maintenance; 3.
Supply management
+ people
management.
Advising clients/
selling savings- and
insurance-products/
managing clientand productinformation.

company. The Debt Collection section numbers around 80 employees, whose task is to administrate and manage debt collection from clients reluctant to pay their premiums.
b) Programme history: Until 1985 three departments were each responsible for one part of the
debt collection. In 1985 the three departments were merged, resulting in task enrichment for
the employees. In order to obtain the missing competencies employees were trained by colleagues who had completed a one day train-the-trainer course. The training programme was
kept in use afterwards, for the purpose of training new personnel.
c) Training schedule: Each new employee has to go through at least six modules, four of which
are delivered on-the-job. The first of these modules provides basic knowledge of central administration, the others deal with aspects of debt collection. After two months (on average) the
trainee is able to carry out basic debt collecting tasks: answering the telephone, and dealing
with 80 per cent of the incoming mail. It takes at least a year to master the other, more complex,
20 per cent.
d) Training process: Newly hired employees are matched with experienced client administrators
working in the same team. In the first month standard work (which is the content of the first
module) is done by coach and trainee together. The coach explains the procedures, with refer-

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ence to the written work-instructions. After some time the trainee is allowed to do the work
on his own, initially under frequent supervision by the coach. With incoming or outgoing
telephone messages, the coach initially does the talking, while the trainee listens through a
monitor. Later, the roles are reversed. When a module is finished, the level of competency
reached per task is administered in the training guide.
e) Training materials: A training-guide listing most of the current tasks is used (in order to
register progress), as well as books with written work-instructions. The latter are updated
regularly by the team according to a fixed procedure.
f) Interaction with production: Training is applied during the actual work process, which can be
carried out in any tempo. In the first months of training the work load of the coach is reduced
and the trainee is gradually allowed to take on more tasks (of increasing complexity) on his
own.
g) Effectiveness of the programme: The participants are positive about the programme. They consider it a natural element of their working conditions. In their view off-the-job training would
be less effective.
Airport Ground Services
a) Job characteristics: This case study focusses on the training of newly hired ground attendants
of the Passenger Department of Airport Ground Services, whose task it is to check in passengers, check passengers baggage and operate the avio-bridges. There are about 220 ground
attendants.
b) Programme history: Before 1989 new ground attendants received an unstructured form of onthe-job training. Then an quite extensive off-the-job training course was introduced, based on
a task analysis. Evaluation led to a changed design for the training course in 1991: a shorter
off-the-job training, followed by a more structured on-the-job training. Also, a field orientation
day has been scheduled for the second day of the off-the-job training, which makes the offthe-job course less theoretical.
c) Training schedule: The first four weeks are used for the off-the-job training (with some field
assignments and with some compulsory tests); subsequent on-the-job training lasts two or three
weeks, and is concluded with an evaluation conference. The training course is offered every
two months.
d) Training process: An OJT coordinator matches each trainee with an experienced colleague who
carries out the on-the-job training. When a trainee checks in a passenger, the trainer informs the
passenger of the training situation. The training consists of demonstration, explanation and
guided practice. Gradually the trainee gathers experience with the different tasks of a
ground attendant.
e) Training materials: In the off-the-job course a textbook and a book with assignments are used.
In the OJT the current manuals (check-in guide, intercom-guide and company-books) are used,
supplemented with a checklist of tasks to be mastered.
f) Interaction with production: The trainees follow the duty-rota of their on-the-job trainers.
g) Effectiveness of the programme: In the experience of those concerned, the programme is costeffective, both in comparison with unstructured OJT and in comparison with a longer off-thejob course. It guarantees sufficient basic knowledge and skills, it does not take more time than
needed, and interference with ongoing work is minimal.
Weather Bureau
a) Job characteristics: The case study is focussed on the position of observer at a main airport
and at a coast guard station. The task involves weather observation and weather reports. The
weather bureau employs about 130 people in observer posts at eight locations.
b) Programme history: In 1991 the training of weather observers was changed. Before that date
newly hired observers received a general two months theoretical course, followed by unstructured on-the-job training. The length of the training period depended very much upon the
energy supervisors and trainees were willing to put into it. The new programme comprised a
modular course at the central office (with a content adapted to the needs of the peripheral
stations) and a follow-on more structured on-the-job training period.
c) Training schedules: The general course in the central office takes three months. The on-thejob training lasts five months for the airport weather observer and six weeks for the coast
weather observer. There are recall days in the central office once every three weeks, sometimes
requiring study-tasks, such as weather map analysis.
d) Training process: The trainee does a rapidly increasing proportion of the regular tasks, initially
closely controlled by the coach. At first, observations are noted down in a logbook copy. After
correction, they can be noted down in the logbook itself. Sometimes extra tasks of a simulative
nature are given, eg: imagine an impending blizzard; whom would you inform and what code
would you use?. The tasks performed and the independence manifested are marked by the
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On-the-job training 191

