Water Quality - Environmental Measurement Systems

Water Quality - Environmental Measurement Systems
7/28/2015
To search type and hit enter
Sediment Transport and Deposition
Algae, Phytoplankton and Chlorophyll
Water Quality
SHARE
14
Water quality testing is an important part of environmental monitoring. When water quality is poor, it affects not only aquatic life but the
surrounding ecosystem as well.
These sections detail all of the parameters that affect the quality of water in the environment. These properties can be physical, chemical or biological
factors. Physical properties of water quality include temperature and turbidity. Chemical characteristics involve parameters such as pH and dissolved
oxygen. Biological indicators of water quality include algae and phytoplankton. These parameters are relevant not only to surface water studies of
the ocean, lakes and rivers, but to groundwater and industrial processes as well.
Water quality monitoring can help researchers predict and learn from natural processes in the environment and determine human impacts on an
ecosystem. These measurement efforts can also assist in restoration projects or ensure environmental standards are being met.
The following chapters will discuss each water quality parameter specifically. Each page defines what the parameter is, where it comes from and why
it is important to measure.
Water Quality Chapters

CDOM
Conductivity, Salinity and Total Dissolved Solids
Dissolved Oxygen
Nutrients: Phosphorus and Nitrogen as Nitrate and Ammonia
http://www.fondriest.com/environmental-measurements/parameters/water-quality/
1 / 80
7/28/2015
pH
Photosynthetically Active Radiation and Solar Radiation
Turbidity, Total Suspended Solids and Clarity
Water Temperature
Measurement methods and technology can be found in the section: Methods and Equipment.
W ater quality affects the surrounding environment.
Sediment Transport and Deposition
Parameters
Hydrology
Water Quality

Conductivity, Salinity & Total Dissolved Solids
Dissolved Oxygen
pH of Water
Turbidity, Total Suspended Solids & Water Clarity
Water Temperature
Weather and Atmosphere
2 / 80
7/28/2015
Methods and Equipment

Monitoring Applications
References
Water Quality Equipment

Get Discount Code
2015 FONDRIEST ENVIRONMENTAL INC. | QUESTIONS? CALL 888.426.2151 OR EMAIL CUSTOMERCARE@FONDRIEST.COM

3 / 80
Algae, Phytoplankton and Chlorophyll - Environmental Measurement Systems
7/28/2015
W ater Quality

SHARE
14
Chapter Overview:
What are Algae?
What are Phytoplankton?
Microalgae
Cyanobacteria: Blue-Green Algae
What is Chlorophyll?
Other Color Pigments
What is Photosynthesis?
Underwater Photosynthesis
What affects Photosynthesis?
Why are Phytoplankton Important?
Oceanic Food Web
Oxygen Production
Carbon Fixation and the Climate
Typical Levels and Factors that Influence Productivity
Sunlight Influence
Nutrient Influence
Typical Freshwater Levels
http://www.fondriest.com/environmental-measurements/parameters/water-quality/algae-phytoplankton-chlorophyll/
4 / 80
7/28/2015
Typical Saltwater Levels

Consequences of Unusual Levels
Algal Blooms and Red Tides
What Causes an Algal Bloom?
Red Tides
Toxins
Filamentous Algae
Oxygen Depletion and Fish Kills
How do you Measure Phytoplankton?
Measuring Chlorophyll
Measuring Blue-Green Algae
Phytoplankton and Algae Measurement Methods
Chlorophyll Sensors
Applications
What are Algae?

Algae are aquatic, plant-like organisms. They encompass a variety of simple structures, from single-celled phytoplankton floating in the water, to
2
large seaweeds (macroalgae) attached to the ocean floor . Algae can be found residing in oceans, lakes, rivers, ponds and even in snow, anywhere
on Earth.
4
So what makes algae only plant-like, instead of plants? While algae are often called primitive plants, other terms, like protists, can be used . Protist
8
may be a more accurate term, particularly for the single-celled phytoplankton . However, larger, more complex algae, including kelp and chara, are
often mistaken for submerged plants.
The difference between these seaweeds and submerged plants is in their structure. Macroalgae are simpler, and attach themselves to the seabed
4
with a holdfast instead of true roots . Aquatic plants, whether floating, submerged, or emergent (starting in the water and growing out) have
3
specialized parts such as roots, stems and leaves . Most plants also have vascular structures (xylem and phloem), which carry nutrients throughout
8
the plant. While algae contain chlorophyll (like plants), they do not have these specialized structures .
As algae can be single-celled, filamentous (string-like) or plant-like, they are
often difficult to classify. Most organizations group algae by their primary
color (green, red, or brown), though this creates more problems than it
4
solves . The various species of algae are vastly different from each other,
not only in pigmentation, but in cellular structure, complexity, and chosen
4,5
environment . As such, algal taxonomy is still under debate, with some
organizations classifying algae under different kingdoms, including Plantae,
4,6,8,9
Protozoa and Chromista
. While the overarching kingdom classification
is not always agreed upon, the species, genus, family, class and phylum of
6
each alga generally are .
To further complicate this nomenclature, single-celled algae often fall under
the broad category of phytoplankton.
What are phytoplankton?
Algae are sometimes considered protists, while other times they are classified
as plants or choromists. Phytoplankton are made up of single-celled algae and
cyanobacteria.
Phytoplankton are microorganisms that drift about in water. They are

single-celled, but at times they can grow in colonies large enough to be
16
seen by the human eye . Phytoplankton are photosynthetic, meaning they have the ability to use sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water
11
into energy . While they are plant-like in this ability, phytoplankton are not plants. The term single-celled plants is a misnomer, and should not be
10
used. Instead, phytoplankton can be divided into two classes, algae and cyanobacteria . These two classes have the common ability of
photosynthesis, but have different physical structures. Regardless of their taxonomy, all phytoplankton contain at least one form of chlorophyll
(chlorophyll A) and thus can conduct photosynthesis for energy.
13
Phytoplankton, both algae and cyanobacteria, can be found in fresh or saltwater . As they need light to photosynthesize, phytoplankton in any
10
environment will float near the top of the water, where sunlight reaches . Most freshwater phytoplankton are made up of green algae and
13
cyanobacteria, also known as blue-green algae . Marine phytoplankton are mainly comprised of microalgae known as dinoflagellates and diatoms,
though other algae and cyanobacteria can be present. Dinoflagellates have some autonomous movement due to their tail (flagella), but diatoms
12
5 / 80
7/28/2015
12
are at the mercy of the ocean currents .
Microalgae
There are thousands of species of planktonic algae, or microalgae, floating in water all over the world. Green algae, diatoms and dinoflagellates are the
1
most well-known, though other microalgae species include coccolithophores, cryptomonads, golden algae, yellow-green algae and euglenoids .
9
There are so many diatoms drifting in the oceans that their photosynthetic processes produce about half of Earths oxygen . While diatoms and
9
dinoflagellates are forms of planktonic algae, they can be incorrectly classified as red or brown algae . Red and brown algae are not considered
phytoplankton as they are not free-floating. True red and brown algae are rarely single-celled, and remain attached to rock or other structures
1,17
instead of drifting at the surface . Multicellular green algae is also not considered phytoplankton for the same reasons. To be considered a
phytoplankton, the algae needs to use chlorophyll A in photosynthesis, be single-celled or colonial (a group of single-cells), and live and die floating in
1
the water, not attached to any substrate .
Phytoplankton come in many different structures, but all except for cyanobacteria are algae. Collage adapted from drawings and
micrographs by Sally Bensusen, NASA EOS Project Science Office
Cyanobacteria: Blue-Green Algae

Despite their ability to conduct photosynthesis for energy, blue-green algae are a type of bacteria. This means that they are single-celled,
prokaryotic (simple) organisms. Prokaryotic means that the cyanobacteria do not have a nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles within their
5
cell wall .
Cyanobacteria are the only bacteria that contain chlorophyll A, a chemical required for oxygenic photosynthesis (the same process used by plants
1,14
and algae) . This process uses carbon dioxide, water and sunlight to produce oxygen and glucose (sugars) for energy. Chlorophyll A is used to
capture the energy from sunlight to help this process. Other bacteria can be considered photosynthesizing organisms, but they follow a different
14
19
process known as bacterial photosynthesis, or anoxygenic photosynthesis . This process uses bacteriochlorophyll instead of chlorophyll A . These
bacteria cells use carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide (instead of water) to manufacture sugars. Bacteria cannot use oxygen in photosynthesis, and
18
therefore produce energy anaerobically (without oxygen) . Cyanobacteria and other phytoplankton photosynthesize as plants do, and produce
the same sugar and oxygen for use in cellular respiration.
In 2011, Lake Erie experienced the worst blue-green algae bloom in decades (Photo Credit: MERIS/NASA; processed by
NOAA/NOS/NCCOS )
6 / 80
7/28/2015
In addition to chlorophyll A, blue-green algae also contain the pigments phycoerythrin and phycocyanin, which give the bacteria their bluish tint
15
(hence the name, blue-green algae) . Despite not having a nucleus, these microorganisms do contain an internal sac called a gas vacuole that helps
13
them to float near the surface of the water .
What is chlorophyll?
20
Chlorophyll is a color pigment found in plants, algae and phytoplankton. This molecule is used in photosynthesis, as a photoreceptor .
15
Photoreceptors absorb light energy, and chlorophyll specifically absorbs energy from sunlight . Chlorophyll makes plants and algae appear green
because it reflects the green wavelengths found in sunlight, while absorbing all other colors.
1,22
However, chlorophyll is not actually a single molecule. There are 6 different chlorophylls that have been identified . The different forms (A, B, C, D,
1,15
E and F) each reflect slightly different ranges of green wavelengths. Chlorophyll A is the primary molecule responsible for photosynthesis . That
1
means that chlorophyll A is found in every single photosynthesizing organism, from land plants to algae and cyanobacteria . The additional
chlorophyll forms are accessory pigments, and are associated with different groups of plants and algae and play a role in their taxonomic confusion.
20
These other chlorophylls still absorb sunlight, and thus assist in photosynthesis . As accessory pigments, they transfer any energy that they
1,21
absorb to the primary chlorophyll A instead of directly participating in the process .
1
Chlorophyll B is mainly found in land plants, aquatic plants and green algae . In
21
most of these organisms, the ratio of chlorophyll A to chlorophyll B is 3:1 . Due
to the presence of this molecule, some organizations will group the green algae
into the Plant Kingdom. Chlorophyll C is found in red algae, brown algae, and
15
dinoflagellates . This has lead to their classification under the Kingdom
4
Chromista . Chlorophyll D is a minor pigment found in some red algae, while the
rare Chlorophyll E has been found in yellow-green algae. Chlorophyll F was
22
recently discovered in some cyanobacteria near Australia . Each of these
accessory pigments will strongly absorb different wavelengths, so their presence
20
makes photosynthesis more efficient .
Other Color Pigments
The different forms of chlorophyll absorb slightly different wavelengths

for more efficient photosynthesis.
Chlorophyll is not the only photosynthetic pigment found in algae and

phytoplankton. There are also carotenoids,and phycobilins (biliproteins). These accessory pigments are responsible for other organism colors, such
as yellow, red, blue and brown. Like chlorophylls B, C, D, E and F, these molecules improve light energy absorption, but they are not a primary part
15
of photosynthesis. Carotenoids can be found in nearly every phytoplankton species, and reflect yellow, orange and/or red light . There are two
phycobilins found in phytoplankton: phycoerythrin and phycocyanin. Phycocyanin reflects blue light and is responsible for cyanobacterias common
name blue-green algae. Phycoerythrin reflects red light, and can be found in red algae and cyanobacteria.
Some algae will appear green despite the presence of these accessory pigments. Just as
in plants, the chlorophyll in algae has a stronger relative absorption than the other
molecules. Like a dominant trait, the more intense, reflected green wavelengths can
20
mask the other, less-reflected colors . In green algae, chlorophyll is also found at a
higher concentration relative to the accessory pigments. When the accessory pigments
are more concentrated (such as in red algae, brown algae and cyanobacteria), the other
23
colors can be seen .
Photosynthesis is the process by which organisms use sunlight to produce sugars for
1,14
energy. Plants, algae and cyanobacteria all conduct oxygenic photosynthesis . That
means they require carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight (solar energy is collected by
chlorophyll A). Plants and phytoplankton use these three ingredients to produce glucose
(sugar) and oxygen. This sugar is used in the metabolic processes of the organism, and
1,24
the oxygen, produced as a byproduct, is essential to nearly all other life, underwater and on land .
Each pigment absorbs and reflects different wavelengths, but

they all act as accessory pigments to chlorophyll A in
photosynthesis.
7 / 80
7/28/2015
Photosynthesis uses water, carbon dioxide and sunlight to produce

energy and oxygen.
Underwater Photosynthesis
Phytoplankton drifting about below the surface of the water still carry out photosynthesis. This process can occur as long as enough light is available
25
for the chlorophyll and other pigments to absorb. In the ocean, light can reach as far as 200m below the surface . This region where sunlight can
reach is known as the euphotic zone. Phytoplankton and other algae can be found throughout this zone.
What Affects Photosynthesis?

As light is required for photosynthesis to occur, the amount of light available will affect this process. Photosynthetic production peaks during the day
24
and declines after dark . However, not all light can be used for photosynthesis. Only the visible light range (blue to red) is considered
1
photosynthetically active radiation . Ultraviolet light has too much energy for photosynthesis, and infrared light does not have enough. If
27
phytoplankton are exposed to too much UV light, the excessive solar energy can break molecular bonds and destroy the organisms DNA .
Within the visible light spectrum, chlorophyll strongly absorbs red and blue light
48
while reflecting green light . This is why phytoplankton, particularly
cyanobacteria, can thrive at the bottom of the euphotic (sunlit) zone, where
only blue light can reach. As blue light is both high in energy and strongly
absorbed by chlorophyll, it can be used effectively in photosynthesis.
Turbidity, or the presence of suspended particles in the water, affects the
1
amount of light that reaches into the water . The more sediment and other
particles in the water, the less light will be able to penetrate. With less light
available, photosynthetic production will decrease. In turbid water,
photosynthesis is more likely to occur at the waters surface than on the
lakebed, as more light is available. .
Water
temperature will
Blue and red light are used more efficiently in photosynthesis.
also affect
photosynthesis
1
26
rates . As a chemical reaction, photosynthesis is initiated and sped up by heat . As
13
photosynthesis production increases, so will phytoplankton reproduction rates .
13
This factors into the large, seasonal swings of phytoplankton populations .
However, the extent to which temperature affects photosynthesis in algae and
cyanobacteria is dependent on the species. For all phytoplankton, photosynthetic
production will increase with the temperature, though each organism has a slightly
1
different optimum temperature range . When this optimum temperature is
exceeded, photosynthetic activity will in turn be reduced. Too much heat will
denature (break down) the enzymes used during the process, slowing down
26
photosynthesis instead of speeding it up .
Temperature affects the photosynthetic rates of different algae.
Why are Phytoplankton Important?

Microscopic phytoplankton play some of the biggest roles in climate control, oxygen supply and food production. These single-celled organisms are
28
responsible for more than 40% of Earths photosynthetic production . That process uses up carbon dioxide, which helps regulate CO2 levels in the
28
atmosphere, and produces oxygen for other organisms to live .
8 / 80
7/28/2015
Oceanic Food Web

Phytoplankton make up the foundation of the oceanic food web. A food web is a
complex net of organisms and food chains (who-eats-who). To survive, every living
29
thing needs organic carbon . Organic carbon can be found in many different things
including sugars (glucose = C6H12O6), plants and animals. Phytoplankton produce
their required sugar through photosynthesis. As they are able to produce their own
energy with the help of light, they are considered autotrophic (self-feeding).
Phytoplankton and other autotrophs are called primary producers, and make up the
11
bottom of the food web . These organisms are called primary because all other
29
organisms rely on them (directly or indirectly) as a food source .
Phytoplankton are generally consumed by zooplankton and small marine organisms
like krill. These creatures are then consumed by larger marine organisms, such as fish
29,30
. This chain continues up to apex predators, including sharks, polar bears and
humans.
Phytoplankton create their own energy from sunlight. All other

organisms consume them, whether directly or indirectly as a
carbon source.
Oxygen Production
During the photosynthetic process, phytoplankton produce oxygen as a

byproduct. Due to their vast and widespread populations, algae and cyanobacteria
10
are responsible for approximately half of all the oxygen found in the ocean and in our atmosphere . Thus oceanic lifeforms not only feed off the
phytoplankton, but also require the dissolved oxygen they produce to live.
Before plants, algae and phytoplankton used water for photosynthesis, bacteria
31
used H2S and other organic compounds to fix CO2 . Early cyanobacteria were
31
the first organism to use water to fix carbon . The use of H2O introduced free
oxygen (O2) into the environment as a byproduct. The start of oxygenic
photosynthesis was a turning point for Earths history. This process slowly
changed the inert Precambrian atmosphere into the oxygen-rich environment
31
known today . Though microscopic, early cyanobacteria have made a
permanent impact on the Earths environment.
Carbon Fixation and the Climate
Plants, algae and cyanobacteria all engage in oxygenic photosythesis

(top equation), which means that they require water and release
oxygen. Precambrian bacteria used hydrogen sulfide instead of water
(bottom equation) and did not release oxygen as a byproduct.
In addition to providing food and oxygen for nearly all life on Earth,
phytoplankton help to regulate inorganic carbon (carbon dioxide) in the
17
atmosphere . During photosynthesis, carbon dioxide and water molecules are
used to make sugar for energy. The process of incorporating inorganic carbon into organic carbon (glucose and other biologically useful
11
compounds) is called carbon fixation, and is part of the biological carbon pump .
As carbon fixation and oxygen production are part of the same process, the extent of phytoplanktons participation is on the same scale.
11
Phytoplankton consume a similar amount of carbon dioxide as all land plants combined . While phytoplankton can pull carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere or the ocean, it will have a similar effect. CO2 that is taken from the water is replaced by CO2 from the atmosphere, thanks to Henrys
32
law (the dissolved gas content of water is proportional to the percentage of gas in the air above it . This consumption helps keep carbon dioxide
28
levels in check, reducing its presence as a greenhouse gas .
When carbon dioxide is consumed, the carbon molecules become incorporated into
11
the phytoplanktons structure, allowing the organism to function and grow . If the
phytoplankton is not eaten by another organism (passing on the carbon up the
food chain), then it will sink into the ocean when it dies. As with other detritus (nonliving organic material), the phytoplankton will be decomposed by bacteria, and the
carbon is either released back into the ocean as dissolved carbon dioxide or
33
eventually deposited into the seafloor sediment . Thanks to phytoplankton, this
biological carbon pump removes approximately 10 trillion kilograms (10 gigatonnes)
11
of carbon from the atmosphere every year, transferring it to the ocean depths .
11
In climate terms, this process helps to maintain global surface temperatures .

9 / 80
7/28/2015
Without this cycle, atmospheric CO2 would rise approximately 200 ppm (current
33,34
levels are around 400 ppm)
. Even small changes in phytoplankton populations
11
could have an effect on the atmosphere and world climate .
Algae and cyanobacteria help to regulate the climate by fixing
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. This carbon is then
consumed or decomposed by other organisms, making its way
through the cycle until it is released as dissolved carbon dioxide in
water or deposited in sediment.
Typical Levels and Factors that Influence

Productivity
Phytoplankton populations and their subsequent photosynthetic productivity will fluctuate due to a number of factors, most of which are part of
30
13
seasonal changes . The largest influence on phytoplankton levels is nutrient scarcity . While sunlight levels affect productivity, nutrient levels
affect phytoplankton growth and populations. While any one phytoplankton only lives for a few days, a population boom can last for weeks under
11
the right conditions .
30
As phytoplankton populations grow and shrink seasonally, typical concentrations vary not only by location but from month to month . Expected
levels should be based on local, seasonal data from previous years. While changes within the same calendar year are normal, populations should stay
consistent with previous seasonal fluctuations from year to year. If phytoplankton concentrations are abnormally high or low for a season, it may
indicate other water quality concerns that should be addressed.
Sunlight Influence
Phytoplankton require sunlight for photosynthesis. If sunlight is limited, phytoplankton productivity will decrease. This can be seen in a daily cycle as
oxygen levels fluctuate with light levels throughout the day. However, if sunlight is unavailable or minimal for an extended period of time, aquatic life
1
will consume dissolved oxygen quicker than phytoplankton can restore it, leading to a plummet in dissolved oxygen levels . Phytoplankton are
10
responsible for much of the dissolved oxygen found in surface waters . As oxygen is required for fish and other aquatic organisms, a decrease in
photosynthesis productivity is detrimental to aquatic populations. Without phytoplankton, the oxygen supply of the ocean would be cut in half. In
1
both fresh and saltwater, a lengthy decrease in phytoplanktonic productivity can lead to a fish kill (massive fish die-off) .
Although phytoplankton require sunlight for photosynthesis and oxygen production,
too much light can be harmful to photosynthetic production. Ultraviolet light from the
35
sun can damage the phytoplanktons DNA, inhibiting the photosynthetic pathway .
35
On very bright days, UV-B radiation can diminish photosynthesis by 8.2% . This is
why photosynthesis rates peak during the morning, and decrease at noon (when the
1
radiation levels are highest) .
Dissolved oxygen concentrations will increase during the day due
to photosynthesis production and decline at night after the sun
sets and the phytoplankton engage in respiration instead.
Nutrient Influence
While phytoplankton rely on photosynthesis to produce sugar for energy, they still
7
need other nutrients to grow and reproduce . These nutrients are typically
phosphorus, nitrogen and iron, though some species also require silicon, calcium
11,13
and other trace metals
. The more nutrients (particularly phosphorus) that are
7
present in a body of water, the more algae and phytoplankton that will grow . An
13
increase in the nutrient concentration of a body of water is called eutrophication .
Eutrophication is often an indicator of agricultural runoff, which can raise
phosphorus and nitrogen concentrations to very high levels. If there are too many
nutrients, the algae will form a bloom, which can be very detrimental to water quality
7
and aquatic health .
10
The lack of iron in the open ocean limits phytoplankton growth . Nitrogen and
phosphorus are also scarce away from coastlines, and can be limiting factors as well
13
. However, ocean circulation can cause an upwelling, which moves deep, nutrientrich water up into the photic (sunlight zone), replacing the nutrient-depleted surface
30
water . Upwelling, seasonal ice melts and agricultural runoff can all increase nutrient
levels, leading to an increase in phytoplankton populations.
Eutrophication is caused by an increase in nutrient levels. This can

lead to an algal bloom and can cause low levels of dissolved
oxygen.
10 / 80
7/28/2015
Typical Freshwater Levels

In temperate fresh waters, growth is limited in winter because light and temperatures are low. A large increase in the spring normally occurs as light
1
conditions improve and water begins to mix . In the summer, phytoplankton flourish until the nutrient supply begins to run low. In tropical lakes,
1
the phytoplankton distribution is fairly constant throughout the year and seasonal population changes are often very small . In temperate and
subpolar waters, the seasonal fluctuations are normally fairly large. Fluctuations in population also occur if agricultural runoff brings additional
nutrients into a body of water.
Typical Saltwater Levels

Saltwater phytoplankton can be found all over the world, living in the photic (sunlit zone) of the ocean. Cyanobacteria prefer to live near the bottom
1
of this zone, closest to the nutrient-rich deep water while still receiving enough sunlight for photosynthesis . However, in any marine environment,
phytoplankton populations vary not only by season but by region.
Phytoplankton can be found along coastline and areas of upwelling. Data: Average chlorophyll concentration July 2002- May 2010,
MODIS,(Photo Credit: NASA, Jesse Allen & Robert Simmon)
Algae blooms can occur near the poles in the spring, when there is plenty of sunlight and the melting sea ice leaves behind nutrient-rich freshwater
30
38
. This melting process also fuels the oceanic convection, or circulation . In coastal and open-ocean environments, oceanic circulation is
responsible for phytoplankton concentrations.
This circulation can cause upwelling (bringing nutrient-rich water to the surface) and instigates phytoplankton transportation. Like sea ice melting,
11
upwelling is a seasonal occurrence. The extent and location of upwells are based on wind patterns, which cause currents across the globe . Surface
37
water is carried away from coastlines by currents, and is replaced by cold, nutrient-rich water from below .
36
In many coastal regions, southerly winds cause this coastal upwelling in late summer and autumn . As upwelling brings nutrient-rich water up to the
surface, phytoplankton blooms often appear at this time. Oceanic circulation and upwelling ensures that the coastal environments have the highest
13
13
rates of primary production in the ocean . Tides, flooding and currents all encourage higher nutrient levels in the photic zone .

