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Houston, TX 77204-5006
Tel.: 713-743-5802
Fax: 713-748-7906
E-mail: fhilterman@uh.edu
URL: http://www.geosc.uh.edu/people/faculty/hilterman/index.html
University of California
Berkeley, CA 94720-1716
Tel: 510-643-5834
Fax: 510-642-3805
E-mail: patzek@patzek.berkeley.edu
URL: http://petroleum.berkeley.edu/patzek/index.htm
2
Abstract 3
I. Introduction 4
A. Benefits
VI. References 43
3
Abstract
properties such as the rock permeability and fluid viscosity and also increases the accuracy and
resolution of the imaged reservoir. The seismic attributes are frequency and incident-angle
dependent. The technology also includes target-oriented processing to preserve the frequency
Our confidence in the proposed approach is supported by several facts. First, we have
documented procedures for processing low-frequency seismic reflection data for the accurate
delineation of oil reservoirs. Second, we have recently developed an elastic fluid-flow model
that accounts for the physical phenomena associated with anomalous low-frequency reflectivity.
Besides theoretical calculations, observations from field and laboratory data indicate that
reflectivity is strongly related to reservoir flow properties. Finally, results from target-oriented
processing of wide-angle reflections show increased resolution and image quality of reservoir
opportunity for reservoir characterization regarding the location of the most productive zones
frequency and incident-angle dependent seismic attributes. The proposed work includes
results using field data provided by industrial partners. To accomplish these challenging tasks,
I. Introduction
The Department of Energy has several focus areas for developing technologies relevant to
oil exploration and production. Here, we have a dual proposal to advance the technology of
high-resolution seismic imaging and to advance the prediction of reservoir composition based on
the frequency and angle-dependent analysis of signals associated with oil and/or gas reservoirs.
This proposal is our response to a relatively new and pressing demand for more accurate seismic
quantitatively the effects of liquid and gas hydrocarbon phases, and to evaluate the impact of the
Recently, it has been found that low-frequency seismic signals can be successfully used for
accurate delineation of hydrocarbon reservoirs even in cases of very thin fluid-bearing layers.
The results of such low-frequency seismic imaging were confirmed by drilling and production
data. This frequency dependence of seismic reflections from fluid-saturated porous media has
been detected in different geologic environments, both in field and laboratory experiments.
obtained theoretical results, lead us to the conclusion that new imaging and interpretation
technologies can be developed to improve oil and gas reservoir characterization. In particular,
the flow mechanics between the reservoir rock and fluids, such as the reservoir fluid mobility
will be characterized.
As a means of verifying the technology with real data, processing and interpretation of
seismic data from well-documented oil fields will be an important part of our activity. It will
include interpretation of 3-D seismic data and generation of seismic attributes. The pre-stack
5
(AVO). We will integrate these data to build a geologic reservoir model. The seismic attributes
will be calibrated and validated against the geologic model and reservoir parameters determined
from petrophysical and engineering data. We expect that analysis of frequency-dependent AVO
attributes and low-frequency imaging will lead to more accurate predictions of pore-fluid
A. Benefits
Most U.S. onshore and continental-shelf oil and gas fields are now mature, and new
technologies are needed to extend their production lives. Most large oil companies are focusing
their limited research dollars on the international and deep-water capital-intensive projects.
Onshore exploration and development is increasingly becoming an arena for small independent
oil and gas companies with limited capital and limited experience in developing geophysics-
based technologies. This DOE initiative will enable us to (1) develop new seismic processing
and imaging techniques, (2) calibrate the new frequency-dependent seismic attributes with
geologic and engineering data from intensely drilled West Texas and Gulf of Mexico fields, (3)
develop new tools and methodologies to identify and quantify permeability variation and/or
production rate of hydrocarbons, (4) transfer these new technologies to a wide audience of
independents, and (5) catalyze re-exploitation of important, but mature, onshore U.S. plays.
Two major oil-industry companies are active research participants in this proposal. They are
Shell Oil Company and Fairfield Industries, Inc.; Schlumberger also expressed its interest in the
proposed research.
6
There are numerous laboratory and field examples where low-frequency components of
reflected seismic waves show surprising imaging capabilities. Ironically, such components are
below, this part of the signal contains the most important information about the reservoir.
A. Physical Modeling
and Bakulin, 1998; Goloshubin et al., 2002. The laboratory setup is shown in Fig. 1. A 7 mm-
thick layer of artificial sandstone is squeezed between two thick layers of Plexiglas. Three
different portions of the layer were saturated with different fluids as shown in Figure 1a. An
acoustic signal was generated by a source on the top of the Plexiglas and the reflection was
recorded by a series of receivers. The presence of the fluid-saturated layer is clearly seen as an
anomalously high amplitude and phase shift of the reflected signal. Moreover,
S R
Dry Water Oil Dry Water Oil Dry Water Oil
ℵS S S
Fig. 1 Physical modeling experimental setup (left panel) for porous layer with different fluid content (air,
water, oil) and common offset gather images of reflection from the layer at different frequencies (from
Goloshubin et al., 2002). Note the reflection for liquid-saturated layer dominate at low frequencies with
an increasing phase delay.
7
the oil-saturated part is more visible at very low (~5 kHz) frequencies, whereas water and air
saturated parts are well detected at 15 kHz and 50 kHz, respectively. These observations cannot
be explained by the differences between the layer impedances or by the tuning effect.