coach in a workbook with pages for each training day. Every six weeks (for the airport weather
observer) progress is discussed by means of an evaluation form.
e)Training materials: The workbook and the evaluation forms are the main training instruments,
apart from the regular instruments and documentation at the weather station.
f) Interaction with production: The training programme starts twice a year. Most tasks during
on-the-job training are part of the normal work process, which is appreciated. Some study
tasks are taken less seriously because they lack direct relevance to the work in the station.
g) Effectiveness of the programme: The increase in the amount of structure in the training is
evaluated positively. The updating of the content of the central course has improved safety
and reduced the number of failures and disturbances. In addition, the number of internal
complaints has diminished.

The second group of cases (exhibit 2) is characterised by individualised study taking place, at least partly, in a simulated work context. The training takes place in the
physical work environment, but (initially) on basis of simulated work processes, and,
especially in the second case, involving the social work environment.
Exhibit 2: Bank 1, Railways
Bank 1
a) Job characteristics: The focus of the investigation is on the training of tellers and retail advisors
of a large Dutch bank, working in local branches.
b) Programme history: Bank 1 is the result of a recent merger. Concurrent with the merger a
new front-office electronic data-processing system was installed. Although front-office data
processing was normal practice in one of the participating banks, the new system was based
upon the administrative procedures in use at the other bank. As a consequence the employees
of both banks had to be trained in using the new system. The training was offered to all
employees working with the newly introduced system. About 18,000 staff had to be trained
within a period of two years.
c) Training schedules: Five weeks before the new system was to become operational in their
bank office, a team received instruction in a regional training centre. Each day, during the
period of a week, one fifth of the team was instructed in the training centre, together with
personnel from other offices in the region. In the four remaining weeks the team members
could practice working with the system in their own office. The average number of hours of
on-line practice observed per employee is 20.
d) Training process: For purposes of practising, an isolated branch of the system was used; a
non-operational part of the system in which all procedures could be practised without disturbances in the main data processing. This training environment could be used on every terminal
in the office. Usually employees practised in a separate room, in order not to be disturbed. In
some offices the team practised in the evening, when the office was closed to the public.
e) Training materials: For each application of the computer system a book with information and
exercises was provided. The exercises describe realistic client interactions requiring computer
data processing.
f) Interaction with production: Employees were asked to read the information in the workbooks
before entering the training environment. Each employee had to find out what applications
were relevant to their particular job and therefore needed practising. Learning time was to be
spread over the available period, but those who needed to master just a few applications were
advised not to start too early. In order to relieve production pressure a regional support team
was formed, replacing employees who were off for training.
g) Effectiveness of the programme: There has been no opportunity to compare the effects of the
training with the effects of an alternative treatment, so statements on effectiveness have been
hard to come by. The general impression is that the combination of one central instruction
period of one day, combined with an on-line training environment in their own office is a
good solution. However, one alternative has been developed spontaneously in some offices
where the training environment could not be installed in time: the employees visited an office
that was already working with the new system, and were coached there in the use of the
system by their more experienced colleagues. This alternative was evaluated very positively.
Railways
a) Job characteristics: One of the divisions of this railway company is Service and Sales. One of
the main positions in Service and Sales is that of ticket-clerk, that is, a person selling tickets
and advising passengers from behind a counter.
b) Programme history: Before 1978 ticket clerks received off-the-job training. New hires had to