Phytoplankton are an important aspect of a healthy body of water. Algae and cyanobacteria help to provide oxygen and food for aquatic organisms
12
. As a key component, an imbalance of phytoplankton levels can cause major problems. If too many nutrients are available, it can trigger an algal
12
bloom . Algal blooms and overproduction of phytoplankton can cause toxic red tides and fish kills. On the other hand, phytoplanktonic
3
productivity can be limited by a lack of required reactants such as sunlight. This decrease in productivity can also lead to fish kills .
Algal Blooms and Red Tides

An algal bloom is a sudden increase in the concentration of phytoplankton. During a bloom, clear water can become covered with phytoplankton
39
11
within days . These algal blooms can grow large enough to be seen from a satellite, covering hundreds of square kilometers . Algal blooms come
43
in many colors from green to red, brown, blue, white or purple .
11 / 80
7/28/2015
11
Under the right conditions, algal blooms can last one week to an entire summer, despite the short, few-day life span of phytoplankton . A single
bloom will only last one to two weeks, as the phytoplankton population will die without the proper oxygen and nutrient levels. However, if the water
39
conditions stay favorable, successive blooms can occur and appear to be one continuous population . Algal blooms are most common in late
summer and early fall.
What Causes an Algal Bloom?

There are several causes that can contribute to an algal bloom. These blooms can occur seasonally, after an upwelling of nutrient-rich water, or due
to pollution such as agricultural runoff. In both cases, the water becomes saturated with nutrients, creating an ideal environment for phytoplankton
36
1
productivity . Even natural causes can trigger an algal bloom, such as a rainstorm followed by warm, sunny weather . Rain can contribute runoff,
or encourage the mixing of nutrient-depleted and nutrient-rich layers of water. When nutrient levels rise, phytoplankton growth is no longer
13
nutrient-limited and a bloom may occur .
Red Tides
If a phytoplankton concentration stays steady after the initial bloom, it may become a red tide. While some blooms are harmless, others may
produce toxins that endanger aquatic life and humans. This harmful algal bloom is known as a red tide. While red tides specifically refer to harmful
36,43
algal blooms (HABs), they are often simply associated with the discoloration due to a large concentration of phytoplankton
. Although known as
a red tide, the discoloration from a harmful algal bloom is not always red. The color of the tide depends on the pigments present in the
36
43
phytoplankton . In some cases, the bloom cannot be seen by the human eye, though it is still releasing toxins .
Red tides and the toxins they release can have a direct or indirect impact on the health of humans and other organisms. Some species of
36
phytoplankton can suffocate fish during a bloom by clogging or irritating the fishes gills, preventing them from taking in oxygen . These harmful
13
algal blooms can also cause shellfish poisoning in humans and other adverse effects . Even during non-toxic algal blooms, the aquatic environment
can be compromised. Massive levels of phytoplankton respiration and decomposition can reduce dissolved oxygen to unsustainable levels, resulting
13
in the deaths of other aquatic creatures .
Toxins
The phytoplankton that cause a red tide are usually comprised of dinoflagellates, diatoms or cyanobacteria. Certain species of these phytoplankton
can contain harmful toxins that can affect humans and other animals. At normal levels, heterotrophic bacteria in the water break down the toxins in
51
these organisms before they can become dangerous . When an algal bloom appears, the concentration of toxins increases faster than the bacteria
can break it down.
Some of these toxins cause mild problems if consumed by humans, such as headaches and
upset stomachs, while others can cause serious neurological and hepatic symptoms that can
51
lead to death . These effects can be caused by direct or indirect contact with an algal bloom.
Direct exposure can occur from swimming or drinking affected water. Indirect contact can
occur from eating animals that have been exposed to the toxic bloom, particularly shellfish.
Shellfish are susceptible to toxins because they are filter feeders. Filter feeders ingest food by
taking up the water surrounding them and then filtering out what they do not wish to ingest
52
. This method accumulates toxins inside the shellfish system. Organisms that eat the shellfish
52
(including humans) are consuming the concentrated toxins, which can reach deadly levels .
Mussels, clams and other mollusks can accumulate toxins
from phytoplankton.
Filamentous Algal Bloom

7
Filamentous algae is a collection of microscopic algae that clumps together in strings and mats at the surface of the water . These accumulations
can vary from a small, woolly patch near shore to a widespread, slimy green covering. Filamentous algae are often referred to as pond scum, and
7
appear in eutrophic (nutrient-rich) bodies of water. More often than not, filamentous algae are more of a nuisance than a danger . They are
7,44
somewhat more controllable in that the algae clumps can be physically removed from the water . While large filamentous algal blooms will stop
44
sunlight from penetrating the water and reaching submerged plants, the biggest threat associated with them is oxygen depletion .
12 / 80
7/28/2015
Oxygen Depletion and Fish Kills

If an algal bloom appears, a fish kill can occur shortly thereafter due to the environmental stresses caused by the bloom. A fish kill, also known as a
45
fish die-off is when a large concentration of fish die. The most common cause of this event is lack of oxygen .
If a phytoplankton population grows to an excessive amount, the amount of usable oxygen in
45
the water can be depleted . Oxygen depletion has two algal-bloom-related causes: respiration
and decomposition. Algae and cyanobacteria consume oxygen at night (respiration) when
44
there is not light for photosynthesis . If there is a bloom, the phytoplankton and other aquatic
organisms (like fish) can consume more oxygen than is produced. Likewise, if large portions of
the algal bloom die off at once, bacteria will start to consume oxygen in order to decompose
the dead algae. This can reduce oxygen concentrations to below sustainable levels. If oxygen
44
levels get too low, fish and other aquatic creatures may die .
How do you Measure Phytoplankton?

While phytoplankton concentrations can be measured by sampling, this can be difficult and
40
time-consuming. Plankton nets do not always catch the smallest of phytoplankton, and do not provide an accurate estimate of water volume .
41
Box or tube traps offer an exact volume, but require lab sedimentation or settling chambers to concentrate the algae population for counting .
Furthermore, phytoplankton can be found at multiple depths in the water column, which requires multiple sampling efforts and risks missing layers of
40
phytoplankton in between sample depths . The main advantage of sampling phytoplankton is the ability to analyze and identify the species present
41
.
Measuring Chlorophyll
An easier and more efficient method is to use a chlorophyll sensor. As all phytoplankton have chlorophyll A, a chlorophyll sensor can be used to
41
detect these organisms in-situ . In addition to providing immediate data, it can be used for continuous or long-term monitoring and recording.
However, as a chlorophyll sensor assumes all algae and cyanobacteria have the same levels of chlorophyll A, it only provides a rough estimate of
41
biomass . It also cannot be used to identify specific species.
Even with its limitations, in-situ chlorophyll measurements are recommended in Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater to
32
estimate algal populations . Chlorophyll sensors are also an in-situ method for determining the trophic state (nutrient-rich, stable, or nutrient-poor)
47
of an aquatic system . A high chlorophyll measurement is an indicator of eutrophication.
Chlorophyll is measured in micrograms per liter (g/l). Chlorophyll sensors rely on fluorescence to estimate phytoplankton levels based on chlorophyll
47
concentrations in a sample of water . Fluorescence means that when the chlorophyll is exposed to a high-energy wavelength (approximately 470
47
nm), it emits a lower energy light (650-700 nm) . This returned light can then be measured to determine how much chlorophyll is in the water,
which in turn estimates the phytoplankton concentration. These estimates are then used to develop parameter limits for bodies of water. As an
example, the New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services provides the following chlorophyll guidelines for river quality: a chlorophyll
42
measurement below 7 g/l is within a desirable range. 7-15 g/l is less than desirable, while over 15 g/l is considered problematic .
Measuring Blue-Green Algae

Blue-green algae, or cyanobacteria, are the only phytoplankton that contain phycocyanin and phycoerythrin, making the pigments good indicators
15
of the amount of cyanobacteria in a body of water . While chlorophyll measurements can be used to estimate entire phytoplankton populations en
masse, the accessory pigments phycocyanin and phycoerythrin can be measured to estimate cyanobacteria concentrations specifically. Marine
cyanobacteria have higher levels of phycoerythrin, while freshwater species have dominating amounts of phycocyanin.
49
Like chlorophyll sensors, blue-green algae sensors rely on fluorescence to detect the pigment concentration . Phycoerythrin sensors use a
50
wavelength around 540 nm, while phycocyanin sensors emit a wavelength at 600 nm . Due to the differences in secondary pigment
concentrations between species, it is recommended to use the phycocyanin BGA sensor in freshwater applications, and the phycoerythrin BGA
49,50
sensor in saltwater
.
Cite this work:
Fitch, Katie and Christine Kemker. Algae, Phytoplankton and Chlorophyll. Fundamentals of Environmental Measurements. Fondriest Environmental,
13 / 80
7/28/2015
Inc. 22 Oct. 2014. Web. < http://www.fondriest.com/environmental-measurements/parameters/water-quality/algae-phytoplankton-andchlorophyll>.

Additional Resources:
Measurement Methods
Chlorophyll Sensors
Applications
References
W ater Quality
1 COMMENT
Study: Algal Blooms Optimize Conditions To Support Growth - Lake Scientist
[] lakes may not be as simple as cutting phosphorus loads from runoff, according to WYSO public radio. Algae, the researchers found,
appear to be able to make use of nutrient deposits buried in sediments long []
JANUARY 22, 2015 AT 3:18 PM
Parameters
Hydrology
Water Quality

Dissolved Oxygen
pH of Water
Water Temperature

References
Most Popular Meter

Get Discount Code

14 / 80
Dissolved Oxygen - Environmental Measurement Systems
7/28/2015
pH of W ater
Dissolved Oxygen
SHARE
20
70
15
Section Overview
What is Dissolved Oxygen
Dissolved Oxygen and Aquatic Life
Where Does Dissolved Oxygen Come From
Dissolved Oxygen From Photosynthesis
Dissolved Oxygen Saturation
What Affects Oxygen Solubility
How Water Can be More Than 100% Saturated
Typical Dissolved Oxygen Levels
Freshwater Organisms and DO Requirements
Saltwater Organisms and DO Requirements
Consequences of Unusual Dissolved Oxygen Levels
Fish Kills
Gas Bubble Disease
Dead Zones
Dissolved Oxygen and Water Column Stratification
Lake Stratification
Oceanic Stratification
http://www.fondriest.com/environmental-measurements/parameters/water-quality/dissolved-oxygen/
15 / 80
7/28/2015
Estuary Stratification
Dissolved Oxygen Units of Measurement
Calculating DO from % Air Saturation
Dissolved Oxygen Measurement Methods
Dissolved Oxygen Sensor Technologies
Applications
What is Dissolved Oxygen?

Dissolved oxygen refers to the level of free, non-compound oxygen present in water or other liquids. It is an important parameter in assessing water
quality because of its influence on the organisms living within a body of water. In limnology (the study of lakes), dissolved oxygen is an essential
factor second only to water itself . A dissolved oxygen level that is too high or too low can harm aquatic life and affect water quality.
Non-compound oxygen, or free oxygen (O2), is oxygen that is not bonded to any other element. Dissolved oxygen is the presence of these free
O2 molecules within water.The bonded oxygen molecule in water (H2O) is in a compound and does not count toward dissolved oxygen levels. One
can imagine that free oxygen molecules dissolve in water much the way salt or sugar does when it is stirred .
Non-bonded oxygen molecules in water
Dissolved Oxygen and Aquatic Life

Dissolved oxygen is necessary to many forms of life including fish, invertebrates, bacteria and plants. These
organisms use oxygen in respiration, similar to organisms on land. Fish and crustaceans obtain oxygen for
respiration through their gills, while plant life and phytoplankton require dissolved oxygen for respiration
4
when there is no light for photosynthesis . The amount of dissolved oxygen needed varies from creature
to creature. Bottom feeders, crabs, oysters and worms need minimal amounts of oxygen (1-6 mg/L), while
shallow water fish need higher levels (4-15 mg/L) .
Microbes such as bacteria and fungi also require dissolved oxygen. These organisms use DO to decompose
organic material at the bottom of a body of water. Microbial decomposition is an important contributor to
nutrient recycling. However, if there is an excess of decaying organic material (from dying algae and other
organisms), in a body of water with infrequent or no turnover (also known as stratification), the oxygen at
lower water levels will get used up quicker .
Where Does DO Come From?

Dissolved oxygen enters water through the
air or as a plant byproduct. From the air,
oxygen can slowly diffuse across the
waters surface from the surrounding
atmosphere, or be mixed in quickly through
7
aeration, whether natural or man-made .
The aeration of water can be caused by
wind (creating waves), rapids, waterfalls,
ground water discharge or other forms of
Dissolved oxygen is important to many

forms of aquatic life.
16 / 80
7/28/2015
running water. Man-made causes of

aeration vary from an aquarium air pump
to a hand-turned waterwheel to a large
dam.
Dissolved oxygen is also produced as a
waste product of photosynthesis from
phytoplankton, algae, seaweed and other
8
aquatic plants .
How dissolved oxygen enters water
Dissolved Oxygen from Photosynthesis

While most photosynthesis takes place at the surface (by shallow water plants and
algae), a large portion of the process takes place underwater (by seaweed, subsurface algae and phytoplankton). Light can penetrate water, though the depth
that it can reach varies due to dissolved solids and other light-scattering elements
present in the water. Depth also affects the wavelengths available to plants, with
red being absorbed quickly and blue light being visible past 100 m. In clear water,
there is no longer enough light for photosynthesis to occur beyond 200 m, and
aquatic plants no longer grow. In turbid water, this photic (light-penetrating) zone is
often much shallower.
Regardless of wavelengths available, the cycle doesnt change . In addition to the
needed light, CO2 is readily absorbed by water (its about 200 times more soluble
than oxygen) and the oxygen produced as a byproduct remains dissolved in
water . The basic reaction of aquatic photosynthesis remains:
CO2 + H2O (CH2O) + O2
Dissolved oxygen can enter the water as a byproduct of

photosynthesis.
As aquatic photosynthesis is light-dependent, the dissolved oxygen produced will

peak during daylight hours and decline at night .
Dissolved Oxygen Saturation

In a stable body of water with no stratification, dissolved oxygen will remain at
100% air saturation. 100% air saturation means that the water is holding as many
dissolved gas molecules as it can in equilibrium. At equilibrium, the percentage of
each gas in the water would be equivalent to the percentage of that gas in the
atmosphere i.e. its partial pressure . The water will slowly absorb oxygen and
other gasses from the atmosphere until it reaches equilibrium at complete saturation
10
. This process is sped up by wind-driven waves and other sources of aeration .
In deeper waters, DO can remain below 100% due to the respiration of aquatic
organisms and microbial decomposition. These deeper levels of water often do not
reach 100% air saturation equilibrium because they are not shallow enough to be
affected by the waves and photosynthesis at the surface . This water is below an
invisible boundary called the thermocline (the depth at which water temperature
begins to decline).
Not all water depths reach 100% air saturation
What Affects Oxygen Solubility?
17 / 80
7/28/2015
Two bodies of water that are both 100% air-saturated do not necessarily have the
same concentration of dissolved oxygen. The actual amount of dissolved oxygen
(in mg/L) will vary depending on temperature, pressure and salinity .
First, the solubility of oxygen decreases as temperature increases . This means that
warmer surface water requires less dissolved oxygen to reach 100% air saturation
than does deeper, cooler water. For example, at sea level (1 atm or 760 mmHg) and
4C (39F), 100% air-saturated water would hold 10.92 mg/L of dissolved oxygen.
But if the temperature were raised to room temperature, 21C (70F), there
would only be 8.68 mg/L DO at 100% air saturation .
Second dissolved oxygen decreases exponentially as salt levels increase . That is
why, at the same pressure and temperature, saltwater holds about 20% less
dissolved oxygen than freshwater .
Dissolved oxygen concentrations decrease as temperature
Third, dissolved
oxygen will increase increases
as pressure
increases . This is true of both atmospheric and hydrostatic pressures. Water at
lower altitudes can hold more dissolved oxygen than water at higher altitudes. This
relationship also explains the potential for supersaturation of waters below the
thermocline at greater hydrostatic pressures, water can hold more dissolved
oxygen without it escaping . Gas saturation decreases by 10% per meter increase
in depth due to hydrostatic pressure . This means that if the concentration of
dissolved oxygen is at 100% air saturation at the surface, it would only be at 70%
air saturation three meters below the surface.
In summary, colder, deeper fresh waters have the capability to hold higher
concentrations of dissolved oxygen, but due to microbial decomposition, lack of
atmospheric contact for diffusion and the absence of photosynthesis, actual DO
Dissolved oxygen concentrations decrease as altitude increases
(pressure decreases)
levels are often far below 100% saturation . Warm, shallow saltwater reaches
100% air saturation at a lower concentration, but can often achieve levels over
100% due to photosynthesis and aeration. Shallow waters also remain closer to 100% saturation due to atmospheric contact and constant diffusion
.
If there is a significant occurrence of photosynthesis or a rapid temperature change, the water can achieve DO levels over 100% air saturation. At
these levels, the dissolved oxygen will dissipate into the surrounding water and air until it levels out at 100% .
How Can Water be More than 100% Saturated?

100% air saturation is the equilibrium point for gases in water. This is because gas
molecules diffuse between the atmosphere and the waters surface. According to
Henrys Law, the dissolved oxygen content of water is proportional to the percent
13
of oxygen (partial pressure) in the air above it . As oxygen in the atmosphere is
about 20.3%, the partial pressure of oxygen at sea level (1 atm) is 0.203 atm. Thus
the amount of dissolved oxygen at 100% saturation at sea level at 20 C is 9.03
mg/L .
The equation shows that water will remain at 100% air saturation at equilibrium.
However, there are several factors that can affect this. Aquatic respiration and
decomposition lower DO concentrations, while rapid aeration and photosynthesis
can contribute to supersaturation. During the process of photosynthesis, oxygen is
produced as a waste product. This adds to the dissolved oxygen concentration in
the water, potentially bringing it above 100% saturation . In addition, the
equalization of water is a slow process (except in highly agitated or aerated
situations). This means that dissolved oxygen levels can easily be more than 100%
air saturation during the day in photosynthetically active bodies of water .
Henrys law determining the dissolved oxygen concentration at 20

degrees C and 100% air saturation (1 kg water = 1 L water)
18 / 80
7/28/2015
Dissolved oxygen often reaches over 100% air saturation due to

photosynthesis activity during the day.
Supersaturation caused by rapid aeration is often seen beside hydro-power dams and large
waterfalls . Unlike small rapids and waves, the water flowing over a dam or waterfall traps
and carries air with it, which is then plunged into the water. At greater depths and thus greater
hydrostatic pressures, this entrained air is forced into solution, potentially raising saturation
levels over 100% .
Rapid temperature changes can also create DO readings greater than 100% . As water
temperature rises, oxygen solubility decreases. On a cool summer night, a lakes temperature
might be 60 F. At 100% air saturation, this lakes dissolved oxygen levels would be at 9.66
mg/L. When the sun rises and warms up the lake to 70 F, 100% air saturation should equate
to 8.68 mg/L DO . But if there is no wind to move the equilibration along, the lake will still
contain that initial 9.66 mg/L DO, an air saturation of 111%.
Supersaturation of water can be caused by rapid
aeration from a dam.
Typical Dissolved Oxygen Levels

Dissolved oxygen concentrations are constantly affected by
diffusion and aeration, photosynthesis, respiration and
decomposition. While water equilibrates toward 100% air
saturation, dissolved oxygen levels will also fluctuate with
temperature, salinity and pressure changes . As such, dissolved
oxygen levels can range from less than 1 mg/L to more than 20
mg/L depending on how all of these factors interact. In
freshwater systems such as lakes, rivers and streams, dissolved
oxygen concentrations will vary by season, location and water
depth.
Freshwater Fluctuations: Example 1
In the Pompton River in New Jersey, mean dissolved oxygen
concentrations range from 12-13 mg/L in winter and drop to 69 mg/L in the summer . That same river shows daily fluctuations
of up to 3 mg/L due to photosynthesis production .
Dissolved oxygen concentrations can fluctuate daily and seasonally.
Dissolved oxygen levels often stratify in the winter and summer, turning over in the spring and fall as lake temperatures align.
Freshwater Fluctuations: Example 2

Studies at Crooked Lake in Indiana show dissolved oxygen concentrations vary by season and depth from 12 mg/L (surface, winter) to 0 mg/L (32
m depth, late summer), with full lake turnovers in spring and fall equalizing DO levels around 11 mg/L for all depths .
19 / 80
7/28/2015
Rivers and streams tend to stay near or slightly above 100% air saturation due to
relatively large surface areas, aeration from rapids, and groundwater discharge,
which means that their dissolved oxygen concentrations will depend on the water
temperature . While groundwater usually has low DO levels, groundwater-fed
streams can hold more oxygen due to the influx of colder water and the mixing it
causes . Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater defines
dissolved oxygen in streams as the sum of photosynthetic byproducts, respiration,
re-aeration, accrual from groundwater inflow and surface runoff .
Saltwater holds less oxygen than freshwater, so oceanic DO concentrations tend to
be lower than those of freshwater. In the ocean, surface water mean annual DO
concentrations range from 9 mg/L near the poles down to 4 mg/L near the equator
with lower DO levels at further depths. There are lower dissolved oxygen
concentrations near the equator because salinity is higher .
In rivers and streams, dissolved oxygen concentrations are
dependent on temperature.
Dissolved oxygen levels at the oceans surface: (data: W orld Ocean Atlas 2009; photo credit: Plumbago; W ikipedia Commons)
Some states have Water Quality Standard Acts, requiring minimum concentrations of dissolved oxygen; in Michigan, these minimums are 7 mg/L for
17
cold-water fisheries and 5 mg/L for warm-water fish ; in Colorado, Class 1 Cold Water Aquatic Life needs 6 mg/L, and Class 1 Warm Water
15
Aquatic Life requires DO levels of at least 5 mg/L . In order to mimic ideal environmental systems, freshwater tanks ideally need around 8 mg/L DO
for optimum growth and marine tank requirements range from 6-7 mg/L DO based on the salinity level . In other words, dissolved oxygen should
be near 100% air saturation.
Examples of Freshwater Organisms and Dissolved Oxygen Requirements