B. Field Verification
Now, let us consider three examples of field data processing. In all of them, the
hydrocarbon-rich zones of the reservoir were localized using low-frequency analysis. These
zones were confirmed a posteriori by well-production data. The imaging analysis was
performed without well data. Note that conventional methods of data processing could not
The first example demonstrates that oil-rich zones in natural reservoirs augment reflective
properties at low frequencies. The data for this example were obtained from the Ai-Pim oil field
in the central region of Western Siberia. The log and core measurements in this field indicate the
presence of two types of oil reservoirs. The first oil reservoir is at a depth of 2300 m (twt ~ 1.9 s)
and consists of a 11 – 15 meters thick productive layer (AC11) of coarse sandy Cretaceous
siltstone. Below, there is the second oil reservoir (Ju0), which is 15 – 20 meters thick and
consists of fractured bituminous Jurassic argillites. Conventional processing yielded the seismic
time cross-section shown in Fig. 2a. The seismic section is of high resolution, which makes it
comparison of the seismic cross-section and test results shows no correlation between the
reflective properties of layers AC11 and Ju0, and the character of fluid saturation. Neither the
amplitude nor the shape of the signal changes along the seismic horizon. Fig. 2b shows the
result of low-frequency processing with a wavelet transform of 12 Hz. The oil content of both
8
AC11
a
Ju0
Fig. 2 A seismic line from Ay-Pim Western Siberia oil field was used to image two different types of oil-
saturated reservoirs. The well data indicate that the upper reservoir AC11 consist of an 11-15 m thick
sandstone with varying fluid content. The lower reservoir Ju0 is represented by 15-20 m thick fractured
shale. There is no evident correlation between well content and high-frequency standard seismic imaging
(a). In contrast, the oil-saturated domains of the both sandstone reservoir AC11 and fractured shale
reservoir Ju0 create high amplitude low-frequency (<15 Hz) reflections (b). The data for processing and
analysis are courtesy of Surgutneftegas.
9
strata (AC11 and Ju0) is depicted as an amplitude anomaly in the low-frequency component. It
should be noted that the lithologic properties of strata AC11 and Ju0 are considerably different.
Fig. 2a also shows the locations of the wells, whose production data were used for
verification of the imaging. The black circles depict the intervals of successful oil production,
whereas the white circles mark the intervals where the produced fluid was mostly water. There
is a strong correlation between the locations of the black circles and bright spots on the low-
frequency image Fig. 2b, whereas the locations of the white and black circles are not
In the second example, a 3 km-deep Jurassic sandstone reservoir is investigated (J1, Fig. 3).
The reservoir thickness is approximately 8-10 m with mean porosity of 17-18%. From the 15
available wells, 7 produced oil and 6 produced water. The remaining two wells produced equal
mixture of oil and water. Shown are four calibration wells, three of which (76, 91, 95) produced
oil whereas the fourth one (9) produced water. In a blind test, the data from the other 11 wells
were used only for a posteriori verification of the mapping. Fig. 3 shows a time map of the
Fig. 3 Structural time map of the reservoir surface with location of 4 calibration wells, three of which (76,
91, 95) produce oil whereas the fourth one (9) produces water. Note a poor correlation between medium
structure and fluid.
10
Fig. 4 A blind test of the ability of frequency-dependent processing and interpretation to map the oil-
water contact using the low-frequency part of seismic data. The seismic and well data recorded in Central
Siberia. The seismic image shows the difference of low-frequency reflectivity at 12 Hz to the one at 40
Hz centered frequency, the predicted oil-water contact, and the locations of the calibration wells and the
wells used for testing purposes. (Goloshubin, et al., 2002)
Fig. 4 shows the results of frequency-dependent processing of this dataset. The seismic
imaging map includes the variation of the amplitude of the target reflected wave at a low
frequency (12 Hz) relative to the amplitude of the same wave at a high frequency (40 Hz). The
imaging results predicted the location of oil-water contact. These results were confirmed by the
well data. All wells producing water are outside of the oil-saturated region. The wells with the
highest oil production rate (e.g., wells 91 and 86) are found close to the zones of the high
The third example is based on 3D seismic data from the South Marsh Island oil field in the
Gulf of Mexico. The reservoir is about 3 km deep. It consists of 8-10 m thick sandstone layer of
11
porosity about 0.35. The rock permeability is relatively high, 1-2 Darcy. The low-frequency
analysis was performed “blindly”. The well locations were provided only after the seismic
imaging of the reservoir zones. Even along the same line, the seismic sections of AVO attributes
a b
Fig. 5 The vertical seismic sections present the AVO attributes (intercept x gradient) at both high
frequencies (a) and low frequencies (b). The low frequency (10 Hz) AVO attributes section (b) contains a
bright anomaly at reservoir depth (twt ~ 2.7 s). The seismic and well data are the courtesy of Fairfield
Industries.
There is no visible anomaly displayed in the lower part of the section (Fig. 5a) that
represents conventional AVO attributes. In contrast, the low-frequency (10 Hz) AVO attribute
section (5b) contains a bright anomaly around the reservoir depth (twt ~ 2.7 s.).
Fig. 6 shows an amplitude map of the low frequency AVO attributes along the reservoir
surface. The low-frequency AVO attribute map correlates well with the known production.