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wait until they could be placed in the programme, and meanwhile received unstructured onthe-job training. As a result the off-the-job course often came too late to be of much relevance.
In order to supply a more flexible training course the central training department opted for
an individualised study programme, located mainly on the work-site. In 1989 the individual
study material has been revised as a result of new hardware and software for use at counters
and as a result of the need for more user-friendly training-materials.
c) Training schedules: It takes six weeks to train a ticket-clerk. In the first four weeks an individual study package is worked through. This provides information (on procedures, geography,
etc.) and assignments that are to be carried out; these are often quite practical, eg. determining
what ticket should be provided given a certain route preferred by the passenger. The assignments are made with the use of the equipment and information available in the workplace.
During this period the trainee is coached by an experienced employee. Once a week plenary
meetings are organised in a regional centre. After four weeks a central examination is administered. During this period, and for two weeks subsequently, the trainee gains experience at the
counter, under the supervision of an experienced ticket-clerk. After six weeks the trainees
practical proficiency is assessed.
d) Training process: The trainee independently works through the individual study package,
but can ask the coach for help. At first during quiet hours, and later more frequently, the
trainee gains experience at the counter, literally with the backing of an on-the-job coach.
e) Training materials: The main training materials consist of an individual study package, in
addition to the equipment and documentation used in the workplace.
f) Interaction with production: In some districts every month and in other districts every two
months a new (central) training period starts. The dates of staff appointments are adapted to
this interval. The trainee is gradually introduced to the work. During the training period the
trainee and the coach are on the same time schedule.
g) Effectiveness of the programme: Comparisons with former or parallel programmes cannot be
made, but participants are generally satisfied with the training provided. The early introduction
into the social and material work context is appreciated, as is the frequent testing, which promotes a serious attitude towards the training.

The third group of cases (exhibit 3) is characterised by on-site study taking place in
a real work context. The training takes place in the physical and social work environment, and on the basis of real work processes.
Exhibit 3: Bank 2, Clothing retail
Bank 2:
a) Job characteristics: Bank 2 is essentially a cooperative organisation of local banks. Most local
banks work together with regard to training and development. The case-study is focussed on
the (annual) training of twelve all-round private banking client advisors.
b) Programme history: The programme started in 1991. The development of the programme
arose from dissatisfaction with the usual recruitment and training of this category of personnel.
Vacancies stayed open for quite a long time while recruitment was in progress. Unstructured
on-the-job training took even longer and did not prevent the new hires from making many
costly mistakes. For this reason the cooperating local banks decided to train a group of candidates in supply.
c) Training schedules: The training programme lasts one year and comprises off-the job and onthe-job components. The off-the-job component includes several short courses in a central
location, plus some private study materials. The on-the-job component consists of assignments,
plus general front-office experience.
d) Training process: The assignments are linked to the theory discussed in the off-the-job meetings, for example having a number of loan-advice talks or recommending youth savings
accounts in interviews with parents of new-born children. Experiences should be reported in
writing, and discussed with an on-the-job coach. In a number of instances the job situation did
not allow for assignments to be executed.
e) Training materials: Apart from the course materials and the normal documentation at the
work-site there are no special training materials.
f) Interaction with production: Trainees are appointed to supernumerary positions, but are
required to work at the counters when they are in the office. The kind of work they do depends
partly on the kind of experience they are supposed to gain in relation to the off-the-job course.
In order to obtain a sufficient variety of experiences the trainees change office after a six months
period. For some it is hard to find a balance between their study activities and their daily work.
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On-the-job training 193

gramme the training is reduced to half the time, and the quality of the work is higher due to
the more competence-directed training programme. Objective measures of quality are the number of banking products sold and the number of clients signalled to colleagues who are product specialists.
Clothing retail:
a) Job characteristics: In this case-study the training for the positions of shop assistant, senior
salesman, and department supervisor in a large clothing retail company were investigated.
b) Programme history: In 1983 a top-down innovation (new products and new presentation
methods) failed. A need for higher personal commitment was observed by the training manager, the personnel manager and the sales manager, who cooperate as a team. They started
organisational development projects to promote motivation and proficiency. These projects
resulted in off-the-job training courses with a reflective and activating character. Trainees and
their on-the-job coaches (usually their direct supervisors) were encouraged to plan improvement projects to be executed at the work site.
c) Training schedule: New hires start without specific training, and are coached in the same way
as one-day-shop assistants. After some months of work experience they attend the course.
Department supervisors select employees who are supposed to be ready to follow the course
for senior salesman, and higher management selects those eligible for a course designed for
future department supervisors.
d) Training process: The themes dealt with in the training for shop assistant are sales techniques,
as well as dealing with thefts and complaints. Trainees are encouraged to contribute their own
experiences and concerns. On Monday mornings, when the shop is closed, trainees discussed
the content of the training with their boss and how to apply what they have learned, for
example, by taking the initiative for a presentation of a new collection. Also, in the courses
for higher positions the practice of taking innovating initiatives on the shop floor is strongly
stimulated.
e) Training materials: The main training material consists of the manuals and course-books used
in the courses. These are based on the experiences in the shops, and are regularly updated.
They are used as reference works.
f) Interaction with production: Because the formal part of the training is off-the-job, it is sometimes
hard to keep staffing levels in the real workplace adequate. The training on-the-job consists of
efforts to improve the individuals functioning and to try out new activities in the actual work
context. It is difficult to distinguish it from normal quality improvement efforts. Experiences
gained in the efforts are discussed again in the off-the-job course.
g) Effectiveness of the programme: The apathy and resistance to change, which were the reasons
for starting the training courses, have changed into enthusiasm and a good deal of initiative.
Participants evaluate the training programmes very positively.