19
Coldwater fish like trout and salmon are most affected by low dissolved oxygen levels . The mean DO
level for adult salmonids is 6.5 mg/L, and the minimum is 4 mg/L . These fish generally attempt to
avoid areas where dissolved oxygen is less than 5 mg/L and will begin to die if exposed to DO levels less
than 3 mg/L for more than a couple days . For salmon and trout eggs, dissolved oxygen levels below
11 mg/L will delay their hatching, and below 8 mg/L will impair their growth and lower their survival
rates. When dissolved oxygen falls below 6 mg/L (considered normal for most other fish), the vast
majority of trout and salmon eggs will die.
Bluegill, Largemouth Bass, White Perch, and Yellow Perch are considered warmwater fish and depend on
21
dissolved oxygen levels above 5 mg/L . They will avoid areas where DO levels are below 3 mg/L, but
22
generally do not begin to suffer fatalities due to oxygen depletion until levels fall below 2 mg/L . The
20 / 80
7/28/2015
mean DO levels should remain near 5.5 mg/L for optimum growth and survival .
Walleye also prefer levels over 5 mg/L, though they can survive at 2 mg/L DO levels for a short time.
Muskie need levels over 3 mg/L for both adults and eggs . Carp are hardier, and while they can enjoy
dissolved oxygen levels above 5 mg/L, they easily tolerate levels below 2 mg/L and can survive at levels
below 1 mg/L .
The freshwater fish most tolerant to DO levels include fathead minnows and northern pike. Northern
pike can survive at dissolved oxygen concentrations as low as 0.1 mg/L for several days, and at 1.5
mg/L for an infinite amount of time . Fathead minnows can survive at 1 mg/L for an extended period
with only minimal effects on reproduction and growth.
As for bottom-dwelling microbes, DO changes dont bother them much. If all the oxygen at their water
level gets used up, bacteria will start using nitrate to decompose organic matter, a process known as
denitrification. If all of the nitrogen is spent, they will begin reducing sulfate . If organic matter
accumulates faster than it decomposes, sediment at the bottom of a lake simply becomes enriched by
the organic material. .
Minimum dissolved oxygen requirements of

freshwater fish
Examples of Saltwater Organisms and Dissolved Oxygen Requirements

Saltwater fish and organisms have a higher tolerance for low dissolved oxygen concentrations as
saltwater has a lower 100% air saturation than freshwater. In general, dissolved oxygen levels are about
20% less in seawater than in freshwater .
This does not mean that saltwater fish can live without dissolved oxygen completely. Striped bass, white
perch and American shad need DO levels over 5 mg/L to grow and thrive . The red hake is also
extremely sensitive to dissolved oxygen levels, abandoning its preferred habitat near the seafloor if
concentrations fall below 4.2 mg/L .
The dissolved oxygen requirements of open-ocean and deep-ocean fish are a bit harder to track, but
there have been some studies in the area. Billfish swim in areas with a minimum of 3.5 mg/L DO, while
marlins and sailfish will dive to depths with DO concentrations of 1.5 mg/L . Likewise, white sharks are
also limited in dive depths due to dissolved oxygen levels (above 1.5 mg/L), though many other sharks
have been found in areas of low DO . Tracked swordfish show a preference for shallow water during
the day, basking in oxygenated water (7.7 mg/L) after diving to depths with concentrations around 2.5
mg/L . Albacore tuna live in mid-ocean levels, and require a minimum of 2.5 mg/L , while halibut can
maintain a minimum DO tolerance threshold of 1 mg/L .
Many tropical saltwater fish, including clown fish, angel fish and groupers require higher levels of DO,
such as those surrounding coral reefs. Coral reefs are found in the euphotic zone (where light
penetrates the water usually not deeper than 70 m). Higher dissolved oxygen concentrations are
generally found around coral reefs due to photosynthesis and aeration from eddies and breaking waves
. These DO levels can fluctuate from 4-15 mg/L, though they usually remain around 5-8 mg/L,
cycling between day photosynthesis production and night plant respiration . In terms of air saturation,
this means that dissolved oxygen near coral reefs can easily range from 40-200% .
Minimum dissolved oxygen requirements of

saltwater fish
Crustaceans such as crabs and lobsters are benthic (bottom-dwelling) organisms, but still require
minimum levels of dissolved oxygen. Depending on the species, minimum DO requirements can range from 4 mg/L to 1 mg/L . Despite being
29
bottom dwellers, mussels, oysters and clams also require a minimum of 1-2 mg/L of dissolved oxygen , which is why they are found in shallower,
coastal waters that receive oxygen from the atmosphere and photosynthetic sources.
Consequences of Unusual DO Levels

If dissolved oxygen concentrations drop below a certain level, fish mortality rates will rise. Sensitive freshwater fish like salmon cant even reproduce
at levels below 6 mg/L . In the ocean, coastal fish begin to avoid areas where DO is below 3.7 mg/L, with specific species abandoning an area
completely when levels fall below 3.5 mg/L . Below 2.0 mg/L, invertebrates also leave and below 1 mg/L even benthic organisms show reduced
growth and survival rates .
Fish kill / Winterkill

A fishkill occurs when a large number of fish in an area of water die off. It can be species-based or a water-wide mortality. Fish kills can occur for a
number of reasons, but low dissolved oxygen is often a factor. A winterkill is a fish kill caused by prolonged reduction in dissolved oxygen due to ice
or snow cover on a lake or pond .
21 / 80
7/28/2015
When a body of water is overproductive, the oxygen in the water may get used up faster than
it can be replenished. This occurs when a body of water is overstocked with organisms or if
there is a large algal bloom die-off.
Fish kills are more common in eutrophic lakes: lakes with high concentrations of nutrients
(particularly phosphorus and nitrogen) . High levels of nutrients fuel algae blooms, which can
initially boost dissolved oxygen levels. But more algae means more plant respiration, drawing on
DO, and when the algae die, bacterial decomposition spikes, using up most or all of the dissolved
oxygen available. This creates an anoxic, or oxygen-depleted, environment where fish and
other organisms cannot survive. Such nutrient levels can occur naturally, but are more often
caused by pollution from fertilizer runoff or poorly treated wastewater .
Winterkills occur when respiration from fish, plants and other organisms is greater than the
oxygen production by photosynthesis . They occur when the water is covered by ice, and so
Dissolved oxygen depletion is the most common
cannot receive oxygen by diffusion from the atmosphere. If the ice is then covered by snow,
cause of fish kills
photosynthesis also cannot occur, and the algae will depend entirely on respiration or die off. In
these situations, fish, plants and decomposition are all using up the dissolved oxygen, and it
cannot be replenished, resulting in a winter fish kill. The shallower the water, and the more productive (high levels of organisms) the water, the
greater the likelihood of a winterkill .
Gas Bubble Disease

Just as low dissolved oxygen can cause problems, so too can high concentrations. Supersaturated water can
cause gas bubble disease in fish and invertebrates . Significant death rates occur when dissolved oxygen
remains above 115%-120% air saturation for a period of time. Total mortality occurs in young salmon and trout
in under three days at 120% dissolved oxygen saturation . Invertebrates, while also affected by gas bubble
disease, can usually tolerate higher levels of supersaturation than fish .
Sockeye salmon with gas bubble

disease
Extended periods of supersaturation can occur in highly aerated waters, often near hydropower dams and
waterfalls, or due to excessive photosynthetic activity. Algae blooms can cause air saturations of over 100% due
to large amounts of oxygen as a photosynthetic byproduct. This is often coupled with higher water
temperatures, which also affects saturation. At higher temperatures, water becomes 100% saturated at lower
concentrations, so higher dissolved oxygen concentrations mean even higher air saturation levels.
Dead Zones
A dead zone is an area of water with little to no dissolved oxygen present. They are so named because aquatic organisms cannot survive there.
Dead zones often occur near heavy human populations, such as estuaries and coastal areas off the Gulf of Mexico, the North Sea, the Baltic Sea,
and the East China Sea. They can occur in large lakes and rivers as well, but are more well known in the oceanic context.
Hypoxic and anoxic zones around the world (photo credit: NASA)
22 / 80
7/28/2015
These zones are usually a result of a fertilizer-fueled algae and phytoplankton growth boom. When the algae and phytoplankton die, the microbes at
the seafloor use up the oxygen decomposing the organic matter . These anoxic conditions are usually stratified, occurring only in the lower layers
of the water. While some fish and other organisms can escape, shellfish, young fish and eggs usually die .
Naturally occurring hypoxic (low oxygen) conditions are not considered dead zones. The local aquatic life (including benthic organisms) have
adjusted to the recurring low-oxygen conditions, so the adverse effects of a dead zone (mass fish kills, sudden disappearance of aquatic organisms,
and growth/development problems in fish and invertebrates) do not occur .
Such naturally occurring zones frequently occur in deep lake basins and lower ocean levels due to water column stratification.
Dissolved Oxygen and Water Column Stratification

Stratification separates a body of water into layers. This layering can be based on temperature or dissolved substances (namely salt and oxygen)
with both factors often playing a role. The stratification of water has been commonly studied in lakes, though it also occurs in the ocean. It can also
occur in rivers if pools are deep enough and in estuaries where there is a significant division between freshwater and saltwater sources.
Lake Stratification
The uppermost layer of a lake, known as the epilimnion, is exposed to solar radiation and contact with
the atmosphere, keeping it warmer. The depth of the epilimnion is dependent on the temperature
exchange, usually determined by water clarity and depth of mixing (usually initiated by wind) . Within
this upper layer, algae and phytoplankton engage in photosynthesis. Between the contact with the air,
potential for aeration and the byproducts of photosynthesis, dissolved oxygen in the epilimnion remains
near 100% saturation. The exact levels of DO vary depending on the temperature of the water, the
amount of photosynthesis occurring and the quantity of dissolved oxygen used for respiration by
aquatic life.
Below the epilimnion is the metalimnion, a transitional layer that fluctuates in thickness and temperature.
The boundary between the epilimnion and metalimnion is called the thermocline the point at which
water temperature begins to steadily drop off . Here, two different outcomes can occur. If light can
penetrate beyond the thermocline and photosynthesis occurs in this strata, the metalimnion can
achieve an oxygen maximum . This means that the dissolved oxygen level will be higher in the
metalimnion than in the epilimnion. But in eutrophic or nutrient-rich lakes, the respiration of organisms
can deplete dissolved oxygen levels, creating a metalimnetic oxygen minimum .
The next layer is the hypolimnion. If the hypolimnion is deep enough to never mix with the upper
layers, it is known as the monimolimnion. The hypolimnion is separated from the upper layers by the
chemocline or halocline. These clines mark the boundary between oxic and anoxic water and salinity
gradients, respectively. . While lab conditions would conclude that at colder temperatures and higher
pressures water can hold more dissolved oxygen, this is not always the result. In the hypolimnion,
bacteria and fungi use dissolved oxygen to decompose organic material . This organic material comes
Lake stratification
from dead algae and other organisms that sink to the bottom. The dissolved oxygen used in
decomposition is not replaced there is no atmospheric contact, aeration or photosynthesis to restore
DO levels in the hypolimnion . Thus the process of decomposition uses up all of the oxygen within this layer.
If the lake in question is a holomictic mixing lake, all the layers mix at least once per year (usually spring and fall) when lake strata temperatures
align. This turnover redistributes dissolved oxygen throughout all the layers and the process begins again.
Ocean Stratification
23 / 80
7/28/2015
Stratification in the ocean is both horizontal and vertical. The littoral, or coastal area
is most affected by estuaries and other inflow sources. It tends to be shallow and
tidal with fluctuating dissolved oxygen levels. The sublittoral, also known as the
neritic or demersal zone, is considered a coastal zone as well. In this zone, dissolved
oxygen concentrations may vary but they do not fluctuate as much as they do in
the littoral zone.
This is the zone where many coral reefs grow, and DO levels remain near 100% air
45
saturation due to eddies, breaking waves and photosynthesis . This zone is also
where most oceanic benthic (bottom-dwelling) organisms exist. Oceanic benthic fish
do not live at the greatest depths of the ocean. They dwell at the seafloor near to
coasts and oceanic shelves while remaining in the upper levels of the ocean.
Beyond the demersal zone are the bathyal, abyssal and hadal plains, which are fairly
similar in terms of consistently low DO.
In the open ocean, there are five major vertical strata: epipelagic, mesopelagic,
bathypelagic, abyssopelagic, and hadalpelagic . The exact definitions and depths
are subjective, but the following information is generally agreed upon. The epipelagic
is also known as the surface layer or photic zone (where light penetrates). This is the
layer with the highest levels of dissolved oxygen due to wave action and
photosynthesis. The epipelagic generally reaches to 200 m and is bordered by a
collection of clines.
Stratification in the ocean
These clines can overlap or exist at separate

depths. Much like in a lake, the thermocline
divides oceanic strata by temperature. The halocline divides by salinity levels and the pycnocline divides
strata by density . Each of these clines can affect the amount of dissolved oxygen the ocean strata can
hold.
The mesopelagic, meaning twilight zone, stretches from 2001000 m. Depending on water clarity, some light may filter through,
but there is not enough for photosynthesis to occur . Within this
strata, the oxygen minimum zone (OMZ) can occur. The OMZ
develops because organisms use the oxygen for respiration, but it
Dissolved oxygen levels decrease at the
is too deep to be replenished by photosynthetic oxygen
thermocline
byproducts or aeration from waves. This zone tends to exist
around a depth of 500 m . The mesopelagic zone is bordered by
chemoclines (clines based on chemistry levels, e.g. oxygen and salinity) on both sides, reflecting different
dissolved oxygen and salinity levels between the strata.
Below the mesopelagic is the aphotic zone(s). These strata have
lower dissolved oxygen levels than the surface water because
photosynthesis does not occur but can have higher levels than the
OMZ because less respiration occurs.
Dissolved oxygen levels are bordered by

haloclines
The bathypelagic, midnight zone exists between 1000-4000 m, and many creatures can still live here. The
bottom layer of the ocean is the abyssopelagic, which exists below 4000 m. The hadopelagic is the name for
the zone of deep ocean trenches that open below the abyssal plain, such as the Mariana Trench .
Dissolved oxygen levels change with the

pycnclines
Estuary Stratification
Estuary stratifications
are based on salinity
distributions. Because saltwater holds less dissolved oxygen than
freshwater, this can affect aquatic organism distribution. The
stronger the river flow, the higher the oxygen concentrations.
This stratification can be horizontal, with DO levels dropping from
inland to open ocean, or vertical, with the fresh, oxygenated
river water floating over the low DO seawater . When the
stratification is clearly defined, a pycnocline divides the fresher
water from the salt water, contributing to separate dissolved
oxygen concentrations in each strata.
Dissolved oxygen stratification in an estuary is dependent on salinity (expressed in PSU).
24 / 80
7/28/2015
Dissolved Oxygen Units and Reporting

Dissolved oxygen is usually reported in milligrams per liter (mg/L) or as a percent of
air saturation. However, some studies will report DO in parts per million (ppm) or in
micromoles (umol). 1 mg/L is equal to 1 ppm. The relationship between mg/L and %
air saturation has been discussed above, and varies with temperature, pressure and
salinity of the water. One micromole of oxygen is equal to 0.022391 milligrams, and
this unit is commonly used in oceanic studies . Thus 100 umol/L O2 is equal to 2.2
mg/L O2.
Calculating DO from % Air Saturation

To calculate dissolved oxygen concentrations from air saturation, it is necessary to
know the temperature and salinity of the sample. Barometric pressure has already
Dissolved oxygen unit conversions at 21 Celsius (70 F) and 1
been accounted for as the partial pressure of oxygen contributes to the percent air
atmosphere (760 mmHg)
7
saturation . Salinity and temperature can then be used in Henrys Law to calculate
10
what the DO concentration would be at 100% air saturation . However, it is easier
to use an oxygen solubility chart. These charts show the dissolved oxygen concentration at 100% air saturation at varying temperatures, and
7.
salinities. This value can then be multiplied by the measured percent air saturation to calculate the dissolved oxygen concentration
O2 mg/L = (Measured % DO)*(DO value from chart at temperature and salinity)
Example:
70% DO measured
35 ppt salinity
15C
.70 * 8.135 = 5.69 mg/L DO
25 / 80
7/28/2015
Cite this work:

Kemker, Christine. Dissolved Oxygen. Fundamentals of Environmental Measurements. Fondriest Environmental, Inc. 19 Nov. 2013. Web. <
http://www.fondriest.com/environmental-measurements/parameters/water-quality/dissolved-oxygen/ >.
Measurement Methods
Dissolved Oxygen Sensors
Dissolved Oxygen Meters
Applications
References
pH of W ater
1 COMMENT
26 / 80
7/28/2015
The science behind Eutrophication (Allow me to digress) | Commercial Farming
[] 2. http://www.fondriest.com/environmental-measurements/parameters/water-quality/dissolved-oxygen/ []
MARCH 2, 2015 AT 3:45 PM
Parameters
Hydrology
Water Quality

Dissolved Oxygen
pH of Water
Water Temperature

References
Most Popular DO Meter

Get Discount Code

27 / 80
pH of Water - Environmental Measurement Systems
7/28/2015
Dissolved Oxygen
pH of Water
SHARE
17
45
67
Chapter Overview
What is pH
Acids and Bases
Acidic, Basic or Alkaline
Alkalinity and the pH of Water
pH Units of Measurement
Why is pH Important
Factors that Influence the pH of Water
Carbon Dioxide and pH
Natural pH Influences
Manmade pH Influences
Typical pH Levels
Unusual Levels and Consequences
Alkaline and Acid Lakes
Ocean Acidification
pH Measurement Methods
pH Sensors
Applications
http://www.fondriest.com/environmental-measurements/parameters/water-quality/ph/
28 / 80
7/28/2015
What is pH?
pH is a determined value based on a defined scale, similar to temperature. This means that pH of water is not a physical parameter that can be
measured as a concentration or in a quantity. Instead, it is a figure between 0 and 14 defining how acidic or basic a body of water is along a
logarithmic scale . The lower the number, the more acidic the water is. The higher the number, the more basic it is. A pH of 7 is considered neutral.
The logarithmic scale means that each number below 7 is 10 times more acidic than the previous number when counting down. Likewise, when
counting up above 7, each number is 10 times more basic than the previous number .
The logarithmic scale of pH means that as pH increases, the H+ concentration will decrease by a power of 10. Thus at a pH of 0, H+
has a concentration of 1 M. At a pH of 7, this decreases to 0.0000001 M. At a pH of 14, there is only 0.00000000000001 M H+.
pH stands for the power of hydrogen . The numerical value of pH is determined by the molar concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) . This is done
-3
by taking the negative logarithm of the H+ concentration (-log(H+)). For example, if a solution has a H+ concentration of 10 M, the pH of the
-3
solution will be -log(10 ), which equals 3.
This determination is due to the effect of hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxyl ions (OH-) on pH. The higher the H+ concentration, the lower the pH,
and the higher the OH- concentration, the higher the pH. At a neutral pH of 7 (pure water), the concentration of both H+ ions and OH- ions is 10
M. Thus the ions H+ and OH- are always paired as the concentration of one increases, the other will decrease; regardless of pH, the sum of the
ions will always equal 10 M . Due to this influence, H+ and OH- are related to the basic definitions of acids and bases.
Acids and Bases

As an operational definition, an acid is a substance that will decrease pH when added to pure water. In
the same manner, a base is a substance that will increase the pH of water . To further define these
substances, Arrhenius determined in 1884 that an acid will release a hydrogen ion (H+) as it dissolves in
water, and a base will release a hydroxyl ion (OH-) in water . However, there are some substances that
fit the operational definition (altering pH), without fitting the Arrhenius definition (releasing an ion). To
account for this, Bronsted and Lowry redefined acids and bases; an acid releases a hydrogen ion or
proton (equivalent to H+) and a base accepts a hydrogen ion or proton . This means that acids and
bases can cancel each other out, as shown in the water equation to the right.
Basic or Alkaline
The terms alkaline
and basic mean
approximately the
same thing. By the
Bronsted-Lowry
definition, basic
describes any
substance that
reduces the
Acid-base pairs can neutralize each other like

H+ and OH- do in this equation.
29 / 80
7/28/2015
hydrogen ion
concentration and
increases the pH of
water, or in other
words, a base .
Alkaline comes from Common examples of alkalis include milk of magnesia Mg(OH)2, caustic potash KOH,
slaked lime/limewater Ca(OH)2, and caustic soda (lye) NaOH.
alkali, which refers
to ionic compounds
(salts) containing alkali metal or alkaline earth metal elements that form hydroxide ions when dissolved in water . Alkali salts are very common and
dissolve easily. Due to the hydroxide ions they produce (which increase pH), all alkalis are bases. Some sources define any soluble base as an alkali .
As such, soluble bases can be described as basic or alkaline. However, insoluble bases (such as copper oxide) should only be described as basic,
not alkaline.
Alkalinity and the pH of Water

Alkalinity does not refer to alkalis as alkaline does . While alkalinity and pH are closely
related, there are distinct differences. The alkalinity of water or a solution is the
quantitative capacity of that solution to buffer or neutralize an acid. In other words,
alkalinity is a measurement of waters ability to resist changes in pH. This term is used
interchangeably with acid-neutralizing capacity (ANC) . If a body of water has a high
alkalinity, it can limit pH changes due to acid rain, pollution or other factors . The
alkalinity of a stream or other body of water is increased by carbonate-rich soils
(carbonates and bicarbonates) such as limestone, and decreased by sewage outflow
and aerobic respiration. Due to the presence of carbonates, alkalinity is more closely
related to hardness than to pH (though there are still distinct differences). However,
changes in pH can also affect alkalinity levels (as pH lowers, the buffering capacity of
water lowers as well) . pH and alkalinity are directly related when water is at 100%
air saturation .
The alkalinity of water also plays an important role in daily pH levels. The process of
Alkalinity and pH are directly related at 100% air saturation.
photosynthesis by algae and plants uses hydrogen, thus increasing pH levels .
Likewise, respiration and decomposition can lower pH levels. Most bodies of water
are able to buffer these changes due to their alkalinity, so small or localized fluctuations are quickly modified and may be difficult to detect .
pH and Alkalinity Units

pH values are reported as a number between 0 and 14 as a standard pH unit. This unit is equivalent to
the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion molar concentration (-log(H+)) in the solution. Depending
on the accuracy of the measurement, the pH value can be carried out to one or two decimal places.
However, because the pH scale is logarithmic, attempting to average two pH values would be
mathematically incorrect. If an average value is required, it can be reported as a median or a range, not
as a simple calculation .
Alkalinity can be reported as mg/L or microequivalents per liter (meq/L). When in mg/L, it refers to
2
carbonate (CO3 ), bicarbonate (HCO3 ) or calcium carbonate (CaCO3) concentrations, though calcium
carbonate is most common .
1 mg/L alkalinity as CaCO3 = 0.01998 meg/L alkalinity
21 mg/L alkalinity as CaCO3 = 0.5995 mg/L alkalinity as CO3
1 mg/L alkalinity as CaCO3 = 1.2192 mg/L alkalinity as HCO3

pH values are determined on a logarithmic
scale.
Why is pH Important?
If the pH of water is too high or too low, the aquatic organisms
living within it will die. pH can also affect the solubility and toxicity
of chemicals and heavy metals in the water . The majority of
30 / 80
7/28/2015
aquatic creatures prefer a pH range of 6.5-9.0, though some

can live in water with pH levels outside of this range.
As pH levels move away from this range (up or down) it can
stress animal systems and reduce hatching and survival rates.
The further outside of the optimum pH range a value is, the
higher the mortality rates. The more sensitive a species, the
more affected it is by changes in pH. In addition to biological
effects, extreme pH levels usually increase the solubility of
elements and compounds, making toxic chemicals more
mobile and increasing the risk of absorption by aquatic life .
Aquatic pH levels. The optimum pH levels for fish are from 6.5 to 9.0. Outside of
Aquatic species are not the only ones affected by pH. While
optimum ranges, organisms can become stressed or die.
humans have a higher tolerance for pH levels (drinkable levels
range from 4-11 with minimal gastrointestinal irritation), there
are still concerns . pH values greater than 11 can cause skin and eye irritations, as does a pH below 4. A pH value below 2.5 will cause irreversible
damage to skin and organ linings . Lower pH levels increase the risk of mobilized toxic metals that can be absorbed, even by humans, and levels
above 8.0 cannot be effectively disinfected with chlorine, causing other indirect risks . In addition, pH levels outside of 6.5-9.5 can damage and
corrode pipes and other systems, further increasing heavy metal toxicity.
Even minor pH changes can have long-term effects. A slight change in the pH of
water can increase the solubility of phosphorus and other nutrients making them
more accessible for plant growth . In an oligotrophic lake, or a lake low in plant
nutrients and high in dissolved oxygen levels, this can cause a chain reaction. With
more accessible nutrients, aquatic plants and algae thrive, increasing the demand for
dissolved oxygen. This creates a eutrophic lake, rich in nutrients and plant life but
low in dissolved oxygen concentrations. In a eutrophic lake, other organisms living in
the water will become stressed, even if pH levels remained within the optimum
range.
Factors that Influence the pH of Water
An minor increase in pH levels can cause a oligotrophic (rich in

dissolved oxygen) lake to become eutrophic (lacking dissolved
oxygen).
There are many factors that can affect pH in water, both natural and man-made.
Most natural changes occur due to interactions with surrounding rock (particularly carbonate forms) and other materials. pH can also fluctuate with
precipitation (especially acid rain) and wastewater or mining discharges . In addition, CO2 concentrations can influence pH levels.
Carbon Dioxide and pH