12
Fig. 6 Blind test result for the Gulf of Mexico data. The well data indicate that the oil and gas reservoir
consists of an 8-10 m thick sandstone at about 3 km depth with porosity about 0.35 and very high
permeability (1-2 Darcy). 3D seismic data were used for recognition of the reservoir zones and imaging
of the oil saturated areas. The plan view map includes the AVO attributes of low frequency reflectivity at
about 10 Hz. Well data show the reservoir saturation and production activity. The seismic and well data
for processing and interpretation are the courtesy of Fairfield Industries.
C. Theoretical Analysis
The examples presented above clearly demonstrate that anomalously high-reflection signal
at low frequencies cannot be explained with tuning effects. Here we will demonstrate that the
high reflection amplitude from a reservoir layer is a consequence of the diffusive character of the
wave attenuation in that layer. The low value of the quality factor Q for the low-frequency
amplitudes and the phase delays of the low-frequency reflected waves increase in comparison
13
with the high-frequency modes (Korneev et al., 2004). The measured values of Q along with
their diffusion theory approximations are shown in Fig. 7, where the dry layer produces a smaller
attenuation of the signal. It is interesting to note the very low (below 5) values of Q, as well as a
Fig. 7. Experimental (solid lines) and theoretical (dashed lines) values of apparent Q vs. frequency for
air (red) and water saturated (blue) porous material (from Korneev et al., 2004).
Following Korneev et al. (2004), consider a generic scalar wave-propagation equation of the
form
∂ 2u ∂u ∂ 2 ∂u 2 ∂ 2u
+ χ − γ −v =0 (1)
∂t 2 ∂t ∂x 2 ∂t ∂x 2
where u is displacement. The second term in equation (1) characterizes the diffusive
dissipation, whereas the third one describes the viscous damping. We call the coefficients χ
and γ the diffusive and the viscous attenuation parameters, respectively. v is the phase velocity
in a non-dissipative medium. Equation (1) has a solution in the form of a harmonic wave
% ) exp(−iω t ) ,
u = exp(ikx k% = k + iα (2)
14
are the attenuation coefficient and the wave number, respectively. Calculations yield
1 1 s ⎛ v2 χ ⎞ 1 ω 2γ + v 2 χ
q= − sγ + + ⎜ 2 −γ ⎟ , s= (4)
2 4 2⎝ ω ⎠ 2 v 4 + ω 2γ 2
results and the ultrasonic measurements of Q is presented in Fig. 7. The corresponding values of
the attenuation parameters in the air-saturated case were estimated as χ = 12000 Hz and γ = 0.3
m 2 / s , whereas in the water-saturated case, the result was χ = 24000 Hz and γ = 1.0 m 2 / s .
The theoretical curves for both cases are shown in Fig. 8 along with the physical modeling
experimental data. The theoretical formulation with diffusive term matches the physical model
Fig. 8. The reflection coefficient ratios (water saturated/dry) vs. frequency: (a) computed from data
(red), and theory (blue). The theoretical curve for a half-space is shown in black. Travel time delays (b) of
15
the wave reflected from a dry layer relative to a water-saturated layer. Experimental data shown in red,
the theoretical curve is in blue.
data reasonably well. At the same time, computations without incorporating the diffusive
Korneev et al. (2004) and Goloshubin et al. (2001) analyzed the VSP data recorded at a
natural gas storage field in Indiana operated by the Northern Indiana Public Service Company
(NIPSCO). This VSP survey was a time-lapse study. Due to gas injection in the summer and
withdrawal in the winter, the reservoir fluid changed seasonally between predominantly gas to
predominantly water. While the data demonstrated good repeatability, the conventional VSP
travel-time measurements interpreted by Daley et al. (2000) did not reveal changes in the
signature of the variations in water saturation was detected in the reflected waves (Fig. 9). The
spectral amplitude ratios and the travel-time delays in the reservoir reflection are shown as the
solid blue lines in Fig. 10. For comparison, the same functions were computed for a time-
window centered at the event, which arrives 100 ms later. Apparently, it is a reflection signal
from a boundary located far below the bottom of the reservoir. This reflection event has been
The plots in Fig. 10 show a clear frequency-dependent amplitude response. The reservoir
reflection amplitude ratio increases as the frequency decreases. Fig. 10 also shows a frequency
dependent travel-time delay, which increases as the frequency decreases. The spectral ratio for a
later arrival, which was transmitted through the reservoir, increases with the frequency. These
results are consistent with the opposite characters of the frequency dependencies for the reflected
Fig. 9. Upgoing wave fields (a) for 1996 (left) and 1997 (right) reveal the low-frequency changes for
reflections from the Trenton dolomite. The zoomed section (b) shows the reflections from the reservoir.
Changes are clearly seen in the circled area.
17
16
1.0
4
0.5
0
0.0 -4
10 20 30 40 50 10 20 30 40 50
Frequency [Hz] Frequency [Hz]
a b
Fig. 10. The reflection amplitude ratios (1997/1996) vs. frequency (a) computed for the target reflection (solid
line), and a later phase (dashed line). Also shown are the relative (1997/1996) travel time delays (b) of the
target reflection (solid line) and later phases (dashed line). These results agree with theoretical predictions
when comparing gas- and water-saturated conditions (Fig. 3).