Based on the seven case-descriptions answers can be formulated to the research questions.

Results
Types of training (1)
In all seven cases a distinction can be made between preparatory learning activities
and learning in real work contexts. Preparatory learning activities can take place both
off and on the work site. They include off the job training courses, reading written
instructions, and practice in simulated work situations. With regard to learning in
real work contexts a distinction was made earlier in this report between on-site
instruction and on-site study. Both depend on task analysis, but in the case of onsite instruction a trainer demonstrates, explains, and gradually hands over tasks,
while in the case of on-site study it is the trainee who actively explores and tries out
the tasks that are to be carried out. In the Insurance, Airport, and Weather Bureau
cases (exhibit 1), on-the-job training has the features of on-site instruction, whereas
in the Bank 2 and Clothing Retail cases (exhibit 3) on-the-job training is more of an
on-site study type. In the Bank 1 case (exhibit 2) a real work training component
is missing: after a well-developed individualised preparatory programme using an
isolated branch of the front-office data processing system, trainees simply had to
start using the system in their client contacts. As described however, they felt the
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need to have some additional field experience, guided by experienced colleagues. In

the Railways case (exhibit 2) an individualised preparatory programme is offered as
well, with the use of real work equipment and with coaching provided by an experienced colleague. The real work training component is of an (unstructured) on-site
practice type (see De Jong, 1991): trainees do the job that is to be done and are
backed by the on-the-job coach.
Structuring on-the-job training in real work contexts thus appears to be executed
in two steps: 1) dividing the job into separate tasks which should be trained in a
certain sequence, and 2) either having an on-the-job trainer instruct the trainee in
each of these tasks (by modelling, explaining, giving opportunities for practice and
providing feedback) or having the trainee search for occasions to gain experience
with the tasks after a thorough orientation period. In some cases the work can easily
be broken up into tasks that can be separately practised in real work contexts, which
allow for on-site instruction (Exhibit 1: Insurance, Airport, Weather Bureau) or on-site
study (Exhibit 3: Bank 2, Clothing Retail). In other cases (Exhibit 2: Bank 1, Railways)
employees need to be able to perform all tasks at any moment, depending on the
unpredictable needs of the individual client. In the latter cases the practice shock can
be somewhat reduced by practice in simulated contexts, observation of experienced
workers and back-up by experienced colleagues or supervisors. The choice between
on-site instruction and on-site study might depend on the amount of task standardisation and the appreciation of initiative and independence. The Insurance, Airport
and Weather Bureau jobs depend on standardised procedures, whereas in the Bank
2 and Clothing Retail jobs initiative and independence is more strongly valued. Compared to the trainees of Insurance, Airport, and Weather Bureau, the trainees at Bank
2 and Clothing Retail are more experienced employees, preparing for more responsible jobs (senior salesman, department supervisor, and all-round private banking
client advisor). Of course the differences are far from absolute; in fact self-directed
learning and trainer-directed learning are two extremes of a continuum.
In conclusion, the proposition that on-site study is most effective for jobs with a
substantial problem-solving activity component, whereas on-site instruction will be
most effective for jobs that mainly involve the following of rules, gets some support
from the data. However, the data tell us much more about types of on-the-job training. First, on-the-job training need not always take place in real-work contexts. Several cases show examples of on-the-job practice in dummy work environments (Bank
1, Railways), paper-and-pencil exercises, using manuals and other materials available
on the job (Bank 1, Railways) and written instructions, to be studied before practising
on the job (Insurance). This on-the-job individualised study is experienced as meaningful if a) the trainee learns to use systems localised in the work place, b) feedback
can be given by the persons doing the real work coaching, c) the time lapse between
study and practice is short. Secondly, it is not always possible to learn a job by means
of one task at a time. In certain jobs it is necessary to be able to perform all tasks at
any moment. In those cases the real work component of training cannot have the
form of on-site instruction or on-site study; it can only be on-site practice, supported
by previous preparatory learning experiences, expert observation, and expert backup.
Types of assignment (2)
Several types of assignment can be distinguished in the cases studied. The first type
may be called application assignments. They are intended to apply what has been
learned in an off-the-job course. Although these assignments can increase the impact
of the off-the-job course, their scheduling in the on-the-job work process can be problematic. This may lead to assignments which are considered redundant from the job
perspective (Weather Bureau), or cannot be performed in the job situation (Bank 2).
An interesting solution is provided by Clothing Retail, where the trainee and the onthe-job trainer discuss feasible job learning experiences in relation to the off-the-job
training themes. The second type of assignment can be called individualised study
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On-the-job training 195