Carbon dioxide is the most common cause of acidity in water . Photosynthesis,
respiration and decomposition all contribute to pH fluctuations due to their
influences on CO2 levels. The extremity of these changes depends on the alkalinity
of the water, but there are often noticeable diurnal (daily) variations . This influence
is more measurable in bodies of water with high rates of respiration and
decomposition.
While carbon dioxide exists in water in a dissolved state (like oxygen), it can also
react with water to form carbonic acid:
CO2 + H2O <=> H2CO3
H2CO3 can then lose one or both of its hydrogen ions:
2-
H2CO3 <=> HCO3 + H+ . HCO3 <=> CO3 + H+

The released hydrogen ions decrease the pH of water . However, this equation can
operate in both directions depending on the current pH level, working as its own
buffering system. At a higher pH, this bicarbonate system will shift to the left,
2and CO3 will pick up a free hydrogen ion.
pH levels can fluctuate daily due to photosynthesis and respiration

in the water. The degree of change depends on the alkalinity of
the water.
This reaction is usually minimal as H2CO3 has a low solubility constant (Henrys Law) . However, as CO2 levels increase around the world, the
amount of dissolved CO2 also increases, and the equation will be carried out from left to right. This increases H2CO3, which decreases pH. The effect
is becoming more evident in oceanic pH studies over time.
31 / 80
7/28/2015
pH_changes_in_the_ocean
Total change in annual oceanic pH levels from 1700s to 1990s. (data: W orld Ocean Atlas 2009; photo credit: Plumbago; W ikipedia Commons)
The above equations also explain why rain has a pH of approximately 5.65 . As raindrops fall through
the air, they interact with carbon dioxide molecules in the atmosphere. This creates H2CO3 in the
raindrops, lowering the rains pH value . A pH level of 5.65, though acidic, is not considered acid rain.
Natural, unpolluted rain or snow is expected to have pH levels near 5.6, assuming a standard
atmospheric CO2 concentration of 0.0355% . Acid rain requires a pH below 5.0 .
5.65 is also the pH of water that has equilibrated with the air and has not come in contact with
carbonate materials or limestone.
Natural pH Influences
Carbonate materials and limestone are two elements that can buffer pH changes in water. Calcium
carbonate (CaCO3) and other bicarbonates can combine with both hydrogen or hydroxyl ions to
neutralize pH . When carbonate minerals are present in the soil, the buffering capacity (alkalinity) of
water is increased, keeping the pH of water close to neutral even when acids or bases are added.
Additional carbonate materials beyond this can make neutral water slightly basic.
Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere decreases

the pH of precipitation.
Limestone quarries have higher pH levels due to the carbonate materials in the stone.
As mentioned earlier, unpolluted rain is slightly acidic (pH of 5.6). The pH of rain can also be
lowered due to volcanic ash, sulfate-reducing bacteria in wetlands, airborne particulates from
wildfires and even lightning . If rain falls on a poorly buffered water source, it can decrease the
pH of nearby water through runoff.
Pine or fir needles can also decrease the pH of soil, and any
water that runs over it, as they decompose . Intense
photosynthesis increases the pH of water as it removes
CO2, though this change is usually diurnal .
Lightning can lower the pH of rain.
Decomposing pine needles can

decrease pH.
Man-Made pH Influencers
Anthropogenic causes of pH fluctuations are usually related to pollution. Acid rain is one of the best
known examples of human influence on the pH of water. Any form of precipitation with a pH level less
than 5.0 is known as acid rain . This precipitation comes from the reaction of water with nitrogen
oxides, sulfur oxides and other acidic compounds, lowering its already slightly acidic pH. These emissions
usually come from mining and smelting operations or fossil fuel combustion (coal burning and
automobiles) . Extremely high levels of CO2 can also further decrease the pH of rain .
Point source pollution is a common cause that can increase or decrease pH depending on the chemicals
involved . These chemicals can come from agricultural runoff, wastewater discharge or industrial
runoff. Mining operations (particularly coal) produce acid runoff and acidic groundwater seepage if the
surrounding soil is poorly buffered . Wastewater discharge that contains detergents and soap-based
products can cause a water source to become too basic.
Pollution in the air, soil or directly in the

water can all affect pH.
Typical pH Levels
32 / 80
7/28/2015
Typical pH levels vary due to environmental influences, particularly alkalinity. The alkalinity of water
varies due to the presence of dissolved salts and carbonates, as well as the mineral composition of the
surrounding soil. In general, the higher the alkalinity, the higher the pH; the lower the alkalinity, the lower
the pH . The recommended pH range for most fish is between 6.0 and 9.0 with a minimum alkalinity of
20 mg/L, with ideal CaCO3 levels between 75 and 200 mg/L .
Oceanic organisms like clownfish and coral require higher pH levels. pH levels below 7.6 will cause coral
reefs to begin to collapse do to the lack of calcium carbonate . Sensitive freshwater species such as
salmon prefer pH levels between 7.0 and 8.0, becoming severely distressed and suffering physiological
damage due to absorbed metals at levels below 6.0 .
Environmental Considerations
Natural precipitation, both rain and snow, has a pH near 5.6 due to contact with CO2 and other
atmospheric influences. Most grasses and legumes prefer soils with a pH of 4.5-7.0, so the slight acidity
of rain can benefit carbonate soils .
The acidity of the surrounding environment can also affect the pH of water. This is most obvious near
mining areas, but the effect can also occur naturally. Acid runoff depletes the waters alkalinity and
lowers pH below optimum levels. This may be tolerable for some aquatic species (such as frogs) but not
for most fish. Some frogs and other amphibians can often tolerate pH levels as low as 4.0 . Acidic soils
in the Amazon cause many of the lakes and rivers to naturally have low pH values . Due to the
dissolved humic substances from runoff and uptake, blackwater sources can have a pH as low as
4.43. Clearwater sources will have a slightly higher, but still acidic, pH value . That is why angel fish
and discus from the Amazon River Basin can thrive quite happily in waters with a pH as low as 5.0 .
Recommended minimum pH levels for aquatic

life.
Seawater has a pH around 8.2, though this can range between 7.5 to 8.5 depending on its local salinity.
pH levels will increase with salinity until the water reaches calcium carbonate (CaCO3) saturation . The
oceans generally have a higher alkalinity due to carbonate content and thus have a greater ability to buffer free hydrogen ions .
Freshwater lakes, ponds and streams usually have a pH of 6-8 depending on the surrounding soil and bedrock . In deeper lakes where
stratification (layering) occurs, the pH of water is generally higher (7.5-8.5) near the surface and lower (6.5-7.5) at greater depths . Some states,
such as Alaska, are attempting to maintain a pH standard for water quality. The Alaska Water Quality Standard requires pH levels between 6.5 and
8.5 to protect the many salmon populations in the state .
Stratification Considerations
Stratification is usually caused by temperature differences within a body of water, where each layer of water
does not mix with the layers above or below . These layers are separated by clines, known as thermoclines
(temperature divides) or chemoclines (chemistry gradients). Chemoclines can be based on oxygen, salinity,
or other chemical factors that do not cross the cline, such as carbon dioxide. Due to CO2s influence on the
pH of water, stratification can cause pH levels to differ across a cline.
Differences in pH levels between water strata are due to increased CO2 from respiration and decomposition
below the thermocline. In crater lakes such as Lake Nyos or Lake Monoun, the pH rapidly drops from a
surface level around 7 to 5.5 below 60 m (at the thermocline and chemocline) . This significant drop
comes from the saturated CO2 that is stored up in the lower strata of the lake.
Stratification can cause pH levels within a

body of water to differ above and below
the cline.
Adaptability
While ideal pH levels for fish are 7-8 (fish blood has a pH of 7.4) , most fish can adapt to the pH level of
their environment (6.0-9.0) as long as there are no dramatic fluctuations. A dramatic fluctuation is
considered a shift in pH of 1.4 (up or down) . For saltwater fish, the pH of water should remain between
7.5 and 8.5 .
Unusual pH Levels and Consequences

Harmful effects become noticeable when the pH of water falls below 5.0 or rise above 9.6. Ill effects due
to acidification are more pronounced in saltwater fish due to their adaptation to a higher pH. When pH is
below optimal levels, fish become susceptible to fungal infections and other physical damage . As the
pH of water falls, the solubility of calcium carbonate is reduced, inhibiting shell growth in aquatic
organisms . In general, fish reproduction is affected at pH levels below 5.0 and many species (such as
saltwater fish or sensitive freshwater fish like smallmouth bass) will leave the area . Fish begin to die
when pH falls below 4.0 .
Low pH levels can encourage the solubility of heavy metals . As
the level of hydrogen ions increases, metal cations such as
Stony corals begin to bleach and deteriorate

as carbonate and pH levels fall.
33 / 80
7/28/2015
as carbonate and pH levels fall.
aluminum, lead, copper and cadmium are released into the water
instead of being absorbed into the sediment. As the concentrations
of heavy metals increase, their toxicity also increases. Aluminum can limit growth and reproduction while
increasing mortality rates at concentrations as low as 0.1-0.3 mg/L . In addition, mobilized metals can be taken
in by organisms during respiration, causing physiological damage . This is particularly detrimental to species
such as rainbow trout .
On the other side of the spectrum, high pH levels can damage gills and skin of aquatic organisms and cause
death at levels over 10.0. While some african cichlids thrive at high pH levels (up to 9.5), most fish cannot
tolerate them. Death can occur even at typical levels (9.0) if ammonia is present in the water . At low and
neutral pH levels, ammonia combines with water to produce an ammonium ion:
Heavy metals are more toxic at

lower pH levels.
+
NH3 + H2O <=> NH4 + OH
Ammonium, NH4 , is non-toxic and will not affect aquatic life. However, at pH levels over 9, the equation
reverses and ammonia is released into the water . Ammonia, NH3, is extremely toxic to aquatic
organisms, and as pH increases, the mortality rates rise with the NH3 concentration.
On the ecosystem side, mosses can begin invading a body of water as the pH of water falls below 5. In
eutrophic lakes, pH-tolerant algae can dominate, driving the pH levels to diurnal high and low extremes,
forming algae blooms that can kill the lake .
Alkaline and Acid Lakes
Low pH-tolerant algae can form blooms that

can kill the lake.
Spread across the world are a number of lakes with unusual pH levels. Alkaline lakes, also known as soda
lakes, generally have a pH level between 9 and 12. This is often due to a high salt content (though not
every salt lake has a high pH). These lakes have high concentrations of minerals, particularly dissolved salts: sodium, calcium, magnesium carbonates
and bicarbonates . Depending on the lake, borates, sulfates and other elements (usually strong base ions) can also be present . Alkaline lakes are
formed when the only outlet for water is evaporation, leaving the minerals behind to accumulate . These minerals often form columns of mineral
deposits, known as tufa columns. Many alkaline lakes are a commercial resource for soda ash and potash, while others are popular tourist
destinations for their magical healing properties (due to the mineral content).
Alkaline_lake
Soap Lake in W ashington is an alkaline lake assumed to have healing properties (Photo Credit: Steven Pavlov via W ikipedia Commons)
A notorious example of an alkaline lake is Lake Natron in Tanzania. Lake Natron has a pH up to 10.5 due to
high concentrations of sodium carbonate decahydrate (soda ash) and sodium bicarbonate (baking soda)
that enters the water from the surrounding soil . While the lake supports a thriving ecosystem, including
flamingos, alkaline tilapia and pH-resistant algae, Nick Brant, a photographer, has created many haunting
images of animals that died in this lake . The bodies of these animals are preserved by the sodium
carbonate, much like the ancient Egyptian mummification process.
calcified_flamingo_by_nick_brandt
A calcified flamingo preserved by the
soda minerals in Lake Natron. (Photo
Credit: Nick Brandt, 2013 Courtesy of
Hasted Kraeutler Gallery, NY.)
Acid lakes usually develop near volcanoes, where sulfuric acid, hydrogen sulfide, hydrofluoric acid, hydrochloric acid and carbon dioxide can leach
into the water . In non-volcanic areas, acid lakes can also develop after acidic deposition from events such as acid rain, pollution or acid runoff
from mining operations . Much like their alkaline counterparts, acid lakes have no outlet except evaporation, concentrating the sulfates and acids.
The acids can enter the water through atmospheric diffusion from coal burning, acid rain or after an eruption. In volcanic lakes, acids can enter the
water through an active fumarole, or volcanic vent.
The acid lakes at Dallol in Ethiopia are the result of acid leaching from nearby volcanoes. The sulfur and
iron in the water leave yellow and rust-colored deposits around the waters edge.
acid_lake
Sulfur and iron deposits at one of Dallols acid
lakes.
With a pH level below 5.0, few organisms can live in acid lakes. However, there is one notable
exception: the Osorezan dace, or Japanese dace. This fish thrives in the acidic waters of Lake
Osorezan, resting comfortably at a pH of 3.5, and swims into neutral pH waters only to spawn .
Ocean Acidification
Ocean acidification is caused by an influx of dissolved carbon dioxide. As
atmospheric CO2 levels increase due to anthropogenic causes, dissolved CO2 also
increases, which in turn decreases the pH of water.
When water becomes saturated with CO2, it not only reduces the oceans pH, but
34 / 80
7/28/2015
depletes the calcium carbonate sources as well . Calcium carbonate, CaCO3, is a

necessary ingredient in building corals, shells and exoskeletons for many aquatic
creatures. As CO3 levels decrease, it becomes more difficult for marine creatures
to build their shells.
As mentioned in the section Carbon Dioxide and pH, additional CO2 increases the
number of hydrogen ions in the water, reducing pH:
CO2 + H2O <=> H2CO3 H2CO3 <=> (H+) + HCO3
At pH levels between 6.4 and 10.33, some of those hydrogen ions attach to
carbonate ions :
2-
(H+) + CO3 <=> HCO3
As atmospheric CO2 increases, dissolved CO2 will increase and the

pH of water will decrease. (data: NOAA/ESRL and University of
Hawaii; credit: SERC EarthLabs)
2-
Thus as CO2 levels increase, the availability of carbonate, CO3 decreases, reducing the amount available for shell and coral building .
CO2 + H2O + CO3 <=> 2HCO3
High CO2 levels also make it more difficult to maintain current shells due to lower pH
levels and competition for carbonate .
Furthermore, the air saturation of water is based on partial pressures from Henrys
law. As CO2 levels in the air increase, so too does their partial pressure. This reduces
the partial pressure of oxygen, reducing its saturation levels and contributing to
hypoxic (low O2) conditions .
While the oceans will never become acidic (with a pH of less than 7), even
decreasing pH a slight amount stresses saltwater organisms and increases mortality
rates. pH is logarithmic, meaning that a decrease by 0.1 is equivalent to nearly a
30% increase in acidity .
At an oceanic pH of 8.3, carbonate levels are high enough for coral

building. As CO2 increases and pH decreases, carbonate levels will
quickly drop below optimum levels.
Cite this work:

Kemker, Christine. pH of Water. Fundamentals of Environmental Measurements.
Fondriest Environmental, Inc. 19 Nov. 2013. Web. <
http://www.fondriest.com/environmental-measurements/parameters/waterquality/ph/ >.
More Information:
pH Measurement Methods
pH Meters
pH Sensors
Applications
References
Dissolved Oxygen
1 COMMENT
Water Preservation Scheme Used To Make An India Pollution Free Country - Investment Zones
[] conversation process is used to increase the quality level of water substance. There are various methods and strategies are developing for
this new project, the main reason for []
FEBRUARY 10, 2015 AT 10:05 AM
Parameters
Hydrology
Water Quality

35 / 80
7/28/2015
Dissolved Oxygen
pH of Water
Water Temperature

References
Most Popular Sensor

Get Discount Code

36 / 80
Photosynthetically Active Radiation and Solar Radiation - Environmental Measurement Systems
7/28/2015
pH of W ater
Turbidity, Total Suspended Solids & W ater Clarity

SHARE
36
Chapter Overview
What is Solar Radiation?
Radiation Units
Electromagnetic spectrum
Ultraviolet Light
Ultraviolet Radiation and Phytoplankton
Infrared light
What is Photosynthetically Active Radiation?
Why is Solar Radiation Important?
Solar Irradiance
What influences Solar Irradiance
Heat, Temperature and Solar Radiation
Air Temperature
Water Temperature
Photosynthesis and Temperature
Photosynthesis and Turbidity
Why Cant UV and Infrared Radiation be Used for Photosynthesis?
http://www.fondriest.com/environmental-measurements/parameters/water-quality/photosynthetically-active-radiation/
37 / 80
7/28/2015
Typical Levels
Daily Fluctuations
Monthly Fluctuations
The Hole in the Ozone Layer
How Much Light?
Reaches Earths Surface?
Breaks Surface of Water?
How Deep does Sunlight Reach in the Ocean
How Deep does Sunlight Reach in Freshwater
Light Transmission Through Ice and Snow
Fish and Light
Light Meters
Solar Radiation and PAR Sensors
Applications
What is Solar Radiation?

Solar radiation is radiant (electromagnetic) energy from the sun. It provides light and heat for the Earth and energy for photosynthesis. This radiant
1
energy is necessary for the metabolism of the environment and its inhabitants . The three relevant bands, or ranges, along the solar radiation
spectrum are ultraviolet, visible (PAR), and infrared. Of the light that reaches Earths surface, infrared radiation makes up 49.4% of while visible light
9
provides 42.3% . Ultraviolet radiation makes up just over 8% of the total solar radiation. Each of these bands has a different impact on the
environment.
The amount and intensity of solar radiation that a location or body
of water receives depends on a variety of factors. These factors
include latitude, season, time of day, cloud cover and altitude. Not
all radiation emitted from the sun reaches Earths surface. Much of it
is absorbed, reflected or scattered in the atmosphere. At the
surface, solar energy can be absorbed directly from the sun, called
direct radiation, or from light that has been scattered as it enters
1
the atmosphere, called indirect radiation .
How is Solar Radiation Measured?

Most of the solar radiation that reaches Earth is made up of visible and infrared light.
Only a small amount of ultraviolet radiation reaches the surface.
W avelengths cycles are measured in nanometers (nm) from peak to

peak.
Solar radiation is measured in wavelengths or frequency. As light travels in a wave, a

wavelength is defined as the distance from peak to peak and is measured in nanometers
(nm). Frequency is defined as wavelength cycles per second and is expressed in hertz (Hz).
Bands with shorter wavelengths produce higher frequencies. Likewise, the longer the
1
wavelength, the longer it will take to complete a cycle, which produces a lower frequency .
The energy of the wavelength increases with the frequency and decreases with the size of
16
the wavelength . In other words, shorter wavelengths are more energetic than longer
ones. This means that ultraviolet radiation is more energetic than infrared radiation. Due to
38 / 80
this extra energy, shorter wavelengths tend to cause more harm than longer wavelengths
16
. The more energy a wavelength has, the easier it is to disrupt the molecule that absorbs
it. Ultraviolet light (which has the highest energy) can cause damage to DNA and other
16
important cellular structures .
7/28/2015
The shorter the wavelength, the more energy it has. Blue

light has more energy than red light.
What is the Electromagnetic Spectrum?

5
The electromagnetic spectrum encompasses all types of radiation . The part of the spectrum that reaches Earth from the sun is between 100 nm
and 1 mm. This band is broken into three ranges: ultraviolet, visible, and infrared radiation. Ultraviolet contains wavelengths between 100-400 nm.
1
Visible light falls within the range of 400-700 nm, and infrared light contains wavelengths from 700 nm to over 1 mm . In the visible light spectrum,
the colors are determined by the length. Longer wavelengths appear red while shorter wavelengths are blue/violet as they range closer to the
5
ultraviolet spectrum .
Sunlight, or the solar radiation spectrum, includes bands between 100 nm and 1 mm, which encompasses ultraviolet, visible and
infrared radiation.
Ultraviolet Radiation
Ultraviolet radiation can be separated into three wavelength ranges: UV-A, UV-B and
UV-C. All wavelengths of ultraviolet light can directly affect the DNA of water
1
inhabitants as well as generate harmful photochemicals . The shorter the
wavelength, the more damage it is capable of causing.
UV-C includes wavelengths between 100 and 280 nm. This radiation range only
makes up 0.5% of all solar radiation, but it can cause the most damage to
organisms. However, most of this short-wave radiation is absorbed by stratospheric
9
gases (ozone), and very little reaches the surface .
UV-B (280-320 nm) is
an energetic,
photoactivating band
of radiation that is
only partially
Nearly all of UV-C, half of UV-B and some of UV-C radiation is
absorbed in the
absorbed by ozone in the stratosphere before it can reach the
1
stratosphere . This
surface.
radiation band is
known for causing skin cancer in humans, and can impair photosynthesis in many
16
plants . The depth that UV-B penetrates water is dependent on turbidity and water
chemistry. UV-B will reach greater depths in saline water than in freshwater and can
1,9
reach as deep as 20m below the surface of the ocean .
UV-A (320-400 nm) has less energy than UV-B, and is not absorbed by ozone in the
9
atmosphere. However, it can be blocked from the surface by cloud cover . UV-A is
UV-B radiation can reach greater depths in saline waters than in
also called blacklight, and is known for its ability to cause fluorescence in some
fresher water (Image courtesy Vasilkov et al., JGR-Oceans, 2001
37
materials . While it is absorbed less readily by water, it can penetrate deeper than
via NASA).
1
UV-B or UV-C . UV-A is responsible for sunburns in humans. It is also more inhibiting
1
than UV-B in regards to photosynthesis . Studies have shown that UV-A can
6
significantly decrease photosynthesis by more than 70% . This is because UV-A decreases the efficiency of electron transport which in turn
decreases photosynthetic production.
39 / 80
7/28/2015
Ultraviolet Radiation and Phytoplankton

16
Phytoplankton are microscopic organisms that reside in water and use photosynthesis to convert sunlight to energy . These organisms use carbon
17
dioxide and produce oxygen as a photosynthesis byproduct just as plants do . Ultraviolet light can stunt this process in phytoplankton. UV-A and
UV-B radiation inhibit photosynthetic production, thus reducing carbon dioxide intake and oxygen output. Under natural sun-lit conditions, UV-A
41
and UV-B can diminish photosynthesis by over 8% .
Phytoplankton require light for photosynthesis, but UV radiation can reduce their production. Collage adapted from drawings and
micrographs by Sally Bensusen, NASA EOS Project Science Office.
This effect can be detrimental to more than just phytoplankton. These one-celled plants are responsible for much of the carbon transfer that occurs
17
between the atmosphere and the ocean, a process known as the biological carbon pump . Much of the ocean life below the surface depends on
17
phytoplankton, consuming them directly or indirectly . Phytoplankton also contribute to marine snow the dead, organic material that falls to
the ocean floor as fuel for deep sea organisms. When ultraviolet radiation reduces photosynthetic production of phytoplankton, it negatively affects
16
the world carbon cycle and the marine food chain .
Infrared Light
Infrared light is on the opposite side of the spectrum from ultraviolet light. This radiation has a
9
wavelength of >700 nm and provides 49.4% of solar energy . Infrared radiation is readily
10
absorbed by water and carbon dioxide molecules and converted to heat energy . The
longer wavelengths cause heat by exciting electrons in the substances that absorb them.
Thus infrared radiation is responsible for warming Earths surface. Infrared light is reflected
10
more than UV or visible light due to its longer wavelengths . This reflection allows infrared
radiation to transfer heat between the surface, water and the air.
In a body of water, infrared light can only reach a certain distance below the surface. 90% of
infrared radiation is absorbed in the first meter of the waters surface, and only 1% can reach
1
past two meters in pure water . This is why the surface of most bodies of water are warmer
than the depths.
Infrared radiation is responsible for warming Earths

surface and atmosphere.
What is Photosynthetically Active Radiation?

Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR) is the light wavelength range that is best fit for photosynthesis to occur. Photosynthesis is a process that
1
requires light energy and optimally occurs in the 400 to 700 nanometer (nm) range . This range is also known as visible light.
Photosynthetically active radiation is the range of visible light that plants can use for photosynthesis.
Visible light encompasses the electromagnetic spectrum from visible blue/violet to red. Blue light has a higher energy and shorter wavelength than
12
green or red light. Red light has the lowest energy in the visible spectrum . As visible light reaches Earth, a surface will absorb or reflect different
12
wavelengths, producing a visible color. The wavelength reflected by a surface is the color that it appears to be . If the surface reflects all of the
12
visible wavelengths, it will appear white .
8
40 / 80
7/28/2015
8
Most plants appear green as the chlorophyll in their cells reflects green light . Water often appears blue as this color travels the deepest before being
1
absorbed . While on land, plants use nearly all of the visible range for photosynthesis. However, even underwater when only blue light is available,
photosynthesis can still occur.
Why are Solar and Photosynthetically Active Radiation Important?

Solar radiation provides heat, light, and energy necessary for all living organisms. Infrared radiation supplies heat to all habitats, on land and in the
24
25
water . Without solar radiation, Earths surface would be about 32C colder .
Light is also provided by solar radiation. Predators would not be able to efficiently
hunt prey without light from the sun and prey would not be able to take advantage
1
of dark areas if predators were adapted to dark habitats . Human eyes are adapted
to the visible spectrum, though some other species can see ultraviolet light in
26
addition to colors .
In particular, the level of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) that an area
receives is important. This is because different plants respond to different
1
wavelengths of PAR . Most plants reflect green wavelengths while absorbing the
rest of the visible light spectrum. In addition, shade plants respond to lower levels of
7
PAR while sun plants harvest PAR more efficiently at higher light levels . In other
words, as solar irradiance (intensity) increases, sun plants experience higher rates of
photosynthesis. The leaves of sun plants are small and thick, with special cells
20
allowing for these higher rates . Shade plants conduct photosynthesis at a lower
radiation intensity level. Their leaves are thinner, longer and contain fewer
chlorophyll cells. This makes it easier for photosynthesis to occur in low light
20
conditions .
Solar radiation provides the necessary heat and light for life on
Earth. Photosynthetically active radiation is the band that provides
energy for photosynthesis.
Although the main benefit of photosynthesis is energy for the plant, it has other
1
important results. Oxygen is a byproduct of photosynthesis . The process ensures that more oxygen is produced than is used up by organisms in
the surrounding environment. If photosynthesis does not produce enough dissolved oxygen underwater, it can create anoxic conditions where fish
1
1
and other organisms cannot live . Photosynthesis also consumes carbon dioxide, thus lowering carbon dioxide levels in air and water .
Solar Irradiance
Solar irradiance is the intensity with which radiation enters Earths atmosphere. An
relatable way to think about solar irradiance is by looking at the difference between a
20-watt light bulb and a 100-watt light bulb. Both produce visible light in the same
wavelengths, but the brightness and intensity are very different. The 100-watt bulb
has a higher intensity, or irradiance. Solar irradiance is the amount of radiant flux on
9
an area, and is measured in watts per meter squared (W/m) .
What Influences Solar Irradiance?

The solar irradiance received by a particular location or body of water depends on
the elevation above sea level, the angle of the sun (due to latitude, season and time
9
of day) and scattering elements such as clouds . The higher the elevation, the
shorter the path from the atmosphere. This can mean a higher irradiance, though
not warmer temperatures. This intense radiation contributes to the arid climates,
and the thinner air means more UV radiation reaches the surface at these altitudes.
Annual surface solar irradiance received in 2008. The equator

receives solar radiation at a higher intensity (irradiance) than the
norther and southern hemispheres. Data compiled by P. W ang, P.
Stammes, R. van der A, G. Pinardi, M. van Roozendael (2008),
FRESCO+
41 / 80
7/28/2015
9
The lower the angle of the sun, the larger amount of ozone the light has to pass through . This is
also factor in ultraviolet irradiance. Ozone absorbs UV light and can reduce radiation intensity.
The angle of the sun is dependent on latitude, time of year, and time of day. The distance that
radiation has to travel will be at its lowest when the sun is directly overhead. This is why the annual
net solar irradiance is greater over the equator than over the northern and southern latitudes. Solar
irradiance will decrease as a hemisphere is tilted away from the sun.
During the day, the suns angle to any given location will decrease from sunrise until noon, and then
increase until sunset. At greater angles (morning and evening) solar radiation has to pass through
more of the atmosphere, which reduces its irradiance. This is why sunlight feels less intense in the
evening than at noon.
Cloud coverage and air pollution can also reduce the amount of radiation that reaches Earths
The angle of the sun determines solar irradiance.
9
surface. Clouds and aerosols in the atmosphere can scatter and absorb all radiation bands . As
The greater the angle, the lower the solar
cloud cover increases, the angle of the sun becomes less important when measuring irradiance. This intensity.
10
is due to the increase of radiation diffusion (scattering) . Increased cloud cover decreases
irradiance, causing sunlight to feel less intense. On these days solar radiation still reaches Earths surface, simply with a lower irradiance. Under these
conditions, humans can become sunburned without realizing the effects until it is too late.
Heat, Temperature and Solar Radiation

Sunlight is responsible for warming the Earth, oceans and atmosphere through infrared radiation. Both water and land reflect back some of that
radiation to warm the atmosphere or other objects in contact with the surface. The darker the object or surface, the faster it will absorb light and
31
heat .
Air Temperature
Air temperature is indirectly dependent on solar radiation. While air itself does not absorb infrared radiation, it receives heat from Earths surface. This
31
effect occurs through heat transfer by conduction and convection .
Infrared radiation absorbed by Earths surface warms the surrounding air.
Earth absorbs infrared radiation and converts it to thermal energy. As the surface absorbs heat from the sun, it becomes warmer than the
24
surrounding atmosphere. The heat is then transferred by conduction (contact) from the warmer Earth to the cooler atmosphere . Air itself is a
poor conductor of heat, so convection, or the rise and fall of warm and cool air, warms the rest of the atmosphere not in contact with the surface
31
. The rising warm air is often referred to as a thermal. As the warmed air rises, cooler air sinks to the surface, where it continues in the convection
process.
Earths surface also reflects some infrared radiation back into the air. This reflected radiation can be trapped and absorbed by gases in the
25
atmosphere, or re-radiated back to the Earth . This process is called the greenhouse effect. Without the greenhouse effect, the Earths average
25
surface temperature would be about-18C instead of the current +18C .
Water Temperature
Infrared light from the sun is absorbed by bodies of water and converted to heat
42 / 80
7/28/2015
energy. This low energy radiation excites electrons and warms the top layer of
1
water. Nearly all infrared radiation is absorbed within one meter of the surface . This
heat is then transferred to greater depths through movement from wind and
1
convection . While heat is slowly transferred throughout the water column, it often
does not reach all the way to the bottom. This is due to water column stratification.
In the ocean and many lakes, water can stratify, or form distinct layers of water.
These layers are distinguished by their temperatures, densities and often different
concentrations of dissolved substances (such as salt or oxygen). The different water
1
strata are separated by steep temperature gradients known as thermoclines . Even
with convection and wind, it is difficult for most of the suns heat to cross these
barriers. Instead, the lowest strata of water will remain near 4C, while the surface
1
water temperature will fluctuate both diurnally (daily) and seasonally .
90% of infrared radiation is absorbed in the first meter of the
waters surface. Heat is then transferred throughout the water by
wind and convection.
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants and other organisms, also known as photoautotrophs, use energy from sunlight to produce glucose.
18
This process can occur both on land and underwater .
3
Glucose is a kind of sugar that is later converted into Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) via cellular respiration . ATP is an energy-bearing molecule that
4
is used in the metabolic reactions of living organisms. This molecule is a necessity in almost all organisms . Photoautotrophs use sunlight, six carbon
dioxide molecules, and twelve water molecules to produce one molecule of glucose, six oxygen molecules, and six water molecules. This reaction
reduces carbon dioxide levels in the air or water while producing glucose for ATP.
Photosynthesis can occur underwater as long as enough light is available. In the ocean,
significant amounts of photosynthetically active radiation can be detected as deep as 200 m
29
below the surface . Within this euphotic zone (sunlight zone), photosynthesis can occur.
18
This process only requires light, carbon dioxide, and water . As long as a photosynthesizing
organism, on land or underwater, has enough of these molecules, it can produce glucose and
oxygen.
Photosynthesis and Temperature
Photosynthesis can still occur underwater.
Photosynthesis is a series of chemical reactions that occur with the help of enzymes. Enzymes
11
are catalysts in biological processes and help speed up chemical reactions . Photosynthesis also requires heat to activate the process. As heat
increases kinetic energy (causing reactants to bump into one another more often), a higher temperature can speed up chemical reactions in addition
11
to initiating the process .
Although increased temperatures can speed up photosynthesis, too much heat can
11
be detrimental . At a certain temperature, enzymes become denatured and lose
their shapes. Denatured enzymes no longer speed up chemical reactions and
instead slow down photosynthesis. Thus temperature is an important factor in
photosynthetic production, both in activating and maintaining the process. This is
why there are different optimal temperatures for photosynthesis for different
1
organisms .
How is Underwater Photosynthesis Affected by Turbidity?

1
Turbidity is a lack of water clarity caused by the presence of suspended particles .

These particles absorb sunlight and can cause light to be reflected off the particles in water. The more particles present in the water, the less
photosynthetically active radiation that will be received by plants and phytoplankton. This loss of sunlight decreases the rate of photosynthesis. If
43 / 80
7/28/2015
13
the photosynthetic production is limited, the dissolved oxygen level in the water will decrease . In addition, turbidity can cause significant damage
to water habitats by absorbing infrared radiation and increasing water temperature above normal levels.
Why cant Photosynthesis use UV or Infrared Light?

Visible light is the only band of light on the spectrum to be considered
photosynthetically active. It has the perfect amount of energy to excite the
electrons needed to start photosynthesis and not damage DNA or break bonds.
Ultraviolet can not be used for photosynthesis because it has too much energy.
This energy breaks the bonds in molecules and can destroy DNA and other
8
important structures in organisms . When plants and other photoautotrophs
attempt to use UV-A (320-400 nm) for photosynthesis, electron transport
6
efficiency is decreased, which in turn decreases the rate of photosynthesis . On
the other side of the spectrum, infrared light does not contain much energy.
The insufficient energy does not excite electrons in molecules enough to be
8
used for photosynthesis. Infrared light is converted to thermal energy instead .
Optimal photosynthetically active radiation is the band from 400-700

nm, which encompasses the visible light spectrum.
Typical Solar Radiation Levels

Solar radiation levels are dependent on the time of day and on the suns angle toward Earth. This angle will vary by latitude and season. The greater
9
the angle of the sun, the more ozone that sunlight must pass through to reach the surface . In addition to the suns angle, atmospheric conditions
can affect radiation levels. Cloud cover, air pollution and the hole in the ozone layer all alter the amount of solar radiation that can reach the surface.
These factors all cause typical radiation levels to differ.
Daily Fluctuations
Over most of Earths surface, the solar radiation received is measured by the solar irradiance. The irradiance will increase from sunrise until noon, and
36
15
then decrease until sunset . Peak solar energy levels received will vary by latitude and season .
As seen on the graph to the left, the equator has the steepest solar radiation
curve, giving it the shortest sunrise and sunset periods. In addition, the length of
day does not vary greatly throughout the year. This occurs because the angle
of the sun does not significantly fluctuate over the equator.
A hemisphere tilted toward the sun would reach a similar peak radiation level as
the equator, but with more gradual curves, meaning longer sunrises and
sunsets. This hemisphere would also have longer days overall. The opposing
hemisphere (tilted away from the sun) would have shorter sunrises and sunsets,
15
as well as shorter periods of daylight .
At the geographic North and South Poles (90 latitude), solar irradiance seems
15
to stay constant throughout a single day . This is because the poles are the
Earths rotating point. Although the daily values do not appear to change, the
level of solar radiation received at the poles will slowly shift throughout the year.
In the summer, solar radiation (measured by irradiance) will be greatest
over the equator and the hemisphere tilted toward the sun.
Monthly Fluctuations
44 / 80
7/28/2015
Solar radiation levels depend on proximity to the sun and the suns
angle. Thus different areas of the globe have different typical radiation
levels in each season. At the equator, the typical solar radiation is fairly
15
constant year round . There are slight fluctuations but no drastic
spikes or drops. In the Northern Hemisphere, the radiation increases as
the year progresses until it peaks around June or July. The radiation
14
levels then slowly decrease throughout the rest of the year . In the
Southern Hemisphere, the radiation levels are opposite. At the beginning
of the year, levels are high and then slowly drop to their lowest point
around June. After June, they begin to rise again for the rest of the year
14
.
The further a city is from the equator, the more the solar radiation received will
fluctuate throughout the year.
The Hole in the Ozone Layer

Ozone is a molecular gas composed of three oxygen atoms (O3). This gas helps protect Earth because it absorbs most of the suns ultraviolet
radiation. The majority of UV-C, most of UV-B and about half of UV-A are absorbed by oxygen and ozone in the ozone layer. This layer is primarily
found in the stratosphere, between 10 and 50 km above Earths surface.
The hole in the ozone layer is found in the atmosphere over the Antarctic. This area
is not completely void of ozone, but is instead a patch of atmosphere that possesses
27
a significantly lower level of ozone than normal . While the cause of gap is sometimes
a subject of debate, studies have shown that ozone is destroyed when it reacts with
27
chlorine, nitrogen, hydrogen, or bromine . When these chemicals enter the
atmosphere, they can remove the ozone present. Regardless of its cause, the hole in
the ozone layer allows more UV radiation to reach Earth. If the increase in UV radiation
27
becomes excessive, it can be harmful to both terrestrial and aqueous habitats .
The hole in the ozone layer is a patch of atmosphere with

significantly less ozone than the rest of the stratosphere (Image
courtesy NASA GSFC Scientific Visualization Studio).
Unusually high or
low levels of sunlight
can cause problems
for both land and
water habitats. Too
much ultraviolet
light can cause
irreversible damage
to DNA and
important
photosynthetic
structures, while too
much infrared light
can cause
1
UV-B radiation can damage DNA strands.
overheating . DNA
damage is caused
by UV-B radiation. While most living cells have adapted and can repair simple damage, increased exposure to UV radiation can cause cells to mutate
16
beyond repair, or to die .
On cloudy days, or if a previously sunny location becomes shaded, photosynthetic production can be halted. Not only does this stop oxygen
1
production, but it increases oxygen consumption through plant respiration . The decrease in infrared light will also cool the shaded surface or body
of water, which in turns cools the surrounding air.
Water
45 / 80
7/28/2015
When water is exposed to excessive amounts of sunlight, the infrared radiation will heat the
water. The warmer a body water is, the faster the rate of evaporation will be. This can reduce
water levels and water flow. In addition, warm water can not hold as much dissolved oxygen
as cold water. This means that in warmer water, less dissolved oxygen is available for aquatic
21
organisms . Too much infrared light can also cause the enzymes used in photosynthesis to
11
denature, which can slow or halt the photosynthetic process .
On the other side of the spectrum, radiation can be limited by cloudy days, shade sources or
low sun angles. If radiation from the sun is lower than usual for an extended period of time,
photosynthetic production can decrease or be stopped completely. Without sunlight,
phytoplankton and plants will consume oxygen instead of producing it. These conditions can
20
cause dissolved oxygen levels in the water to plummet, potentially causing a fish kill .
Removing shade trees from an urban stream increases

the temperature of the water, making it unsuitable for
coldwater fish like trout. (Photo credit: Kristan Cockerill
via the Environmental Monitor).
Land
20
As in water, terrestrial radiation levels can be limited by cloudy weather . This is particularly important to plants, as the photosynthetic process and
plant physiology in general are dependent on sunlight.
Stomata are pores found on the outer layer of plant leaves. They open in the presence of sunlight and allow water, carbon dioxide, and oxygen to
22
enter the plant . These molecules are then used to produce glucose through photosynthesis. On cold, sunless days, stomata close because not
23
enough energy from the sun is being received to continue photosynthesis . Too much intense sunlight can also halt the production of
23
photosynthesis, as stomata will close on sunny, hot and dry days to prevent water loss .
Sunlight can affect more than the opening and closing of plant stomata. While some plants
have specialized proteins that protect them from sunburn, others do not, and intense solar
32
radiation can damage their leaves . Plants that are not adapted to full or intense sunlight,
such as hostas or rhododendrons, can develop heat stress. Many plants, including shade
plants, are susceptible to leaf scorch, where parts of the plant die due to excessive water loss
33
through transpiration . In addition to slowing or halting photosynthesis, heat stress and leaf
scorch can make plants more susceptible to disease or insect infestations.
Shade plants like hostas can be damaged by excessive

heat and sunlight.
How Much Light?
How much light does the sun produce? This is a complex question to answer as there are
different ways to consider and measure light. There is radiance (projected power) and visible light, which can be measured as luminance (brightness)
37
or illuminance (incident light). Luminance and illuminance apply only to the wavelengths in the visible light band . Sunlight is usually defined in
radiance units, as only half of the solar radiation that reaches Earth is visible light, but all of the radiation provides energy.
Radiant energy can be measured in joules, though it is more commonly measured as
radiant flux, or radiant power, which is expressed as energy over time. The basic unit
of power is the watt (joules/second). The sun emits
26
38
384,600,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 watts (3.846 x 10 W) . For comparison,
the average incandescent light bulb consumes 40-100 watts. This energy is projected
out from the sun in a sphere, where some will fall on Earth. The energy that reaches
Earth is measured as solar irradiance (energy per second over a square meter). Given
the estimated radiant power of the sun, the intensity of solar energy that reaches the
39
top of Earths atmosphere (directly facing the sun) is 1,360 W/m .
The amount of radiation received by the Earth varies, and much

of it is reflected back into the atmosphere. This map shows net
absorbed solar radiation. (Image courtesy Dennis Hartmann,
University of W ashington via NASA).
How much solar energy reaches Earth? Divide the power of the sun by the surface area of a sphere (with a radius equal to the
distance between Earth and the sun). At any given point on that hypothetical spheres surface (Earth being one such point) the
irradiance recieved is approximately 1,360 W /m.
46 / 80
7/28/2015
The amount of irradiance that reaches the surface can vary due to Earths elliptical orbit, solar flares and the amount of atmosphere the radiation
must pass through (due to the suns angle to the surface or cloud cover present).
What does that mean in terms of visible light? Luminance and illuminance attempt to define the brightness and the light projected from a given
37
source. A lumen is the standard measure of visible brightness as seen by the human eye . Lumens can only be measured over the
photosynthetically active radiation band, or the range of visible light. One lumen of light over one square meter is one lux (lm/m^2), which is the the
40
SI unit for illuminance. In direct sunlight, when the sun is at its zenith (directly overhead), measured lux could be as high as 130,000 . On most
sunny days (out of direct light), illuminance is usually 10,000-25,000 lux. On an overcast day, incident light may only reach 1000 lux, and at twilight
40
it may be 10 lux . The greater the angle of the sun, the lower the lux will be, as the lumens are spread out over a greater area. Illuminance is
important to consider when evaluating photosynthetically active radiation.
How much light actually reaches the Earths surface?

The suns radiation must make it through multiple barriers before it reaches Earths surface.
The first barrier is the atmosphere. About 26% of the suns energy is reflected or scattered
34
back into space by clouds and particulates in the atmosphere . Another 18% of solar energy
is absorbed in the atmosphere. Ozone absorbs ultraviolet radiation, while carbon dioxide and
34
water vapor can absorb infrared radiation . The remaining 56% of solar radiation is able to
reach the surface. However, some of this light is reflected off of snow or other bright ground
36
surfaces, so only 48% is available to be absorbed by land or water . Of the radiation that
1
reaches the surface, approximately half is visible light and half is infrared light . These reflection
and absorption percentages can vary due to cloud cover and sun angle. In cloudy weather,
35
up to 70% of solar radiation can be absorbed or scattered by the atmosphere .
How much light breaks the surface of the water?

Once the light reaches the surface of the
water, reflection and scattering can
occur. Reflection occurs when solar
1
radiation simply bounces off the water .
This reflection is due to waters albedo,
or reflectivity. The amount of sunlight
reflected depends on the suns angle,
wavelength, and weather conditions. Of
the light that reaches the waters
surface, approximately 5-10% is
1
reflected . Longer wavelengths are
reflected slightly more than shorter
10
wavelengths .
Only 56% of the solar radiation that reaches the

atmosphere makes it through to earths surface.
5-10% of the light that reaches the waters surface is

reflected or scattered. Photo credit: Light and W ater
by A bloke called Jerm via Flickr
Scattering is the deflection of light by

molecules in the water. Different materials, including dissolved and suspended solids, as well as organisms in the water, cause light to scatter in
1
different directions . The amount of light that scatters is dependent on the clarity of the water.
How deep does sunlight reach in the ocean?

The ocean is split into three zones based on light. The first zone, the euphotic or sunlight zone, is
where sunlight penetrates. Phytoplankton live in the euphotic zone because there is enough
2
light for photosynthesis. This zone extends to about 660 ft below the ocean surface.
The next zone is called the dysphotic (twilight) zone. Some light is able to reach this depth, but it
29
is not enough for photosynthesis to occur .
The last zone starts about 3,300 ft below the oceans surface and is called the aphotic
(midnight) zone. Sunlight cannot reach this zone, and its only light comes from bioluminescent
2
organisms .
47 / 80
7/28/2015
How deep does sunlight reach in freshwater?