The fact that reflection, transmission, and attenuation in fluid-saturated solids are frequency-
dependent was discussed in the literature (Geertsma and Smith, 1961, Dutta and Ode, 1983;
Santos et al., 1992; Denneman et al., 2002; Pride et al., 2003). Castagna et al. (2003) report the
“low-frequency shadows” associated with hydrocarbons. The authors admit that this can be an
artifact of the numerical data processing. We note, however, that such late arrivals of the low-
frequency reflected signal are consistent with the results shown in Figures 8, 10.
fluid-saturated porous medium in the low-frequency domain. It turned out that the frequency-
dependent component of the reflection coefficient is proportional to the square root of the
product of frequency of the signal and the mobility of the fluid in the reservoir.
18
the elastic wave propagation equations in fluid-saturated porous medium from the basic
principles of the theory of filtration (Polubarinova-Kochina, 1962; Bear, 1972; Barenblatt et. al.,
1990). In particular, we verify that the main poroelasticity equations (Gassmann, 1951; Biot,
1956ab, 1962), and the pressure diffusion equation, which is routinely used in well test analysis
Below, we briefly overview our derivation and formulate the principle conclusions. The
Here, we focus only on planar p-waves. Hence, we consider only the one-dimensional
displacements of the skeleton and fluid flow. Let t denote time and x, the spatial coordinate.
The balance of forces yields the following equation of motion for the coupled rock-fluid system
∂ 2u ∂W 1 ∂ 2u ∂p
ñb + ñ = − (6)
∂t 2
f
∂t β ∂x 2 ∂x
Here p and ñ f are the pressure and the density of the fluid, and ñb is the bulk density of the
density of the reservoir rock. The small u denotes the displacement of the solid skeleton,
whereas the capital W is the Darcy velocity of the fluid. The coefficient β is the respective
uniaxial elastic coefficient. In equation (6), the Darcy velocity is measured relative to the porous
∂u
medium, that is, the Darcy velocity in a fixed coordinate system is equal to W − φ .
∂t
To characterize fluid flow relative to the skeleton, we apply a dynamic version of Darcy’s
law. Darcy’s law was originally established for steady-state flow (Darcy, 1856). To account for
inertial and non-equilibrium effects in transient flow, we replace Darcy’s law with a relationship
19
∂W κ ∂Φ
W +τ =− (7)
∂t η ∂x
viscosity of the fluid, and Φ is the flow potential (Hubbert, 1940, 1956). Such a modification of
Darcy’s law was proposed by Alishaev (1974) and Alishaev and Mirzadzhanzadeh (1975). In
multiphase flow, similar considerations were used to model non-equilibrium effects at the front
Vinnichenko, 1980), see also Barenblatt et. al. (2003) and Silin and Patzek (2004). Some results
on estimation of the relaxation time based on experiments were reported by Molokovich et. al.
(1980), Molokovich (1987) and Dinariev and Nikolaev (1990). The relaxation time is a function
representative volume of the medium and F is some dimensionless function. When the
obtained equations are compared with Biot’s wave equations, the time τ and the tortuosity factor
(Biot, 1962) are involved in such a manner to suggest that they are linearly related to each other
through the reservoir fluid mobility. Thus, accounting for the accelerated motion of the skeleton,
we obtain
∂W κ ∂p κ ∂ 2u
W +τ =− −ñf (8)
∂t η ∂x η ∂t 2
⎛ β gs ⎞ ∂ 2u ⎛ ∂p ∂W
⎜ 1 + (1 − φ ) ⎟ + ⎜⎝ φβ f + (1 − φ ) β gf ⎞⎟⎠ =− (9)
⎝ β ⎠ ∂x∂t ∂t ∂x
20
Here, β gs and β gf are, respectively, the coefficients of compressibility of the grains with respect
to the variations of the skeleton stress and the fluid pressure. In many cases, these two
Equations (6), (8) and (9) form a complete system that can be solved with appropriate initial
and boundary conditions. Depending on the assumptions, this system can be reduced either to
Biot’s equations (Biot, 1956a, 1962; Dutta and Ode, 1979, 1983), or to the pressure diffusion
ω . Note, that within a reasonable range of rock and fluid properties, the dimensionless
κ ñb
parameter ε = ω is small at low (below 1 kHz) seismic frequencies. If we consider the
η
reflection of a wave of angular frequency ω from the planar boundary between dry and fluid-
saturated elastic media, then the asymptotic (with respect to ε ) expression of the reflection
κ ñb
R = R0 + R1 (1 + i ) ω (10)
η
Here R1 and R2 are real coefficients and i is the imaginary unit. The coefficients R1 and R2 are
dimensionless functions of the mechanical properties of the fluid and rock, which include the
porosity, the densities, and the elastic coefficients. At ε = 0 the absolute value of the reflection
coefficient attains its low-frequency maximum. If the relaxation time is large, i.e., τ > 1/ω , then
κ ñb
R = R0 + R1 i − τω ω (11)
η
21
The explicit formulae for the coefficients are given in (Silin et. al., 2004).
The obtained results lead to important conclusions and suggest the following action items to
be investigated:
1. The reflection coefficient from a plane interface between dry and fluid-saturated rocks is
frequency-dependent.
2. At low frequencies, the dependence of the reflection coefficient on the frequency admits
an asymptotic representation (10). In particular, this means that the reservoir fluid flow
properties can be evaluated based on analysis of the reflection signal. The most
productive reservoir zones can be accurately mapped with the new method proposed
here.
