1.

1 Geometric Principles Plane Geometry

In any triangle, angle A + angle B + angle C = 180, and angle A = 180 ( angle A + angle B ), and so on (Fig. 1.1). Conversely, if the angles of one
triangle are equal to respective angles of another triangle, the triangles
are similar and their sides proportional; thus if angle A = angle A, angle B
= angle B, and angle C = angle C, then a:b:c and a/a = b/b=c/c ( Fig
1.2)

Isosceles triangle ( Fig. 1.3)

If side c = side b, then angle c = angle B.
Equilateral triangle ( Fig 1.4)
If side a = side b = side c, angles A, B, and C are equal (60).
Right triangle ( Fig. 1.5)
C=a+b and c =
, when angle C=90. There-fore, a=
b=
This relationship in all right-angle triangles is called the
phytagorean theorem.
Exterior angle of a triangle ( Fig 1.6)
Angle C = angle A+ angle B.

and

Intersecting straight lines ( Fig 1.7 )

If angle A = angle aA, and B = B.

Two parallel lines intersected by a straight line (see Fig. 1.8).

Alternate interior
and exterior angles are equal: angle A = angle A; angle B = angle B.
Any four-sided geometric figure (see Fig. 1.9).
The sum of all interior angles =
360; angle A + angle B + angle C + angle D = 360.
A line tangent to a point on a circle is at 90, or normal, to a radial line drawn
to the
tangent point (see Fig. 1.10).

1.2 BASIC ALGEBRA

1.2.1 Algebraic Procedures
Solving a Typical Algebraic Equation. An algebraic equation is solved by
substituting
the numerical values assigned to the variables which are denoted by letters,
and then finding the unknown value, using algebraic procedures.
EXAMPLE
If C = 16, D = 5.56, and d = 3.12 (the variables), solve for L (substituting the
values
of the variables into the equation):

Most of the equations shown in this handbook are solved in a similar

manner, that

is, by substituting known values for the variables in the equations and
solving for the
unknown quantity using standard algebraic and trigonometric rules and
procedures.
Ratios and Proportions. If a/b = c/d, then

Quadratic Equations. Any quadratic equation may be reduced to the form

The two roots, x1 and x2, equal

When a,b, and c are real, if b2 4ac is positive, the roots are real and
unequal. If b2 4ac
is zero, the roots are real and equal. If b2 4ac is negative, the roots are
imaginary and
unequal.
Radicals

Factorial. 5! Is termed 5 factorial and so equivalent to

Logarithms. The logarithm of a number N to base a is the exponent power to

which a must be raised to obtain N. Thuns N = ax and x = log aN. Also log a
1 =0 and log a = 1

Other relationships follow:

.

Base 10 logarithms are referred to as common logarithms or Briggs

logarithms,
after their inventor.
Base e logarithms (where e = 2.71828) are designated as natural,
hyperbolic, or
Naperian logarithms, the last label referring to their inventor.The base of the
natural
logarithm system is defined by the infinite series

Simply multiply the natural log by 0.43429 (a modulus) to obtain the

equivalent
common log.
Similarly, multiply the common log by 2.30261 to obtain the equivalent
natural
log. (Accuracy is to four decimal places for both cases.)

1.2.2 Transposing Equations (Simple and Complex)

Transposing an Equation. We may solve for any one unknown if all other
variables are known.The given equation is:

An equation with five variables, shown in terms of R. Solving for G:

Solving for d:

Solving for D :

Solve for N using the same transposition procedures shown before.

NOTE. When a complex equation needs to be transposed, shop personnel

can contact
their engineering or tool engineering departments, where the MathCad
program
is usually available.

1.3 PLANE TRIGONOMETRY

There are six trigonometric functions: sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent,
secant, and
cosecant. The relationships of the trigonometric functions are shown in Fig.
1.20.
Trigonometric functions shown for angle A (right-angled triangle) include
sin A = a/c (sine)
cos A = b/c (cosine)
tan A = a/b (tangent)
cot A = b/a (cotangent)
sec A = c/b (secant)
csc A = c/a (cosecant)
For angle B, the functions would become (see Fig. 1.20)
sin B = b/c (sine)
cos B = a/c (cosine)

tan B = b/a (tangent)

cot B = a/b (cotangent)
sec B = c/a (secant)
csc B = c/b (cosecant)
As can be seen from the preceding, the sine of a given angle is always the
side opposite

the given angle divided by the hypotenuse of the triangle.The cosine is

always the
side adjacent to the given angle divided by the hypotenuse, and the tangent
is always
the side opposite the given angle divided by the side adjacent to the
angle.These relationships
must be remembered at all times when performing trigonometric operations.
Also:

This reflects the important fact that the cosecant, secant, and cotangent are
the
reciprocals of the sine, cosine, and tangent, respectively. This fact also must
be
remembered when performing trigonometric operations.
Signs and Limits of the Trigonometric Functions. The following
coordinate chart
shows the sign of the function in each quadrant and its numerical limits. As
an example,
the sine of any angle between 0 and 90 will always be positive, and its
numerical
value will range between 0 and 1, while the cosine of any angle between 90
and 180
will always be negative, and its numerical value will range between 0 and 1.
Each quadrant
contains 90; thus the fourth quadrant ranges between 270 and 360.

1.3.1 Trigonometri Laws

The solution of Triangles

Finding Heights of Non-Right-Angled Triangles. The height x shown in

Figs. 1.22
and 1.23 is found from

The area when the three sides are known ( see Fig. 1.25) (this holds true for
any triangle ) :