The depth that light penetrates in freshwater is dependent on water clarity. In waters with a high
level of turbidity, or suspended solids, light will not reach as far as clear bodies of water. These
1
suspended particles can both absorb and scatter light . In most rivers and streams, light will
reach the riverbed, and photosynthesis can occur throughout the water column. However, in
particularly deep, algae-covered or turbid lakes, light may not be able to reach certain depths.
The water column of the ocean can be divided into

zones based on how much light reaches certain
depths.
Like the ocean, deep lakes are split into

three zones. The first zone is called the
littoral zone. This zone is close to the shore
and sunlight reaches all the way to the
bottom. Aquatic plants in the littoral zone
can grow on the lake bed and still receive
19
enough light for photosynthesis . The
next zone is known as the limnetic zone and
is the surface layer of open water.
Photosynthesis can occur in this zone as it
Photosynthesis can occur in the littoral and limnetic
is penetrated by light. The depth of the
zone, as enough light is available for photosynthesis.
limnetic zone depends on the turbidity of
the water. In more turbid water, the
19
limnetic zone will be shallower . Below the limnetic zone is the profundal zone. This is the benthic (bottom) layer of a deep lake. Sunlight cannot
reach this zone, so photosynthesis will not occur. Instead, organisms that permanently reside in the profundal zone (such as bacteria) rely on falling
19
organic matter from higher zones .
Light Transmission Through Ice and Snow

The amount of light absorbed in a body of water can be greatly affected by ice and snow cover. Clear, colorless ice has the same percentage of light
1
transmission as liquid water, which is about 72% . However, if the ice is stained or cloudy, the percentage can drop dramatically. Opaque ice and
heavy snow can drop the percentage of light transmission to nearly zero. If a body of water is covered in ice and snow for a long period of time, its
entire metabolism can be stunted.
Photosynthesis, which requires light, produces oxygen as a byproduct and helps maintain
dissolved oxygen levels in a body of water. Dissolved oxygen is continuously consumed in
metabolic reactions by living organisms in the water, regardless of snow and ice cover. If snow
and ice prevent photosynthesis, plant respiration will contribute to the oxygen depletion
instead of restoring dissolved oxygen levels. When this occurs, oxygen reduction, or anoxia,
can result and many organisms can die. This often occurs in shallow, productive lakes and
1
ponds and is known as a winterkill .
An ice-covered lake may not receive enough light for

aquatic plants to continue photosynthesis.
Aquatic Organisms and Visible Light
Sunlight can only reach

29
certain depths in water . Beyond 200 m, there is not enough light for
photosynthesis to occur. The human eye is not sensitive enough to detect
26
sunlight under 850 m of water . Even the most visually-adapted fish can not
see light from the sun at depths below 1000 m. However, many of the organisms
that live at or below this depth still have functioning eyes. Instead of relying on
26
sunlight, they use their own bioluminescence for light .
Fish that live near the surface have similar visual abilities to those of organisms on
land. They possess color vision because the visible light spectrum penetrates the
26
surface of water . Many fish are also equipped with UV vision, giving them an
26
opportunity to see animals that are transparent in visible light .
Species like shrimp and squid can see the polarization of underwater light in
addition possessing color and UV vision. With this ability, they can efficiently
The depth that light penetrates depends on the quality of the water.
W arm colors are absorbed faster than cool colors(Image courtesy of
Kyle Carothers, NOAA-OE).
48 / 80
7/28/2015
26
locate prey as the polarization of light is altered when it bounces off scales .
Mantis shrimp may also use this ability for mating, as the males paddles change
30
color with a different polarized orientation .
A male mantis shrimps paddles change color when a polarizing filter is held vertically and horizontally. (Photo Credit: Roy Caldwell via NOAA Ocean Explorer)
Cite this work:

Fitch, Katie and Christine Kemker. Solar Radiation and Photosynethically Active Radiation. Fundamentals of Environmental Measurements.
Fondriest Environmental, Inc. 21 Mar. 2014. Web. < http://www.fondriest.com/environmental-measurements/parameters/weather/solar-radiation/
>.
Measurement Methods
Light Meters
Solar Radiation and PAR Sensors
Applications
References
W eather and Atmosphere
1 COMMENT
Vanity and climate change | The American Publius
[] the oceans temperature regulated. Secondly, they act as the earths CO2 scrubber by the process of photosynthesis. A 10% decline in
the levels of Phytoplankton is equivalent to all the burning of fossil fuels []
MARCH 26, 2015 AT 5:11 PM
Parameters
Hydrology
Water Quality

Dissolved Oxygen
pH of Water
Water Temperature
49 / 80
7/28/2015

References
Most Popular Light Meter

Discount Code

50 / 80
Turbidity, Total Suspended Solids & Water Clarity - Environmental Measurement Systems
7/28/2015
W ater Temperature

SHARE
14
29
34
Chapter Overview:
What are Total Suspended Solids?
What is Turbidity?
What is Water Clarity?
Turbidity vs Suspended Solids Whats the Difference?
Why are TSS and Turbidity important?
Water Chemistry
Photosynthesis Production
Erosion
Contamination
Human Concerns
Where do Suspended Solids Come From?
Algae and Algal Blooms
Sediment
Point-Source Pollution
Factors that Influence Turbidity Levels
-Changes in Water Flow
-Point source Pollution and Effluent
http://www.fondriest.com/environmental-measurements/parameters/water-quality/turbidity-total-suspended-solids-water-clarity/
51 / 80
7/28/2015
-Land Use
-Resuspension
Units
-Notice about Turbidimeters
Typical Levels
-Consequences of Unusual Levels
Suspended Solids and Turbidity Measurement Methods
Turbidity Meters
Turbidity Sensors
Applications
What are Total Suspended Solids?

Total suspended solids (TSS) are particles that are larger than 2
microns found in the water column. Anything smaller than 2
microns (average filter size) is considered a dissolved solid. Most
suspended solids are made up of inorganic materials, though
bacteria and algae can also contribute to the total solids
3
concentration .
Both organic and inorganic particles of all sizes can contribute to the suspended solids
These solids include anything drifting or floating in the water, from
1
concentration.
sediment, silt,and sand to plankton and algae . Organic particles
from decomposing materials can also contribute to the TSS
concentration. As algae, plants and animals decay, the decomposition process allows small organic particles to break away and enter the water
17
20
column as suspended solids . Even chemical precipitates are considered a form of suspended solids . Total suspended solids are a significant factor
3
in observing water clarity . The more solids present in the water, the less clear the water will be.
Some suspended solids can settle out into sediment at the bottom of a body of
3
water over a period of time . Heavier particles, such as gravel and sand, often settle
out when they enter an area of low or no water flow. Although this settling improves
1
water clarity, the increased silt can smother benthic organisms and eggs . The
4
remaining particles that do not settle out are called colloidal or nonsettleable solids .
These suspended solids are either too small or too light to settle to the bottom.
37
Settleable solids are also known as bedded sediments, or bedload . These

sediments can vary from larger sand and gravel to fine silt and clay, depending on
the flow rate of water. Sometimes these sediments can move downstream even
without rejoining the suspended solids concentration. When settleable solids are
moved along the bottom of a body of water by a strong flow, it is called bedload
7
transport .
Some sediment will settle to the bottom of a body of water, while
others remain suspended.
What is Turbidity?
1
Turbidity is an optical determination of water clarity . Turbid water will appear

cloudy, murky, or otherwise colored, affecting the physical look of the water.
Suspended solids and dissolved colored material reduce water clarity by
creating an opaque, hazy or muddy appearance. Turbidity measurements are
often used as an indicator of water quality based on clarity and estimated
total suspended solids in water.
The turbidity of water is based on the amount of light scattered by particles in
2
the water column . The more particles that are present, the more light that
will be scattered. As such, turbidity and total suspended solids are related.
However, turbidity is not a direct measurement of the total suspended
materials in water. Instead, as a measure of relative clarity, turbidity is often
used to indicate changes in the total suspended solids concentration in water
1
without providing an exact measurement of solids .
This river owes its muddy appearance to high turbidity levels.
52 / 80
7/28/2015
This river owes its muddy appearance to high turbidity levels.
Turbidity can come from suspended sediment such as silt or clay, inorganic
materials, or organic matter such as algae, plankton and decaying material. In
addition to these suspended solids, turbidity can also include colored dissolved
organic matter (CDOM), fluorescent dissolved organic matter (FDOM) and
14
other dyes . CDOM is also known as humic stain. Humic stain refers to the
tea color produced from decaying plants and leaves underwater due to the
release of tannins and other molecules.
Tannins from decomposing vegetation have colored this river red.
This discoloration is often found in bogs, wetlands or other water bodies with
high amounts of decaying vegetation in the water. CDOM can cause water to
appear red or brown, depending on the type of plants or leaves present.
These dissolved substances may be too small to be counted in a suspended
solids concentration, but they are still part of a turbidity measurement as they
affect water clarity.
What is Water Clarity?

Water clarity is a physical characteristic defined by how clear or transparent
water is. Clarity is determined by the depth that sunlight penetrates in water
9
. The further sunlight can reach, the higher the water clarity. The depth
sunlight reaches is also known as the photic zone. The clearer the water, the
deeper the photic zone and the greater the potential for photosynthetic
10
production . The photic zone (and thus water clarity) has a maximum depth
of 200 m based on the light absorption properties of water.
Water clarity is directly related to turbidity, as turbidity is a measure of water
clarity. The transparency of water is affected by the amount of sunlight
available, suspended particles in the water column and dissolved solids such as
colored dissolved organic material (CDOM) present in the water.
Ocean water is usually clearer than freshwater due to the effect of salinity
on suspended solids.
Salt ions can cause suspended particle to aggregate and settle at the bottom of a
body of water.
10
Salinity also affects water clarity . This is due to the effect of salt on the aggregation and settling velocity of suspended particles. In other words,
salt ions collect suspended particles and bind them together, increasing their weights and thus their likelihood of settling to the bottom. Due to this
10
mechanism, oceans and estuaries tend to have a higher clarity (and lower average turbidity) than lakes and rivers . These marine environments
also have a higher rate of sedimentation as solids are pulled out of the water column to the seafloor.
Turbidity vs Suspended Solids What is the difference?

Turbidity and total suspended solids refer to particles present in the water column. Turbidity and water clarity are both visual properties of water
based on light scattering and attenuation. All three parameters are related to particles in the water column, whether directly or indirectly.
6
Turbidity is determined by the amount of light scattered off of these particles . While this
53 / 80
7/28/2015
measurement can then be used to estimate the total dissolved solids concentration, it will not
be exact. Turbidity does not include any settled solids or bedload (sediment that rolls along
7
the riverbed) . In addition, turbidity measurements may be affected by colored dissolved
5
organic matter . While this dissolved matter is not included in TSS measurements, it can cause
8
artificially low turbidity readings as it absorbs light instead of scattering it .
Total suspended solids, on the other hand, are a total quantity measurement of solid material
6
per volume of water . This means that TSS is a specific measurement of all suspended solids,
organic and inorganic, by mass. TSS includes settleable solids, and is the direct measurement
of the total solids present in a water body. As such, TSS can be used to calculate
1,6
sedimentation rates, while turbidity cannot .
W hile turbidity and total suspended solids often overlap,

there are a few outlying factors that only contribute to
one or the other.
Water clarity is strictly relative to sunlight penetration. While this is usually determined by the
amount of suspended solids in water, it can also be affected by CDOM and other dissolved
10
5
solids . Water clarity is the most subjective measurement of the these three parameters, as it is usually determined by human observation .
Is this water clear, or murky, or just slightly opaque? Human observation of clarity allows for personal perception
and judgement.
Why are Turbidity and Total Suspended Solids Important?

Turbidity and TSS are the most visible indicators of water quality. These
suspended particles can come from soil erosion, runoff, discharges, stirred
1
bottom sediments or algal blooms . While it is possible for some streams to
have naturally high levels of suspended solids, clear water is usually
9,14
considered an indicator of healthy water . A sudden increase in turbidity in
a previously clear body of water is a cause for concern. Excessive suspended
sediment can impair water quality for aquatic and human life, impede
7
navigation and increase flooding risks .
Water Chemistry
In terms of
water quality,
high levels of
total
suspended
solids will
increase
water
temperatures
and decrease
dissolved
oxygen (DO)
1
levels . This
is because
A sediment-laden river flows into Tuscaloosa Lake. Photo Credit: City of

Tuscaloosa via USGS
Suspended solids can increase the temperature of water as they

54 / 80
7/28/2015
Suspended solids can increase the temperature of water as they

suspended
absorb additional heat from the sun. This can also cause dissolved
particles
oxygen levels to drop below the thermocline, creating hypoxic
absorb more
conditions.
heat from
solar radiation
than water molecules will. This heat is then transferred to the surrounding water by conduction. Warmer water cannot hold as much dissolved
13
oxygen as colder water, so DO levels will drop . In addition, the increased surface temperature can cause stratification, or layering, of a body of
3
water . When water stratifies, the upper and lower layers do not mix. As decomposition and respiration often occur in the the lower layers, they can
become too hypoxic (low dissolved oxygen levels) for organisms to survive.
Photosynthesis Production
Turbidity can also inhibit photosynthesis by blocking sunlight. Halted or reduced
photosynthesis means a decrease in plant survival and decreased dissolved oxygen
9
output . The higher the turbidity levels, the less light that can reach the lower levels
15
of water. This reduces plant productivity at the bottom of an ocean, lake or river .
Without the needed sunlight, seaweed and bay grasses below the waters surface
16
will not be able to continue photosynthesis and may die .
Underwater vegetation die-off has two main effects. First, as photosynthetic
processes decrease, less dissolved oxygen is produced, thus further reducing DO
13
levels in a body of water . The subsequent decomposition of the organic material
can drop dissolved oxygen levels even lower. Second, seaweed and underwater
plants are necessary food sources for many aquatic organisms. As they die off, the
amount of vegetation available for other aquatic life to feed on is reduced. This can
21
cause population declines up the food chain .
Suspended solids, particularly algae, can block sunlight from
reaching submerged plants. This can cause dissolved oxygen levels
to drop, as the plants rely on respiration (consuming oxygen)
instead of photosynthesis.
Erosion
An increase in turbidity can also indicate increased erosion of stream banks, which may have a
3
long-term effect on a body of water . Erosion reduces habitat quality for fish and other
organisms. In terms of water clarity, reduced light penetration due to suspended sediment
17
can obscure aquatic organisms vision, reducing their ability to find food . These suspended
13
particles can also clog fish gills and affect growth rates .
Erosion can contribute to shallower, filled-in lakes and streams as some of the suspended
15
1
particles settle out . These settleable solids can suffocate benthic organisms and fish eggs .
13
In addition, the sediment may smother insect larvae and other fish food sources . When this
occurs in rivers and channels, the increased sediment loads can reduce navigability for ships
7
and boats . In cases of excessive sedimentation, settleable solids from erosion and runoff can
even halt freight passage completely.
Bank erosion along a river can be cause by runoff ,

flooding or strong water flow. Photo Credit: Soil-Net
photo library.
Contamination
Pollutants such as dissolved metals and pathogens can attach to suspended particles and enter the
2
water . This is why an increase in turbidity can often indicate potential pollution, not just a decrease
in water quality. Contaminants include bacteria, protozoa, nutrients (e.g. nitrates and phosphorus),
17
pesticides, mercury, lead and other metals . Several of these pollutants, especially heavy metals,
26
can be detrimental and often toxic to aquatic life . The addition of nutrients can encourage the
development of harmful algal blooms.
When the suspended solids concentration is due to organic materials, particularly sewage effluent
and decaying organic matter, the presence of bacteria, protozoa and viruses are more likely. These
organic suspended solids are also more likely to decrease dissolved oxygen levels as they are
19
decomposed .
55 / 80
7/28/2015
Human Concerns
These microbes and heavy metals can impact not only aquatic organisms, but drinking water as well
2
. Organic suspended solids, such as decomposing matter or sewage effluent often naturally include
19
high levels of microorganisms such as protozoa, bacteria and viruses . Such pathogens contribute
25
to waterborne diseases like cryptosporidiosis, cholera and giardiasis . Turbid water, whether due to
organic or inorganic material, cannot be easily disinfected, as the suspended particles will hide
20
these microorganisms .
W astewater effluent can carry pathogens and

other contaminants into a water body if it is not
treated properly. Photo Credit: EPA
In a lake or river, turbidity may also reduce visibility of underwater structures such as logs or large boulders, negatively affecting a water bodys
19
20
recreational use . In industrial processes, turbidity can contribute to clogged tanks and pipes . The particles can also scour machines, potentially
damaging them.
What Contributes to Suspended Solids?

Suspended solids in a body of water are often due to natural causes. These natural solids
include organic materials such as algae, and inorganic materials such as silt and sediment.
Some algae, such as phytoplankton, are regular occurrences, especially in the ocean.
Inorganic materials can easily become suspended due to runoff, erosion and resuspension
from seasonal water flow. However, when suspended solids exceed expected concentrations,
they can negatively impact a body of water. Excess over background amounts are often
37
attributed to human influence, whether directly or indirectly . Pollution may contribute to
either organic or inorganic suspended solids, depending on the source. Algae, sediment and
pollution will affect water quality in different ways depending on the quantity present.
Turbidity is caused by include organic materials such as
algae, and inorganic materials such as silt and sediment.
Algae
Algae are plantlike, photosynthesizing organisms that can thrive in both
11
freshwater and saltwater . These organisms come in different sizes, from
12
microscopic phytoplankton to giant sea kelp forests . Both the
phytoplankton and seaweed forms of algae will consume nutrients in the
water and can increase dissolved oxygen levels through photosynthesis.
When they die, however, the organic material is decomposed by microbes in
the water column. This decomposition process can decrease dissolved
42
oxygen levels to below normal levels .
Seaweed and kelp are found rooted to the seafloor, but phytoplankton and
other micro-algae can be found at the waters surface or throughout the
11
water column . In particular, cyanobacteria, or blue-green algae, have
floating mechanisms that keep them at the surface, blocking sunlight from
19
the water . These phytoplankton contribute to the total suspended solids
concentration, while rooted vegetation or attached streambed-mat forms of
algae do not. However, if these rooted algae become detached (usually when
the algae dies or if it is forcefully removed), then their mass becomes part of
6
the suspended solids measurement .
Different algae can float in the water or be found rooted on a riverbed.

Some, like kelp and seaweed, look like underwater plants.
56 / 80
7/28/2015
The most obvious examples of algaes contribution to turbidity are found in

11
algal blooms . An algal bloom occurs when an excessive amount of algae
grows quickly across the surface of a body of water. These blooms usually
occur due to an influx of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus due to
agricultural runoff or decomposition, though warmer water temperatures and
15
longer daylight hours also contribute to their growth . Floating algal blooms
can block sunlight, release toxins, and deplete oxygen levels in a body of
11
water .
While some algae growth occurs naturally (often seasonally), excessive
growth is often attributed nutrient pollution.Turbidity monitoring can be used
to determine if an increase in suspended solids is natural or due to agricultural
6
runoff .
Algal blooms can coat the surface of the water and prevent light from
penetrating.
Sediment: Runoff and Erosion

23
Sediment is comprised of any solid material that can be transported by water, wind or ice . It is usually defined as the soil particles (including silt,
21
clay and sand) that are deposited on the bottom of a body of water . These particles are usually classified by size from smallest (clay is less than
19
0.00195 mm in diameter) to largest (coarse sand can be up to 1.5 mm) . Silt falls in between, ranging from 0.0049 to 0.047 mm.
Sediment particles can be fine silt or clay, sand and even gravel. Photo Credit: USGS via Massachusetts Bay
Program
22
In areas of high flow, even rocks can be considered sediment as they are deposited in water . However, not all sediment is suspended. The amount
17
and size of suspended sediment is dependent on water flow . The faster the flow, the larger the particle that can be suspended. Higher flow rates
19
can also support a higher concentration of suspended solids. Particles larger than 0.5 mm usually settle out as water flow decreases . Most of the
19
suspended sediment that remains (colloidal solids) consists of fine sand, silt, and clay .
6
The majority of suspended sediment present in water bodies comes from runoff and erosion . If the land surrounding a body of water has only
3
sparse vegetation, the topsoil can easily be washed away into the water . Highly vegetated areas will absorb most of the runoff, keeping the body of
water clearer.
In addition to collecting suspended particles from runoff, rivers and streams can slowly
erode soft riverbanks due to the constant water flow. An increase in river volume and
18
flow (due to rain or other causes) can increase the rate of erosion . On the other
side of the spectrum, bedrock-based streams may not have much sediment available
to suspend. The local geology will determine natural turbidity levels based on normal
6
flow rates, soil type, land structure and vegetation . If the surrounding land is altered
by agriculture, construction or other soil-disturbing use, it can accelerate erosion and
3
runoff, increasing turbidity .
Pollution
Runoff causes erosion, washing soil and other particulates into a

body of water.
57 / 80
Any potentially
harmful
substance that
is added to the
environment
by humans,
whether
directly or
indirectly, is
considered
29
pollution .
This can vary
from bacteria
riding along on
a sewage plant
discharge, to
coal and iron
ore particulates
that float in
from a mining
zone. If these
pollutants are
larger than 2
microns, they
will contribute
to the total
suspended
solids
concentration.
7/28/2015
Pollution ranges from large garbage to microplastics, flecks of metal or

asphalt, and chemical dyes.
Some of the more common suspended solid pollutants are pathogens (bacteria, protozoa, helminths), microbeads (from exfoliating soaps),
wastewater effluent, sewage, airborne particulates, and road particles (e.g. asphalt and tire flecks). Colored wastewater discharge and dyes are
pollutants that will affect turbidity, but not suspended solids.
Nutrients like nitrate and phosphorus are often considered pollutants, but as they are a dissolved substance, they do not contribute directly to the
30
suspended solids concentration . Instead, they are an indirect contributor as they fuel algal blooms, which do affect TSS and turbidity.
29
These dissolved nutrients, along with dissolved metals, chemicals, and refractory organics, will impact the quality of a body of water . Nitrate and
phosphorus can cause eutrophication (excessive plant and algae growth) which in turn causes low dissolved oxygen levels due to plant respiration
and microbial decomposition. Refractory organics are often carcinogenic, while heavy metals and other chemicals can be toxic to aquatic organisms
29
.
While these contaminants can enter the water as a dissolved substance, many of them ride along on grains of soil or other larger pieces of pollution
29
(e.g. paint flecks or asphalt particles) . When this is the case, they can be picked up in suspended sediment samples. Chemical dyes will affect
turbidity readings as the colored molecules will affect light absorption, but they will not be included in a suspended solids measurement.
Factors that Influence Turbidity

Suspended solids can be comprised of organic and inorganic materials such as sediment, algae, and other contaminants. However, there are specific
factors that can affect turbidity levels in a body of water. These are water flow, point source pollution, land use and resuspension.
Water Flow and Weather