3. The proposed theory explains the results obtained in the frequency-dependent analysis of
field and laboratory data (Goloshubin et. al., 1996, 2002; Goloshubin and Bakulin, 1998;
4. The relaxation time is closely related to the tortuosity factor. The values of tortuosity
reported in the literature range from one to infinity (Molotkov, 1999). If the tortuosity is
large, it enters the asymptotic scaling (11). A rock/fluid classification by the respective
characteristic values of the relaxation times and tortuosity will enhance the high-quality
delineation of the hydrocarbon reserves and recovery processes. This enhancement will
come from characterizing the rock and fluids and from mapping the most productive
zones. Recent advances in the modeling of fluid flow at a microscopic scale (Patzek,
2001, Jin et. al., 2003, Silin et. al., 2003a) show how to estimate the tortuosity factor for
5. The proposed new imaging technology can be used for tracking propagation of the
injected fluid and for investigation of the cap rock integrity in CO2 geologic sequestration
6. The analysis carried out in (Silin et. al., 2004) should be extended to more general
situations where the incidental wave is not necessarily normal to the interface. The
dependence of the asymptotic relations (10) and (11) on the incident angle should be
investigated.
7. The mechanism of reflection leading to relations (10) and (11) is different from the
classical tuning effect. However, the role of the reservoir thickness in the frequency-
8. The impact of local heterogeneities, such as fractures, on the asymptotic relations (10)
and (11) should be taken into account. Recent preliminary studies of diffusive fluid
2003bc) suggest that the dependence of the reflected signal on the frequency should have
For the data in Fig. 4, the imaging attribute A( x, y ) was proportional to the first derivative
over the frequency of the reflected amplitude at a fixed (low) frequency. This implies that the
following relationship:
holds true, and the imaging attribute is therefore proportional to square root of fluid mobility.
Using well data we can find the unknown constant C which is a complex function of porous rock
parameters. Assuming that the well production rate is proportional to mobility we can compute
the theoretical curve for the production rate vs. the imaging attribute. Figure 11 shows the
23
measured production rates for the oil field from Fig. 4, and the theoretical curve, which was
calibrated using just one well data point. The field data and theory correlate quite well.
Fig. 11 The oil production rate vs. the imaging attribute. Data taken from oil field shown on Fig. 4. The
theoretical blue line is computed using the low-frequency asymptotic solution (12).
Production rate
[m3/day]
704000
135
125
702000
115
105
700000
95
85
698000 75
65
696000 55
45
694000 35
25
692000 15
5
504000 506000 508000 510000 512000 514000 516000 518000 520000
Fig. 12. The oil production rate vs. the imaging attribute. The input data are taken from oil field shown
in Fig. 4.
24
This agreement allows one to convert the attribute map from Fig. 4 into the production rate
map. The result is shown in Fig. 12. This map is the first of its kind; it predicts spatial
The double porosity–double permeability model (Pride and Berryman, 2003ab; Pride et al.,
2003) suggests that fracture flow is critical for seismic frequencies, and this dependence can
resolve the scaling issues. The presence of fractures also explains the same low-frequency effect
observed for reservoirs with negligible pore flow (examples 1 and 2 in Section II B and NIPSCO
It is clear that low-frequency seismic imaging has great potential since it allows the
characterization of the subsurface fluid reservoirs in situations when other approaches fail. Still
several important problems must be addressed before the robust and effective imaging
technology is ready for routine use. These problems are the following:
1. To date, the low frequency imaging approach was applied to only 20 different data sets. It
turned out that it worked well in about 75% of the cases, while in other cases the
interpretation outcome was uncertain. The limits and conditions of the applicability of
the method need to be formulated, so that the imaging procedure can be adapted to each
case depending on the situation (geology, data quality, frequency content, etc.).
2. Current imaging procedure needs well data for calibration. Well information can be very
helpful, but is not always available. A theory is needed to relate the imaging attributes to
reservoir parameters, which might enable us to convert the images into the hydrological
3. Since the pore sizes are the same, there is a scaling problem that seems to disallow a
direct relationship between laboratory and field data. The available theory describes
laboratory data, and we have to find how it can be downscaled to seismic frequencies.
Several important clues to the solution of this problem come from the fact that the
suggests that fluid flow in fractures might play a major role at low seismic frequencies
and the double porosity–double permeability model is critical for seismic frequencies,
4. In the recently developed theory (Silin et al., 2004) it is shown that the tortuosity of a
porous medium might reach values that change the low-frequency asymptotic character
of the imaging attribute dependence on the medium parameters. The rock tortuosity
varies from 1 to infinity and, therefore, should be studied for different types of porous
rocks. Furthermore, it is likely that the fracture tortuosity and permeability dominates the
5. There is a parameter reduction problem. Biot’s theory and its modifications currently
media. The major problem in application of this theory is the necessity of using about a
dozen parameters that describe the porous saturated rock. Most of these parameters are
unknown in real situations, creating a high degree of ambiguity in interpreting the data.
Some of the parameters, such as fluid mobility, are of special interest in gas and oil
related to the main hydrological parameters is of special importance. The fluid mobility
parameter can be retrieved from the seismic reflected signal at low frequencies.