assignment. It involves written instructions and learning tasks (Bank 1, Insurance,

Railways) and/or tasks to be performed in a simulated work environment (Bank 1,
Railways). The development of these kind of individual study tasks demands an
accurate task analysis and expertise in instructional materials development. Trainees
appreciate the presence of an experienced colleague who can offer support when
needed. The third kind of assignment can be called experiential assignment. It provides directions for gaining supervised real work experience. This kind of assignment
is usually evaluated very positively.
Proposition 2 is partly confirmed by the data: the criteria mentioned seem to be
necessary, but not sufficient. Almost all assignments meet the criteria stated. Assignments which are less positively evaluated fall short of other criteria: they are not
related to current work tasks (Weather Bureau), rely on less user-friendly materials
(Railways) or do not take the local job situation into account (Bank 2).
Training materials (3)
In several cases the training materials are identical with the documentation used on
the job. The training of novices is a strong impetus for regular updating or even
development of this documentation (eg. Insurance). This documentation is used by
both trainees and on-the-job trainers. Some cases show examples of dummy dataprocessing systems for the purpose of practising. Other training materials are exercise-books, checklists with tasks and evaluation forms. Also, in some cases guides
for on-the-job trainers were provided. The proposition is partly supported by the
data: important features of manuals, in the opinion of the trainees and trainers, are
their currency and their ease of reference. Practice with (copies of) materials available
on the work-site is experienced as meaningful. The proposition makes no mention
either of exercise-books for preparatory learning or checklists with tasks belonging
to the job. In fact both are often used and considered helpful.
Timing of on-the-job and off-the-job training (4)
Several cases show the same historical developmental pattern. In the first stage new
employees just receive unstructured on-the-job training. In the second stage an offthe-job course is provided, offering the knowledge and skills which are supposed to
be needed for a good start, followed by a period of unstructured on-the-job training.
In the third stage the off-the-job course is tailored and made more practice-oriented,
with simulations and field experiences. The on-the-job part which follows has a more
structured character and is sometimes supplemented by off the job reflective meetings. This developmental pattern (or part of it) can be discerned at Airport, Weather
bureau, Railways, and Clothing Retail.
Whereas in three cases an off-the-job or individualised study period is followed
by an on-the-job period (Bank 1, Airport, Weather bureau), in three other cases a
more frequent alteration of off-the-job (or individualised study) and on-the-job activities is present (Insurance, Clothing Retail, Bank 2). The Railways programme combines both options.
Whenever an on-the-job training programme is combined with an off-the-job programme, the problem arises that the date of starting a new training course determines
the date on which new employees can be hired. This has been solved by training
in stock (Bank 2), making multi-functional modules (Weather Bureau), restricting
appointments to a few fixed dates per year (Railways). For some companies this
problem has been the impetus to localise preparatory instruction in the work place
(Insurance).
The timing of on-the-job and related off-the-job training appears to be an important
issue (in accordance with proposition 4). On-the-job training in real work situations
should not be hampered by a lack of prerequisite knowledge and skills. Off-the-job
training without sufficient field orientation is just as ineffective. Alteration of on196 International Journal of Training and Development