18
58 / 80
7/28/2015
18
Turbidity and water flow are causally related . High flow rates
keep particles suspended instead of letting them settle to the
bottom. Thus in rivers and other naturally-occurring high flow
2
environments, turbidity can be a constant presence . In these
areas, it is important to monitor for changes in turbidity at the
same point each time to ensure that the data is not affected by
18
a lower or higher water velocity .
Weather, particularly heavy rainfall, also affects water flow, which
in turn affects turbidity. Rainfall can increase stream volume and
thus stream flow, which can resuspend settled sediments and
1
erode riverbanks .
Stream flow and turbidity are often directly related; as water flow increases, so will
turbidity levels.
Rain can also directly increase the level of total suspended solids
through runoff. As water flows over a surface, it can pick up particles
2
and deposit them in a body of water . Runoff can also wash away
3
topsoil, and contribute to riverbank erosion . If the flow rate increases
enough, it can resuspend bottom sediments, further raising TSS
2
concentrations .
In areas of dry, loose soil or earth-disturbed sites (e.g. mining or
construction areas), wind can blow dust, sediment and other particles
29
into the water . The addition of new particles will increase the
suspended solids concentration. However, wind will generally not
increase turbidity levels in the water alone. In wave-dominated
41
estuaries and coastal areas, turbidity is naturally low . In comparison,
Heavy rainfall will cause turbidity to spike, as this storm event graph shows. This is
tidal areas, where the water flow is strong enough to resuspended
due to increased water flow and increased sediment from runoff.
bottom sediments, have high natural turbidity levels. Wind-driven
40
turbidity increases only occur in shallow zones where waves are tall enough to resuspend sediment . Tides, wind, and rain can influence turbidity
9
levels due to their effect on water flow and introduced sediment loads .
Tributaries can also alter turbidity. When a freshwater stream or river enters a saltwater estuary, the change in water flow can cause turbidity levels
16
to increase. This mixing area is often called a turbidity maximum zone . These zones tend to have little aquatic vegetation due to the high
suspended solids concentrations. Estuaries are often subject to tidal influences as well, which can pull in sand and sediment from the shoreline and
16
resuspended bottom sediments .
59 / 80
7/28/2015
Turbid rivers can carry their suspended sediments into the ocean. Photo Credit: NASA Visible Earth, via USGS
Point-Source Pollution
34
If pollution can be tracked to a single, identifiable source, it is considered point-source pollution . Point-source pollution can increase turbidity
through the addition of suspended solids and colored effluent (wastewater) to a body of water. For water quality, common examples include
33
discharge pipes from factories and wastewater treatment plants. In addition, farms can also fall under the category of point-source pollution .
These sources can release harmful pathogens (bacteria) and chemicals into the water, in addition to suspended solids.
Many factories, wastewater treatment plants, and sewage treatment plants
discharge effluent into local water bodies or sewer systems. Sometimes this
33
water is treated or filtered before it is discharged, but sometimes it is not .
The EPA has created several guidelines for effluent discharge, but they are all
based on the technology used, and not the final impact on the local water
32
body . While most wastewater treatment plants include a settling period in
13
the treatment process, this does not affect colloidal (nonsettleable) solids .
When this wastewater is discharged, these suspended solids may still be
present unless treated with additional filters. In addition, colored effluent
cannot be trapped by a filter. While dyes and colored dissolved organic
material (CDOM) are not included in a suspended solids measurement, they
will contribute to turbidity readings due to their effects on light absorption.
Here is an example of point source pollution. Photo Credit: NOAA Ocean
Farms that are identified as point sources often allow fertilizer and animal
Service
waste to enter local bodies of water. Most agricultural pollution is due to
runoff, and not a specific discharge. While this runoff is not intentional, it can
33
be detrimental to water quality as these pollutants are untreated . Animal wastes can increase pathogen concentrations in the water, while the
fertilizer can contribute to eutrophication and excessive algal growth.
Land Use
A major factor in increased turbidity and total suspended solids
concentrations is due to land use. Construction, logging, mining and other
disturbed sites have an increased level of exposed soil and decreased
17
vegetation . Agricultural areas are also considered disturbed areas after they
18
are tilled . Land development, whether it is agricultural or construction,
disturbs and loosens soil, increasing the opportunities for runoff and erosion
15
. The loosened soils caused by these sites can then be carried away by wind
and rain to a nearby body of water.
This leads to an increase in runoff rates, causing erosion and increased
6
turbidity in local streams and lakes . Settleable solids in the runoff can be
deposited on the bottom of a lake, river or ocean, damaging benthic habitats
15
. Erosion due to land use is considered a non-point source of turbidity. The
use of silt fences and sedimentation basins at construction sites can prevent
13
soils from reaching nearby water sources .
Construction sites loosen soil that could run off into a body of water.
Photo Credit: NCDOTcommunications via Flickr
In addition to increasing turbidity levels through suspended sediment,

agricultural runoff often includes nutrients as well. Due to the presence of
9
these nutrients, this runoff can fuel the growth of algal blooms . These effects can be seen in local streams, lakes, and even estuaries like the
Chesapeake Bay. Water quality can be affected anywhere that these nutrients and sediments are carried. No-till farming practices can reduce the
13
potential for erosion and help maintain nearby water quality .
Sediment- and pollutant-filled runoff can also occur in urban areas. When it
rains, soil, tire particles, debris and other solids can get washed into a water
17
system . This often occurs at a high flow rate due to the amount of
impervious surface areas (e.g. roads and parking lots). Water cannot
17
penetrate these surfaces, so sediment cannot settle out . Instead, the
stormwater runoff flows right over the pavement, carrying the suspended
solids with it. Even in areas with storm drains, these drains usually lead directly
21
to a local water source without filtration . To minimize the pollution and
turbidity caused by urban runoff, stormwater retention ponds can be
13
60 / 80
7/28/2015
13
constructed . These basins allow suspended particles to settle before water

28
drains downstream .
Urban runoff flushes contaminants such as sediment, asphalt and tire
particles. Photo Credit: Robert Lawton via W ikimedia Commons
Resuspension
17
Even carp and other bottom-feeding fish can contribute to increased turbidity levels . As they remove vegetation, sediment can become
resuspended in the water. Sediment at the bottom of a body of water can be stirred up by shifting water flow, bottom-feeding fish, and
anthropogenic causes such as dredging. Dredging projects, which remove built-up sediment in navigation channels, are a major source of
3
resuspended sediments in the surrounding water . Dredging can cause high turbidity levels as it disturbs large amounts of settled sediment in a
relatively short period of time. These stirred-up particles are mostly silt and sand. When they resettle, they can alter habitats, smother fish eggs and
suffocate bottom-dwelling organisms.
Dredging project underway at Kings Lake. Photo Credit: Biswarup Ganguly via W ikimedia Commons
TSS and Turbidity Units

18
Total suspended solids, as a measurement of mass are reported in milligrams of solids per liter of water (mg/L) . Suspended sediment is also
36
44
measured in mg/L . The most accurate method of determining TSS is by filtering and weighing a water sample . This is often time consuming and
44
difficult to measure accurately due to the precision required and the potential for error due to the fiber filter .
Turbidity, on the other hand, is most often measured with a turbidity meter. Turbidity is reported in units called a Nephelometric Turbidity Unit
6
(NTU), or a Jackson Turbidity Unit (JTU) . The JTU was the original turbidity unit based on the visibility of candlelight in a tube (Jackson Candle
43
Turbidimeter) . However, this method is considered out of date and inaccurate in comparison to newer methods.
20
While some organizations consider the two units to be approximately equal, there are some specific differences . In particular, NTU is more precise
43
and has a wider range (JTU cannot measure above 25 JTU/NTU) . In addition NTU is the standard unit of many broadband output (400-680 nm
wavelength) turbidit meters. Nephelometric refers to the measurement technology used. This technology method requires the photodetector in the
14
meter to be placed at a 90 degree angle from the illumination source . As light bounces off the suspended particles, the photodetector can
measure the scattered light.
The USGS also suggests the use of the Formazin Nephelometric Unit (FNU) if a turbidity meter only has a monochrome/infrared output, as opposed
14
to the white/broadband output . This applies to instruments that are in compliance with the European drinking-water protocol, including most
34
submersible turbidity meters . Both NTU and FNU will show equal measurements when calibrating as they both use nephelometric technology, but
14
may operate differently in the field due to the different light source . Turbidity meters that use FNU units are able to compensate for dissolved
14
colored materials (such as humic stain), while NTU turbidity meters cannot .
1
Water clarity, when not measured in terms of turbidity, is measured by Secchi depth . This measurement is based on the depth that a black and
white Secchi disc can be lowered into a body of water. At the point visibility is lost, the depth of the disc is recorded, and is known as the Secchi
16
depth . High Secchi depths correspond with low turbidity levels, while low Secchi depths are associated with high levels of suspended solids. This
method is generally only useful in oceans, lakes and deep, low-flow rivers. In marine environments, a larger solid white disc is often used, while some
39
shallower lakes use a black disc and take a horizontal measurement .
61 / 80
7/28/2015
Secchi discs are used to measure water clarity. Photo Credit:

Minnesota Pollution Control Agency via NASA
Due to the effects of salt on suspended sediment, ocean clarity is often much higher than lake or river clarity. Most Secchi disc records reach around
39
10
65-80 m . Water clarity has a theoretical limit of 200 m, based on light penetration and calculations with distilled and ultrapure water . However,
most Secchi discs are not large enough to be seen at that depth.
38
In shallower streams, a Secchi tube can be used . A Secchi tube is usually one meter long and is filled with collected water. A small Secchi disc is
38
then lowered into the tube and read at the point of disappearance, just as it is in a larger body of water .
Turbidity Meters and Measurements

Regardless of whether readings are in NTU, FNU or other less common units, it is important to note that a turbidimeters optical design will affect
14
turbidity readings . As turbidity is a measurement of light scatter, the placement and designs of the detectors with the meter can influence the
readings. This simply means that raw data from two different turbidity meters cannot be directly compared without an established relationship
14
between them . Turbidity readings can vary based on wavelengths emitted, light source instability, high particle density or due to the presence of
14
colored dissolved or suspended material. The more detectors present in a turbidimeter, the less variability there will be in measurements .
Typical Levels
In most situations, a total suspended solids concentration below 20 mg/L appears clear, while levels over
13
40 mg/L may begin to appear cloudy . In comparison, a turbidity reading below 5 NTU appears clear,
while a reading of 55 NTU will start to look cloudy and a reading over 500 NTU will appear completely
2
opaque .
It is important to note that this is dependent on the size and nature of the suspended solids. Typical
turbidity and TSS levels are difficult to quantify due to their natural variation by season, local geology,
water flow and weather events. During a low-flow period, most rivers and lakes are fairly clear with a
turbidity reading below 10 NTU. These readings can easily jump into the hundreds due to runoff during
1
a rainstorm, snowmelt or a dredging project .
At 5 NTU, water still appears clear. It is

cloudy at 55 NTU and opaque at 515 NTU.
Photo Credit: USGS
Turbidity will often spike annually due to spring rains and snow melt.
10
In general, marine environments have lower turbidity levels than freshwater sources . The salinity of the ocean or estuary will cause the the
10
suspended solids to aggregate, or combine. As the aggregate weight increases, the solids begin to sink and will settle on the seafloor . This effect
10
offers greater water clarity than is available in most lakes and rivers. The higher the salinity, the greater the effect . However, in tidal zones, a
16
turbidity maximum may occur due to the constant resuspension of these settled solids . Freshwater sources may also carry out additional
suspended particles into the delta.
62 / 80
7/28/2015
Saltwater is typically clearer than freshwater.
As the concentrations of total suspended solids are difficult to measure and predict, most states do not have a set standard. Even the National
3
Academy of Sciences only recommends that TSS should not reduce light penetration by more than 10% . Kentucky does not have a
quantitative standard for acceptable levels of total suspended solids. Instead, they simply state that there should be no adverse affects to the body
3
13
of water or its inhabitants . Michigan is another example of a state with only a narrative standard for total suspended solids and turbidity . There
is no set level or concentration, only a recommendation against unnatural physical properties (e.g. turbidity, color, films, floating or suspended solids)
13
in injurious quantities .
Instead, many countries and organizations have established recommended turbidity levels from a baseline of
prior measurements. In the case of drinking water, recommended levels are based on several filtration and
31
disinfection studies The Ireland EPA advises treatment plants to have turbidity levels below 0.2 NTU, with a
31
mandatory maximum of 1 NTU for drinking water . According to the World Health Organization, water for
human consumption should have turbidity levels below 1 NTU, though for some regions, up to 5 NTU is
19,20
allowed if it can be proven to be disinfected
. The American Water Works Association suggests that a level
19
of 5 NTU or lower is acceptable for recreation purposes . As a state example, the North Carolina code allows
up to 10 NTU for trout waters, 25 NTU for non-trout streams and as high as 50 NTU for non-trout lakes.
Other states have determined allowable fluctuations from an established baseline. The state of Washington
does not have a standard for TSS, but it does for turbidity, depending on the body of water. In some
streams, turbidity cannot increase by more than 5 NTU from the baseline. For others, turbidity may be
6
allowed to fluctuate by up to 20% .
Drinking water should have less than 5
NTU, preferably less than 1 NTU and
ideally below 0.1 NTU.

2
In addition to to being a warning sign for pollution, suspended solids can harbor pathogens such as bacteria and protozoa . These microorganisms
2
attach to the suspended particles, aiding in their transportation and hiding them from disinfectants . These pathogens can infect aquatic or human
life if the sediment is not removed.
Algal Blooms
Algal blooms, while initially increasing dissolved oxygen levels,
42
may create hypoxic conditions as they decompose . When an
algal bloom appears, it blocks sunlight from reaching any
submerged vegetation, killing those plants and decreasing the
amount of dissolved oxygen produced. Then, when the bloom
dies off, microbes consume more oxygen as they decompose
the organic material. This causes dissolved oxygen levels to
plummet even lower, creating hypoxic (low DO) or even anoxic
(no DO) conditions.
Furthermore, some blooms produce toxins that are damaging
16
to aquatic and human life . These harmful algal blooms include
cyanobacteria, red tide (Karenia brevis) and ciguartera
27
(gambierdiscus toxicus) .
Settleable Solids
As this graph shows, the appearance of an algal bloom results in a dramatic dissolved
oxygen decrease shortly thereafter.
Settleable solids can impair lakes and other water bodies. If

37
sedimentation rates are high, they can alter and often destroy fish habitats and spawning beds . If eggs or benthic organisms are present, they
can become buried by the sediment and die. Sediment deposition can reduce egg and embryo survival by reducing oxygen supply and crusting
37
over the egg, preventing the embryo from escaping .
63 / 80
7/28/2015
24
As sediment build-up increases, the shallower body of water means an increased risk of flooding and a decrease in navigability for boats and ships .
Dredging projects attempt to remove excessive sediment deposits from navigation channels, but this can be just as damaging to the local fish
habitats and spawning beds.
Turbidity
High turbidity levels can diminish visibility and often feeding behaviors, in addition to physically harming aquatic life. The suspended solids may disrupt
13
the natural movements and migrations of aquatic populations . Fish that rely on sight and speed to catch their prey are especially affected by high
37
turbidity levels. These fish often flee areas of high turbidity for new territories . For the fish that remain in the turbid environment, suspended
37
sediment can begin to physically affect the fish. Fine sediment can clog fish gills and lower an organisms resistance to disease and parasites . Some
fish may consume suspended solids, causing illness and exposing the fish to potential toxins or pathogens on the sediment. If the consumed
37
sediment does not kill the fish, it can alter the organisms blood chemistry and impair its growth .
16
Turbidity will also affect submerged plant growth. Levels over 15 NTU are considered detrimental to bay grass growth in estuary zones . As
turbidity increases, the amount of light available to submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV) decreases. Without enough light, photosynthesis will stop,
and the SAV will no longer produce dissolved oxygen. In addition to reducing the dissolved oxygen concentration in the water, the plants will
40
13
eventually die . As the aquatic vegetation dies off, the organisms that feed on it will also decline due to the reduced food sources available . If
37
turbidity levels remain elevated, the effects can be seen up the food chain .
40
Even aquatic life that does not strongly depend on vegetation for survival will be affected by the low dissolved oxygen levels . If these fish and
invertebrate cannot escape the anoxic area, they will die.
Cite this work:

Kemker, Christine. Turbidity, Total Suspended Solids and Water Clarity. Fundamentals of Environmental Measurements. Fondriest Environmental,
Inc. 13 Jun. 2014. Web. < http://www.fondriest.com/environmental-measurements/parameters/water-quality/turbidity-total-suspended-solidswater-clarity/ >.
Additional information:
Turbidity Measurement Methods
Turbidity Meters
Applications
References
W ater Temperature
2 COMMENTS
Another example of why centering predictors can be good idea - Statistical Modeling, Causal Inference, and Social Science Statistical
Modeling, Causal Inference, and Social Science
[] I google-imaged algal turbidity and found the above pretty picture, which is on a webpage with a full discussion of turbidity. Surprisingly
interesting []
FEBRUARY 19, 2015 AT 2:14 PM
Turbidity in water | Floop Waters: blog
[] http://www.fondriest.com/environmental-measurements/parameters/water-quality/turbidity-total-suspend… []
NOVEMBER 30, 2014 AT 3:40 PM
Parameters
Hydrology
Water Quality

64 / 80
7/28/2015

Dissolved Oxygen
pH of Water
Water Temperature

References
Most Popular Turbidity Meter

Get Discount Code

65 / 80
Water Temperature - Environmental Measurement Systems
7/28/2015
Water Temperature
SHARE
13
26
112
Chapter Overview
What is Water Temperature?
Why the Temperature of Water is Important
Aquatic Life
Compound Toxicity
Dissolved Oxygen Impact
Conductivity Impact
Oxidation Reduction Potential Impact
pH Impact
Water Density and Water Temperature
Freshwater
Saltwater
Ice Formation
Thermal Stratification
The Effect of Pressure
What Factors Influence Temperature?
Sunlight/Solar Radiation
Atmospheric Temperature
http://www.fondriest.com/environmental-measurements/parameters/water-quality/water-temperature/
66 / 80
7/28/2015
Turbidity
Confluence
Man-made Influences
Typical Temperature Levels
Unique Conditions
The Importance of Monitoring
Units of Temperature
Temperature Measurement Methods
Thermometers and Thermistors
Applications
What is Water Temperature?

Water temperature is a physical property expressing how hot or cold water is. As hot and cold are both arbitrary terms, temperature can further be
5
defined as a measurement of the average thermal energy of a substance . Thermal energy is the kinetic energy of atoms and molecules, so
5
temperature in turn measures the average kinetic energy of the atoms and molecules . This energy can be transferred between substances as the
flow of heat. Heat transfer, whether from the air, sunlight, another water source or thermal pollution can change the temperature of water.
W ater temperature plays a major role in the quality of aquatic life and habitats. Heat flow and the fluctuation of temperature determine what species will live and
thrive in a body of water.
15
Water temperature has been defined as the abiotic master factor by JR Brett due to its effect on aquatic organisms . What does that mean for
lakes, rivers and oceans?
Why the Temperature of Water is Important

Temperature is an important factor to consider when assessing water quality. In addition to its
own effects, temperature influences several other parameters and can alter the physical and
chemical properties of water. In this regard, water temperature should be accounted for when
7
determining :
Metabolic rates and photosynthesis production
Compound toxicity
Dissolved oxygen and other dissolved gas concentrations
Conductivity and salinity
Oxidation reduction potential (ORP)
pH
Water Density
W ater temperature affects nearly every other water

quality parameter.
Water Temperature and Aquatic Life
67 / 80
7/28/2015
Considered alone, water temperature can affect the metabolic rates and biological
14
activity of aquatic organisms . As such, it influences the chosen habitats of a variety
8
of aquatic life . Some organisms, particularly aquatic plants flourish in warmer
8
temperatures, while some fishes such as trout or salmon prefer colder streams .
Studies have shown a
direct relationship
between metabolic
rates and water
temperature. This
occurs as many
cellular enzymes are
more active at higher
Coho, or silver, salmon prefer cold rivers and streams. Photo
18
credit: NOAA Photo Library via Flickr
temperatures . For
most fish, a 10C
increase in water
temperature will
The metabolic rates of aquatic organisms increase as the water
approximately double
temperature increases.
the rate of
physiological function
16
. This increase in metabolic rate can be handled by some species better than others. Increased metabolic function can be noticed in respiration
rates and digestive responses in most species. Increased respiration rates at higher temperatures lead to increased oxygen consumption, which can
be detrimental if rates remain raised for an extended period of time. Furthermore, temperatures above 35C can begin to denature, or breakdown,
18
enzymes, reducing metabolic function .
Temperature fluctuations can also affect the behavior choices of aquatic organisms, such as moving to warmer or cooler water after feeding,
16
predator-prey responses and resting or migrating routines . Some species of sharks and stingrays will even seek out warmer waters when pregnant
16
.
Plants are also affected by water temperature. While some aquatic plants tolerate cooler waters, most
17
prefer warmer temperatures . Tropical plants in particular will show restricted growth and dormancy in
17
water temperatures below 21C . While dormancy is appropriate for surviving a cold winter, warmer
temperatures are required for most plants to flourish.
Temperature can also inhibit plant
14
respiration and photosynthesis . In
general, algal photosynthesis will increase
Tropical aquatic plants prefer warmer water with temperature, though different
species will have different peak
temperatures.
temperatures for optimum
14
photosynthetic activity . Above and
below this temperature, photosynthesis will be reduced.
Compound Toxicity and Water Temperature

1
In addition to its effects on aquatic organisms, high water temperatures can increase the solubility and thus toxicity of certain compounds . These
19,20
elements include heavy metals such as cadmium, zinc and lead as well as compounds like ammonia
. Water temperature can not only increase
19
the solubility of toxic compounds, but it can also influence an organisms tolerance limit . Mortality rates for zinc are significantly higher at
19
temperatures above 25C than at temperatures below 20C . This occurs because tissue permeability, metabolic rate and oxygen consumption all
19
increase with increased water temperature . In one study on labeo bata fish, the 24 hour 50% lethal concentration (LC50) at 15C was 540 mg/L,
19
while at 30C, the LC50 dropped to 210 mg/L .
Ammonia is known for its toxicity at high pH levels, but temperature can also
21
influence acute and chronic criteria concentrations . At low temperatures and a
neutral pH, the following equation remains shifted to the left, producing the
nontoxic ammonium ion:
NH3 + H2O <=> NH4+ + OHHowever, for every 10C increase in temperature, the ratio of unionized ammonia
21
to ammonium doubles . In 2013, the EPA determined that the criterion maximum
concentration for freshwater species is 17 mg/L Total-Ammonia-Nitrogen (including
both NH3 and NH4+) due to its potential jump in toxicity at a higher pH and
21
temperature .
W ater temperature can play a role in the shift between ammonium

68 / 80
7/28/2015
and ammonia in water.
Dissolved
Oxygen
and Water
Dissolved oxygen concentrations are dependent on temperature.