26
properties is based on the assumption that robust amplitudes are obtained for individual
frequency components of the propagating wavelet. However, the frequency content of the
seismic wavelet is distorted by conventional data processing with NMO providing the most
significant distortion. In a conventional CMP gather, the trace associated with an offset equal to
depth has a wavelet frequency that is nominally 12 percent lower than the wavelet frequency
associated with the normal-incident reflection. With the introduction of anisotropic NMO
processing, the wavelet frequency content on the very far-offset trace can be almost one-half that
of the normal-incident wavelet. This is not an acceptable condition when calibrating loss
suspect when appreciable NMO stretch is generated. Hilterman and Van Schuyver (2003)
introduced a novel processing scheme based on a migration algorithm that doesn’t perform NMO
corrections followed by a target-oriented NMO correction. The CDP gather on the right side of
Fig. 13 illustrates the retention of wavelet frequency when target-oriented processing is applied.
Fig. 13. CMP gathers illustrating target-oriented processing (right side) versus conventional processing.
The frequency content of the propagating wavelet within the dashed target interval has not been distorted
by target-oriented processing.
27
Besides the preservation of frequency, the quality of the seismic image is improved
significantly with target-oriented processing. Figures 14-16 illustrate this point with an obvious
improvement in the structural interpretation. The structure shown in Fig. 14 is a faulted anticline
and on the angle stack (26°-35°), there is an indication of fault blocks near the apex of the
structure. In order to observe the frequency content of the signal, the upper surface of the high
amplitude reflection was flattened to a constant time and the result is shown in Fig. 15. The fault
Fig. 14 Pre-stack time migrated sections with conventional angles (0°-26°) and far-offset angles (26°-
35°). Structure is faulted anticline with some indication of fault blocks near apex. Potential reservoirs
are within the large amplitude band.
With conventional processing, the 35°-50° angle stack has excessive wavelet stretch and the
the 35°-50° angle stack in Fig. 16 exhibits excellent quality. In fact, there are fault blocks
illustrated on the 35°-50°angle in Fig. 16 that are difficult to observe in the 0°-16° angle stack.
This better definition of faults on oblique reflection data is an expected result once wavelet
stretch is removed. With target-oriented processing and interpretation, the reservoir time
horizon is picked first. Then, the final NMO is applied to block shift the offset traces within a
CMP gather to the horizon time of the specified CMP gather. Because of the block shift,
28
interpretation and data analyses are normally limited to a time window about 100 ms on either
Fig. 15. (Top) Conventional 0°-16° angle stack of high-amplitude structure displayed in Fig. 14. Data
were flattened to top of structure. (Bottom) Conventional 35°-50° angle stack of high-amplitude structure
displayed in fig. 14. The CDP offset ranges in this section contain incident angles beyond critical angle.
Fig. 16. These two sections are similar to those displayed in Fig. 15 except target-oriented processing
has been applied.
29
avoid stretch, however, there are several problems that need to be resolved.
1. Currently, the migration algorithms are designed for 2D processing and need to be
processing.
2. Processing requires anisotropy in NMO and migration. NMO corrections for very large
offset traces are difficult to stabilize in time and suggest that depth imaging should be
examined.
3. Target-oriented processing requires the migrated t0 times for the target horizon.
of faculty and research staff including geophysicists, petrophysicists, geologists, and computer
scientists, capable of addressing a wide range of problems in seismic imaging and reservoir
engineers and applied mathematicians from University of Houston, University of California, and
Dr. Fred Hilterman, the project PI is Distinguished Research Professor at the Department of
Geosciences at University of Houston, and has 40 years experience in R&D and management:
http://www.geosc.uh.edu/people/faculty/hilterman/index.html
Dr. Tad Patzek, a co-PI on this project, is Professor of Geoengineering at the Department of
University of Houston, has worked in the oil industry for over 27 years, with particular expertise
in numerical and physical seismic modeling, seismic processing and interpretation, and imaging.
University of Houston, is a petroleum geologist with 30 years experience in carbonates and the
Dr. Valeri Korneev, Staff Geological Scientist in Earth Sciences Division (LBNL) where
he works since 1991. He has broad theoretical knowledge and experience in seismic wave
31
propagation theory and data inversion. He is a co-author of several latest publications related to
low-frequency effects.
Dr. Dmitriy Silin, Associate Researcher at the University of California, Berkeley and
single-phase and multiphase flow in porous media, asymptotic analysis of reservoir fluid flow, in
This project will provide support and data for MS.- and Ph.D.-level research by graduate
students.
includes a 48-node Xeon Beowulf cluster, and 5 Tbytes of Raid-5 disk linked to a Sun V-880
server and 25 Sparc workstations, and access to a 98-node Sun Starfire supercomputer. The
During recent years, a new 2 m x 4 m x 1.5 m physical modeling tank in the basement of
Science and Research Building 1 was constructed. This equipment boasts state-of-the-art model
shtml#Laboratory). We have recently developed the capability to construct physical models that
incorporate heterogeneous, permeable zones, as well as the capacity to inject different fluids and
gasses into those zones. Recent developments in the hardware and software controlling the
acquisition system enable us to control the frequency of the signal transmitted through the
model.
32
Center of Computational Seismology (CCS) at the Earth Science Division in LBNL has a
modern network of computers and a Linux computer cluster with 48 nodes. If needed, LBNL
projects can access the local supercomputing center NERSC, and use massively parallel
supercomputers. LBNL has several seismic processing packages including PROMAX and
Focus.