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the-job training and off-the-job training appears to be an ideal solution, but is not
always feasible.
Safeguarding production (5)
Involving the social and material work environment in learning a job can be beneficial for both the novice and the team. It pushes the team towards reflection on its
procedures (De Jong, 1993), it helps the novice to get integrated in the team, and it
is often the most motivating and effective way of training. There are two risks however: one is that the work process is hindered by the training activities, the other is
that training is hindered by work priorities. In the cases studied the first risk is
counteracted by several measures. In proposition 5 the following were already mentioned: using quiet hours for training (Railways), gradually introducing trainees into
productive tasks of increasing complexity (Insurance), delivering instruction by written or electronic media (Bank 1, Railways), and reducing learning time by using
good instructional materials (Bank 1, Railways, Insurance). Other measures include
appointing an OJT coordinator (Airport), matching the work schedules of trainees
and on-the-job trainers (Bank 1, Railways, Airport), providing off-the-job training
to introduce preliminary knowledge and skills (Weather Bureau, Airport, Railways.
Clothing Retail), and trainee-trainer consultation on on-the-job learning activities
(Clothing Retail).
Safeguarding training (6)
The second risk of on-the-job training (neglect of training due to the priority of the
work process) is counteracted, in accordance with proposition 6, by allowing trainers
time for training (Insurance), by means of time schedules for OJT and assessment of
progress (Airport, Insurance, Weather Bureau, Railways), by common duty schedules
(Bank 1, Railways, Airport), and by appointing and training trainers who take their
training job seriously (several cases). In addition, declaring novices exempt from production norms in the first few weeks helps to reduce production pressure (in most
cases). In some cases even replacement teams have been formed to temporarily support locations with a high number of trainees (Bank 1).

Conclusions
Results pertaining to six research questions were discussed in this article. All six
questions are concerned with the usefulness of certain measures for structuring onthe-job training. The first two questions focus on the different types of learning situations created in the context of OJT. Several dimensions appear to be relevant differentiating these types. The first dimension (roles) ranges from learner-directed OJT to
trainer-directed OJT: in learner directed OJT more learner initiative is expected,
whereas the trainer role is more of a coaching type. The second dimension (context)
differentiates learning in a real-work context and preparatory learning. The third
dimension (assignment) has three positions: study assignment, application assignment, and experiential assignment. It may well be that the original division into onsite practice, on-site instruction, and on-site study is a too simplified theoretical
model to account for the configurations resulting from the combination of these three
dimensions. As the case material indicates, job and learner characteristics may determine what type of learning situation is most appropriate in a certain context.
The third research question is about the training materials. Training materials can
support both learners and trainers in performing their role. Several examples have
been provided in this article.
The fourth research question introduces the issue of timing of on-the-job and offthe-job training. Although the selection of the cases was based solely upon the presence of a substantial on-the-job training programme, in all seven cases the on-the Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1999.

On-the-job training 197

job training programmes are part of a larger programme, containing off-the-job

elements as well. The developmental history of certain training programmes can be
described as a progressive search for the optimal interaction between off-the-job
learning, preparatory on-the-job learning, and learning in a real work context. Several
measures have been discussed that can further this goal. Tentatively one may conclude that research could better be directed at the relation between on-the-job and
off-the-job training than at on-the-job training per se.
The fifth and sixth research questions are about the mutual influence of work process and training process. The role of the trainer or coach appears to be crucial in
this context. He or she should protect both the trainee and the work flow and look
for opportunities to connect both processes. Of course this can only be done with
time and the provision of good instructional materials.

Future research
Several ideas for further research are generated by this study, some of which are
presented below.
A first object of further research is the interrelation of on-the-job and off-the-job
components of training programmes. Research may lead to a better understanding
of the factors determining an optimal sequencing of these components. As was found
in our study, the possibility of dividing the job into tasks that can be studied and
practiced separately, thus gradually enlarging the trainees competence, is an
important factor. Also, the capacity of the trainee to study individually seems
important.
A second object of further research is the variety of roles of the trainer or coach.
As we saw in our study, important roles are instruction, facilitation of study and
reflection, matching trainee needs and assignments, and safeguarding both work process and trainee learning. The trainer or coach might also play an important role in
the updating and documentation of work procedures and instructions. Instruments
can be developed to measure the extent in which these roles are performed and the
perceived need to have these roles fulfilled.
A third object of further study suggested by our research is the developmental
history of training programmes, especially with regard to the way they relate to
the work place and the actual work processes. As appeared in our study, certain
developmental patterns can be discerned. The seven companies reported in this article could be contacted again to study the further history of the programmes
described. But of course also larger scale studies could be performed to detect developmental patterns in the way training programmes relate to the work place.
A fourth object for further research is the active involvement of trainees and onthe-job trainers or coaches in the planning and execution of job training. HRD officers
might play an important role encouraging this involvement, provided the availability
of adequate strategies and instruments.
A fifth object for further research might be the interplay of several stakeholders in
determining the norms for right job performance. As Garrick (1998) has described,
instructional objectives in work place learning are far from undisputed. Tensions
may appear between HRD staff and management, between those two groups and
local work groups, and between all of these and the individual trainee. It certainly
is interesting to study the way these tensions work out in the structuring of on-thejob training.
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