The warmer the water, the less oxygen that it can hold.
Temperature
9
The solubility of oxygen and other gases will decrease as temperature increases . This means that colder lakes and streams can hold more dissolved
oxygen than warmer waters. If water is too warm, it will not hold enough oxygen for aquatic organisms to survive.
Conductivity and Water Temperature

Water temperature can affect conductivity in two ways. As conductivity is measured by the electrical potential of ions in solution, it is affected by the
11
concentration, charge and mobility of those ions .
13
Ionic mobility is dependent on viscosity, which is in turn dependent on temperature . Viscosity

23
refers to a liquids ability to resist flow . The more viscous it is, the less fluid it is; molasses and
mercury are more viscous than water. The inverse relationship between temperature and
14
viscosity means that an increase in temperature will decrease viscosity . A decrease in the
viscosity of water increases the mobility of ions in water. As such, an increase in temperature
11
thus increases conductivity .
Conductivity increases approximately 2-3% per 1C increase in temperature, though in pure
11
water it will increase approximately 5% per 1C . This variation is why many professionals use
a standardized comparison of conductivity, known as specific conductance, that is temperature
10
corrected to 25C .
Hot springs have high conductivity due to the increased

mineral and salt ions. Photo Credit: Chris 73 via
W ikimedia Commons.
The second way that temperature can

W ater temperature affects viscosity, which in turn
affect conductivity is through ionic
affects ionic activity and conductivity.
concentration. Many salts are more
22
soluble at higher temperatures . As a
salt dissolves, it breaks down into its respective ions. As warm water can dissolve several
9
minerals and salts more easily than cold water, the ionic concentration is often higher . The
increased mineral and ion content can be noticed in natural hot springs, which tout their
50
healing abilities . These dissolved solutes are often referred to as Total Dissolved Solids, or
12
24
TDS . TDS refers to all ion particles in solution that are smaller than 2 microns . These salts
and minerals enter the water from rocks and sediment in contact with it. As they dissolve and
the ionic concentration increases, so will the conductivity of water.
The rate at which conductivity

increases is dependent on the salts
22
present in solution . The solubility of KCl will increase from 28g KCl/ 100g H2O at 0C to 56
g KCl/ 100g H20 at 100C, while the solubility of NaCl only increases from 35.6g to 38.9g
NaCl/100g H20 over the same temperature range. In addition, there are a few salts that
22
become less soluble at warmer temperatures, and thus will negatively affect conductivity .
Oxidation Reduction Potential and Water Temperature

69 / 80
7/28/2015
Many salts are more soluble at higher temperatures.
Oxidation
Reduction Potential,
known as ORP, is
also temperature
dependent. The
effect that
temperature has on
ORP values
depends on the
chemical species
(atoms, molecules
and ions) present in
25
W ater temperature affects ORP, but to what extent is difficult to define in
the solution .
the field. The redoxing species in calibration solutions are quantitatively
Temperatureknown, and thus temperatures effect can be measured.
dependence data
charts are usually
25
available for calibration solutions, but not for field samples .
This lack of data is due to the difficulty in identifying and measuring every redoxing species that could be present in any given water source. As
these species are difficult to know and quantitatively define in environmental studies, most ORP electrodes will not automatically compensate for
26
temperature. However, temperature can still alter a reading and should be recorded with each measurement considered when analyzing the data .
pH and Water Temperature

pH is calculated by the number of hydrogen ions in solution. At a pH of 7, the hydrogen and hydroxyl
27
ions have equal concentrations, 1 x 10-7 M, keeping the solution neutral . However, these
concentrations only hold true at 25C. As the temperature increases or decreases, the ion
27
concentrations will also shift, thus shifting the pH value . This response is explained by Le Chateliers
Principle. Any change to a system at equilibrium, such as adding a reactant or altering the
28
temperature, will shift the system until it reaches equilibrium again .
The equation:
H20 H+ + OH28
is an exothermic reaction . That means if the temperature of water increases, the equation will shift
to the left to reach equilibrium again. A shift to the left decreases the ions in water, increasing the pH.
Likewise, if the temperature were to decrease, the equation would shift to the right, increasing the ionic
concentration and decreasing pH.
However, that does not mean that
temperature changes will make a solution
more acidic or basic. Because the ratio of
hydrogen and hydroxyl ions remains the
same, the acidity of water does not
28
change with temperature . Instead, the
entire pH range shifts, so that neutral
water will have a value other than 7. Pure
water will remain neutral at 0C (pH is
7.47), 25C. (pH is 7.00) or 100C. (pH is
6.14).
W ater temperature can alter the number ions

present, changing the pH of the solution
without making it more acidic or basic.
The pH of pure water varies with temperature while remaining

perfectly neutral. Pure water only has a pH of 7.0 at 25
degrees Celsius.
Density and Water Temperature

Water temperature and water density are directly related. As the temperature of water increases or decreases, it will alter the density of water. This is
29
a unique relationship in that unlike most materials, the density of pure water decreases approximately 9% when it freezes . This is why ice expands
29
and floats on water. Pure water is also unique in that it achieves its maximum density, 1.00 g/ml, at 4C . Water at temperatures above and below
this, including superheated and supercooled water, will float on 4C water.
70 / 80
7/28/2015
Icebergs are an extreme example of how ice floats on top of water. Photo Credit NOAAs National Ocean Service via Flickr
Freshwater Temperature Points

The maximum density point is
particularly important in
freshwater. If water was most
dense at its freezing point (0
C) then it would sink to the
bottom, freezing a body of
water from the bottom up,
killing all of the organisms
29
living within it . Instead, this
property ensures that the
bottom of a body of water will W ater freezes from the surface down, allowing
remain at least 4C, and thus
organisms to survive the winter below the ice cover.
30
unfrozen . The
temperature/density
W ater is most dense at 4 degrees Celsius, and least dense in its
relationship thus creates a water convection pattern as it cools. As surface water
temperature approaches the maximum density temperature, it sinks and is replaced solid form as ice.
42
by warmer, lighter water . This process continues until the water is uniformly cool.
Any water that is colder than this point will float on top of the denser water. This convection pattern allows water both warmer and colder than 4C
30
(and at potentially different dissolved oxygen concentrations) to intermix . This process occurs seasonally in holomictic (mixing) lakes, as the water
14
temperature (and thus other parameters) reach equilibrium .
Saltwater Temperature Points

It is important to note that salinity not only affects water density but it can shift the
maximum density and freezing points of water. As the salt concentration increases,
14
both maximum density and the freezing point will decrease . Average seawater has
a salinity level of 35 PPT (parts per thousand) and has a shifted maximum density of
14
-3.5C . This is more than a 7 difference from freshwater and is below seawaters
14
39
freezing point of 1.9C . However, this maximum density is never reached .
Instead, the process on convection simply circulates the cooling water until the
42
entire surface water column reaches the freezing point . As the phase boundary
between liquid and solid requires the proper pressure as well as temperature, ice only
30
beings to form on the surface .
The coldest recorded natural seawater temperature was -2.6C, recorded beneath
38
an Antarctic glacier . Likewise, the coldest ocean currents recorded were -2.2C at
a depth of 500 m. In both cases, hydrostatic pressures allowed water to remain
38
liquid at such cold temperatures .
Freezing point and maximum density decrease as salinity levels

increase.
71 / 80
7/28/2015
Ice Formation
It is common knowledge that freshwater begins to freeze at 0C. Salt water, however, has a lower freezing point. That is why salt is used in winter to
14
de-ice roads and sidewalks. Average seawater has a salinity level of 35 PPT (parts per thousand), which shifts the freezing point to -1.9C .
The density of pure water ice at 0C is 0.9168 g/ml, nearly 9% lighter than liquid water at 0C, which has a density
14
of 0.99987 g/ml . That does not sound like a large difference, but it is enough to keep ice floating on top of water
and allows aquatic organisms to survive the winter. This drop in density occurs because the hydrogen bonds in
42
water create an open hexagonal lattice, leaving space between the molecules .
40
Ice floats on top of the denser

water.
Ice formed in seawater is even less dense than freshwater ice . When saltwater begins to freeze, the water
molecules begin to form a crystal lattice (just like they do in freshwater). These crystals only include water molecules,
43
not salt ions, and the formation is known as brine exclusion . As the ice structure grows, pockets of concentrated
saltwater can be trapped inside the ice, but are not incorporated into its structure. The trapped water can eventually
drain, leaving a small air bubble in the ice. The air bubbles left behind reduce ice density significantly down to 0.840
0.9 g/ml .
New sea ice can taste salty due to the trapped brine that has
not yet escaped. Older ice structures, called multiyear ice, have no brine left and are fresh
41
enough to drink once melted .
The temperature/density relationship also contributes to stratification.
Thermal Stratification
Multiyear ice in Antarctica is fresher than new sea ice.

Photo credit ICESCAPE via NASA
Stratification is the division

of a water column into
strata, or layers, of water
with different properties.
These divisions are usually
defined by temperature
and density, though other
parameters such as salinity
and chemical distinctions
31
can also be used .
Stratification occurs
because work (force and
displacement) is required to
mix liquids of different
Thermal image of Ice Lakes stratification over a 22 month period. The
14
lake mixes every spring and fall, realigning the temperature
densities . Thermal
throughout
the lake. The thermocline exists at different depths
stratification is usually
depending
on
the season.
seasonal, with clear
delineations between layers
during the summer, narrower layers in winter, and a turnover in the spring and fall when temperature is fairly uniform throughout the water
32
32
column . As seasons progress, sunlight, wind, ambient temperature and ice (in winter) cause the lake to restratify .
When referring to temperature and density strata within a lake, the layers are usually called the
14
epilimnion, metalimnion and hypolimnion from top to bottom . The upper layer, the epilimnion, is
exposed to solar radiation and thermal contact with the atmosphere, keeping it warmer. The epilimnion
will extend as far as sunlight and wind will allow, and is usually deeper in lakes with greater surface areas
14
.
Below the epilimnion is a layer of water with a rapidly changing temperature range known as the
32
metalimnion . The metalimnion serves as the boundary between the upper and lower layers of water.
14
The temperature in this strata can vary greatly between its top and bottom depths . In addition, the
14
metalimnion can fluctuate in thickness and depth due to weather conditions and seasonal changes .
The metalimnion is bordered on both top and bottom by an edge called the thermocline. The
14
thermocline is defined as the plane of maximum temperature decrease . In other words, when the
water temperature begins to significantly drop, the thermocline has been crossed. This plane is generally
14
accepted as the depth at which temperature decreases at a rate greater than 1C per meter . As
temperature and density are related, a second cline, known as a pycnocline exists at the same depths.
33
72 / 80
7/28/2015
33
The pycnocline divides water column strata by density .

Below the second thermocline and pycnocline is the hypolimnion. This strata is usually too deep to be
31
affected by wind, solar radiation and atmospheric heat exchanges . The temperature of the
hypolimnion is usually determined by the spring turnover. In deeper lakes, the mixing can be minimal
14
and the hypolimnion will remain near maximum density, or 4C . Shallower lakes may be able to raise
the temperature of the hypolimnion to over 10C. This temperature may only change minimally, if at all,
14
while stratified .
14
Lakes that completely mix at least once per year are known as holomictic lakes . There are six types of
holomictic lakes, with definitions based on average temperature and how frequently temperatures align
14
. These lakes and their dividing factors can be seen in this flow diagram:
Lake stratification the different layers are

separated by thermoclines, or temperature
gradients.
A flowchart of Hutchinson and Lofflers classification of lakes based on stratification and circulation patterns.
14
Lakes that do not mix completely are called meromictic lakes . These lakes have a lower strata that remains isolated throughout the year. This
bottom layer is known as the monimolimnion, and is usually divided from the collective layers above it (mixolimnion) by a halocline (salinity-based
31
cline) . Meromictic conditions can occur in a holomictic lake when unusual weather conditions cause the lake to stratify before it has time to
14
completely mix .
Pressure and Water Temperature Points

Pressure does not directly alter water temperature. Instead, it shifts the freezing, boiling and maximum density points. The temperature at which
3
boiling and freezing occur will only hold true at sea level .
As warned in some recipes, cooking times are longer at higher elevations, due to a shift
in waters boiling point. This is due to the effect of atmospheric pressure. At a lower
pressure (higher altitude), water will boil at a lower temperature. On the other side of the
scale, at higher pressures (such as in a pressure cooker), water will boil at a higher
34
temperature . Atmospheric pressure does not affect the temperature of the water
itself, but only its ability to become vapor, thus shifting the boiling to the left or right.
Pressure also explains why ice only forms at the waters surface. As the hydrostatic
30
pressure increases, the freezing point lowers . At high elevations (lower pressure), there
is a slight increase in the freezing point, but the change in pressure is not enough to
30
significantly affect the point .
Pressure can change the boiling point of water.
What Factors Influence Water Temperature?

Water temperature can be affected by many ambient conditions. These elements include sunlight/solar radiation, heat transfer from the
37
atmosphere, stream confluence and turbidity. Shallow and surface waters are more easily influenced by these factors than deep water .
Sunlight
36
45
73 / 80
7/28/2015
36
45
The greatest source of heat transfer to water temperature is from sunlight . Sunlight, or solar radiation, is a form of thermal energy . This energy
44
is then transferred to a waters surface as heat, increasing the temperature of the water. This heat transfer is due to waters relatively low albedo .
Albedo is the determined quality of a surfaces ability to reflect or absorb sunlight. Waters low albedo means that it absorbs more energy than it
44
reflects . The result is a daily fluctuation in water temperature based on the amount of sunlight received by the water.
If a body of water is deep enough to stratify, sunlight will only transfer heat
through the photic zone (light-reaching). Most of this energy (greater than
14
half) is absorbed in the first 2 m of the water . This energy will continue to be
absorbed exponentially until the light is gone. The photic zone varies in depth
46
but can be up to 200 m deep in the oceans . The depth of the photic zone is
based on the amount of solids and other light-scattering elements present in
the water. The temperature of water below the photic zone is generally only
37
altered when the water is mixed . Thus shallower bodies of water tend to
1
warm quicker and reach higher temperatures than deeper water bodies .
Solar radiation is the greatest influence on water temperature.
Atmosphere
Atmospheric heat transfer occurs at the waters surface. As heat always flows from a higher
6
temperature to a lower temperature, this transfer can go both ways . When the air is cold,
warm water will transfer energy to the air and cool off. This conduction can often be seen as
14
fog or a steaming river . If the air is hot, cold water will receive the energy and warm up.
14
The extent of this transfer is based on the thermal inertia and specific heat of water . Water
14
temperature fluctuations are more gradual than air temperature fluctuations .
Rivers can appear to steam in winter when colder air

flows over the warmer water. Photo Credit: Anthony
DeLorenzo via Flickr
Turbidity
Increased turbidity will also increase
water temperature. Turbidity is the
amount of suspended solids in water.
These suspended particles absorb heat
from solar radiation more efficiently
47
than water . The heat is then
transferred from the particles to water
molecules, increasing the temperature
47
of the surrounding water .
Turbidity monitoring during the Passaic river dredge

project. Turbidity can increase water temperatures.
Confluence
Groundwater, streams and rivers can alter the temperature of the body of
water into which they flow. If a spring or groundwater source is colder than
the river it flows into, the river will become cooler. Recalling the rules of heat
transfer (energy flows from hot to cold), the river loses energy to the cooler
6
water as it warms it up . If the inflow is large or fast enough, the equilibrium
1
temperature of the water will be close to the temperature of the inflow .
Glacial fed streams will keep conjoining rivers cooler near the source of the
1
flow than further downstream .
Man-made Influences
Man-made influences on water
temperature include thermal
pollution, runoff, deforestation
and impoundments.
As the river flows into the lake, it can affect the temperature of the water.
Photo Credit: Roberto Araya Barckhahn via W ikimedia Commons
Thermal Pollution
74 / 80
7/28/2015
Thermal pollution is any

48
discharge that will dramatically alter the temperature of a natural water source . This pollution
1
commonly comes from municipal or industrial effluents . If the temperature of discharge is significantly
warmer than the natural water, it can negatively affect water quality. There are several significant
consequences of thermal pollution, including diminished dissolved oxygen levels, fish kills and influxes
48
of invasive species .
Runoff from parking lots and other impervious surfaces are another form of thermal pollution. Water
that flows off of these surfaces absorb much of their heat and transfer it to a nearby stream or river,
9
elevating the temperature .
Thermal pollution from municipal and industrial

effluents can negatively affect water quality.
Photo credit: Vmenkov via W ikimedia Commons
Deforestation
It is not only manmade additions that can affect water temperature. Water that is shaded by
14
vegetation and other objects will not absorb as much heat as sunlit water . When trees or riparian canopies are removed, a body of water can
48
become unusually warm, altering its natural cycle and habitats .
Impoundments
Impoundments such as dams can drastically affect water temperature cycles. While
a dam does not directly contribute heat to the water, it can affect the natural
9
patterns of water temperature warming and cooling . An operational dam without a
sliding gate assembly can alter the water temperatures downstream of the dam,
which can affect local fish population behaviors.
Shifting the temperature pattern can affect the migration, spawning and hatching of
9
local fish species . The temperature pattern will shift if the reservoir stratifies and the
dam release is too high or too low, releasing unusually cool or unusually warm water
9
into the stream .
Typical Temperatures
The McKenzie dam altered the water temperature pattern

downstream, affecting fish behaviors, particularly reproduction.
Water temperature
can vary from frozen
ice to near boiling, so
what determines a
typical
temperature? Typical
temperatures are
dependent on 1)
type of water body
2) depth 3) season 4)
latitude 5)
surrounding
environment. While a
specific body of water
can have a general
pattern that it follows
annually, there is no
definitive typical
temperature for
water. Even a specific
body of water can
vary due to any of
these sources; a lake
might freeze over
one winter, but it
might not freeze the
following year due to
a warm winter. It
follows the same
Seasonal temperature fluctuations across the US.
warming cooling
pattern both years,
but it does not reach the same temperatures. Any unusual temperatures must be taken in context.
75 / 80
7/28/2015
14
Rivers and streams tend to experience greater, more rapid and temperature fluctuations than lakes and oceans . Likewise broad, shallow lakes will
be warmer than their deeper counterparts. Due to the shifting angle of solar radiation and the effects of atmospheric heat transfer, water
44
temperatures will vary seasonally . As solar radiation is more intense near the equator, water at lower latitudes wills to be warmer than water at
44
higher latitudes . Shaded streams will not be as influenced by solar radiation as their exposed counterparts and can remain cooler. Bodies of water
1
that are influenced by groundwater flow or a glacial fed stream will also be cooler .
51
Oceanic temperatures also vary by season, latitude, depth, ocean currents and convection . Surface water will vary more with season and latitude
53
than deeper waters, and show diurnal (daily) fluctuations due to solar radiation and wind . This diurnal variation can be as great as 6 degrees Celsius
53
14
. Due to its massive size and the high specific heat of water, the ocean has an equally large heat capacity . This means that fluctuations between
51
seasons or due to unusual events will only have a slight impact . Studies have shown the ocean has warmed approximately 0.1 degrees Celsius in
52
the past century . While this number seems small, it is quite considerable in regards to the size of the ocean.
Sea-Surface Temperatures in December, 2013. Image Credit: JPL Regional Ocean Modeling System via NASA
The temperature of the ocean plays an important role in atmospheric conditions across the globe. Hurricanes, cyclones, thunderstorms and other
53
weather events can form depending on the temperature of the ocean . Monsoons can occur when there is a large temperature differential
35
between land and sea, causing cyclical precipitation and storms . Hurricanes and cyclones develop over warm water, where the heat can be rapidly
54
transferred to the air via convection . In a similar vein, lake-effect snow and other heavy precipitation conditions can form when cold air flows over
55
a large, warmer body of water . The ocean also interacts with the atmosphere to create El Nio and La Nia events. El Nio describes the warming
of the Pacific Ocean due to a lack of wind, which alters the depth of the thermocline. This warming in turn affects weather and temperature patterns
35
across the globe . La Nia is the opposite condition of the ocean, where temperatures are cooler than normal, typically with reverse impacts on the
35
weather . These events are irregular, occurring ever 2-7 years. They can last anywhere from 9 months to a couple years, depending on the
35
strength of the episode .
76 / 80
7/28/2015
These maps show surface temperature variations across the Pacific equator. During La Nina conditions, a band of cold water is pushed west along
the equator, while during El Nino conditions, warm temperatures dominate. Image Credit: Dai McClurg, TAO project via NOAA
Unique Conditions
There are some bodies of water with unique temperature levels. The most commonly known
examples are hot springs. Hot springs, also known as hydrothermal springs, are fed by
50
groundwater that is significantly warmer than other flows . These unique waters are warmed
by geothermal heat. This heat transfer can come from groundwater flows that run deep
50
enough into the Earths crust, or that come into contact with magma in volcanic zones . Hot
springs remain much warmer than the ambient ground temperature, with some volcanic hot
50
springs even reaching boiling temperatures .
Other unique water bodies are heliothermic lakes. These lakes are usually saline, meromictic
14
lakes, which means that when they stratify, only the upper layer of the water will mix . As
discussed in the stratification section, the layers are separated by a halocline, with the
The Morning Glory Pool in Yellowstone National Park is
mixolimnion remaining fairly fresh and the lower monimolimnion containing a higher salt
14
an example of a hot spring. Photo Credit: Jon Sullivan
concentration . When this stratification falls within the photic zone, unusual events happen.
Sunlight that reaches the monimolimnion heats the water. This heat cannot escape because
14
the density of the saline lower layer is not significantly affected by increasing temperatures . The result is a heat trap at the halocline, where
14
temperatures can easily reach 50C and higher . Hot Lake in Washington is one example of a heliothermic lake, where the halocline remains near
14
30C even when the lake is covered in ice .
77 / 80
7/28/2015
Water that is too warm is usually considered to be more

dangerous to aquatic life than cold water. However, both can
8
affect growth, disease tolerance and survival rate . Water that is
too cold will affect the biological processes and metabolic rates of
14
aquatic organisms . On the other side of the scale, water that is
too warm can cause excessive respiration rates, stressing fish.
Warm water also cannot hold as much dissolved oxygen as cold
water, so there is less oxygen available for uptake by organisms
14
. Each fish species has its own comfort range. Temperatures
outside of this range can be detrimental to growth and survival.
Salmon and trout prefer to swim in colder rivers, while
largemouth and smallmouth bass can tolerate much warmer
8
waters for both growth and spawning .
Maximum recommended temperature levels for different fish species at various lifetime
stages.
The Importance of Monitoring

So how does one determine water quality with temperature? The EPA and some states, including Alaska, Idaho, Oregon and Washington, have
49
recommended maximum seasonal and regional temperatures . Other states offer no numerical value, and instead state no measurable change
1
from natural conditions . This puts a strong priority on thorough and long-term monitoring. The more historical data that is available, the more
abnormal fluctuations can be detected and addressed. If a lake that normally stratifies year after year around 20C and 8C in the epilimnion and
1
hypolimnion begins reading 23C and 17C respectively, it may be becoming eutrophic (nutrient heavy, often hypoxic) due to agricultural runoff .
Water temperatures impact on a variety of other parameters make it a subtle, but vital, factor in determining water quality.
What are the Units?

As temperature measures thermal energy, scales have been developed to give
temperature values meaning relative to other values. Today, water temperature is
2
commonly measured on one of three scales: Celsius, Fahrenheit or Kelvin . When
using the Celsius or Fahrenheit scales, temperature is measured in degrees. On the
2
Kelvin scale, the unit is a kelvin, but it is the same magnitude as a Celsius degree .
Due to its universal use, water temperature is generally reported on the Celsius
1
scale .
The Fahrenheit and Celsius scales are defined by the degrees at which water
3
freezes and boils . The Celsius scale is also referred to as centigrade because there
is a 100 degree interval between the two defined points (freezing and boiling of
2
2
water) . The Kelvin scale is based on the theoretical point of absolute zero .
A temperature in degrees Celsius can be converted to Fahrenheit or Kelvins by the
3
following equations :
The most common temperature scales: Fahrenheit, Celsius and

Kelvin.
Cite this work:

Kemker, Christine. Water Temperature. Fundamentals of Environmental Measurements. Fondriest Environmental, Inc. 7 Feb. 2014. Web. <
http://www.fondriest.com/environmental-measurements/parameters/water-quality/water-temperature/ >.
Additional Information:
Measurement Methods
Thermometers and Thermistors
References
Applications
78 / 80
7/28/2015
8 COMMENTS
What Would Happen if the Earth Stopped In Its Orbit? | Empirical Zeal
[] increasing water temperature will cause fish to start dying out, because warmer water holds less oxygen and more ammonia (which is
toxic to fish), and because the entire marine food chain would be disrupted and []
MARCH 21, 2015 AT 6:40 AM
Nemos World Tour: When can we expect him in Sydney? | workinginthesea
[] Image 1 Image 3 []
MARCH 14, 2015 AT 12:23 PM
Apa yang Terjadi Jika Bumi Berhenti Berevolusi? | #YourChance
[] Buat hidup di temperatur segini udah impossible kalo gak pake AC. Hewan-hewan tanah pada gak kuat dengan panasnya jadi muncul ke
permukaan dan secara perlahan-lahan mati. Begitu juga dengan insects. Di air, naiknya suhu air laut juga menyebabkan ikan-ikan pada mati
karena air yang hangat mengandung sedikit oksigen dan mengandung lebih banyak amonia. []
JANUARY 2, 2015 AT 4:37 AM
What Would Happen if the Earth Stopped In Its Orbit? | skullweb.org
[] increasing water temperature will cause fish to start dying out, because warmer water holds less oxygen and more ammonia (which is
toxic to fish), and because the entire marine food chain would be disrupted and []
DECEMBER 31, 2014 AT 8:04 PM
What Would Happen if the Earth Stopped In Its Orbit? | Sports News
[] increasing water temperature will cause fish to start dying out, because warmer water holds less oxygen and more toxic ammonia ions,
and because the entire marine food chain would be disrupted and []
What Would Happen if the Earth Stopped In Its Orbit? | PJ Tec - Latest Tech News | PJ Tec - Latest Tech News
[] The increasing water temperature will cause fish to start dying out, because warmer water holds less oxygen and more toxic ammonia
ions, and because the entire marine food chain would be disrupted and []
What Would Happen if the Earth Stopped In Its Orbit? | Nagg
[] increasing water temperature will cause fish to start dying out, because warmer water holds less oxygen and more toxic ammonia[8] ions,
and because the entire marine food chain would be disrupted[9] and []
Indie Game Developer | What Would Happen if the Earth Stopped In Its Orbit?
[] increasing water temperature will cause fish to start dying out, because warmer water holds less oxygen and more toxic ammonia ions,
and because the entire marine food chain would be disrupted and []
Parameters
Hydrology
Water Quality

Dissolved Oxygen
79 / 80
7/28/2015
pH of Water
Water Temperature

References
Most Popular Thermometer

Get Discount Code

80 / 80

Water Quality - Environmental Measurement Systems

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Water Quality - Environmental Measurement Systems

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Water Quality - Environmental Measurement Systems

To search type and hit enter

Sediment Transport and Deposition

Algae, Phytoplankton and Chlorophyll

Water Quality Chapters