The existing in-house dataset covers 50 km2 of 3-D seismic data from the reservoirs of the
Central Basin Platform (Crane County) in West Texas (Figure 17). These reservoirs include
deepwater chert-turbidite channels and karsted ramp platform dolomites. The surveys cover data-
rich mature and super mature oil and gas fields, and are ideally located to test and calibrate
frequency-dependent seismic attributes against the porous reservoir model, fractured reservoir
The deepwater chert-turbidite reservoirs are Devonian and belong to the Thirtyone
Formation. The combined Silurian-Devonian deepwater carbonates and cherts of West Texas and
New Mexico have produced over 2 billion barrels of oil equivalent and are still a viable play.
The Thirtyone reservoirs have over 500 million barrels of remaining moveable oil. The chert
spicules. The cherts extend north of the survey area to southern Andrews County, where they
produce from thick tabular beds and thin, continuous channelized deposits (Saller, et al., 2001).
complex faulting, and are heterogeneous as a result of fracturing, and depositional and diagenetic
variability (Montgomery, 1998; Ruppel and Hovorka, 1995). In contrast, thin, vertically stacked,
laterally discontinuous chert bodies dominate the reservoirs in the distal, southern part of the
33
basin, covered by our 3-D surveys. The distal chert reservoirs are compartmentalized by faults
and stratigraphic architecture; flow units are thin (3-8 m) and their development appears to be
influenced by basin geometry, slope stability, and sea-level cyclicity (Ruppel and Barnaby,
2001).
Crane Co.
Seismic data
Fig. 17. Location of the Dollarhide and Crane County Devonian fields of the Central Basin Platform in the Permian
The second type of reservoir consists of Ordovician and Permian karsted platform carbonates.
These reservoirs typically have little porosity expression on wireline logs, but they produce from
a combination of low matrix porosity and well-connected fracture systems. The chert reservoirs
have up to 40% porosity (generally microporous) and are encased in extremely low porosity
In addition to the available West Texas data, Fairfield Industries will provide 3D data from
their extensive long-offset seismic-acquisition database. This database covers the shelf area of
the Gulf of Mexico from shoreline to 200-ft water depth. There are several questions that need
to be resolved before any data from the Tertiary basins of the Gulf of Mexico are re-processed
34
for attenuation analyses. From previous studies, only 75 percent of the hydrocarbon reservoirs
examined had reflections that exhibited anomalous frequency content that suggested an
attenuation mechanism. With the possibility of selecting sand reservoirs from AVO
Fig. 18. Type log of the Thirtyone Formation. Note the contrasting log signature between the high-
porosity microporous cherts and the encasing low-porosity limestones. (After Saller et al 2001).
We have two existing models related to our tasks. The first model is a 3D porous channel
that was designed to calibrate seismic attributes for time-lapse experiments. The channel model
is a sandstone analog built from sintered glass beads (10-mm thickness) and it has a synclinal
shape that gradually decreases in thickness near the edge of the model. It is a simple bifurcated
channel imbedded between two shale layers. The shale layers were modeled with two different
resins. These resins have a Poisson’s ratio of 0.38 and 0.39 for the layers above and the layer
The second model represents a 3D fractured carbonate reservoir imbedded in clastic layers.
To simulate the anisotropic effects of a fracture swarm, glass microscope slide covers were used.
We placed three sets of 50 slides (0.5-mm thick) on edge in sets between two glass blocks. By
placing the slides end-to-end with the long edge down, long vertical fractures were simulated.
The sets were staggered to prevent the spaces between adjacent slide covers from aligning. This
assembly was embedded in resins to simulate the shale layers above and below the fractured
reservoir. The material properties of the glass blocks and the glass slide covers are very similar
A. Objectives
The main objective of this project is the development and application of a new advanced
model. Based on this model, we will develop a methodology to determine the reservoir
properties using the frequency dependence of seismic reflections. Also, the low-frequency
asymptotic analytical solutions for seismic waves reflected from fluid-saturated layers will be
developed and validated. Scalability relations between field and laboratory model parameters
will be investigated. The new technology will be validated by processing field data provided by
industry partners and comparing the predicted fluid-saturation model to the one derived from
well data. Because of the wave-propagation theory is dependent on the seismic frequency
B. Scope of Work
Recent experiments and specialized processing of seismic data, based on the theory of wave
the frequency dependence of seismic response can be used to not only provide high-resolution
hydrocarbon reservoir images, but also predict the reservoir and fluid properties. For prediction
of the reservoir and fluid properties, a low-frequency seismic response of the medium plays an
important role.
attenuation within the reservoir and frequency-dependent reflectivity of the reservoir zones. We
will evaluate and develop the principle concepts of wave propagation in porous, fluid-saturated
We propose to exploit both 3-D physical and numerical modeling approaches in the
capability to construct physical models that incorporate heterogeneous, permeable zones, as well
as the capacity to inject different fluids and gasses into those zones. Recent developments in the
hardware and software controlling the seismic acquisition systems enable control of the
frequency of the signal transmitted through the model. 3-D numerical modeling will allow us to
evaluate whether some of the frequency-dependent reflection may be associated with the subtle
mode conversion and tunneling phenomena associated with thin bed reservoirs. The results of
two modeling approaches, using the same AVO and spectral decomposition analysis tools were
found to be successful in analyzing 3-D field data. By exploiting both these tools, we expect to
quantify the effects of liquid and gas hydrocarbon phases, as well as the effects of reservoir
The processing and interpretation of real seismic data for well-documented oil fields will be
an important part of our activity. Our processes will include the seismic interpretation of 3-D
seismic data, and the generation of the seismic attributes. We will integrate these data to build a
geologic reservoir model. The pre-stack seismic data will be processed to generate frequency-
dependent AVO attributes. These attributes will be calibrated against the geologic model and
reservoir parameters determined from petrophysical and engineering data, taking into account the
principle concepts of wave propagation in porous media, and the results of 3-D physical and
we will be able more accurately to predict fluid products and map fluid contacts and mobility.
C. Tasks
Theory development
Task 1. Develop the asymptotic model and governing equations describing the low-frequency
wave propagation in fluid-saturated porous and fractured rocks. Investigate the interaction
between the solid skeleton and the fluid at the transition between permeable and impermeable
zones.
Task 2. Describe the reflectivity equations that can be used in frequency-dependent seismic
imaging of reservoir properties for the cases of porous (micro porous) rock model, fractured rock
model, and double porosity – double permeability model and oblique angle of reflections.
Task 3. Formulate the algorithms and develop computer codes for the frequency-dependent
Physical modeling
Task 4. Utilize 3D isotropic porous physical model for investigation of wave attenuation within
porous material and frequency-dependent reflectivity of the porous model surfaces. Acquire
seismic data with wide frequency band (10-300 kHz) for different offsets over the model filled
Task 5. Utilize 3D anisotropic fractured physical model for investigation of wave attenuation
within fractured material and azimuth- and frequency-dependent reflectivity of the porous model
surfaces. Acquire seismic data with wide frequency band (10-300 kHz) for different azimuths
and offsets over the model filled with air, water, and glycerin.
Task 6. Analyze the attenuation and the frequency-dependent reflectivity for different angles and
azimuths of reflections. Verify the numerical modeling and the seismic imaging algorithms by
Task 7. Reprocess the existing 3D seismic data with preserved amplitudes and frequencies data
from intensely drilled West Texas and Gulf of Mexico fields. Estimate seismic attributes.
Task 8. Build the geologic models of (1) chert-turbidite (generally microporous) reservoir, (2)
carbonate (generally fractured) reservoir of the Devonian age and belonging to the Thirtyone
Formation of the Central Basin Platform in West Texas. Generate the frequency-dependent
Task 9. Calibrate the frequency-dependent seismic attribute against the geologic models and
reservoir parameters determined from petrophysical and engineering data. Map fluid contacts
and permeability variation and/or production rate of hydrocarbons for the chert-turbidite
Task 10. Analyze conventional 3D across various GOM hydrocarbon fields from the Fairfield
database to develop a qualitative method of predicting reservoirs that are good candidates for
Task 11. Analyze the results. Submit papers for publications. Package reports, publications,
• Tortuosity parameter evaluation for typical porous reservoir rocks (UCB, 10/2004 -
02/2005).
03/2005 - 09/2005).
codes for numerical modeling and frequency-dependent seismic imaging for porous
• Acquisition of seismic data with different observation system designs for the existing
3D porous channel physical model filled with different fluids (UH, 02/2005-
06/2005).
frequencies. Estimation of the AVO and other seismic attributes (UH, 02/2005-
09/2005).
• Analysis of the results. Preparation of the report (UH, UCB, LBNL, 08/2005-
09/2005).
of the chert turbidite reservoir. Mapping of the fluid contacts for the reservoir.
comparison with the physical modeling data (UH, UCB, LBNL, 10/2005-04/2006).
• Acquisition of seismic data with different observation system designs for the existing
• Analysis of the results. Preparation of the report and papers for publications. (UH,
development algorithms and computer codes for numerical modeling and frequency-
LBNL, 10/2006-02/2007).
10/2006-02/2007).
• Extension of the previous results for the cases of purely fractured fluid-saturated
media. Verifying of the numerical modeling and the seismic imaging algorithms by
comparison with the physical modeling data (UH, UCB, LBNL, 10/2006-02/2007)..
of the fractured carbonate reservoir. Mapping of the fluid contacts and permeability
reservoir. Analysis of the results, preparation of the papers and final report (UH,
E. Deliverables
6. Low-frequency fluid mobility imaging algorithm for porous layers and zero-offset
amplitude attribute.
7. Low-frequency fluid mobility imaging algorithm for fractured layers and zero-offset
amplitude attribute.
8. Low-frequency fluid mobility imaging algorithm for porous layers and AVO attribute.
9. Low-frequency fluid mobility imaging algorithm for fractured layers and AVO attribute.
Deliverables will be presented in form of annual reports, SEG Meeting talks and
professional papers.
By the end of each year, a paper will be submitted to a peer-reviewed journal. The results will
be also reported at the annual Society of Exploration Geophysicists Meetings and will be
available on the web. The work on the project will be performed in a close contact with the
industrial partners: Shell Int. and Fairfield Industries. Upon completion of the project, a
G. Budget Request
Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) apply for DOE funding (total: 800K). Participation of
Shell and Fairfield Industries Inc. staff will be supported by the respective companies as
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